Implementing cost efective techniques and components
Table of Contents ABSTRACT.................................................................................3 1
INTRODUCTION.. INTRODUCTION............................ ......................................... .......................... ....................... ............... ...4 4
2 PROBLEM DEFINITION................ DEFINITION.......................................... ............................................ .................. 2.1 INCONSISTENCY IN CONSTRUCTION COST ESTIMATES...................................5 2.2 REASONS COSTS VARY ................................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ............. 5 ARY..................... 2.3 PROBLEMS ARISING WITH LACK OF ACK OF FISNANCIAL CONTROL ..............................5 2.4 CASH FLOW: FLOW: A MAJOR ISSUE................. ISSUE............................ ..................... ..................... .......................6 ............6 2.5 EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTION ELAYS........................................................6 2.6 ELAY CAUSES..................... ................................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ................................ ......................6 6 2.! COSTS OF ELAYS..................... ................................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................6 .......6 3
AIMS AND OB!ECTI"ES OB!ECTI"ES OF PRO!ECT............ PRO!ECT........................ ....................... ................# .....# 3.1 OBJECTIVES:................... :.............................. ..................... ..................... ................................................ ..................................... ! 3.1.1 Identiy and assess the impacts o the actors...........................7 3.1.2 Develop comprehensive guidelines............................................7 3.1.3 Assess how we can improve improve the proect development.... ........ .... ....7 7 3.2 T YPES OF COST SAVING MATERIALS..................... ................................ ..................... .........................." ................"
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LITERATURE LITERATURE RE"IE$............................... RE"IE$.............................................................. ...............................% % 4.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COST AN #UALITY.............................................$ !.1.1 "ost................... "ost.............................. ..................... ..................... ..................... ......................................... ............................... # !.1.2 $uality.................. $uality............................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ............................ .................. # 4.2 FACTORS AFFECTING CONSTRUCTION COST ESTIMATION%.............................1& 4.3 COST EFFECTIVE APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGIES ARE%...................................1& !.3.1 %oundation costs&.................. costs&............................. ..................... ........................................ .............................. 11 !.3.2 Arch oundation&.......................... oundation&.................................... ..................... ...................................12 ........................12 !.3.3 'linth.................... 'linth.............................. ..................... ..................... ............................................... ..................................... 12 !.3.! (alls........... (alls..................... ..................... ...................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ......................... ............... 12 !.3.) *ric+ ail.................... ail............................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ...................... ........... 13 !.3., -oos................... -oos.............................. ..................... ..................... ................................................ ..................................... 1) !.3.7 -oos intermediate sla/s................... sla/s............................. ..................... ............................ ................. 1) !.3.0 %erro cement channelshell unit...............................................1) !.3.# ac+ arch roooor...................................................................1, !.3.1 %iller sla/&technique........ sla/&technique................... ...................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ............. ...1, 1, !.3.11 4he mechanism.................... mechanism............................... .................................................. ....................................... 17 4.4 BENEFITS%.................... %.............................. ..................... ..................... ................................................ ...................................... 1! !.!.1 5aving on cost.......................... cost.................................... ..................... ...................................... ...........................17 17 !.!.2 4hermal insulation&.................... insulation&.............................. ..................... ..................... ..........................17 ................17 !.!.3 'atterned ceilings&.................... ceilings&............................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ................ ...... 10 !.!.! 5panning elements or openings..............................................10 4.5 OOR CUM WINOW FRAMES................................................................1" 4.6 OORS AN WINOWS ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''..1$ 4.! LINTELS..................... ................................ ..................... ..................... .................................................. ....................................... 1$ 4." OPENING IN THE IN THE FORM OF ARCH WITH LOCAL MATERIAL%.............................1$ 4.$ OOR PANELS..................... ............................... ..................... ..................... .......................................... ................................ 1$ 4.1& 4.1& FINISHING WORK %.............................................................................2& %.............................................................................2&
MET&ODOLO' MET&ODOLO'(................... (............................................. ...................................... ...................... .......... 2) *
DAT DATA COLLECTION........... COLLECTION................................................. ................................................. ..............22 ...22
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RECOMMENDA RECOMMENDATIONS.... TIONS.............................. .................................................... .............................. ....23 23 !.1 ARCH FOOTING(FOUNATION.................... ............................... ..................... ..................... ..................... ............. ...23 23
2 !.2 RAT TRAP ................................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ............................. ...................24 24 AT TRAP BON..................... 7.2.1 AD6A4 AD6A4A895 :% ;5I8 -A4 4-A' *:D.................................2! *:D.................................2! !.3 FILLER SLAB ROOFING.........................................................................24 +
CONCLUSIONS. CONCLUSIONS........................... ................................................................ .......................................... ....2 2
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2 !.2 RAT TRAP ................................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ............................. ...................24 24 AT TRAP BON..................... 7.2.1 AD6A4 AD6A4A895 :% ;5I8 -A4 4-A' *:D.................................2! *:D.................................2! !.3 FILLER SLAB ROOFING.........................................................................24 +
CONCLUSIONS. CONCLUSIONS........................... ................................................................ .......................................... ....2 2
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Implementing cost efective techniques and components
Abstract
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1
Introduction
Cost effective housing is a relative concept and has more to do with budgeting and seeks to reduce construction cost through better management, appropriate use of local materials, skills and technology but without sacrificing the performance and structure life. It should be noted that low cost housings are not houses which constructed by cheap building materials of substandard quality. A low cost house is designed and constructed as any other house with regard to foundation, structure and strength.
In this report several traditional cost of quality theories are applied, compared, and contrasted as they relate to the construction industry; particularly conforming and nonconforming quality costs. Failure to face quality cost issues is certainly not due to its lack of importance. he significance of quality costs versus other costs incurred on a construction pro!ect is evident from various research studies.
"ow cost housing is a relative concept and has more to do with budgeting and seeks to reduces construction cost trough better management, appropriate use of local materials, skills and technology without sacrificing strength and life of structure. Furthermore, low cost housing can be considered affordable for low# and moderate#income earners if household can acquire a housing unit...$conomy is also achieved by postponing finishing and implementing low cost housing technologies in phases..
Figure 1 - Existing house to proposed stratery
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2.1
Problem Definition
Inconsistency in Construction Cost Estimates
A cost estimate appro%imates a pro!ect&s probable cost. Cost estimates are prepared at concept stage, refined throughout the pro!ect#preparation process, and updated during implementation . he cost estimate should identify those principal cost components needed to support effective pro!ect management.
2.2
Reasons Costs Vary
he availability and relative supply and demand of materials will affect their direct purchase price. 'ver the years, shortages have occurred in structural steel, portland cement, precast concrete, gypsum products, and glass and gla(ing. )ome trades may be in short supply as well. he issue is to be careful and aware of potential material and labor shortages. Availability may also affect the lead time required for delivery and shipping and handling costs, especially in remote areas, and can affect the cost of materials. A variety of sales ta%es, import*e%port duties, and other special fees indirectly affect the cost of material. Installation costs vary according to an even more comple% series of relationships. +irect labor wages can vary from location to location by - to percent, and sometimes as much as - percent.. a%es and insurance affect labor costs. Certain trades, such as demolition, carry very high insurance premiums because of the risks associated with the work
* and the relative safety record of the contractor. Conditions of the work, particularly with renovation, affect productivity relative to access and egress, lay#down*staging areas, and dust, dirt, and general !ob cleanup requirements, as well as the space available to conduct business. /oreover sometimes the techniques used on site for construction may differ the costing of a pro!ect. For e%ample the types of foundation used or materials used.
2.3
Problems arising with Lack of inancial Control
+uring the e%ecution of a pro!ect, procedures for pro!ect control and record keeping become indispensable tools to managers and other participants in the construction process. hese tools serve the dual purpose of recording the financial transactions that occur as well as giving managers an indication of the progress and problems associated with a pro!ect. 0ro!ect management activities and functional concerns are intimately linked, yet the techniques used in many instances do not facilitate comprehensive or integrated consideration of pro!ect activities. For e%ample, schedule information and cost accounts are usually kept separately. Failure is undesirable and avoidable and it can be prevented by good cash flow management. Indeed, company failure has been widely researched. 1nowledge about business failure can be useful in providing guidance to entrepreneurs who want to start a business. It indicates the risk factors in their industry and provides the benefit of e%perience in risk management
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C"#$ L%&' " (")%R I##*E
+uring the recent years around 2-,--- new businesses have been created every year. /any are destined to fail within the first two years. 'ne key reason is the lack of a viable business plan for their operation . Four main deficiencies that are characteristic of failed companies are cash flow forecasts, costing system, budgetary control, and asset valuation. Cash flow problems and shortage of working capital can, in e%treme circumstances, push efficient and profitable firms into insolvency. It is also possible that a firm is pulled into insolvency by the failure of another firm. here is a +omino heory that may apply if a client becomes insolvent owing large sums of money to the contractor, or if a main contractor fails owing cash to one or more regular subcontractors.
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Effects of Construction ,elays
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Implementing cost efective techniques and components
3 Acceleration 3 )chedule Change # Inefficiency 3 +elayed pro!ect completion 3 /issed intermediate completion dates 3 "iquidated +amages 3 Frustration 4 claims 3 Increased Costs
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,elay Causes
3 "abor )trikes 3 5eather 3 hird 0arty 3 0lan $rrors 3 Change 'rders 3 Contractor $rrors 3 )uspension of 5ork 3 6tilities 3 +iffering )ite Conditions
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Costs of ,elays
3 +elays in most cases always cause additional costs 3 +irect Costs 3 Indirect Costs 3 Impact Costs
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Aims and Objectives of Project
his research focuses only on activities carried out in the phases of the pro!ect development process that precedes construction and is limited to qualitative assessment. The goal of this research is to compare and contrast traditional cost theories as they relate to the construction industry
3.1
%b/ecti0es'
/ore specifically, the ob!ectives supporting these research goals are7 . Identify and assess the impacts of the factors that affect increases in costs of bid items and the methods and strategies that can help reduce the cost. 2. +evelop comprehensive guidelines on how to modify pro!ects to reduce initial construction costs while maintaining equal or better performance.
'ne of the most fundamental factors determining the prices of any products or services including construction is the relationship between demand and supply in which the market prices are determined by the equilibrium conditions. In construction market, such equilibrium is determined by the demand*supply of materials and services in sectors such as residential, commercial, industrial, and heavy construction.
Costs of materials and oil#based fuels significantly impact the overall price of bid items. 5ith demand for construction in both domestic and international markets increasing in past several years, the prices of construction materials have also increased. his can be attributed to a number of factors including limited capacity to produce materials, lack of competition, and price of energy.
As it can be noticed that the main aspect of this pro!ect is to determine whether the use of other techniques and materials can save cost and also assure the quality of building pro!ects.
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"iterature #evie$
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Relationshi etween Cost "n 4uality
ime, cost and quality are the three factors that play a significant role in the planning and controlling of construction pro!ects. he /ain barriers for their achievement are the changes in the pro!ect environment necessitating cost, time and quality trades#offs.
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%ost
Clients have been increasingly concerned with the overall profitability of pro!ects and the accountability of pro!ects generally. 8esearch to date has tended to focus on the technical aspects of managing costs on construction pro!ects in the attainment of client ob!ectives.
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&uality
o the client, quality may be defined as one of the components that contributes to the term value for money. he goal is customer satisfaction. Furthermore, in order to achieve successful pro!ect quality management three separate drivers to quality management must be managed, namely7
. Integration of the pro!ect team so as to have a single ob!ective and a common culture
2. A customer focus for the team thereby facilitating the provision of products and services that will meet the clients needs
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9. A process of continuous improvement in the management of the construction pro!ect.
5hen these three components are successfully integrated, the pro!ect will begin to reali(e significant, measurable and observable improvements in the attainment of the clients.
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actors affecting construction cost estimation5
:uilding Cost#he building construction cost can be divided into two parts namely7 :uilding material cost 7 to <- = > "abor cost 7 to <- =
)i(e#he smaller the pro!ect in terms of scope or the number of square feet, the more it will cost per square foot.
ype#+ifferent types of pro!ect have different levels of comple%ity and detail
)pecial Construction #Comple%ity can greatly increase the cost of the pro!ect. 8enovation, especially if it requires altering or moving structural components, can be costly because it necessitates demolition as well as building. )pecial construction may also be necessary to shield surrounding spaces from noise, fire and other ha(ards.
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Implementing cost efective techniques and components 0ro!ect accessibility "abor 8ates /aterial Costs ?eneral $conomic 0ressures ime of @ear
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Cost effecti0e aroriate technologies are5
Foundation#
8andom rubble masonry in mud*cement mortar placed in e%cavation over thick sand bed. 8ubble pointing above ground level in stabili(ed cement mortar.
6se of lean cement concrete mi% 77 for base with brick masonry in 7 cement mortar footings.
6se of lean cement concrete mi% as above for base and over burned bricks masonry in cement lime mortar B7272 footings.
Figure 2 - Foundation
Arch foundations in place of spread foundations
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Figure 3 - arc foundation
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'oundation costs(
Dormally the foundation cost comes to about - to = of the total building . It is recommended to adopt a foundation depth of 2 ft.B-.m for normal soil like gravely soil, red soils etc.
It is suggested to adopt arch foundation in ordinary soils.
In case of black cotton and other soft soils, it is recommend to use under ream pile foundation which saves about 2- to 2= in cost over the conventional method of construction.
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Arch foundation(
his type of foundation was used in olden times where in spread foundation is replaced by inverted arch .
It reduces the construction cost up to E-=
Advantage of this is#In soft soils that the depth of foundation can be greatly reduced; disadvantage is that the end piers have to be specially strengthened by buttresses so as to avoid the thrust to arch action tending to rapture the piers !unction.
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Plinth
It is recommended to adopt ft. height above ground level for the plinth and may be constructed with a cement mortar of 7.
he plinth slab of E to which is normally adopted can be avoided and in its place brick on edge can be used for reducing the cost.
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:y adopting this procedure the cost of plinth foundation can be reduced by about 9 to -=.
)alls
:rick work in 7 cement mortar using bricks from black cotton and inferior soil stabili(ed with fly#ash.
8at#trap bond brick work in 7272 cement lime mortar*7.79 cement sand mortar.
Gollow concrete block masonry in cement mortar.
Compressed mud blocks masonry in mud mortar.
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)tabili(ed mud blocks masonry BE= cement or lime in stabili(ed mud mortar.
)and lime brick walls in 7 cement mortar.
FA"#? sand block with 7 cement mortar.
5hile laying bricks, the manner in which they overlap is called the bond. he rat#trap bond is laid by placing the bricks on their sides having a cavity of -- mm, with alternate course of stretchers and headers . he headers and stretchers are staggered in subsequent layers to give more strength to the walls.
his technology has about 2= overall#saving on cost of a building of traditional H construction. he structure has proven its strength to go up to three floors with the support of brick columns. 5ith this technique there is reduction in cost of the wall by 2= as with conventional $nglish bond BH&&thk wall 9- bricks are required per cu. m whereas in 8at# trap bond only 2- bricks are required and also the reduced number of !oints reduces the mortar consumption.
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+ric, jail
he common burnt brick is one of man&s great inventions. all over the world, with only a few e%ceptions, nearly all bricks are roughly the same shape and si(e # that is about H % E. % 9 inches. In many of these situations listed above a JKA"IL is !ust as effective. Far from being a lot more costly than the basic wall, if made of brick it can be less costly than the house wall.
Instead of using regular walling system of lintel and window system ,!ali work can help cost estimation. Climate consideration and use of local materials helps maintaining economy than the general rcc practice.
/ore methods#
#oil
cement
block
technology
this method of construction of wall is by soil cement blocks in place of burnt bricks
1* masonry. It is an energy efficient method of construction where soil mi%ed with = and above cement and pressed in hand operated machine and cured well and then used in the masonry. he overall economy that could be achieved with the soil cement technology is about to 2-= compared to conventional method of construction.
Concrete
block
walling
In view of high energy consumption by burnt brick it is suggested to use concrete block Bblock hollow and solid which consumes about only *9 of the energy of the burnt bricks in its production. Concrete block masonry saves mortar consumption, speedy construction of wall resulting in higher output of labor, plastering can be avoided thereby an overall saving of - to 2= can be achieved.
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#oofs
+omes and vaults in brick or stabili(ed mud block with appropriate mortar.
6pgraded thatch roof on appropriate frame work.
0re#cast 8CC J"L panel
0recast 8CC cored units in / concrete.
0recast 8CC channel units in / concrete
0recast 5affle units in / concrete
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:urnt clay tube roofing in vault form.
#oofs/ intermediate slabs
Filler slabs
0artly precast 8CC planks and !oist in / concrete.
0artly precast 8CC !oist and brick panels
0artly precast 8CC in hollow concrete blocks
hin 8CC ribbed slabs
Ferrocement channels
:rick funicular shell on edge beam
:amboo reinforced concrete
:rick funicular shells with 8CC edge beams
:rick !ack arched over 8CC !oist
0recast 8CC cored units in / concrete.
0recast 8CC channel units in / concrete
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'erro cement channel/shell unit
0rovide an economic solution to 8CC slab by providing 9- to E-= cost reduction on floor*roof unit over 8CC slabs without compromising the strength. hese being precast, construction is speedy, economical due to avoidance of shuttering and facilitate quality control.
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ac, arch roof/floor
hey are easy to construct, save on cement and steel, are more appropriate in hot climates. hese can be constructed using compressed earth blocks also as alternative to bricks for further economy.
!31 'iller slab(techni4ue
he filler slab is based on the principle that for roofs which are simply supported, the upper part of the slab is sub!ected to compressive forces and the lower part of the slab e%perience tensile forces. Concrete is very good in withstanding compressive forces and steel bears the load due to tensile forces. hus the lower tensile region of the slab does not need any concrete e%cept for holding the steel reinforcements together.
herefore in a conventional 8CC slab lot of concrete is wasted and it needs e%tra reinforcement due to added load of the concrete which can otherwise be replaced by low# cost and light weight filler materials, which will reduce the dead weight as well as the cost of the slab to 2= Bas E-= less steel is used and 9-= less concrete
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!311 The mechanism
he filler slab is a mechanism to replace the concrete in the tension (one. he filler material, thus, is not a structural part of the slab. :y reducing the quantity and weight of material, the roof become less e%pensive, yet retains the strength of the conventional slab. he most popular filler material is the roofing tile. /angalore tiles are placed between steel ribs and concrete is poured into the gap to make a filler slab. he structure requires less steel and cement and it is also a good heat insulator. Conventional tests by different institutions and laboratories has proved the load bearing capacity of filler slab and found it no less in performance from the conventional 8.C.C. slab. )ince filler roof tiles are firmly bonded to and covered by concrete, it does not collapse under the impact of say, a coconut falling on the roof.
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enefits5
5aving on cost
he savings on cost can be from per cent to 2 per cent. :ut designing a filler slab requires a structural engineer to determine the spacing between the reinforcement bars.
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Thermal insulation(
he air pocket formed by the contours of the tiles makes an e%cellent thermal insulation layer. he design integrity of a filler slab involves careful planning taking into account the negative (ones and reinforcement areas
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Patterned ceilings(
Filler slabs provide aesthetically pleasing patterned ceilings. In most houses, the filler material is left open without plastering to form aesthetic design symmetry but some residents prefer to cover the space with 0laster of 0aris coating.
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5panning elements for openings
:rick arches 7 Flat, semi circular and segmented
0recast thin lintel and lintel cum cha!!a
:rick arch with sand stone cha!!a
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,oor cum winow frames
Ferro cement cha!!as
0recast 8CC frames with wood insert
8esin bonded saw dust frame
0olyvinyl chloride frame
Fiber reinforced plastic frame
/ore methods#
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,oors
an
winows
It is suggested not to use wood for doors and windows and in its place concrete or steel section frames shall be used for achieving saving in cost up to 9- to E-=.)imiliarly for shutters commercially available block boards, fibre or wooden practical boards etc., shall be used for reducing the cost by about 2.
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Lintels
he traditional 8.C.C. lintels which are costly can be replaced by brick arches for small spans and save construction cost up to 9- to E-= over the traditional method of construction.
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%ening in the form of arch with local material5
Arches are an economical and aesthetic means of spanning openings. Arches can be a cost effective alternative to the lintels.
he traditional 8CC lintels which are costly can be replaced by brick arches for small spans and save construction cost up to 9-4E-= over the traditional method of construction.
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,oor anels
0lantation timber styles with particle board inserts.
/edium density fiber board doors.
Cement bonded particle board
0lantation timber style with rice husk board inserts
8ed mud polymer panel doors.
Ferrocement doors
0olyvinyl chloride doors panels.
Gigh density fiberboard doors
!.18 inishing &ork5
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he cost of finishing items like sanitary, electricity, painting etc., varies depending upon the type and quality of products used in the building and its cost reduction is left to the individual choice and liking.
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6ethodology
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Conuct a face to face inter0iew with a consultant in (auritius
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Comarison between traitional an cost effecti0e construction methos
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Ientify ifferent tyes of cost sa0ing materials
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,e0elo comrehensi0e guielines on how to moify ro/ects
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Data %ollection
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Information collecte from inter0iew
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Re9uest of cost effecti0e materials rices from contractors
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"ssessing costs an construction methos of walling an roofing structures
he construction methods of walling and roofing are selected for the detail cost analysis based on available resources from previous thesis.
able and able 2 summari(e the cost analysis of the traditional construction methods and the low cost housing technologies in the case studies for walling and roofing respectively. It is found that about 2.= and 22.= of the construction cost, including material and labour cost, can be saved by using the low cost housing technologies in comparison with the traditional construction methods for walling and roofing respectively.
able 7 Cost Analysis of traditional Construction /ethods and the low cost housing technologies used in case studies for m9 of walling B 5orks +epartment, 2--2, when the 6)M in changed in 8upees it will give the same change
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able 27 Cost Analysis of traditional Construction /ethods and the low cost housing technologies used in case studies for m9 of roofing B 5orks +epartment, 2--2, when the 6)M in changed in 8upees it will give the same change
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inings from inter0iew
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:raitional construction methos
. Foundation7 Foundation is the lowest part of the structure which is provided to distribute loads to the soil thus providing base for the super#structure. $%cavation work is first carried out, then earth# work is filled with available earth and ends with watering and compaction in a L thick layer. Disadvantge99
2. Cement concrete7 0lain cement concrete is used to form a leveled surface on the e%cavated soil. he volumetric concrete mi% proportion of 7E7 Bcement7 sand7 aggregate, with a L thick layer for masonry foundation and column footings is used. 0lain cement concrete is finished on the e%cavated soil strata and mi%ed by manual process.
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9. 5all construction7 )i(e stone masonry for foundation is constructed for outer walls and burnt brick masonry of a HL thick layer for main walls and a E NL thick layer for all internal walls. ?ood quality table#moulded bricks are used for the construction.
E. 8einforced cement concrete slab and beam7 he normal procedure to cast reinforced cement concrete slab is to make shuttering and provide reinforcement and concreting. ?ood steel or plywood formwork is used, with proper cover blocks between bars. :oth aggregate and sand used are clean, with aggregate being OL graded. After the concrete is poured, it is properly consolidated.
. 0lastering7 0lastering is used for the ceiling, inside and outside walls. Koints are raked before plastering and proper curing is ensured.
. Flooring7 For the flooring purpose, the earth is properly filled and consolidated in the ratio of 7E7 Bcement7 sand7 aggregate concrete.
<. 0lumbing7 ?ood quality plumbing materials are used and passed hydraulic test before using it.
. 0ainting and finishing7 :efore the painting process, surface is prepared with putty and primer and a ready#made paint is used.
.3 Cost Effecti0e ; "lternate construction methos It is found that cost#effective and alternative construction technologies, which apart from reducing
construction cost by the reduction of quantity of building materials through improved and innovative techniques, can play a great role in providing better housing methods and protecting the environment. :elow are the techniques and materials used in replacement of the used one for the low cost effective pro!ect7
.31 'oundation Arch foundation is used in which walls are supported on the brick or stone masonry. For the
construction of the foundation, the use of available materials such as brick or concrete bloc,s can be made to resist lateral forces buttresses at the corner
2+ 2. 5alling 8at trap bond technology is used in the case study. It is an alternative brick bonding system for $nglish and Flemish :ond. he reduced number of !oints can reduce mortar consumption . 8o plastering of the outside face is re4uired and the wall usually is quite aesthetically pleasing and
air gaps created within the wall help making the house thermally comfortable. In summer, the temperature inside the house is usually at least degrees lower that the outside ambient temperature and vice versa in winter
9. 8oofing7 A filler slab roofing system is used which based on the principle that for roofs which are simply supported, the upper part of the slab is sub!ected to compressive forces and the lower part of the slab e%perience tensile forces %oncrete is very good in $ithstanding compressive forces and steel bears the load due to tensile forces Thus the lo$ tensile region of the slab does not need any concrete e:cept for holding steel reinforcements together
E. Flooring7 Flooring is generally made of terracotta tiles or color o%ides. :edding is made out of broken brick bats. Parious patterns and designs are used, depending on shape, si(e of tiles, span of flooring, and client&s personal preference.
. 0lastering7 Plastering can be avoided on the $alls , frequent e%penditure on finishes and its maintenance is avoided. 0roperly protected brick wall will never loose its color or finish.
. +oors and windows7 As door and window frames are responsible for almost half the cost of timber used, avoiding frames can considerably reduce timber cost . +oor planks are screwed together with strap iron hinges to form doors, and this can be carried by Qholdfast& carried into the wall. he simplest and cost effective door can be made of vertical planks held together with hori(ontal or diagonal battens. A simplest frameless window consists of a vertical plank of about HL wide set into two holes, one at the top and one at the bottom. his forms a simple pivotal window. 5ide span windows can be easily framed and fi:ed to $alls or can have ro$s of pivotal plan,s
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Implementing cost efective techniques and components .!
:yes of Cost #a0ing (aterials
)tabili(ed compressed earth blocks are made of mud stabili(ed with = cement*lime etc. and compacted in block making machine with no burning. A good walling material as burnt bricks and is economical, stronger, energy saving and simple to manufacture.
Fly ash gypsum stabili(ed mud blocks are much stronger with less water absorption and cheaper than cement stabili(ed blocks. 5ith to -= fly ash# ?, 9-= saving in cement could be achieved in addition to utili(ation of the waste product like flyash.
Fly ash# lime gypsum products manufactured by blending fly ash lime and calcined gypsum for making a useful product named Fal#? , and can be used a cementations material for mortar*plaster and for masonry blocks of any desired strength. It can also be used for road pavements and plain concrete in the form of Fal#? concrete.
Clay red mud burnt bricks produced from alumina red mud or bau%ite, an industrial waste of aluminium producing plants in combination with clay. 0osses all the physical properties of normal clay bricks and solves the problem of disposal of the waste product and environmental pollution. In addition, they have good architectural value as facing bricks due to their pleasing hues of color.
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Precast #tone blocks
0recast stone blocks of larger si(e than normal bricks are manufactured by using waste stone pieces of various si(es with lean cement concrete and enable a rationali(ed use of natural locally available materials. )haping stones in this manner, enables speedy construction saves on cement, reduces thickness of stone walls and effects overall saving by eliminating plasters on internal*e%ternal wall surfaces.
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Precast Concrete
0recast concrete blocks made to similar dimension of stone blocks without large si(e stone pieces, but using coarse and fine graded cement. hey have e%cellent properties comparable to other masonry blocks, are cheaper and facilitate speedy construction and especially suitable where quality clay for bricks making is not available.
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#ecommendations
6.1
"rch ooting<ounation
It is used to be provided for multi#storeyed buildings in olden times. Gowever, with the advent of reinforced cement concrete construction practice, arch fooing is rarely done these days. 'ne of the drawbacks in this type of construction is that the end piles have to be specially strengthened by buttresses to avoid the arch thrust tending to rapture the pier !unction. Gowever, the advantage of inverted arch construction is that in soft soils the depth of foundation is greatly reduced. Inverted arch footing has been illustrated below. Advtages
6.2
Rat tra bon
is a brick masonry method of wall construction, in which bricks are placed in vertical position instead of conventional hori(ontal position and thus creating a cavity Bhollow space within the wall. he bricks are placed in vertical position, so that - mm face is seen from front elevation, instead of the <mm face Bconsidering brick of standard si(e 29- R - R < mm. )ince width of wall remains 29-mm, an internal cavity is created. his is where appro%imately 9-= /aterial Bbrick and mortar is saved and thus overall construction cost is reduced.
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AD;A8TA<=5 O' 75I8< #AT T#AP +O8D
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8equires appro%imately 2= less bricks and E-= less mortar than traditional masonry
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8educed material requirement results in considerable cost saving
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)trength of wall is not compromised, it remains same as traditional masonry wall.
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Implementing cost efective techniques and components •
Cavity induced in wall provides better thermal insulation, resulting in cooler interiors during summer and warmer interiors during winter.
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All vertical and hori(ontal reinforced bands, lintels Bfor standard si(e openings, electrical conduits are hidden inside wall, resulting in better aesthetic appearance without plastering Be%posed brickwork.
6.3
iller #lab Roofing
here is a lot of difference between cheap construction practices and cost effective ones. 5hile taking up construction, most fail to appreciate the difference and end up spending quite a bit of their money. his against a possibility of cost # effective options that while ensuring good and efficient construction also leaves you with a substantial saving. Filler slabs are one such cost # effective roofing system which is based on the concrete portions and instead placing filler material there. he material used as a replacement includes bricks, tiles, cellular concrete blocks. he filler slab is based on the principle that for roofs which are simply supported, the upper part of the slab is sub!ected to compressive forces and the lower part of the slab e%perience tensile forces. Concrete is very good in withstanding compressive forces and steel bears the load due to tensile forces. hus the lower tensile region of the slab does not need any concrete e%cept for holding the steel reinforcements together.
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%onclusions
he dream of owning a house particularly for low#income and middle#income families is becoming a difficult reality. It is necessary to adopt cost effective, innovative and environment#friendly housing technologies for the construction. he goal of this paper was too compare and contrast traditional cost theories as they relate to the construction industry . I did a lot of research for the
literature review from previous reports. After doing the interview and research on the cost effective technologies, I selected one tye of cost effecti0e technology among the three )hy %ost implications> time easy construction methods
his proves the benefits and the trends for implementing low cost housing technologies in the industry.
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Implementing cost efective techniques and components
#eferences https?//$$$cevmultimediacom/inde:php@pproductBid1*-* http?//$$$ijsrnet/archive/v!i2/57+1*1.-pdf https?//$$$$bdgorg/design/costCeffectivephp http?//$$$cmhc( schlgcca/en/inpr/afhoce/afhoce/afhostcast/afhoid/cote/buenefho/buenefhoC2cfm http?//$$$ghare:pertcom/ImageC5trip/5ingleCfullCimageCforCallCne$asp:@ h1!!B$2*-BtypeartCimgB%atId( 1BImageId33BmoveCtoBindBfindBuidB'IDB
http?//$$$ghare:pertcom/a/ashishbatra/1-./'iller(5labsCasp: http?//$$$istudioarchitecturecom/rat(trap(bond/ http?//$$$theconstructioncivilorg/inverted(arch(footingfoundation/ http?//$$$aboutcivilorg/foundation(types(construction(methodshtml file?///7sers/,istenarmon/Do$nloads/publishedpdf http?//$$$engineeringcivilcom/lo$(cost(housinghtml http?//theconstructororg/building/materials(for(lo$(cost(housing/*3*2/ https?//$$$ma,acug/documents/6a,files/aet211/Otim(2pdf
