Latin
Latin Grammar Basics For Desperate People
Tara Tanöz-Sargeant 5/7/2008
TABLE OF CONTENTS MAKING NOUNS ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4 Nouns ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 5 MAKING VERBS ......................................................................................................................................................................... 7 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES ........................................................................................................................................................ 9 How many types of condition are there? ............................................................................................................ 9 WITH VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE .................................................................................................................. 10 UNFULFILLED (UNREAL/REMOTE) CONDITIONS ..................................................................................... 10 FURTHER POINTS ........................................................................................................................................................ 11 WE COULD GO ON! ....................................................................................................................................................... 11 And some for you to try… ......................................................................................................................................... 12 GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES........................................................................................................................................... 16 MEANING .......................................................................................................................................................................... 16 NOMINATIVE .................................................................................................................................................................. 17 THE GERUNDIVE - verbal adjective .................................................................................................................... 17 FORMATION .................................................................................................................................................................... 17 IN PLACE OF A GERUND ........................................................................................................................................... 18 TO EXPRESS OBLIGATION ....................................................................................................................................... 18 With transitive verbs .................................................................................................................................................. 18 And some to try: ............................................................................................................................................................ 19 INDIRECT STATEMENT ....................................................................................................................................................... 20 INFINITIVES .................................................................................................................................................................... 20 FORMATION OF INFINTIVES.................................................................................................................................. 20 AGREEMENT ................................................................................................................................................................... 21 PRONOUNS....................................................................................................................................................................... 21 NEGATIVE......................................................................................................................................................................... 22 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES .......................................................................................................................................... 22 And some to try….......................................................................................................................................................... 22 PARTICIPLES AND ABLATIVE ABSOLUTES .............................................................................................................. 23 Deponents......................................................................................................................................................................... 24 And some to try….......................................................................................................................................................... 24 ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE ................................................................................................................................................ 25 What is it? ......................................................................................................................................................................... 25 What does it mean? ..................................................................................................................................................... 25 And some to try….......................................................................................................................................................... 26 Some uses of the SUBJUNCTIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 29 B/ IN THE MAIN PART OF A SENTENCE (and don’t worry about all the fancy names).......... 31
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And some for you to try… ......................................................................................................................................... 31 B/ IN MAIN CLAUSES ................................................................................................................................................. 35 And some for you to try… ......................................................................................................................................... 36 AN INTRODUCTION TO LATIN METRE ............................................................................................................... 38
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MAKING NOUNS
Grammatical Terms
adjectives
These are words that describe nouns. e.g. bonus (good), tristis (sad).
case
In Latin, the endings of nouns are changed to show us what job each noun is doing in the sentence. These different endings are called cases.
declension
A family or pattern of nouns. e.g. puella (girl) in in the first declension; servus (slave) is in the second declension. Don’t be put off by funny names like this – call them ‘Bob’ if that makes it easier!
gender
Whether a noun or adjective is masculine, feminine or neuter.
number
Whether a noun or verb is SINGULAR or PLURAL.
prepositions
Little words like cum (with), ad (to, towards), in (in). In Latin, some prepositions are followed by accusative nouns, others by ablative nouns.
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Nouns Declension: Gender:
1 f girl
2 m slave
2 m boy
2 m field
2 n war
SINGULAR nominative
puellA
servUS
puER
agER
bellUM
vocative
puellA
servE
puER
agER
bellUM
accusative
puellAM
servUM
puerUM
agrUM
bellUM
genitive
puellAE
servI
puerI
agrI
bellI
dative
puellAE
servO
puerO
agrO
bellO
ablative
puellA
servO
puerO
agrO
bellO
PLURAL nominative
girls puellAE
slaves servI
boys puerI
fields agrI
wars bellA
vocative
puellAE
servI
puerI
agrI
bellA
accusative
puellAS
servOS
puerOS
agrOS
bellA
genitive
puellARUM
servORUM
puerORUM
agrORUM
bellORUM
dative
puellIS
servIS
puerIS
agrIS
bellIS
ablative
puellIS
servIS
puerIS
agrIS
bellIS
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Declension: Gender:
3 f
3 m
3 n
SINGULAR nominative
vox
civis
nomen
vocative
vox
civis
nomen
accusative
vocEM
civEM
nomen
genitive
vocIS
civIS
nominIS
dative
vocI
civI
nominI
ablative
vocE
civE
nominE
PLURAL nominative
vocES
civES
nominA
accusative
vocES
civES
nominA
genitive
vocUM
civIUM
nominUM
dative
vocIBUS
civIBUS
nominIBUS
ablative
vocIBUS
civIBUS
nominIBUS
vocative
GENDER Almost all 1st declension are FEMININE. Common exceptions: agricola, nauta, poeta plus names. 2nd declension –us and –er are just about all masculine. There are also 2nd declension neuters. 3rd declension can be masculine (civis)or feminine (vox)(these will look the same and the gender just has to be learnt) and they can be neuter (nomen).
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MAKING VERBS
Grammatical Terms
Conjugation
A family or pattern of verbs. e.g. amo (1) is in the first conjugation; audio (4) is in the fourth conjugation.
Deponent
Verbal cross-dressers! Look like passives but translate like actives.
Imperative
An order. e.g. audi! (listen!), amate! (love!).
Infinitive
A to word, the second principal part of a verb. Present active usually ending in -re in Latin. e.g. amare (to love). But beware of esse (to be).
Mood
Indicative: statement about a fact Imperative: expresses command or request Subjunctive: something you want or desire to happen, or that is conditional or potentially going to happen.
Number
Whether a verb is SINGULAR or PLURAL.
Participle
These are made from verbs but do the job of adjectives.
Person
1st person singular = I 2nd person singular = You 3rd person singular = He, She, It 1st person plural = We 2nd person plural = You
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3rd person plural = They
Tense
The ‘when’ of a verb. Present, future imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, future perfect.
Transitive
Some verbs can take a ‘direct’ object (hit, eat etc.) and these are called transitive verbs. Other verbs cannot be followed by a direct object – that is, you cannot ‘do’ them to anyone (sleep, dream etc.) – and these are called intransitive.
Voice
Active or passive. e.g. amo (I love) is in the active voice, but amor (I am loved) is in the passive voice.
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CONDITIONAL CLAUSES W H A T IS A CO N D IT ION A L?
THE S E A R E S E N TE N C ES W HIC H C ON TA IN AN ‘ IF ’ C L A US E W HIC H L A Y S D OW N A C ON D ITION . THE A C TIO N IN THE MA IN C L A U S E W IL L ON L Y B E F UL F IL L E D IF THE ‘ IF …’ C L A US E IS F U LF IL L E D .
T H E T WO P ART S O F A C O N D IT IO NA L S E N TE N CE
These are: the PROTASIS usually comes first and it tells us the ‘if such and such’ part and the APODOSIS, which tells us what results from the condition stated in the protasis. However, you can survive without knowing these terms! The presence of SI (neg. NISI) is a big clue!
HOW MANY TYPES OF CONDITION ARE THERE? Well, even the experts don’t seem to agree, so we’ll keep this simple and go for 2 main types. WITH VERBS IN THE INDICATIVE OPEN (REAL/SIMPLE) CONDITIONS These make a plain statement of fact – i.e. there is no assumption or implication about how likely or unlikely it is that the condition will be fulfilled.. For these, Latin uses the indicative in both parts of the conditional and they rarely present any problems. si tu vales, ego gaudeo. If you are well, I am pleased. si heri hoc fecisti, peccavisti.
If you did this yesterday, you did wrong.
si falsa dicis, te castigabimus.. If you are lying, we will punish you.
If there is any difficulty with these simple conditions, it is, as so often, English which is at fault! English tends to use the present tense to represent future time. e.g. If you do that, you will be punished. Clearly, whatever it is you may or may not be going to do is in the future. Latin, being as ever, precise does the same as French and uses the future (or future perfect) tense. si id feceris, poenas dabas.
Note that the future perfect (feceris) has been used here as Latin uses this tense to indicate that the first action must happen before the action in the main clause.
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nisi celerius curremus, furem non capiemus. If we do not run faster (Unless we run faster), we shall not catch the thief.
Here, the future is used and not the future perfect. This is because we will have to be running fast when we actually catch the thief. We won’t stop running and then catch him.
WITH VERBS IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE UNFULFILLED (UNREAL/REMOTE) CONDITIONS These not only state the idea that ‘if A, then B’, they also imply that the condition has not been, or is not being, fulfilled. e.g. If you had come early, we should not be standing here now. (implied: but you did not and we are!) You might expect Latin to use a subjunctive in a clause where the conditions stated are unreal or unfulfilled – and it does, in both protasis AND apodosis. In the translation, expect words like ‘would’ or ‘should’. There are 3 tenses of the subjunctive used in unfulfilled conditional clauses. The basic rules are not too hard to grasp and, generally speaking, the tense of the subjunctive remains the same in both protasis and apodosis.
FUTURE TIME Conditionals referring to future time take the PRESENT subjunctive.
si id dicas, erres. If you were to say that, you would be wrong. The implication here is that it is highly unlikely that you would say that, but that if you were to (at some stage in the future), you would be wrong. PRESENT TIME Conditionals referring to present time take the IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE..
si rex essem, omnes me timerent. If I were king (now), everyone would fear me (now). This sentence refers to present time – i.e. I am not king, so it is not true that everyone fears me. PAST TIME Conditionals referring to past time take the PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.
nisi canis latravisset, furem cepissemus. If the dog had not barked, we would have caught the thief.
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This sentence refers to past time. The dog DID bark, so we DID NOT catch the thief.
FURTHER POINTS 1. In unfulfilled conditions, where the verb in the main clause expresses POSSIBILITY, OBLIGATION or NECESSITY (such as possum, oportet, debeo or a gerundive), Latin uses the indicative for the main verb. nisi anseres clangorem fecissent, arx capi potuit.
2. Conditionals in Oratio Obliqua (Indirect Statement) The protasis sticks with the subjunctive. (NB All subordinate clauses in Oratio Obliqua go into the subjunctive anyway.) The apodosis goes into the accusative and infinitive. The tense of the infinitive depends on the tense of the main verb, according to the sequence of tenses rule. (See any basic grammar book if you are unsure about this.)
si opus conficeres, gratiam tibi haberem
becomes: dicit, si opus conficeret, gratiam illi se habiturum esse.
3. Alternative (double) conditions. These are introduced by ‘sive… sive…’ alternatively spelt ‘seu… seu…’
sive vera dixisset sive falsa, nemo ei credidisset. Whether he had told the truth or lied, no one would have believed him.
4. Conditions can begin with ‘si quis’. This should be translated as ‘if anyone’ or ‘if anything’. si quis exeat, puniatur.
If anyone were to go out, he would be punished.
WE COULD GO ON! There are plenty more little rules and exceptions we could add, but that’s probably more than enough for a basic revision. If you really want to know more, consult a regular grammar.
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AND SOME FOR YOU TO TRY…
1. si illum adiuvisti, certe patriam prodidisti. 2. si in forum descenderis, fortasse senatores in Curiam intrantes videbis. 3. nisi his viatoribus cibum dederitis, fame peribunt. 4. si cras ad Circum ire vultis, iam cubitum ire necesse est. 5. si pisces per aera volent, omnes mirentur. 6. si hanc medicinam bibas, statim convalescas. 7. si diligentius laboravissem, dominus me liberavisset. 8. nisi mecum in forum descendisset, illud spectaculum non vidisset. 9. si quid novi audivisset, nobis rem totam narravisset. 10. sive pro lege in senatu orationem habebis sive tacebis, omnibus Pompeio favere videberis. 11. coniuratus, si de periculo ab amicis moneatur, ex urbe clam nocte egrediatur. 12. ad Curiam statim festinavi si forte consulem viderem.
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A PICTORIAL GUIDE TO CASES
EMPEROR NORMAN NOMINATIVE:
I am in charge here. Whatever is going on, I’m doing it (and don’t you forget it!). I like to come first in a sentence but once I’ve made an appearance I can’t always be bothered to turn up again so then I just hide in the verb. Don’t forget – I’m the subject and the sentence is all about me!
FOOTSOLDIER ANDY ACCUSATIVE:
My job is to do whatever Norman tells me – after all, he’s in charge of the sentence. Whatever he does is happening to me. But I don’t mind – it’s my job, so why should I object. I also like to hang around following prepositions
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GLADIATOR GORDON GENITIVE:
You won’t see me very often but when you do, you’d better remember that everything in this sentence is MINE! Common sense should help you spot me – remember that I’m not NORMAN and I’m not ANDY – Gordon’s genitive.
THE DATIVE TWINS
Like Gordon, we’re fairly easy to spot. We can’t just pop up in any old sentence – you have to show us things, give us things, offer us things or say things to us. If you want to be really flash, we’re a bit like ANDY the OBJECT, but we’re not as direct as him. We hang around on the edge of the sentence, just kind of helping out. We’re also big fans of dative verbs so whenever you see them, we’ll be following close behind.
ALAN THE ABLATIVE:
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Most of the time, I just hang around following prepositions. (But not the same ones as ANDY, who has his own!) You may see things done BY me, you may see people WITH me and you may see things taken FROM me.
VICTOR VOCATIVE:
“Hey, you, over here! It’s VICTOR VOCATIVE. You’ll only see me in speech marks with a comma next to me. I’m just there to be spoken to. Most of the time, I look identical to NORMAN anyway.”
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GERUNDS AND GERUNDIV ES Gerunds and gerundives are easy. They are two parts of the verb, closely related to one another. Like participles, they play an important part in Latin sentence structure.
THE GERUND - ‘verbal noun’. A word for something (a noun) and it is generated from a verb. For example, ‘amandum’ comes from ‘amo’ and means ‘loving’ in a phrase like:
ars amandi The art of loving
Do not confuse this with the occasions when ‘loving’ is used to describe something or someone, making it an adjective. It would then be translated by a PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
homo amans
A loving man
FORMATION – present stem of the verb + -nd + 2nd declension neuter singular endings. 1
2
3
4
acc.
am-a-nd-um
hab-e-nd-um reg-e-nd-um
gen.
am-a-nd-i
dat.
am-a-nd-o
abl.
am-a-nd-o
aud-ie-nd-um
Gerunds are singular and decline like ‘bellum’. The forms vary slightly (-andum or –endum) according to the conjugation of the verb concerned, as you might expect.
MEANING A gerund will be translated by the infinitive or a verbal noun ending in –ing.
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In simple terms, the GERUND is not used as the subject or the direct object of a sentence. With a few exceptions, the GERUND is used only when the verb is intransitive or is being used intransitively (i.e. without a direct object) and is active in sense.
NOMINATIVE
There is, in effect, no nominative as in this case the job is done by the infinitive.
amare est vivere errare est humanum
ACCUSATIVE In the accusative, the gerund is most often found in phrases which include a preposition, especially with ad to express the idea of purpose. libri ad studendum necessarii sunt.
Books are necessary for studying.
GENITIVE after some nouns and adjectives: 1/ ars natandi the art of swimming cupidissimus te audiendi sum I am extremely eager to (desirous of + gen.) hearing you. 2/ With causa expressing purpose.
DATIVE – rarely used but straighforward operam legendo dat. He gives attention to reading.
ABLATIVE – again, used as you’d expect (i.e. by/with/from) omnes vivendo discimus. We all learn by living.
THE GERUNDIVE - VERBAL ADJECTIVE That is, an adjective formed from a verb. Note that they are passive (although may end up as active in your translation).
FORMATION
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It looks similar to a gerund, in that it has the same characteristic –nd- added to the present stem of the verb, but unlike the gerund it has all 3 genders and singular and plural forms in all cases, just like any 1st/2nd declension adjective (e.g. bonus) Formation – present stem + -nd + us - not forgetting agreement (since it is an adjective). am-a-nd-us
hab-e-nd-us
reg-e-nd-us
aud-ie-nd-us
MEANING
IN PLACE OF A GERUND If a gerund has a direct object, a gerundive is frequently used instead. So, not
ad pacem petendum venerunt
(they came to seek peace)
But
ad pacem petendam venerunt
(lit. they came for peace requiring-to-be-sought)
And note the agreement as the gerundive is an adjective.
TO EXPRESS OBLIGATION WITH TRANSITIVE VERBS Used with any tense of sum to express obligation or necessity. pons est aedificandus
The bridge must be built.
epistolae erunt scribendae
The letters will have to be written.
The subject of obligation (the person by whom something has to be done), if included, is put into the dative case. pons nobis est aedificandus epistolae mihi erunt scribendae
However, note that when the gerundive is formed from a verb which takes the dative, use the normal a/ab + ablative. mihi (dat.) credendum est a te (abl.).
You must have faith in me.
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With intransitive verbs (that is, without any direct object) The gerundive can also be used impersonally with intransitive verbs, using the neuter nominative singular of the gerundive. mihi eundum erit.
I shall have to go.
militibus fortius est pugnandum.
The soldiers must fight more bravely.
AND SOME TO TRY: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.
hic puer e ludo magistro expellendus est, quod omnes alios discipulos vexat. si ante noctem domum pervenire volumus, sine mora nobis proficiscendum est. duas legiones in proelium misit ad hostes superandos. tot et tanti sunt fluctus ut nobis ad portum statim regrediendum sit. ars fabulae bene narrandae est difficillima. hoc tyranno interficiendo civitatem servare possumus. nostri fortiter pugnando hostes facile vicerunt. milites e castris ad agros vastandos exierunt. legati pacis petendae causa ad castra hostium a consule missi sunt. non sine causa, di hominesque hunc urbi condendae locum elegerunt. non sunt autem leniores in exigendis vectigalibus Graeci quam nostri publicani.
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INDIRECT STATEMENT T H E CO N ST RU CT ION A N D IT S U SE
Used when the words (or beliefs, or thoughts) of a speaker are reported ‘indirectly’ and so normally introduced by a verb to do with ‘saying’, ‘knowing’ or ‘believing’. Latin uses the ‘accusative and infinitive’ construction – i.e. the subject of the statement is put in the accusative and the verb is put in the infinitive. (If there is also an object, it remains in the accusative.) This construction is very common in Latin and can be introduced with a noun which simply implies speech. nuntium accepi servos templum intravisse. I received a message (saying) that the slaves had entered the temple.
Often, you will see several indirect statements follow one another without repetition of the initial verb of speaking/thinking. dixit servos templum intravisse; custodes effugisse; servos simulacrum commovere.
INFINITIVES Latin has infinitives in present, future and perfect tenses, both active and passive (see below). The tense of the infinitive in indirect statement is the same as the tense of the verb of the original statement. Cicero in urbe est.
Ciceronem in urbe esse dixit..
(present infinitive)
Cicero in urbe fuit.
Ciceronem in urbe fuisse dixit.
(perfect infinitive)
Cicero in urbe erit.
Ciceronem in urbe futurum esse dixit.
(future infinitive)
FORMATION OF INFINTIVES Present active: amare
Future active:
monere
amaturus esse
regere
moniturus esse
Add esse to the future participle
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audire
recturus esse
auditurus esse
Perfect active: amavisse
monuisse
rexisse
audivisse
Perfect stem (i.e. perfect tense with endings removed) with –isse added
Present passive: amari
moneri
regi
audiri
Only slightly changed from the active
Perfect passive: amatus esse
monitus esse rectus esse
auditus esse
Past participle passive plus esse
Future passive: amatum iri
monitum iri
rectum iri
auditum iri
IN REALITY THERE IS NO FUTURE PASSIVE INFINITIVE. USE THE SUPINE WITH IRI (PASSIVE INFINITIVE OF EO ‘TO GO’) AND TRANSLATE IT JUST AS IF IT IS AN INFINITIVE. AGREEMENT As the subject of Accusative and Infinitive clauses is in the accusative, the future infinitive active and the perfect infinitive passive will also need to be in the accusative case, agreeing with the subject in number and gender. audio Gallos a Caesare victos esse.
I hear that the Gauls have been defeated by Caesar.
Note that the ‘supine’ used in the future infinitive passive (ending in –um) does not decline and should not be made to agree with anything.
PRONOUNS The reflexive pronoun se is used when the person referred to in the statement is the same as the subject of the verb of speaking/thinking. ‘I am sitting.’ He said that he (the speaker) was sitting.
dixit se sedere.
‘You made a mistake.’ He said that he (the person to whom he was speaking) had made a mistake. dixit illum erravisse.
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NEGATIVE Latin does not usually use dico with a negative to express the idea that ‘I say… not’. Use nego. negat servos templum intravisse.
He says that the slaves did not enter the temple.
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES In indirect speech, the verb in a subordinate clause is normally in the subjunctive. mercator respondit servos qui vinum effunderent magno pretio emptos esse. The merchant replied that the slaves who were pouring out the wine had been bought at a high price.
AND SOME TO TRY…
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
dicunt nautas tabernas amare. dicit Romanos castra prope flumen posuisse. speramus imperatorem auxilium cras laturum esse. dicit urbem oppugnatam esse. omnes putaverunt triclinium pulcherrimum esse. dominus dixit servum diligentissime laboravisse. negavit se umquam in Italia fuisse. adstantes responderunt senem domum portatum esse. centurio hostes dicit constitisse. vix uxorem servatam esse putavit. senatores pro certo habebant cives numquam cessuros esse. captivos interfectum iri nuntiabat, spero me venturum esse. polliciti sunt se discessuros esse. Marcus dicit eum in Britannia habitare. agricolae affirmaverunt villas suas incensas esse. iuvenis negavit se pecuniam perdidisse. femina suspicabatur puerum mentiri. mercator sperabat se magnas divitias in Hispania comparaturum esse. polliceor me fenestram cras refecturum esse.
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PARTICIPLES AND ABLATIVE ABSOLUTES W H A T IS A PA RT ICIP LE ?
A V E R B A L AD J E C TIV E , W HIC H M E AN S THA T IT A GR E E S W ITH A N OU N /PRON OU N IN N U M BE R , C AS E A ND G E N D E R .
M E E T T H E PA RT ICIP LE S
PR E S E N T A C TIV E D E N OTE S AN A C TION OC C U R R ING A T THE S A ME TIME A S THE MA IN V E R B . C A N B E TR A N S LA TE D B Y ‘ …ING ’ B U T A LS O B Y ‘ W HIL E ’ , ‘ SIN C E ’ OR B Y S U B ORD IN A TE C L AUS E S .
C A N A LS O B E U SE D AS A S UB S TAN TIV E ( I. E . D O ING THE J OB OF A N OU N ) – E . G . AM ANS ‘ A L OV IN G PE R S ON ’ = A L OV E R .
R E C OG N IS E B Y THE – N S OR – N T ON T HE PRE S E N T S TE M OF THE V E RB .
E N D ING S A R E THE S A ME A S 3 R D D E CL E NS ION TY PE A D J E C TIV ES .
AB I ER U N T I L L I RI D E NT E S .
THE Y W E N T AW A Y LA U GH IN G .
L U P U M I N S I L V AM I NT RANT E M C O N S P EXI M U S. IN T O THE W OOD .
W E C AU G HT S IG HT OF T HE W OL F GO IN G
PE R F E C T PA SS IV E D E N OTE S AN A C TION C O M PL E TE D B E F ORE THA T OF THE MA IN V E RB . IN MOS T G R A M MA R B OOK S , THIS A PPE A RS A S THE 4 T H PRIN C IPA L PA RT OF A L A TIN V E RB . S OM E OF THE S E Y OU S IM PL Y HA V E TO L E A RN !
TR A N S LA TE S L ITE R AL L Y AS ‘ HA V IN G B E EN …’ ( I . E. IT’ S PA S T A N D IT ’ S PA SS IV E ) BU T THIS PHR A S E W IL L N OT OF TE N MA K E ITS W A Y IN TO Y OU R F IN A L TRA N S LA TION . IT C A N B E HE L PF UL , HOW E V E R , TO HA V E IT IN M IN D A S Y OU B EG IN TO TRA N S L A TE.
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D E C L IN ES L IK E B O NU S .
C O Q UU S V OC AT U S A C O N V I VI S L AU D AT U S ES T . C OOK …)
( L IT. HA V IN G B E EN S U MMON E D , THE
W H E N H E H A D BE E N S U M MO N E D, THE C OOK W AS PRA IS ED B Y THE G U E S TS .
A L S O R E M E MB E R THA T D E PON E N T V E RBS HA V E A PA S T PA RTIC IPL E W ITH A N A CT IV E M E A N ING .
Future active Denotes an action that will take place after the main verb. Translates literally as ‘about to…’ but also ‘going to…’, ‘intending to…’, determined to…’, ‘on the point of…’. Recognise by the ur within the 4th principle part of the verb. E.g. amaturus, missurus.
una ex ancillis ad tabernam profecta est panem emptura. One of the slave girls set out for the shop (intending) to buy bread.
DEPONENTS Deponent verbs also have present, future and past participles but present and future have an active form (which is odd, as deponents normally look passive). All deponent participles are active in meaning.
AND SOME TO TRY… 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
lupum in silvam intrantem conspeximus. ei roganti respondere semper conor. multi ex adstantibus lacrimabant. legatus a feminis e foro festinantibus visus est. Hannibal hostes castra posituros spectavit.
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6. librum a te mihi datum non legam. 7. servus inventus domum quam celerrime missus est. 8. leo sublatum pedem mihi ostendit.
ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE
WHAT IS IT? When a noun (or pronoun) is linked with a participle and both are in the ablative. It is a very common usage of the participle. It is called the ablative absolute because the phrase is freestanding and has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence.. It is used to state the circumstances under which the action of the main verb took place, a kind of ‘setting the scene’ for what follows. The participle can be in any of the 3 tenses but futures are extremely rare. Much easier to spot than it is to explain!
WHAT DOES IT MEAN? Present participle The best translation is likely to be something like ‘when’ or ‘while’.
puella spectante, pater discessit.
While the girl was watching, her father left. (lit.)
With the girl watching, the father left.
Perfect participle This is the one you will see most as it helps compensate for the lack of a perfect active participle. So, for example, when a Roman wanted to say: ‘Having received the letter, Caesar sent a messenger.’ he had no straightforward way of doing so. Instead, he uses an ablative absolute:
Caesar, acceptis litteris, nuntium misit. Caesar, when he had received the letter, sent a messenger.
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Of course, if you happen to be dealing with a deponent verb, this difficulty does not arise. Deponents can still be used in ablative absolutes.
oratore locuto, cives inter se loquebantur. After the orator had spoken, the citizens talked among themselves.
Future participle oratore locuturo, cives conticuerunt. Since the orator was going to speak, the citizens fell silent.
Also note: The verb esse has no present participle so you will need to supply the word ‘being’ in your translation.
AND SOME TO TRY… 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
libris a pueris lectis, magister hanc fabulam eis narravit. domino interfecto, servus effugit. ille, capto vino, senatori dicebat. leone viso, in speluncam (cave) confugi metu tremens; postea animo recuperato domum quam celerrime cucurri. sene dormiente, servi in viam exierunt ridentes ac cantantes. leone a milite occiso, omnes cives gaudebant. poeta sic locuto, cives magnopere timebant. magistro intrante, pueri tacuerunt.
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HOW TO MAKE THE SUBJUNCTIVE
1 love
2 warn
3 rule
4 hear
irregular be
Present I You (singular) He/She/It We You (plural) They
amEM amES amET amEMUS amETIS amENT
monEAM monEAS monEAT monEAMUS monEATIS monEANT
regAM regAS regAT regAMUS regATIS regANT
audIAM audIAS audIAT audIAMUS audIATIS audIANT
siM siS siT siMUS siTIS siNT
Imperfect I You (singular) He/She/It We You (plural) They
amAREM amARES amARET amAREMUS amARETIS amARENT
monEREM monERES monERET monEREMUS monERETIS monERENT
regEREM regERES regERET regEREMUS regERETIS regERENT
audIREM audIRES audIRET audIREMUS audIRETIS audIRENT
esseM esseS esseT esseMUS esseTIS esseNT
Perfect I You (singular) He/She/It We You (plural) They
amavERIM amavERIS amavERIT amavERIMUS amavERITIS amavERINT
monuERIM monuERIS monuERIT monuERIMUS monuERITIS monuERINT
rexERIM rexERIS rexERIT rexERIMUS rexERITIS rexERINT
audivERIM audivERIS audivERIT audivERIMUS audivERITIS audivERINT
fuERIM fuERIS fuERIT fuERIMUS fuERITIS fuERINT
Pluperfect I You (singular) He/She/It We You (plural) They
amavISSEM amavISSES amavISSET amavISSEMUS amavISSETIS amavISSENT
monuISSEM monuISSES monuISSET monuISSEMUS monuISSETIS monuISSENT
rexISSEM rexISSES rexISSET rexISSEMUS rexISSETIS rexISSENT
audivISSEM audivISSES audivISSET audivISSEMUS audivISSETIS audivISSENT
fuISSEM fuISSES fuISSET fuISSEMUS fuISSETIS fuISSENT
OUR FRIEND THE SUBJUNCTIVE IT IS EASY TO LOSE A LOT OF SLEEP OVER SUBJUNCTIVES BUT IT IS WORTH REMEMBERING THAT, IN THE END, THEY ARE JUST VERBS. THE BASIC VERB FORM, THE INDICATIVE, INDICATES (HENCE THE NAME) STATEMENTS ABOUT FACTS, THINGS THAT ACTUALLY HAPPENED (OR WILL HAPPEN). THE SUBJUNCTIVE IS THERE TO SHOW SOMETHING THAT YOU WANT OR DESIRE TO HAPPEN, OR THAT IS CONDITIONAL OR POTENTIALLY GOING TO HAPPEN. WE SOMETIMES FIND THESE DIFFICULT BUT ONLY REALLY BECAUSE WE’VE GIVEN UP
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USING THEM IN ENGLISH (UNLESS YOU ENJOY SPEAKING LIKE SOMEONE FROM THE DISTANT PAST). IN FACT, THERE IS NO NEED TO MAKE THINGS DIFFICULT – THINK OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE AS YOUR FRIEND, OR AT LEAST A POTENTIAL FRIEND. (WHAT SORT OF A GEEK HAS SUBJUNCTIVES AS FRIENDS??) IN TERMS OF TRANSLATION, YOU WILL FIND THAT THEY ARE VERY EASY TO TRANSLATE. THEY CAN’T JUST POP UP WHENEVER THEY FELT LIKE IT AND, LIKE A TRUE FRIEND, THEY WILL ALWAYS TRY AND LET YOU KNOW WHE N THEY ARE COMING – FOR EXAMPLE, WITH AN UT. SOME PEOPLE GET VERY EXCITED ABOUT ALL THE DIFFERENT NAMES FOR USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE BUT WHAT REALLY MATTERS IS WHETHER OR NOT YOU CAN TRANSLATE (AND THAT’S ACTUALLY THE EASY BIT).
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SOME USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE A / IN S U BO R D INA TE CLA U S E S – T HE S E AR E PA RTS O F A S E N T E N CE W H ICH A R E I N A D D IT IO N TO T H E MA IN P AR T O F A S E NT EN CE .
1 / P UR PO S E ( FIN A L) C LA U S E S
Expresses the purpose of an action (hence the name) ut + subjunctive = so that / in order to / to puer arborem ascendit ut milites videret.
The boy climbed the tree to see the soldiers.
Negative: purpose ne + subjunctive = so that… not Also note: ne + quis/quid = ne aliquis/aliquid – so that no one / nothing puer arborem ascendit ne milites se viderent. The boy climbed the tree so that the soldiers would not see him.
Using relative pronouns (but the translation remains the same) QUI, QUAE, QUOD (OR OTHER RELATIVES) + SUBJUNCTIVE milites emisit qui puerum depellerent.
He sent out soldiers to (lit. who were to) drive the boy away.
2/ Result (consecutive) clauses Expresses the result (consequence) of an action UT + SUBJUNCTIVE = THAT Negative result: ut… non A result clause can usually be recognised by the presence of a ‘signal’ word: Expect an adverb meaning ‘so’ tam, adeo, ita (so)tot (so many), totiens (so many times), or an adjective like talis (such a…),tantus (so much, so great) … + subjunctive = so (much)… that
puer tam perterritus erat ut descendere non posset.
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The boy was so scared that he was not able to climb down.
3/ cum clauses (causal, concessive, temporal) cum + present subjunctive = since (causal), although (concessive) cum + pluperfect/imperfect subjunctive = when / since / although puer, cum consilium audivisset, contentus erat. When the boy had heard the plan, he was pleased.
Translation will depend upon common sense – the subjunctive just translates like an indicative.
4/ Indirect questions Expect a question word to introduce the indirect question, whose verb is subjunctive. There will not necessarily be any verb of ‘asking’. e.g. quando, quis/quid, num, cur + subjunctive The subjunctive is translated like an indicative. puerum rogavimus cur arborem ascenderet. tree. sciebat cur pugnaret.
We asked the boy why he was climbing the
He knew why he was fighting.
5/ Indirect commands Many Latin verbs meaning ‘warn’, ‘persuade’, ‘order’, command’, ‘encourage’ (e.g. monere, persuadere, imperare, mandare, hortari) are followed by ut / ne + subjunctive.. (Sometimes, an indirect command may not immediately appear to contain any kind of ‘command’, but if you work your way back to the original direct statement, it will be there!) Usually translated by the infinitive in English. The verbs iubere and vetare are followed by an infinitive. puerum imperamus ut arborem ascendat.
We order the boy to climb the tree.
puerum imperavimus ut arborem ascenderet.
We ordered the boy to climb the tree.
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B/ IN THE MAIN PART OF A SENTENCE (AND DON’T WORRY ABOUT ALL THE FANCY NAMES)
1/ Jussive subjunctive A command in the 3rd person (‘let him…). arborem ascendat. Let him climb the tree.
2/ Hortatory subjunctive (from hortari ‘to urge’) As above, but in the first person. vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus.
Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love.
3/Potential Used to express an opinion politely and tentatively, a possibility,. Translates ‘would’ Often with velim, nolim or ausim. Cf. French je voudrais velim hanc arborem ascendere. I should like to climb this tree.
AND SOME FOR YOU TO TRY…
A!1 1/ Quintus ad Academiam festinavit ut milites videret. 2/ duae legiones advenerunt quae castra defenderent 3/ pueri diligenter laborant ne magister se puniat.
A2: 4/ tanta erat tempestas ut ceteri nautarum portum peterent. 5/ cena talis erat ut eam edere non possemus. 6/ servus dominum adeo timebat ut aufugerit. A3:
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7/ milites, cum consilium audivissent, consenserunt. 8/ cum pecuniam amisisset, tamen laetus fuit. 9/ cum senator multos inimicos haberet, neminem timebat. A4: 10/ eum rogavimus quando domum rediturus esset. 11/ nesciebam quid velletis. 12/ puer rogavit cur se punirem. A5: 13/ legatus Rufum oravit ut eos curaret. 14/ Rufus Quintum rogavit ne e castris discederet. 15/ imperavit ut coquus arcesseretur. B1: 16/ ne domum redeant. 17/ Caesar adveniat! B2: 18/ ad forum festinemus. 19/ statim proficiscamur! B3: 20/ non ausim pugnare. 21/ nolim facere.
Translate the following sentences and identify why the subjunctive is being used. 1/ utinam resistere potuissent! 2/ poeta Athenas iter faciet ut templa pulchra spectet. 3/ cum discipuli ludum sero intraverunt, magister eos punire solet. 4/ heri agricolae persuasimus ut nos per agros ambulare sineret. 5/ dic mihi cur Romam redire velis. 6/ quid faceret? 7/ ita se gerebat princeps ut omnes cives eum contemnerent. 8/ mallem domi manere. 9/ vereor ut testis vera dixerit. 10/ ne dominus hoc audiat.SUBJUNCTIVES
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A / IN S U BO R D INA TE CLA U S E S
1 / P UR PO S E ( FIN A L) C LA U S E S
Expresses the purpose of an action (hence the name) ut + subjunctive = so that / in order to / to puer arborem ascendit ut milites videret.
The boy climbed the tree to see the soldiers.
Negative: purpose ne + subjunctive = so that… not Also note: ne + quis/quid = ne aliquis/aliquid – so that no one / nothing puer arborem ascendit ne milites se viderent. The boy climbed the tree so that the soldiers would not see him.
Using relative pronouns (but the translation remains the same) QUI, QUAE, QUOD (OR OTHER RELATIVES) + SUBJUNCTIVE milites emisit qui puerum depellerent.
He sent out soldiers to (lit. who were to) drive the boy away.
2/ Result (consecutive) clauses Expresses the result (consequence) of an action UT + SUBJUNCTIVE = THAT Negative result: ut… non A result clause can usually be recognised by the presence of a ‘signal’ word: Expect an adverb meaning ‘so’ tam, adeo, ita (so)tot (so many), totiens (so many times), or an adjective like talis (such a…),tantus (so much, so great) … + subjunctive = so (much)… that
puer tam perterritus erat ut descendere non posset. The boy was so scared that he was not able to climb down.
3/ Fear clauses
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A fear clause will be introduced by ne or ut. Verb of fearing + ne + subjunctive = that/lest. puer timet ne leonem videbit. The boy fears that he will see the lion. Verb of fearing + ut + subjunctive = that… not timeo ut ea litteras accipiat.
I fear that she will not receive the letter.
Also: verb of fearing + ut + subjunctive = that… not It will be signalled by a main verb meaning ‘to fear’ (e.g. timere, metuere, vereri). Fear clauses seem to do the opposite of what you expect – if you fear something will happen, you use ne, but if you fear something will not happen, you use ut. All you are doing, in fact, is saying that you want one thing to happen, but you are afraid that the opposite will. It is this fear which is expressed in the fear clause.
4/ cum clauses (causal, concessive, temporal) cum + present subjunctive = since (causal), although (concessive) cum + pluperfect/imperfect subjunctive = when / since / although puer, cum consilium audivisset, contentus erat. When the boy had heard the plan, he was pleased.
Translation will depend upon common sense – the subjunctive just translates like an indicative.
5/ Indirect questions Expect a question word to introduce the indirect question, whose verb is subjunctive. There will not necessarily be any verb of ‘asking’. e.g. quando, quis/quid, num, cur + subjunctive The subjunctive is translated like an indicative. puerum rogavimus cur arborem ascenderet. tree. sciebat cur pugnaret.
We asked the boy why he was climbing the
He knew why he was fighting.
6/ Indirect commands
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Many Latin verbs meaning ‘warn’, ‘persuade’, ‘order’, command’, ‘encourage’ (e.g. monere, persuadere, imperare, mandare, hortari) are followed by ut / ne + subjunctive.. (Sometimes, an indirect command may not immediately appear to contain any kind of ‘command’, but if you work your way back to the original direct statement, it will be there!) Usually translated by the infinitive in English. The verbs iubere and vetare are followed by an infinitive. puerum imperamus ut arborem ascendat.
We order the boy to climb the tree.
puerum imperavimus ut arborem ascenderet.
We ordered the boy to climb the tree.
B/ IN MAIN CLAUSES
1/ Jussive subjunctive A command in the 3rd person (‘let him…). arborem ascendat. Let him climb the tree.
2/ Hortatory subjunctive (from hortari ‘to urge’) As above, but in the first person. vivamus, mea Lesbia, atque amemus.
Let us live, my Lesbia, and let us love.
3/ Deliberative Generally used in the first person, when the speaker is thinking out loud what to do next, or when he/she wishes to express doubt or disbelief. English translation is often ‘should’. utrum hic maneam an arborem ascendam? Should I stay here or climb the tree?
4/ Optative (wishes) The subjunctive is used in wishes, often with utinam (I wish that…). ne is used to express a negative wish. Present is used to express a wish for the future, with or without utinam, translates ‘may’. Imperfect, usually with utinam, used to express a wish that is impossible for the present, translates ‘might’ or ‘were’. Pluperfect, usually with utinam, expresses an impossible wish in past time, translates ‘had’. (utinam) arborem ascendat.
May he climb the tree.
(utinam) Caesar adesset.
I wish that (would that) Caesar were here (now).
(utinam) me vidisses! utinam ne adesses.
I wish (would that) you had seen me (then)! If only you were not present.
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5/Potential Used to express an opinion politely and tentatively, a possibility,. Translates ‘would’ Often with velim, nolim or ausim. Cf. French je voudrais velim hanc arborem ascendere. I should like to climb this tree.
AND SOME FOR YOU TO TRY…
A!: 1/ Quintus ad Academiam festinavit ut milites videret. 2/ Londinium venio ut reginam viderem. 3/ duae legiones advenerunt quae castra defenderent. 4/ pueri diligenter laborant ne magister se puniat. 5/ mus sub mensa sedebat ne puellae se viderent. 6/ puerum misi qui infantem emeret. A2: 7/ tanta erat tempestas ut ceteri nautarum portum peterent. 8/ cena talis erat ut eam edere non possemus. 9/ servus dominum adeo timebat ut aufugerit. A3: 10/ senex timebat ne servi vinum biberent. 11/ timeo ut ille vera dixerit. 12/ verebantur ne piratae se caperent. 13/ nos timemus omnes ne nuntius ad tempus non adveniat. A4: 14/ milites, cum consilium audivissent, consenserunt. 15/ cum pecuniam amisisset, tamen laetus fuit. 16/ cum senator multos inimicos haberet, neminem timebat. 17/ discipuli, cum ignavi sint, poenas dabunt. A5: 18/ eum rogavimus quando domum rediturus esset. 19/ nesciebam quid velletis. 20/ puer rogavit cur se punirem. A6: 21/ legatus Rufum oravit ut eos curaret. 22/ Rufus Quintum rogavit ne e castris discederet.
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23/ imperavit ut coquus arcesseretur. B1: 24/ ne domum redeant. 25/ Caesar adveniat! B2: 26/ ad forum festinemus. 27/ statim proficiscamur! B3: 28/ quid faciam? 29/ utrum hostibus resistamus an fugiamus? B4: 30/ utinam ne in periculum incidamus. 31/ dei te servent. B5; 32/ non ausim pugnare. 33/ nolim facere.
Translate the following sentences and identify why the subjunctive is being used. 1/ utinam resistere potuissent! 2/ poeta Athenas iter faciet ut templa pulchra spectet. 3/ cum discipuli ludum sero intraverunt, magister eos punire solet. 4/ heri agricolae persuasimus ut nos per agros ambulare sineret. 5/ dic mihi cur Romam redire velis. 6/ quid faceret? 7/ ita se gerebat princeps ut omnes cives eum contemnerent. 8/ mallem domi manere. 9/ vereor ut testis vera dixerit. 10/ ne dominus hoc audiat.
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AN INTRODUCTION TO L ATIN METRE
1. arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris Italiam fato profugus Laviniaque venit
litora, multum ille et terris iactatus et alto
vi superum, saevae memorem Iunonis ob iram,
multa quoque et bello passus, dum conderet urbem
inferretque deos Latio; genus inde Latinum
Albanique patres atque altae meonia Romae.
2. arma gravi numero violentaque bella parabam edere, materia conveniente modis.
par erat inferior versus: risisse Cupido ~ 38 ~
dicitur atque unum surripuisse pedem.
me miserum! certas habuit puer ille sagittas:
uror, et in vacua pectore regnat Amor.
sex mihi surgat opus numeris, in quinque residat;
ferrea cum vestris bella valete modis.
Latin poetry is based on short and long vowels. Some vowels are long by nature (e.g. most ablatives). Some vowels are long by position – those followed by 2 or more consonants (but there are some exceptions to this rule). All diphthongs (2 vowels pronounced as one) are scanned as one long vowel. (e.g. ae, au) A syllable is generally short if it contains a vowel which is immediately followed by another vowel or an h. Watch out for elision where final syllables are swallowed up or chopped off!
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