UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL MICAELA BASTIDAS APURÍMAC UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL MICAELA BASTIDAS DE DE APURIMAC FACULTAD DE INGENIERI INGENIERIA A ESCUELA ACADEMICO PROFESIONAL DE INGENIERIA DE MINAS
ESCUELA ACADÉMICA PROFESIONAL DE INGENIERÍA DE MINAS
MINERÍA GENERAL SOSTENIMIENTO EN MINERÍA
INTEGRANTES:
María Lisbeth Chalco Pérez……………………..…..171096 Pérez ……………………..…..171096 Clider mariano Loco Vargas………………………...171115 Vargas………………………...171115 Leonel cruz ramos………………………………………171099 Ruby Aguirre Huacac……………………………….….171087 Analy Cruz Limascca…………………………………….171098 Limascca…………………………………….171098 Benigno Huamanga Paniura………………….…….171105 Diomedes Calla Condori………………………….….171094 Rimberty Valdivia caceres…………………………..171125 Edison Vilcas Quispe…………………………………...1711 Quispe…………………………………...171127 27
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL MICAELA BASTIDAS DE APURIMAC FACULTAD DE INGENIERI INGENIERIA A ESCUELA ACADEMICO PROFESIONAL DE INGENIERIA DE MINAS
AGRADECIMIENTO En primer lugar, queremos dar las gracias, a nuestros queridos padres y buenos amigos, por su apoyo incondicional incondicional en el desarrollo de este trabajo, al docente del curso Ing. Henry Gómez Huancahuiré, por guiarnos en la presentación y realización correcta del presente trabajo acerca de los sostenimientos sostenimientos en minería subterránea subterránea tanto como artificial y natural. En segundo lugar, sentirnos satisfechos con Nosotros mismos por el esfuerzo y la dedicación que se puso en la realización de este trabajo, principalmente para formar lazos de liderazgo entre nosotros. Gracias
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DEDICATORIA Este presente trabajo es dedicado a toda aquella persona que le interese la minería segura, a todo aquel minero que tenga ese ímpetu de poder lograr una minería segura con sostenimiento seguro para tener la seguridad en sí mismo de volver a casa en perfecto estado. Dedicado a todos los amantes de la minería, principalmente una minería segura; para desarrollar nuestras capacidades dentro de este ámbito.
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INTRODUCCIÓN En el mundo de los minerales o recursos metálicos, el sostenimiento en minería subterránea es muy importante, ya que por la naturaleza del trabajo toda labor importante, se hace en el interior de la mina se realiza en espacios vacíos, estabilizados producto de la rotura de la roca o mineral extraído; para lograr que se mantenga nuevamente estable la zona y en condicione condicioness de trabajarla, la zona debe de redistribuir sus fuerzas, para ello es necesario apoyar inmediatamente con el refuerzo o el sostenimiento adecuado, considerando el tipo sostenimiento adecuado, considerando el tipo de rocas, fallas con relleno, fallas abiertas, rocas, etc. En este trabajo se realiza los diferentes sostenimientos de minería subterránea tanto natural como artificial explicando todos los tipos o técnicas de sostenimiento artificial y tipos de sostenimientos naturales que se aplican actualmente a la minería del mundo.
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CAPITULO I 1. GENERALIDADES: 1.1. MINERIA: La minería m inería es una actividad económica del sector primario representada por la explotación o extracción de los minerales que se han acumulado en el suelo y subsuelo en forma de yacimientos, También la minería es considerada como el conjunto de individuos que se dedican a esta actividad o el conjunto de minas de una nación o región. La minería es una de las actividades más antiguas de la humanidad. En las épocas prehistóricas ya el hombre utilizaba los minerales para la fabricación de sus herramientas. La minería siempre ha constituido en ser uno de los indicadores básicos de las posibilidades de desarrollo económico de un país, los minerales descubiertos por el hombre, se la da un valor económico sobresaliente debido a la utilidad que prestan a la humanidad.
imagen Nº1
1.2. MINERIA SUBTERRANEA: La minería subterránea necesita un sistema de excavaciones que permita llegar a las zonas de minerales contenidos en la roca. La minería subterránea se puede subdividir en minería de roca blanda y minería de roca dura. Los ingenieros de minas hablan de roca "blanda" cuando no exige el empleo de explosivos en el proceso de extracción. La minería de roca dura utiliza los explosivos como método de extracción. 1.3 MINERIA SUPERFICIAL SUPERFICIAL:: Consiste en perforar y provocar voladuras, hace más que arañar la superficie. La está volando por los aires, está armando un estropicio y gastando mucho tiempo, dinero y recursos para limpiar todo. Necesita una solución mejor. La minería superficial con tambores para minería superficial y las puntas de fresa le permite hacer más que arañar la superficie, con más control y menos gastos. Explotará solo el área del depósito del mineral (una voladura requiere un campo de acción más amplio para los residuos). No hace falta taladrar, provocar voladuras ni almacenar explosivos y no habrá tiempo muerto entre estas operaciones. Va a avanzar, explotar una mina y hacer dinero. 1.4. SOSTENIMIENTO:
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1.5. SOSTENIMIENTO MINERO: En toda explotación minera, el sostenimiento de las labores es un trabajo adicional de alto costo que reduce la velocidad de avance y/o producción pero que a la vez es un proceso esencial para proteger de accidentes a personal y al equipo. soporte de roca y un refuerzo de roca.
IMAGEN Nº2
1.6. SOPORTE MINERO: consistente en cerchas de acero o concreto, shotcreteo cuadros de madera, son diseñados para estabilizar la masa rocosa mediante el control del colapso progresivo o deformación de la misma 1.7. LABOR MINERA: Una labor minera es cualquier hueco excavado para explotar un un yacimiento. yacimiento. Una mina Una mina es el conjunto de todas esas labores, especialmente cuando es subterránea. La técnica de aprovechar un yacimiento mediante minería se conoce como Laboreo de Minas. La zona de la labor en que se trabaja para su excavación se denomina frente, corte o testero. Las labores que sólo tienen una entrada (por ejemplo, una galería que se está avanzando) se denominan labores en fondo de saco. Al no tener salida es necesario forzar la ventilación la ventilación mediante una tubería hasta el frente de la labor.
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CAPITULO II 1. SOSTENIMIENTO EN MINA Todo titular, explotador explotador o empleador empleador minero, deben adoptar adoptar las medidas que sean sean necesarias para asegurar que las labores mineras subterráneas no presenten derrumbes ni desprendimientos de rocas que pongan en peligro la vida e integridad de las personas. Todo titular, explotador o empleador empleador minero deben definir definir e implementar implementar un plan de de sostenimiento de la explotación, de acuerdo con el estudio geomecánico del área y con lo aprobado en el Programa de Trabajos T rabajos y Obras del proyecto. Todo titular, explotador o empleador minero deben elaborar un documento de de actualización permanente donde se establezcan las normas específicas sobre cuándo, dónde y qué tipo de apoyo del techo se tienen que instalar en todas las etapas del proceso de desarrollo de las actividades subterráneas incluidas bocaminas, galerías y frentes. Implemente un programa de inspección, inspección, mantenimiento mantenimiento y control del plan de sostenimiento, el cual debe estar disponible en las instalaciones de la empresa o m ina. El área mínima libre de una excavación excavación minera minera debe ser de de 3 m2 con con una altura mínima de 1,80 m. Cuando utilice sostenimiento en madera o arcos de acero, acero, debe asegurarse que todos los espacios que queden entre el capíz y el techo sean rellenados para conseguir que la presión del techo sea transmitida uniformemente. Cuando realice actividad minera minera subterránea, subterránea, las labores labores de sostenimiento sostenimiento deben deben garantizar la seguridad, tanto de las personas, como de los equipos. Se debe garantizar que, que, en superficie, tanto las obras civiles civiles como la infraestructura infraestructura existente, no se vean afectadas por la subsidencia. En consecuencia, se debe realizar un diseño con los cálculos respectivos que sirva para establecer las dimensiones mínimas y la localización.
1.1. CLASES DE TERRENOS Terrenos Duros: Al trazar y disparar deben formarse arcos o bóvedas bóvedas de seguridad, en el techo de la labor. Terrenos Alterados:
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Terrenos Empanizados: Son terrenos que presentan zonas de panizo entre dos capas de terrenos consistentes Terrenos Sueltos: Son los tipos de terrenos que no presentan consistencia alguna, teniéndose que enmaderar las labores inmediatamente que se abren, para impedir derrumbes, también se les llama terrenos molidos, pues no se encuentran con frecuencia piezas grandes. Terrenos Arcillosos. Constituidos por rocas casi plásticas que se deforman bajo una fuerte presión fuerte presión la mayor o menor plasticidad depende del contenido de agua y la proporción de arcilla , es una variedad también de los comúnmente conocidos como terrenos empanizados ejemplo .- arcillas , o panizos , pizarras arcillosas. 1.2. SOSTENIMIENTO SEGÚN LA CLASE DE TERRENO:
Terreno compacto: No requiere sostenimiento sino la formación de una buena bóveda auto sostenida.
Terreno fracturado: Exige solo un sostenimiento ligero, esta clase de terrenos es más resistente en dirección perpendicular a las rajaduras o planos de discontinuidad que en dirección paralela a los mismos.
Terreno suave: Requiere de tipo pesado. En esta clase de terrenos las presiones son mayores cuando más fino es el tamaño de los fragmentos.
Terreno arcilloso:
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL MICAELA BASTIDAS DE APURIMAC FACULTAD DE INGENIERI INGENIERIA A ESCUELA ACADEMICO PROFESIONAL DE INGENIERIA DE MINAS
IMAGEN Nº3
1.3. TIPOS DE MATERIALES USADOS EN SOSTENIMIENTO: Madera: Palos, tablas, tacos y cuñas de eucalipto seco. Para piques pino Oregón. Piedras o roca (muro seco o pircas) Concreto armado. Pernos de anclaje sombrero. postes tirante solera
1.4. SISTEMAS SISTEMAS DE SOSTENIMIENTO
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1.4.1. LOS DE APOYO ACTIVO: Que viene a ser el refuerzo de la roca donde los elementos de sostenimiento son una parte integral de la masa rocosa. 1.4.2. LOS DE APOYO PASIVO: Donde los elementos de sostenimiento son externos a la roca y dependen del movimiento interno de la roca que está en contacto con el perímetro excavado.
2. SOSTENIMIENTO EN MINERIA SUBTERRANEA: En toda explotación minera, el sostenimiento de las labores es un trabajo adicional de alto costo que reduce la velocidad de avance y/o producción pero que a la vez es un proceso esencial para proteger de accidentes a personal y al equipo. Selección entre refuerzo y soporte Evert Hoek (2004) Existe una confusión entre lo que es un soporte de roca y un refuerzo de roca. Refuerzo de roca generalmente consisten en sistemas de empernado o cables que proveen un refuerzo a la masa rocosa aumentando la resistencia friccional entre bloques que la componen. Soporte, consistente en cerchas de acero o concreto, shotcrete o cuadros de madera, son diseñados para estabilizar la masa rocosa mediante el control del colapso progresivo o deformación de la misma. En términos simples se dice que el refuerzo en un sistema “activo” mientras que el soporte es uno “pasivo”.
2.1. LABORES LABORES MINERAS: Las labores se dividen en: a) De acceso:
Pozos: Pueden ser verticales o inclinados. Socavones: Son galerías de acceso al yacimiento desde el exterior, situadas en la ladera del monte, en las minas subterráneas situadas por encima de nivel del valle. Recibe este nombre, normalmente, la galería inferior de una mina y está situada
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b) De preparación
Guías (o galerías en dirección): Son galerías que siguen el rumbo de las capas, excavándolass en parte o totalmente, dependiendo de las potencias de las mismas. excavándola En los yacimientos verticales o inclinados, la guía situada en la parte superior del taller se denomina "de cabeza", y la inferior, "de base". Sobre guías Chimeneas Coladeros
c) De arranque o explotación
Talleres
d) Auxiliares
Cubos
e) De reconocimiento
Calicatas Sondeos IMAGEN Nº5
2.2. SOSTENIMIENTO NATURAL:
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2.2.1.4. Los escudos: Esta estructura natural consiste en dejar una capa de mineral en los hastiales del tajeo, principalmente en la caja techo, en situaciones donde las rocas encajonantes son de mala calidad y el mineral es de mejor calidad. Esta capa de mineral de 0.5 a 1 m de espesor, funciona como sostenimiento de la roca de mala calidad de las cajas, recomendándose que tenga continuidad en todo el hastial. Si por alguna razón se extrae parte del mineral de los escudos, estos pierden su efectividad y provocan situaciones de peligro.
2.3. SOSTENIMIENTO ARTIFICIAL EN MINAS SUBTERRÁNEA: Para minimizar las inestabilidades de la roca alrededor al rededor de las aberturas mineras, debe aplicarse diversas técnicas de sostenimiento. Entre ellas se encuentran las cimbras metálicas, las gatas y el relleno. los de apoyo activo: que viene a ser el refuerzo de la roca donde los elementos de sostenimiento son una parte integral de la masa r ocosa. los de apoyo pasivo: donde los elementos de sostenimiento son externos a la roca y dependen del movimiento interno de la roca que está en contacto con el perímetro excavado. 2.3.1. SISTEMAS DE SOSTENIMIENTO: 2.3.1.1. BARRA HELICOIDAL: HELICOIDAL:
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UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL MICAELA BASTIDAS DE APURIMAC FACULTAD DE INGENIERI INGENIERIA A ESCUELA ACADEMICO PROFESIONAL DE INGENIERIA DE MINAS
IMAGEN Nº6
2.3.1.2. PERNOS DE ANCLAJE MECÁNICO: Un perno de anclaje mecánico, consiste en una varilla de acero usualmente de 16mm de diámetro, dotado en su extremo de un anclaje mecánico de expansión que va al fondo del taladro. Su extremo opuesto puede ser de cabeza forjada o con rosca, en donde va una placa de base que es plana o cóncava y una tuerca, para presionar la roca. Siempre y cuando la varilla no tenga cabeza forjada, se pueden usar varios tipos de placas de acuerdo a las necesidades de instalación requeridas. Este tipo de pernos es relativamente barato. Su acción de reforzamiento de la roca es inmediata después de su instalación. Mediante rotación, se aplica un torque de135 a 340 MN (100 a 250 lb/pie) a la cabeza del
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Su uso es limitado a rocas moderadamente duras a duras, masivas, con bloques o estratificada, sin presencia de agua. En rocas muy duras, fracturadas y débiles no son recomendables, debido a que el anclaje podría deslizarse bajo la acción de las cargas. En rocas sometidas a altos esfuerzos tampoco es recomendable. El diámetro del taladro es crítico para el anclaje, recomendándose un diámetro de 35 a 38 mm para los pernos comúnmente utilizados. Pierden su capacidad de anclaje como resultado de las vibraciones de la voladura o el astillamiento de la roca detrás de la placa, debido a altas fuerzas de contacto, por lo que no es recomendable utilizarlos en terrenos cercanos a áreas de voladura. Solo pueden ser usados para reforzamiento temporal. Si son utilizados para reforzamiento permanente, éstos deben ser protegidos de la corrosión si hay presencia de agua y deben ser post-cementados con pasta de cemento entre la varilla y la pared del taladro. Proporcionan una tensión limitada que raramente sobrepasan las 12TM. 2.3.1.3. PERNOS DE VARILLA CEMENTADOS CEMENTADOS O CON RESINA Consiste en una varilla de fierro o acero, con un extremo biselado, que es confinado dentro del taladro por medio de cemento (en cartuchos o inyectados), resina (en cartuchos) o resina y cemento. El anclaje entre la varilla y la roca es proporcionado a lo largo de la longitud completa del elemento de refuerzo, por tres mecanismos: adhesión química, fricción y fijación, siendo los dos últimos mecanismos los de mayor importancia, puesto que la eficacia de estos pernos está en
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Figura n°8 : Perno de varilla cementada Las siguientes consideraciones son importantes para su utilización: Los pernos de varilla cementada o con resina son generalmente usa dos como refuerzo permanente, pero también pueden ser utilizados como refuerzo temporal en varias condiciones de roca, desde rocas de buena amala calidad, constituye el mejor sistema para rocas de muy mala calidad y también para rocas en ambientes de altos esfuerzos. En presencia de discontinuidades abiertas y/o vacías, no es recomendable su uso a menos que la inyección de la pasta de cemento pueda ser chequeada. Cuando se usa cemento (en cartuchos o inyectado), se requiere varios días de curado antes que el perno trabaje a carga completa, pero apropiadamente instalados son competentes y durables, con alta resistencia en condiciones de roca dura. Estos pernos tienen larga vida útil y constituyen el sistema más versátil de
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Cuando se usa resina, sea ésta de fraguado rápido (menos de 30 segundos) o fraguado lento (2 a 4 minutos), el perno trabaja a carga completa en más o menos 5 minutos, permitiendo así pretensar el perno e instalarlo en presencia de filtraciones de agua. La resina viene en cartuchos con el catalizador separado de la resina y por efecto de la rotación del perno al momento de introducir al taladro, éstos se mezclan generando el fraguado. Este sistema proporciona una alta capacidad de carga en condiciones de roca dura, resistente a la corrosión y a las vibraciones del terreno y brinda acción de refuerzo inmediato después de su instalación, aunque su costo es mayor que los pernos cementados (en cartucho o inyectado). El diámetro del taladro es crucial para el mezclado y fraguado de la resina, para varillas de 20mm el diámetro máximo debe ser 32 mm.
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constituye el anclaje, el cual se opondrá al movimiento o separación de la roca circundante al perno, logrando así indirectamente una tensión de carga.
Figura n°11: Split set
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2.3.1.5. SWELLEX También es un perno de anclaje por fricción, pero en este caso la resistencia friccional al deslizamiento se combina con el ajuste, es decir, el mecanismo de anclaje es por fricción y por ajuste mecánico, el cual funciona como un anclaje repartido. El perno swellex está formado por un tubo de diámetro original de 41 mm y puede tener de 0.6 a 12 m de longitud o más (en piezas conectables), el cual es plegado durante su fabricación para crear una unidad de 25 a 28 mm de diámetro. Éste es 28 insertado en un taladro de 32 a 39 mm de diámetro. No se requiere ninguna fuerza de empuje durante su inserción. La varilla es activada por inyección de agua a alta presión (aproximadamente 30 MPa ó 300 bar) al interior del tubo plegado, el cual infla al mismo y lo pone en contacto con las paredes del taladro, adaptándose a las irregularidades de la superficie del taladro, así se consigue el anclaje.
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Las siguientes consideraciones son importantes para su utilización: Constituyen un sistema alternativo a los split sets, pero de mejor rendimiento en terreno de menor calidad, para el refuerzo temporal. Debido a la existencia de distintos tipos de swellex, cubren un amplio rango de aplicación desde rocas duras a suaves y en terrenos muy fracturados. Tienen buena respuesta a los efectos cortantes de la roca. En roca dura, 0.5m de longitud del perno, proporciona una resistencia a la tracción igual a su carga de rotura. Dada su gran flexibilidad, éstos pueden instalarse en longitudes de hasta 3 veces la altura de la labor. Es de instalación sencilla y rápida, el efecto de refuerzo es inmediato, y está provisto de arandelas para colocar la malla en cualquier momento. El principal problema es la corrosión, aunque las nuevas versiones vienen cubiertas con una capa elástica protectora o son de acero inoxidable. Son más costosos que los split sets. 2.3.1.6. CABLE BOLTING BOLTING
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Las cimbras son construidas con perfiles de acero, según los requerimientos de la forma de la sección de la excavación, es decir, en forma de baúl, herradura o incluso circulares, siendo recomendable que éstos sean de alma llena. Hay dos tipos de cimbras, las denominadas «rígidas» y las «deslizantes o f luyentes». luyentes».
Las primeras usan comúnmente comúnmente perfiles como la W, H, I, conformadas por dos o tres segmentos que son unidos por platinas y pernos con tuerca. Las segundas usan perfiles como las V y Ù,
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Todas las cimbras deben estar correctamente apoyadas y sujetas al piso mediante dados de concreto, debiéndose mantener su verticalidad, para lo cual se requerirá de ser necesario, asegurar la cimbra anclándola con cáncamos a las paredes. Las siguientes cimbras a colocar se asegurarán con los tirantes y se protegerán en forma sistemática con el encostil. El bloqueo de la cimbra contra las paredes rocosas es esencial para que pueda
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2.3.1.8. GATAS Constituyen unidades de soporte mecánico de los techos de las excavaciones, que funcionan a manera de puntales, generalmente utilizadas en el minado de rocas suaves como es típicamente el minado por frentes largos en los yacimientos de carbón; sin embargo, en el minado en roca dura tienen algunas
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2.3.1.9. RELLENO Uno de los elementos ampliamente usados como medio de sostenimiento artificial en el minado minado subterráneo, subterráneo, es el relleno colocado colocado en los tajeos vacíos. Para demostrar el potencial del sostenimiento con relleno se consideran los tres siguientes mecanismos:
El relleno restringe los los desplazamientos desplazamientos de los bloques sueltos de las
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Los rellenos cementados que más se utilizan en la actualidad, utilizados solos o combinados, son: Relleno hidráulico cementado, constituido por una mezcla de relaves gruesos y en algunos casos finos, f inos, con cemento, colocado hidráulicamente en los tajeos. Relleno con agregados cementados, que es una mezcla de agregados
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