MS-07 REFERENCE MATERIAL Q1. Q1. a. b. c.

Expl Explai ain n the the diff differ eren ence ce betw between een the the fol follo lowi wing ng:: High-Level and Low level languages Applications and Utilities Shareware, Open source software, Freeware

Ans. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIGH LEVEL AND LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES

A low-level programming language is a programming language that provides little or no abstraction from a computer's instruction set architecture. The word "low" refers to the small or non-existent amount of abstraction of abstraction between the language and machine language; language; because of this, low-level languages are sometimes described as being "close to the hardware." Low-level languages can be converted to machine code without using a compiler or interpreter, and the resulting code runs directly on the processor. A program written in a low-level language can be made to run very fast, and with a very small memory footprint footprint;; an equivalent equivalent program in a high-leve high-levell language language will be more heavyweight. heavyweight. Low-level Low-level langua languages ges are simple simple,, but are consid considere ered d diffi difficul cultt to use, use, due to the numero numerous us techni technical cal detail details s which which must must be remembered. By comparison, a high-level programming language isolates the execution semantics of a computer architecture from the specification of the program, which simplifies development. Low-level programming languages are sometimes divided into two categories: first generation, and second generation. A high-level programming language is a programming language with strong abstraction from the details of the computer. In comparison to low-level programming languages, languages, it may use natural language elements, be easier to use, or  be more portable across platforms. Such languages hide the details of CPU of CPU operations such as memory access models and management of scope. of scope. This greater abstracti abstraction on and hiding of details details is generally generally intended intended to make the language user-friendly, user-friendly, as it includes concepts from the problem domain instead instead of those of the machine used. A high-level high-level language language isolates the execution semantics of a computer architecture from the specification of the program, making the process of developing a program simpler and more understandable with respect to a low-level language. The amount of abstraction provided defines how "high-level" a programming language is. The first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, Plankalkül, created by Konrad Zuse. However, it was not implemented in his time and his original contributions were isolated from other developments. The term "high-level language" does not imply that the language is superior to low-level programming languages. In fact, in terms of the depth of knowledge of how computers work required to productively program in a given language, the inverse may be true. Rather, "high-level language" refers to the higher level of abstraction from machine language. Rather Rather than than dealin dealing g with with regist registers ers,, memory memory addres addresses ses and call call stacks stacks,, high-l high-leve evell langua languages ges deal deal with with variab variables les,, arrays, objects, objects, complex arithmetic or boolean expressions, subroutines and functions, loops, threads, threads, locks, and other  abstract computer science concepts, with a focus on usability over optimal program efficiency. Unlike low-level assembly languages, languages, high-level languages have few, if any, language elements that translate directly directly into a machine's machine's native native opcodes. Other features such as string string handling handling routines, routines, object-oriente object-oriented d language language features and file input/output may also be present. Stereotypically, high-level languages make complex programming simpler, while low-level languages tend to produce more efficient code.   Abstraction penalty is the barrier that prevents high-level programming techniques from being applied in situations where computational resources are limited. High-level programming features like more generic data structures, run-time interpretation and intermediate code files often result in slower execution speed, higher memory consumption and larger binary program size. For this reason, code which needs to run particularly quickly and efficiently may require the use of a lower-level language, even if a higher-level language would make the coding easier. However, with the growing complexity of modern microprocessor architectures, microprocessor architectures, well-designed compilers for highlevel languages frequently produce code comparable in efficiency to what most low-level programmers can produce by hand, and the higher abstraction may allow for more powerful techniques providing better overall results than their lowlevel counterparts in particular settings. 1

The terms terms high-level and low-level are inhere inherentl ntly y relati relative. ve. Some Some decade decades s ago, ago, the C language language,, and simila similar  r  langu anguag ages es,, were ere most ost ofte often n cons consiider dered "hi "high-l gh-lev evel el", ", as it supp suppor ortted conce oncept pts s such uch as expr xpress ession ion evaluation, parameterised recursive functions, and data types and structures, while assembly language was considered "low-level". Many programmers today might refer to C as low-level, as it lacks a large runtime-system runtime-system (no garbage collection etc.), basically supports only scalar operations, and provides direct memory addressing. It therefore readily blends with assembly language and the machine level of CPUs of CPUs and microcontrollers. microcontrollers. Also note that assembly language may itself be regarded as a higher level (but often still one-to-one if used without macros) macros) representation of  machine code, code, as it supports concepts such as constants and (limited) expressions, sometimes even variables, procedures, and data structures. Machine code, code, in its turn, is inherently at a slightly higher  level than the microcode or micro-operations or micro-operations used internally in many processors. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN APPLICATIONS AND UTILITY Application Application Software, also also know known n as an appl applic icat atio ion n or an "app", "app", is computer computer software software design designed ed to help help

the user to user to perform singular or multiple related specific tasks. It helps to solve problems in the real world. Examples include enterprise software, accounting software, software, office suites, graphics software, and media players. players. Appli Applicat cation ion softwa software re is contra contraste sted d with with system system software software and middleware, whic which h mana manage ge and and inte integr grat ate e a computer's capabilities, but typically typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. A simple, if imperfect, analogy in the world of hardware would be the relationship of an electric light bulb (an application) to an electric power generation plant (a system). The power plant merely generates electricity, not itself of any real use until harnessed to an application like the electric light that performs a service that benefits the user. In information technology, technology, an applicatio application n is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. An application thus differs from an operating system (which runs a computer), a utility (which performs maintenance or  general-purpose chores), and a programming language (with which computer programs are created). Depending on the activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, or a combination of these elements. elements. Some application application packages offer considerable considerable computing computing power by focusing focusing on a single single task, such as word processing; others, called integrated software, offer somewhat less power but include several applications. There are many types of o f application software: An application suite consists consists of multiple multiple applicatio applications ns bundled bundled together. together. They usually usually have related related functions, functions, features and user interfaces, and may be able to interact with each other, e.g. Microsoft Office, Office, OpenOffice.org, and iWork. iWork. Enterprise software addresses the needs of organization processes and data flow, often in a large distributed environment. (Examples include financial systems, customer relationship management (CRM) systems, and supplychain management software). Enterprise infrastructure software provides common capabilities needed to support enterprise software systems. systems. (Examples include databases, email servers, and systems for managing networks and security.) Informati Information on worker worker software software addresses the needs of individuals to create and manage information, often for  individual projects within a department, in contrast to enterprise management. Examples include time management, resource management, documentation tools, analytical, a nalytical, and collaborative. Content access software is software used primarily to access content without editing, but may include software that allows for content editing. Such software addresses the needs of individuals and groups to consume digital entertainment and published digital content. (Examples include Media Players, Web Browsers, Help browsers, and Games) Educational software is related to content access software, but has the content and/or features adapted for use in by educators or students. For example, it may deliver evaluations (tests), track progress through material, or include collaborative capabilities. Simulation software are computer software for simulation of physical or abstract systems for either research, training or entertainment purposes. Media developmen developmentt software software addresses addresses the needs of individual individuals s who generate print and electronic media for  others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. This includes Graphic Art software, Desktop Publishing software, Multimedia Development software, HTML editors, Digital Animation editors, Digital Audio and Video composition, and many others. Mobile applications run on hand-held devices such as mobile phones, phones, personal digital assistants, and enterprise digital assistants : see mobile application development. development. 

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Product engineering software is used in developing hardware and software products. This includes computer 

aided design (CAD), computer aided engineering (CAE), computer language editing and compiling tools, Integrated Development Environments, and Application Programmer Interfaces. A graphical user interface (GUI) is one in which you select command choices from various menus, buttons and icons using a mouse. It is a user-friendly interface. interface. The Windows and Mac OS are both graphical user interfaces.

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Utility Software is a kind of syste of system m software software design designed ed to help help analyz analyze, e, confi configur gure, e, optimi optimize ze and maint maintai ain n the computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called a utility ( abbr. util) or tool.

Utility software should be contrasted with application software, software, which allows users to do things like creating text documents, playing games, listening to music or surfing the web. Rather than providing these kinds of user-oriented or  output-oriented functionality, utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer  hardware, hardware, operating system, system, application software and data storage) operates. Due to this focus, utilities are often rather  technical and targeted at people with an advanced level of computer knowledge. Most utilities are highly specialized and designed to perform only a single task or a small range of tasks. However, there are also some utility suites that combine several features in one piece of software. Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed utilities: Disk storage utilities Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several locations on the hard disk, disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency. Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating hard drive. Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of  space. Disk cleaner helps the user to user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full. Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive showing the distribution of the used space. Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive. Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion). Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress compress/uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk. File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets. Archive utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation. System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware attached to the computer. Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses. Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an actual program. Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file. Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files. Launcher applications provide a convenient access point for application software. Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry keys that are no longer in use. Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings, check data transfer or  log events. Command line interface (CLI) and Graphical user interface (GUI) Allows the user to contact and make changes to the operating system. Screensavers were desired to prevent prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or security.  

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHAREWARE, OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE, FREEWARE Shareware (also known as a s trialware or demoware) refers to proprietary software that is provided to users without

payment on a trial basis and is often limited by any combination of functionality of  functionality,, availability or convenience. or convenience. Shareware is oft often offe offerred as a download from from an Internet website or as a compac compactt disc disc incl includ uded ed with with a periodical such such as a newspaper or  newspaper or magazine magazine.. The rationale behind shareware is to give buyers the opportunity to use the program and judge its usefulness before purchasing a license for the full version of the software. Firms with superior software thus have an incentive to offer samples, except if their product is already well known, or if they do not want to be listed in direct competition with other products on shareware repositories. Shareware is usually offered either with certain features only available after the license is purchased, or as a full version but for a limited trial period of time. Once the trial period has passed the program may stop running until a license is purchased. Shareware is often offered without supports or updates which only become available with the purchase of a license. The words "free trial" or "trial version" are indicative of shareware. Free/open Free/open source software and shareware are similar in that they can be obtained and used without monetary cost. Usually shareware differs from free/open source software in that requests of voluntary shareware fees are made, often within the program itself, and in that source code for shareware programs is generally not available in a form that would allow others to extend the program. Notwithstanding that tradition, some free/open source software authors ask for  voluntary donations, although there is no requirement to do so. Free/open source software is usually compatible with the strict Association of Shareware Professionals shareware guidelines. Sometimes, paying the fee and obtaining a password results in access to expanded features, documentation, or  support. In some cases, unpaid use of the software is limited in time or in features — in which case the software is vernacularly called crippleware. crippleware. Some shareware items require no payment; just an email address, so that the supplier  can use this address for their own purposes. Shareware is available on all major computer platforms including Microsoft Windows, Macintosh, Linux, Linux, and Unix. Titles cover a very wide range of categories including: business, software development, education, home, multimedia, design, drivers, games, and utilities. Open-source software (OSS) is computer software that is available in source code form for which the source

code and certain other rights normally reserved for copyright for  copyright holders are provided under a software license that permits users to study, change, improve and at times also to distribute the software. Open source software is very often developed in a public, collaborative manner. Open-source software is the most most promi prominen nentt exampl example e of open-source of open-source develo developme pment nt and often often compar compared ed to (techn (technica icalllly y defin defined) ed) user-generated content or (legally defined) open content movements. Software developers may want to publish their software with an open source license, license, so that anybody may also develop the same software or understand its internal functioning. Open source software generally allows anyone to create modifications of the software, port it to new operating systems and processor architectures, share it with others or market it. Scholars Casson and Ryan have pointed out several policy-based reasons for adoption of open source, in particular, the heightened value proposition from open source (when compared to most proprietary formats) in the following categories: Security, Affordability, Transparency, Perpetuity, Interoperability, and Localisation. The Open Source Definition, Definition, notably, notably, presents an open source philosophy, philosophy, and further further defines the terms terms of usage, modification and redistribution of open source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be reserved reserved by copyright law to the copyright holder. Several open source software licenses have qualified within the bounda boundari ries es of the Open Open Source Source Defin Definiti ition. on. The most most promin prominent ent and popula popularr exampl example e is the GNU General General Public Public License (GPL). While open source distribution presents a way to make the source code of a product publicly accessible, the open source licenses allow the authors to fine tune such access. Freeware (from "free" and "software") is computer software that is available for use at no cost (or for an optional fee). This is in contrast to commercial software, which is typically sold for profit. Though "freeware" does not preclude free and open source software (FOSS), it is commonly used to denote cost-free proprietary software in contrast to FOSS.

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Software classified as freeware is either fully functional for an unlimited time with no cost, monetary or otherwise; or has basic functions enabled at no cost, with a fully functional version available as commercial or shareware. Freeware can be proprietary software available at zero price. The author usually restricts one or more rights to copy, distribute, and make derivative works of the software. The software license may impose restrictions on the type of use including personal use, individual use, non-profit use, non-commercial use, academic use, commercial use or any combination of these. For  instance, the license may be "free for personal, non-commercial use". Accordingly, freeware may or may not be free and open source software and, in order to distinguish, the Free Software Foundation asks users to avoid calling free software as "freeware "freeware", ", the principal principal difference difference being that free software can be used, studied, and modified without restriction; free software embodies the concept of freedom to use, while freeware that of free-of-charge. Freeware is also different from shareware; shareware; the latter obliges the user to pay after  some trial period or to gain additional functionality.

Q2. Discuss Discuss the the relatio relationshi nship p betwee between n data data and informat information, ion, informat information ion and know knowledg ledge. e. Also Also explain explain the concepts of cost and value of information by the help of an example.

Ans. DATA The term data refers to qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables. Data (plural of "datum") are typically the results of measurements and can be the basis of graphs of graphs,, images, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of  abstraction from which information and then knowledge are derived. Raw data, i.e. unprocessed data, refers to a collection of numbers, of numbers, characters, images or other outputs from devices that collect information to convert physical quantities into symbols.

The terms information and knowledge are frequently used for overlapping concepts. The main difference is in the level of abstraction of abstraction being considered. Data is the lowest level of abstraction, information is the next level, and finally, knowledge is the highest level among all three. Data on its own carries no meaning. For data to become information, it must be interpreted and take on a meaning. For example, the height of Mt. Everest is generally considered as "data", a book on Mt. Everest geological characteristics may be considered as "information", and a report containing practical information on the best way to reach Mt. Everest's peak may be considered as "knowledge". Beynon-Davies uses the concept of a sign to distinguish between data and information; data are symbols while information occurs when symbols are used to refer to something. It is people and computers who collect data and impose patterns on it. These patterns are seen as information which can be used to enhance knowledge. These patterns can be interpreted as truth, and are authorized as aesthetic and ethical criteria. criteria. Events Events that leave behind behind perceivabl perceivable e physical physical or virtual virtual remains can be traced traced back through data. Marks are no longer considered data once the link between the mark and observation is broken. Raw data refers to a collection of numbers of numbers,, characters, images or other outputs from devices to convert physical quanti quantitie ties s into into symbol symbols, s, that that are are unproc unprocess essed. ed. Such Such data data is typica typically lly furthe further  r processed processed by a human or input or input into a computer , stored and processed there, or transmitted (output (output)) to another human or computer (possibly through a data cable). cable). Raw data is a relative term; data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed data" from one stage may be considered the "raw data" of the next.

Mechanical computing devices are classified according to the means by which they represent data. An analog computer represents computer represents a datum as a voltage, distance, position, or other physical quantity. A digital computer represents computer represents a datum as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet. The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically denoted "0" and "1". More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet. Some Some specia speciall forms forms of data data are disti distingu nguish ished. ed. A computer computer program program is a collec collecti tion on of data, data, which which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but in some languages, notably Lisp and similar languages, programs are essentially indistinguishable from other data. It is also useful to distinguish metadata, that is, a description of other data. A similar yet earlier term for  metadata is "ancillary data." The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description of the contents of books. Experimental data refers to data generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and recording. Field data refers to raw data collected in an uncontrolled in situ environment. 5

INFORMATION Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.

Information is any kind of event of  event that affects the state of a dynamical system. system. In its most restricted technical sense, it is an ordered sequence of symbols of symbols.. As a concept, concept, however, information has many meanings. Moreover, the concept of  information is closely related to notions of constraint,   communication, control, control, data, data, form, instruction, instruction, knowledge, knowledge, meaning, meaning, ment ental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation. Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, DNA. The sequence of nucleotides of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind. Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to feedback) feedback) in the system can be called information. In other  words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose. For example, Gregory Bateson defines "information" as a "difference that makes a difference". If, however, the premise of "influence" implies that information has been perceived by a conscious mind and also interpreted by it, the specific context associated with this interpretation may cause the transformation of the information into knowledge. knowledge. Complex definitions of both "information" and "knowledge" make such semantic and logical analysis difficult, but the condition of "transformation" is an important point in the study of information as it relates to knowledge, especially in the business discipline of knowledge of knowledge management. In this practice, tools and processes are used to assist a knowledge worker in worker in performing research and making decisions, including steps such as:     

reviewing information in order to effectively derive value and meaning referencing metadata if any is available establishing a relevant context, context, often selecting from many possible contexts deriving new knowledge from the information making decisions or recommendations from the resulting knowledge.

KNOWLEDGE Knowledge is defined as (i) expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education;

the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject; (ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and info inform rmat atio ion; n; or (iii (iii)) be abso absolu lute tely ly cert certai ain n or sure sure abou aboutt some someth thin ing: g: . Phil Philos osop ophi hica call deba debate tes s in gene genera rall star startt with Plato's formulation of knowledge as " justified  justified true belief." belief. " There is however no single agreed definition of knowledge presently, nor any prospect of one, and there remain numerous numerous competing competing theories. theories. Knowledge Knowledge acquisiti acquisition on involves involves complex complex cognitive processes: processes: perception perception,, learning, learning, communication, association and reasoning. reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose if appropriate. The development of the scientific method has made a significant contribution to our understanding of knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry i nquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subj subjec ectt to spec specif ific ic prin princi cipl ples es of reasoning. of reasoning. The scientifi scientific c method consists of the collection of data of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of  hypotheses. hypotheses. Science, and the nature of scientific knowledge have also become the subject of Philosophy of Philosophy.. As science itself has developed, knowledge has developed a broader usage which has been developing within biology/psychology— discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic or genetic epistemology, epistemology, and to some extent related to "theory "theory of cognitive development". development". Cost of Information

The old adage, "You get what you pay for," has long been used to explain the difference in the value of that which is obtained for a cost versus that which is free. The underlying assumption is that free information has less value than information that has a cost. That assumption has been challenged lately by a new assumption (some would say misconception) that "everything is on the Internet, and it costs nothing." This brief discussion of fee versus free information 6

will explain some differences between the two. The simple explanation is that information has value, whether it is free or it comes with a cost, but it is helpful to understand what value is attached to each type. What are the differences between information that is free versus information that has a cost? Obviously, the major  difference is cost. However, there are several other important distinctions, such as aggregation and organization of  information, associated services, currency, reliability, comprehensiveness, and ease of use, that may add value to the information. Those differences may add enough value that paying for fee based information resources is worthwhile. In general, people seem to be willing to pay when they believe they receive a quality product with value. This willingness extends to items formerly free that now may involve charges. Some examples of what people are willing to pay for, which can otherwise be available for free, include cable television, private schools, or water. In each case, the user of the item perceives added value that exceeds the cost of the item. For cable television, that value is the additional program choices for children, foreign language, movies, news, sports, etc. In education, willingness to pay may be based on parent's values, higher quality instruction, individual attention, safer environment, or smaller class size. Water quality and taste are usually cited as the reason individuals are willing to pay for something that is free out of the tap. Conversely, what was formerly free information may now cost. Some examples are travel reservations and tickets, which were free to customers using travel agents. Banking services that may have been free in the past may now involve costs. Yet, customers are willing to pay even for "free" items if they get value. Value may be due to more efficient use of time or extra service. The difference between making your own travel arrangements and using a travel agent is one that is often cited. Many airlines and hotels make reservations via the Internet. Although such services were previously available to customers by travel agents for free (the fee was paid to the agent by the airline or hotel), the agent must now charge the customer. Why then do people persist in using travel agents? Agents have access to a great variety of travel databases which allow them to look at a variety of options and choose the best one for their customer. Agents do the research on their time, so the customer does not waste his time. If there are problems, the agent resolves them. The bottom line is convenience and efficiency, which are often worth the fees charged. Another example is fees for library services such as book rentals, copying, interlibrary loan, and reference queries. Most books are circulated for free in public libraries, but some best sellers now are rented out for small fees of  $.25 to $1.00 a day. People pay these fees because they would rather read best sellers now, rather than later. The rental fees are usually much smaller than the price of purchasing the best seller. Photocopying materials is a common use of  libraries. Although free in some special and academic libraries, fees are commonly charged in other libraries. No one complains. Getting interlibrary loans of materials from other libraries may cost a small fee, but users seem to understand the value and gladly pay for the service. If people are willing to pay for items which can be obtained free of charge, why then do they persist in the belief  that some things should not be paid for, even if that item was formerly only available for a cost. "One of the Web's great accomplishments has been to reinforce the notion that all information ought to be free. The great irony is that the online industry has long dreamed of, and struggled for a mass market. Now that it exists, its members don't expect to pay" (O'Leary 2000). Many producers of fee-based information now believe that they will lose their customer base to free providers if they charge fees. With the prevalent feeling that it is all out there for free, providers believe that customers will not pay for information. It's been shown that some customers will drop some suppliers and choose to use only free sources. But, in times of downsizing and rightsizing, free sources may cost more in terms of labor time and effort, making their true cost higher in actual dollars. Overall, differences in perceptions of what is appropriate to charge for, and what should be free, will always vary. Beauty is, after all, in the eye of the beholder. The true value of information is accepted. The choice of fee or free will depend upon availability, budget, convenience, cost, efficiency, evaluation and determination of value added, and the perceptions of the user. Information has value, and even more so when it becomes useful knowledge. The determination of its value and the choice of payment or nonpayment is a final decision made by the user. Value of Information

The value of information has never been denied. But when does data become information, and when does information become useful knowledge that adds value to our work? Information itself is valueless unless translated into usable 7

knowledge. Many now suggest that general consensus has been reached establishing that "information is now a more important measure of a company's worth than their tangible assets…The truly mission critical processes for every enterprise involve capturing the daily flood of data… Data must be stored and organised so that employees can access it easily and intuitively, evaluate it…and act upon the findings effortlessly." The value of the computer has been determined only as a storage device for the information. The number and size of computers do not provide the value, only the e ase of  use and value of their content when shared as information. The difficulty is not in establishing the value of information, but in quantifying that value. Librarians and knowledge workers can determine what it costs to staff a reference desk, to license a database for searching, to borrow or purchase a book, report, or journal article. Determining the value of the use of that product or information by the military, or the civilian scientist or engineer is a different problem. Some studies reported in the literature have attempted to put a value on these individual transactions. Another approach is to simply estimate the value of the content of a library by looking at its catalog and making assumptions based on numbers of items cataloged. Donald W. King, a noted researcher in this area, has conducted numerous studies on the value of information, including several for DoD components. In 1990, King developed a methodology for determining the value of information provided by libraries to the individuals in an organization. His rule of  thumb indicates that organizations appreciate a value to cost ratio, or return on investment (ROI) of providing information services via a library of 19 to 1. In 1998, the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, prepared a study of the "Value of Information and Information Services." Using an extensive literature search and set of interviews with public and private sector experts, the findings of this study indicated that information value can be measured by 1) reduced costs of agency research, technology development, and operations, 2) quicker implementation of innovations and time savings, and 3) more effective decision making at all levels of the agency. Information does have value; studies have proven it, and experts can agree. The difficulty is then how to evaluate the value. One proven method that is frequently used is to determine a return on investment, or ROI, of information. information. Q3. Explain Explain the the major major marketing marketing subsystem subsystems s and enumerate enumerate the advan advantage tages s of the the use use of compu computers ters in such such subsystems.

Ans. Marketing is the process by which goods are sold and purchased. The aim of marketing is to acquire, retain, and satisfy customers. Modern marketing has evolved into a complex and diverse field. This field includes a wide variety of  special functions such as advertising, mail-order business, public relations, retailing and merchandising, sales, market research, and pricing of goods. Market Marketing ing is the proces process s of perfor performi ming ng market market research research,, selling products and/or services and/or services to customers and promoting promoting them via advertising to further further enhance enhance sales. sales. It genera generates tes the strate strategy gy that that underl underlies ies sales sales techni technique ques, s, business business communicat communication, ion, and business business development developments. s. It is an integrate integrated d process process through through which which companies companies build build strong customer relationships and create value for their customers and for themselves. Marketing is used to identify the customer, to satisfy the customer , and to keep the customer. With the customer  as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that marketing management is one of the major components of business of business management. Mark arketing evolved to meet the stasi asis in develo eloping new markets caus aused by mature markets and overcapacities in the last 2-3 centuries. The adoption of marketing strategies requires businesses to shift their focus from production to the perceived needs and wants of their customers as the means of staying profitable. profitable. Businesses, and particularly the marketing aspect of businesses, rely a great deal on the use of computers. Computers play a significant role in inventory control, processing and handling orders, communication between satelite companies in an organization, design and production of goods, manufacturing, product and market analysis, advertising, producing the company newsletter, and in some cases, complete control of company operations. In today's extremely competitive business environment businesses a re searching for ways to improve profitability and to maintain their position in the marketplace. As competition becomes more intense the formula for success becomes more difficult. 8

CAD/CAM software enables a designer to construct a model directly from data which is stored in computer memory. These software programs help designers to consider both function and manufacturing consequences at early stages, when designs are easily modified. More and more manufacturing businesses are integrating CAD/CAM with other aspects of  production , including inventory tracking, scheduling, and marketing . This idea, known as computer-integrated manufacturing manufacturing (CIM), speeds proc process essin ing g of orde orders rs,, adds adds to effe effect ctiv ive e mate materi rial als s mana manage geme ment nt,, and and crea create tes s cons consid ider erab able le cost cost savi saving ngs. s. In addition to designing and manufacturing a product, a company must be effectively able to advertise, market, and sell its product. Much of what passes for business is nothing more than making connections with other people. What if you could passout your business card to thousands, maybe millions of potential clients and partners? You can, twenty four  hours a day, inexpensively and simply on the World Wide Web. Firms communicate with their customers through various types of media. This media usually follows passive one-to-many communication where a firm reaches many current and potential customers through marketing efforts that allow limited forms of feedback on the part of the customer. For several years a revolution has been developing that is dramatically changing the traditional form of advertising and communication media. This revolution is the Internet, a massive global network of interconnected computer networks which has the potential to drastically change the way firms do business with their customers. The World Wide Web is a hypertext based information service. It provides access to multimedia, complex documents, and databases. The Web is one of the most effective vehicles to provide information because of its visual impact and advanced features. It can be used as a complete complete presentation presentation media for a company's company's corporate corporate informati information on or information information on all of its products and services. The recent growth of the world wide web (WWW) has opened up new markets and shattered boundaries to selling to a worldwide audience. For marketers the world wide web can be used to create a client base, for product and market analysis, rapid information access, wide scale information dissemination, rapid communication, cost-effective document document transfers, transfers, expert expert advise advise and help, recruiting recruiting new employees, employees, peer communica communications tions,, and new business business opportunities. Marketing Management can also rely on various technologies within the scope of its marketing efforts. Computer-

based information system scan scan be employed, aiding in better processing and storage of data. Marketing researchers can use such systems to devise better methods of converting data into information, and for the creation of enhanced data gathering methods. Information technology can aid in enhancing an MKIS' software and hardware components, and improve a company's marketing decision-making process. Client Base Finding new clients and new client bases is not always an easy task. This process involves a careful careful market market analysis, analysis, product marketing marketing and consumer base testing. testing. The Internet Internet is a ready base of several million people from all walks of life. Marketing Research involves conducting research to support marketing activities, and the statistical interpretation of 

data into information. This information is then used by managers to plan marketing activities, gauge the nature of a firm's marketing marketing environment environment and attain attain informati information on from suppliers. suppliers. Marketing Marketing researchers researchers use statistica statisticall methods methods such as quantitative research, qualitative research, hypothesis tests, Chi-squared tests, linear  regression, regression, correlations, correlations, frequency distributions, distributions, poisson distributions, distributions, binomial distributions, distributions, etc. to interpret their findings and convert data into information. All these can easily and quickly be done by the help of PCs. Marketing Planning process involves forging a plan for a firm's marketing activities. A marketing plan can also pertain to a specific product, as well as to an organization's overall marketing strategy. There are several levels of  marketing objectives within an organization. The senior management of a firm would formulate a general business strategy for a firm. Whatever be the job, computers are there to help you. Marketing Strategy encompasses the strategy involved in the management of a given product. A given firm may hold numerous products in the marketplace, spanning numerous and sometimes wholly unrelated industries. Accordingly, a plan is required in order to effectively manage such products. Evidently, a company needs to weigh up and ascertain how to utilize its finite resources. For example, a start-up car manufacturing firm would face little success should it attempt to rival Toyota, Ford, Nissan, Chevrolet, or any other large global car maker. Moreover, a product may be reaching the end of its life-cycle. Thus, the issue of divest, or a ceasing of production, may be made. Each scenario requires a unique marketing strategy. Computers are a great tool in comparing data and providing useful insights into them. Services Marketing relates to the marketing of services, as opposed to tangible products. A service (as opposed to a

good) is typically defined as follows: 9

The use of it is inseparable from its purchase (i.e., a service is used and consumed simultaneously) It does not possess material form, and thus cannot be touched, seen, heard, tasted, or smelled. The use of a service is inherently subjective, meaning that several persons experiencing a service would each experience it uniquely.

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For example, a train ride can be deemed a service. If one buys a train ticket, the use of the train is typically experienced concurrently with the purchase of the ticket. Although the train is a physical object, one is not paying for the permanent ownership of the tangible components of the train. Services (compared with goods) can also be viewed as a spectrum. Not all products are pure goods, nor are all pure services. An example would be a restaurant, where a waiter's service is intangible, but the food is tangible. With the help of world wide web, you can provide services to consumers residing at any corner of this universe. Promotion is one one of the the four our elem elemen ents ts of marke of marketing ting mix (produc (product, t, price, price, promot promotion ion,, distri distribut bution ion). ). It is the communication link between sellers and buyers for the purpose of influencing, informing, or persuading a potential buyer's purchasing decision.

The Web is also more cost-effective than conventional advertising. Transferring on- line documents via the Internet takes a minimal amount of time, saving a great deal of money over postal or courier services which can also suffer late deliveries, losses or damage. If a document transfer fails on the Internet, you can always try again since the cost of the transfer is exactly the same. Current or potential clients are not lost due to late or absent documents. Targeted Advertising is a type of advertising of advertising whereby advertisements are placed so as to reach consumers based

on various traits such as demographics, demographics, purchase history, or observed behavior. One can easily find new customers and clients from this massive group, provided that your presence on the internet is known. If you could keep your customer  informed of every reason why they should do business with you, your business would definitely increase. Product Distribution Distribution (or (or plac place) e) is one one of the the four four elem elemen ents ts of the the marketing marketing mix. An organ organiza izatio tion n or set of 

organizations (go-betweens) involved in the process of making a p roduct or service available for use or consumption by a consumer or business user. Information available is one of the most important ways to serve your customers. Before people Making Business Information decide to become customers, they want to know about your company, what you do and what you can do for them. This can be accomplished easily and inexpensively on the World Wide Web.

Many users also do Product Analyses And Comparisons Comparisons and report their findings via the World Wide Web. Quite frequently one can find others who may be familiar with a product that you are currently testing. A company can get first hand reports on the functionality of such products before spending a great deal of money. Also, the large base of Internet users is a principle area for the distribution of surveys for an analysis of the market for a new product of service ideas. These surveys can reach millions of people and potential clients with very little effort on the part of the surveyors. Once a product is already marketed, you can examine the level of satisfaction that users have received from the product. Getting Customer Feedback can lead to new and improved products. Feedback will let you know what customers think think of your product faster, easier and much less expensivel expensively y than any other market you may reach. For the cost of a page or two of Web programming, you can have a crystal ball into where to position your product or service in the marketplace. International International Marketing Acce Access ssin ing g info inform rmat atio ion n over over the the Inte Intern rnet et is much much fast faster er on most most occa occasi sion ons s than than transmissions and transfers via fax or postal courier services. You can access information and data from countries around the world and make interactive connections to remote computer systems just about anywhere in the world.

Electronic mail has also proved to be an effective solution to the problem of telephone tag. Contacting others through email has provided a unique method of communication which has the speed of telephone conversations, yet still provides the advantages of postal mail. Email can be sent from just about anywhere that there is an Internet service or access so that businessmen or travelers can keep in touch with up to the minute details of the office. Another benefit of the World Wide Web is wide scale information circulation. You can place documents on the Internet and instantly make them accessible to millions of users around the world. Hypertext documents provide an effective technique by which to present information to subscribers, clients or the general public. Creating World Wide Web documents and registering your site with larger Web sites improves the availability of the documents to a client base larger, and cheaper, than the circulation of many major newspapers and/or television medias. You may not be able to use the mail, phone system and regulation systems in all of your potential international markets. With the World Wide Web, however, you can open up a dialogue with international markets as easily as with the company across the street. Public Relation

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In recent years, the net book personal computer has gained significant market share among laptops, laptops, largely due to its more user-friendl user-friendly y size and portabili portability. ty. Information Information technology technology typically typically progresses progresses at a fast rate, leading to marketing managers being cognizant of the latest technological developments. Moreover, the launch of smartphones of smartphones into the cellphone market market is common commonly ly deriv derived ed from from a demand demand among among consum consumers ers for more more techno technolo logic gicall ally y advanc advanced ed products. A firm can lose out to competitors should it ignore technological innovations in its industry. Technological advancements can lessen barriers between countries and regions. Using the World Wide Web, firms can quickly dispatch information from one country to another without much restriction. Prior to the mass usage of the Internet, such transfers of information would have taken longer to send, especially if done via snail mail, mail, telex, etc. Computer technology is by far the most important and impressive means by which to insure a company's succes success. s. Comput Computers ers play play a signif significa icant nt role role in every every aspect aspect of a compan company's y's surviv survival, al, from from produc productt design design and manufactur manufacturing, ing, creating client client databases, databases, inventory inventory control, market analysis, analysis, advertisi advertising ng and sales, sales, and even total company operations.

Q4.

Describe Describe the sign significa ificant nt featu features res of of each each of of Visual Visual Basic, Basic, Java, Java, HTML HTML,, Excel Excel and and COBOL COBOL briefly. briefly.

Ans. VISUAL BASIC

Visual Basic is not only a programming language, but also a complete graphical development environment. This environment allows users with little programming experience to quickly develop useful Microsoft Windows applications which have the ability to use OLE ( Object Linking and Embedding ) objects, such as an Excel spreadsheet. Visual Basic also has the ability to develop programs that can be used as a front end application to a database system, serving as the user interface which collects user input and displays formatted output in a more appealing and useful form than many SQL versions are capable of. Visual Basic's main selling point is the ease with which it allows the user to create nice looking, graphical progra programs ms with with little little codin coding g by the progra programm mmer, er, unlike unlike many many other other languag languages es that that may take take hundre hundreds ds of lines lines of  progra programm mmer er keyed keyed code. code. As the progr programm ammer er works works in the graphi graphical cal enviro environme nment, nt, much much of the progra program m code code is automatically generated by the Visual Basic program. Once all the objects are created, we can combine them to form a single executable program that can be run outside of the Visual Basic environment, in Microsoft Windows. The term " Personal Programming " refers to the idea that, wherever you work, whatever you do, you can expand your computer's usefulness by writing applications to use in your  own job. Personal Programming is what Visual Basic is all about. Using Visual Basic's tools, you quickly translate an abstract idea into a program design you can actually see on the screen. VB encourages you to experiment, revise, correct, and network your design until the new project meets your  requirements. However, most of all, it inspires your imagination and creativity. Visual Basic is ideal for developing applications that run in the new Windows 95 operating system. VB presents a 3step approach for creating programs: 1. Design Design the the appear appearanc ance e of your your appli applicat cation ion.. 2. Assign Assign property property settings settings to to the object objects s of your your program program.. 3. Write Write the code to to direct direct specific specific tasks at runtim runtime. e. To summarize, features of VB are: 1. VB is event driven driven.. The user is in control control of the applicat application ion.. The user generate generates s events events throug through h codes codes which which respond to the click of mouse. 11

2. VB supports the principle of Object Oriented design. This means you can compartmentalize different aspect of 

your application as objects and develop and test those objects independently of the rest of the application. 3. Microsoft Microsoft has designed designed VB to be a complete complete windows windows applicat application ion development development system. system. This This means that that your  visual basic application will look and behave like other windows program. JAVA

Java is a general purpose object oriented language developed by Sun Microsystems of USA in 1991. The most striking feature of this language is that it is platform neutral language. Java is the first programming language that is not tied to any particular hardware or o r operating system. There are many features of Java. Some of them namely are explained below. 1.

Multithreading A fundamental concept of computer programming programming is the idea of handling more than than one task at a time. time. Withi Within n a progra program m these these separa separatel tely y runnin running g pieces pieces are called called threads threads and the genera generall concep conceptt is called called multithreading. The Java Virtual Machine allows an application to have multiple threads of execution running concurrently. Each thread has a priority. Threads with higher priority are executed in preference to threads with lower priority. When a Java Virtual Machine starts up there is usually a single non-daemon thread. The Java Virtual Machine continues to execute threads until either of the following occurs. 2. AWT and Event Handling The original design goal of the graphical user interface called as GUI library in Java was to allow the programmer to build a GUI that looks good on all platforms. The Java Abstract Window Toolkit called as AWT produces a GUI that looks equally good on all systems. Thus much of the situation has been improved with the Java Abstract Window Toolkit AWT by using a very good object oriented approach. Also with the use of Java Beans which is a component programming model that is very useful for the creation of easy and effective visual programming environments.

Event driven programming is the concept of attaching or associating events to code like in the actions of mouse click or key press or selection of menu and so on. Thus the code attached to these events gets fired when the action or event occurs. This is very important concept supported by Java in an efficient way which takes care of interactive programming methodology thus making it a powerful programming tool. 3. Networking This is a very important feature of Java and in in Java it is possible to achieve networking without much effort because of the powerful features possessed by it. In other words the concept of networking has become so easy in Java because the underlying details of networking is abstracted and taken away and is taken care of within the JVM and local machine installation of Java. 4. Socket In Java one creates a socket to make a connection to the other machine and thereby gets an InputStream

and OutputStream OutputStream from the socket with the appropriate appropriate converters converters namely namely Reader Reader and Writer which helps to treat the connection as an IO stream object. Generally there are two stream-based socket classes namely a ServerScoket that a server server uses to listen for incoming incoming connections connections and a Socket that a client client uses in order to initiate initiate a connection connection.. Once a client client makes makes a socket socket connect connection ion the Server ServerSoc Socket ket return returns s using using approp appropria riate te method method namely namely accept accept() () method method a corresponding server side socket through which direct communications takes place. From this point one gets a true Socket to Socket connection and one can treat both ends the same way as they are same. Database connection connection The greatest greatest feature of Java is its ability ability to build platform platform-inde -independen pendentt client/server  client/server  5. Database database applications. In Java this is possible with Java Database Connectivity also called as JDBC in short. Java Database Connectivity is designed to be platform independent and so one need not worry about the database one use while they are programming. HTML

HTML, which stands for HyperText for HyperText Markup Language, is the predominant markup language for web for web pages. pages. HTML is the basic building-blocks of web pages. A markup language is a set of markup tags, and HTML uses markup tags to describe web pages. pages. HTML is written in the form of HTML of  HTML elements consisting of tags, enclosed in angle brackets (like ), within the web page content. HTML tags normally come in pairs like

and

. The first tag in a pair is the start tag , the second tag is the end tag (they are also called opening tags and closing tags).

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The purpose of a web browser is browser is to read HTML documents and compose them into visual or audible web pages. The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses the tags to interpret the content of the page. HTML elements form the building blocks of all websites. HTML allows images and objects to be embedded and can be used to create intera interacti ctive ve forms. forms. It provides a mean eans to create structure structured d documents documents by deno denoti ting ng structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. It can embed scripts in languages such as JavaScript which affect the behavior of HTML web pages. HTML markup consists of several key components, including elements (and their attributes), character-based data types, character references and entity references. Another important component is the document type declaration, which triggers standards mode rendering. HTML is actually a subset of an internationally known standard called Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). The advantage of HTML is that we can create its documents with simple ASCII text editor, which is not always true for document based on SGML. HTML defines documents so that any browser running on any computer can read and display them. The basic HTML commands that are needed to create web pages fall under following categories: Structural command, Paragraph formatting command, Character formatting command, List specification command, Hyper linking command and Assest interaction command. EXCEL

Excel Excel has the basic basic featur features es of all spread spreadshe sheets ets using using a grid grid of cells arranged arranged in numbered numbered rows and letterletternamed columns to organize data manipulations like arithmetic operations. It has a battery of supplied functions to answer  statistical, engineering engineering and financial needs. In addition, it can display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with a very limited three-dimensional graphical display. It allows sectioning of data to view its dependencies on various factors from different perspectives. It has a programming aspect, Visual Basic for Applications, allowing the user to employ a wide variety variety of numerical numerical methods, for example, for solving differential equations of mathematical physics, and then reporting the results back to the spreadshee spreadsheet. t. Finally, it has a variety variety of interactiv interactive e features features allowing user interface interfaces s that can completely completely hide the spre spreads adshe heet et from from the the user user,, so the the spre spread adsh shee eett pres presen ents ts itse itself lf as a so-c so-cal alle led d application, or decision decision support  support  system (DSS), via a custom-designed user interface, for example, a stock analyzer, or in general, as a design tool that asks the user questions and provides answers and reports. In a more elaborate elaborate realizatio realization, n, an Excel applicatio application n can automatically automatically poll external external databases and measuring measuring instrumen instruments ts using an update schedule, schedule, analyze analyze the results, make a Word report or  Power Point slide show, and e-mail these presentations on a regular basis to a list of participants. Microsoft allows for a number of optional command-line switches to control the manner in which Excel starts. Excel is one of the most versatile and popular spreadsheet programs. It serves as an electronic pad for accountants which can easily perform simple as well as complex mathematical operations. It helps you to establish relationship between two or more sets of data and easily understand the trends of data changes. Microsoft Microsoft Excel Excel supports supports charts, graphs or histograms or histograms genera generated ted from from specif specified ied groups groups of cells. cells. The genera generated ted graphic component either can be embedded within the current sheet, or added as a separate object. These displays are dynamically updated if cells change content, making a useful design tool. For example, suppose that the important design requirements are displayed visually; then, in response to a user's change in trial values for parameters, the curves describing the design change shape, and their points of intersection shift, assisting the selection of the best design. Excel users can access access external external data sources via Microsoft Office features such as (for example) .odc connections built with the Office Data Connection file format. These are static snapshots of data, and require either manual or  programmatic intervention to update. Excel files themselves may be updated using a Microsoft supplied ODBC driver. Excel can accept data in real time through several programming interfaces, which allow it to communicate with many data sources such as Bloomberg and Reuters. Excel maintains 15 figures in its numbers, but they are not always accurate: the bottom line should be the same as the top line. Besides accuracy in user computations, the question of  accuracy in Excel-provided functions may be raised. Particularly in the arena of statistical functions, Excel has been criticized for sacrificing accuracy for speed of calculation. COBOL 13

COBOL stands for Command Business Oriented Language. COBOL is a compiler language that is commonly used to solve data processing in commercial organization. COBOL is not suitable for scientific purpose programming. COBOL as defined in the original specification included a PICTURE clause for detailed field specification. It did not support local variables, recursion, dynamic memory allocation, or structured or structured programming constructs. Support for some or  all of these features have been added in later editions of the COBOL standard. COBOL has many reserved words (over  400), called keywords. keywords. COBOL provides "named conditions" (so-called 88-levels). These are declared as sub-items of another item (the conditional variable). The named condition can be used in an IF statement, and tests whether the conditional variable is equal to any of the values given in the named condition's VALUE clause. The SET statement can be used to make a named condition TRUE (by assigning the first of its values to the conditional variable). COBOL allows identifiers identifiers to be up to 30 characters long. The concept of  copybooks was introduced by COBOL; these are chunks of code which can be inserted into a program's code. This is done with the COPY statement, which also allows parts of the copybook's code to be replaced with other code (using the REPLACING ... BY ... clause). There are four divisions in any COBOL program: Identification division, Environment division, Data division, and Procedure division. Each division may have several sections. Each section may have several paragraphs. Each paragraph may have several sentences. Each sentence may have several statements. Usually, a statement is terminated by a comma(,) or a period(.).

Q5. Define Define decisio decision n suppor supportt system system in your own words. words. Also Also illustr illustrate ate the the concept concept using using your organiz organizatio ational nal context. Ans.

A Decision Decision Support Support System System (DSS (DSS)) is a comp comput uter er-b -bas ased ed informati information on system system that that supp suppor orts ts busin busines ess s or  organizational decision-making acti activi viti ties. es. DSSs DSSs serv serve e the the mana managem gemen ent, t, oper operat atio ions ns,, and and plann plannin ing g leve levels ls of an organization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance. A Decision Support System is a way to model data and make quality decisions based on it. Making the right decision in business is usually based on data quality and one’s ability to sift through and analyze the data to find trends that solutions and strategies can be created from/for. DSS or Decision Support Systems are usually computer applications with a human component. They can sift through large amounts of data and p ick between the many choices. DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, personal knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions. While many people think of Decision Support Systems as a specialized part of a business, most companies have actually integrated them into their day to day operating a ctivities. For instance, many companies constantly download and analyze sales data, budget sheets, and forecasts. They update their strategy once they analyze and evaluate the current results. Decision Support Systems have a definite structure in businesses. In reality, however, the data and decisions that are based on them are fluid and constantly changing. Decision Support Systems are used to collect data, analyze and shape the data that is collected, and make sound decisions or construct strategies from analysis. Whether computers, databases, or people are involved usually does not matter. It is important to note that although computers and artificial intelligence are at work, it is ultimately up to h umans to execute these strategies or formulate the data into a usable hypothesis. Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present are: inventories of information assets (including legacy and relational data sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data marts), 

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comparative sales figures between one period and the next, projected revenue figures based on product sales assumptions.

Three fundamental components of a DSS architecture are: 1. 2. 3.

the database (or knowledge (or knowledge base), base), the model (i.e., the decision context and user criteria), and the user interface.

The users themselves are also important components of the architecture. DSS systems are not entirely different from other systems and require a structured approach. Such a framework includes people, technology, and the development approach. DSS technology levels (of hardware and software) may include: 1. The The actua actuall appli applica cati tion on that that will will be used used by the the user. user. This This is the the part part of the appl applic icat atio ion n that that allow allows s the decision maker to make decisions in a particular problem area. The user can act upon that particular problem. 2. Generator contains Hardware/software environment that allows people to easily develop specific DSS applications. This level makes use of case tools or systems such as Crystal, AIMMS, AIMMS, and iThink. 3. Tool Tools s incl includ ude e lowe lowerr leve levell hardw hardwar are/ e/so soft ftwa ware re.. DSS DSS gene genera rato tors rs includ includin ing g spec specia iall lang langua uage ges, s, funct functio ion n libraries and linking modules An iterative developmental approach allows for the DSS to be changed and redesigned at various intervals. Once the system is designed, it will need to be tested and revised for the d esired outcome. Types of Decision Support System Models It is important to note that the DSS field does not have a universally accepted model. That is to say, there are many theories theories vying for supremacy supremacy in this broad field. Because there are many working DSS theories, theories, there are many ways to classify DSS. For instance, one of the DSS models available bears the relationship of the user in mind. This model takes into consideration passive, active, and cooperative DSS models. Decision Support Systems that just collect data and organize it effectively are usually called passive models. They do not suggest a specific decision, and they only reveal the data. An active decision support system actually processes data and explicitly shows solutions based upon that data. While there are many systems that can be active, many organizations would be hard pressed to put all their faith into a computer model without any human intervention. A cooperative Decision Support System is when data is collected, analyzed, and then given to a human who helps the system revise or refine it. Here, both a human and computer component work together to come up with the best solution. While the above DSS model considers the user’s relationship, another popular DSS model sees the mode of  assistance as the underlying basis of the DSS model. This includes the Model Driven DSS, Communications Driven DSS, Data Driven DSS, Document Driven DSS, and Knowledge Driven DSS. A Model Driven DSS is one in which decision makers use statistical simulations or financial models to come up with a solution or strategy. Though these decisions are based on models, they do not have to be overwhelmingly data intensive. A Communications Driven DSS model is one in which many collaborate to come up with a series of decisions to set a solution or strategy in motion. This model can be in an office environment or on the web. A Data Driven DSS model puts its emphasis on collected data that is then manipulated to fit the decision maker’s needs. This data can be internal or external and in a variety of formats. It is important that data is collected and categorized sequentially, for example daily sales, operating budgets from one quarter to the next, inventory over the previous year, etc. 15

A Document Driven DSS model uses a variety of documents such as text documents, spreadsheets, and database records to come up with decisions as well as further manipulate the information to refine strategies. A Knowledge Driven DSS model uses special rules stored in a computer or used by a human to determine whether a decision should be made. For instance, many day traders see a stop loss limit as a knowledge driven DSS model. These rules or facts are used in order to make a decision. The scope in which decisions are made can also be seen as a DSS model. For instance, an organizational, departmental or single user decision can be seen in the scope-wide model. Applications:- There are theoretical possibilities of building such systems in any knowledge domain.

One example is the clinical decision support system for medical diagnosis diagnosis. Other examples include a bank loan officer verifying the credit of a loan applicant or an engineering firm that has bids on several projects and wants to know if they can be competitive with their costs. DSS is extensively used in business and management. Executive dashboard and other business performance software allow faster decision making, identification of negative trends, and better allocation of business resources. A growing area of DSS application, concepts, principles, and techniques is in agricultural production , marketing for sustainable development development. For example, the DSSAT4 package, developed through financial support of USAID during the 80's and 90's, has allowed rapid assessment of several agricultural production systems around the world to facilitate decision-making at the farm and policy levels. There are, however, many constraints to the successful adoption on DSS in agriculture. DSS DSS are are also also prev preval alen entt in forest forest management management wher where e the the long long plan planni ning ng time time fram frame e dema demands nds spec specif ific ic requiremen requirements. ts. All aspects of Forest Forest management management,, from log transporta transportation, tion, harvest scheduling scheduling to sustainabil sustainability ity and ecosystem protection have been addressed by modern DSSs. A comprehensive list and discussion of all available systems in forest management is being compiled under the COST action. Benefits of DSS can be enumerated as follows:

Improves personal efficiency Speed up the process of decision making Increases organizational control Encourages exploration and discovery on the part of the decision maker  Speeds up problem solving in an organization Facilitates interpersonal communication Promotes learning or training Generates new evidence in support of a decision Creates a competitive advantage over competition Reveals new approaches to thinking about the problem space Helps automate managerial processes

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