Christian Church, music of the early. The musical practices practices and and attitudes of Christians from Apostolic times to the mid-5th century ce. The denition of early Christian music is broader than that of formal ecclesiastical chant. It embraces not only the psalmody of the Mass and Oce but also the great ariety of hymnody! psalmody! declamation and acclamation employed by Christians in any number of settings from eucharistic gatherings to night-time igils. It includes! moreoer! the hymns of heretical groups! and! nally! the attitudes of Christians to"ards eery aspect of music! "hether it be their o"n liturgical song! the dierse manifestations manifestations of pagan music or the classical philosophy and theory of music. I. #istory II. $pecial issues
%AM&$ '. '. Mc(I))O) Christian Church! music of the early
I. History *. +ac,ground and scope. . *st-century origins. . nd and rd centuries. /. /th century. Christian Church! music of the early! 0I1 #istory 1. Background and scope.
The choice of of the mid-5th century as the date by "hich to limit the follo"ing discussion of early Christian music is appropriate for t"o reasons. 2irst! by this time the golden age of patristic literature in both &ast and 'est had come to an end3 eminent gures such as Ambrose 4d 67! %ohn 67! %ohn Chrysostom Chrysostom 4 4d /867! %erome 4 %erome 4d /*9/87 and Augustine of #ippo 4 #ippo 4d /87 had all passed from the scene! and "ith their deaths the abundant stream of eidence about Christian music d"indled to a tric,le. The second reason is related to the rst1 the mid-5th century "itnessed the
end of an historic era. The bac, of the :oman &mpire had been bro,en by barbarian incursions! and een if the &ast managed to maintain some semblance of the ancient order! the 'est "as deastated and the cultural bonds that had unied the people of the Mediterranean basin "ere irrecoerably seered. The result of this for liturgy "as that the roughly homogeneous liturgical practice that had deeloped during the /th century came to be fragmented. &ast and 'est "ent their separate "ays! and the 'est in particular deeloped the diergent liturgical dialects ,no"n as the Mo;arabic!
aul?s mission!
the Ale@andrian conuests!
c587 and %acob of $erugh 4d 5*7
are generally ac,no"ledged to hae e@ercised considerable inFuence on +y;antine hymnography. In the 5th century the +ible and the $yriac liturgy "ere translated into Armenian. An Armenian hymnody had its beginnings during the same period! but its history belongs more to the Middle Ages than to the early Christian period. 4 See also Armenia! 0II.7 The same can be said for the music of the Coptic rite. The Coptic language "as a surial of the ancient &gyptian tongue! "ritten by and large "ith
'estern Oces. 4 See also Coptic church music.7 music.7 >atristic literature presents a perasie problem for the study of early Christian music in that most authors use the terms Bpsalm and Bhymn interchangeably. In the follo"ing discussion! modern usage is employed1 Bpsalm refers to a psalm of the #ebre" >salter! and Bhymn to a non-biblical composition. Christian Church! music of the early! 0I1 #istory 2. 1st-century origins.
The origins of Christian song song are e@tremely dicult to trace. Indeed the subHect remains obscure een bet"een the later nd and earlier /th centuries! a period in "hich the eidence becomes relatiely more plentiful. )ot until the later /th century! the pea, period of patristic production! "as a measure of clarity achieed. Moreoer! it is not only insucient eidence that ma,es the earlier centuries so dicult to understand3 it is highly probable that the musical
the Ale@andrian conuests!
c587 and %acob of $erugh 4d 5*7
are generally ac,no"ledged to hae e@ercised considerable inFuence on +y;antine hymnography. In the 5th century the +ible and the $yriac liturgy "ere translated into Armenian. An Armenian hymnody had its beginnings during the same period! but its history belongs more to the Middle Ages than to the early Christian period. 4 See also Armenia! 0II.7 The same can be said for the music of the Coptic rite. The Coptic language "as a surial of the ancient &gyptian tongue! "ritten by and large "ith
'estern Oces. 4 See also Coptic church music.7 music.7 >atristic literature presents a perasie problem for the study of early Christian music in that most authors use the terms Bpsalm and Bhymn interchangeably. In the follo"ing discussion! modern usage is employed1 Bpsalm refers to a psalm of the #ebre" >salter! and Bhymn to a non-biblical composition. Christian Church! music of the early! 0I1 #istory 2. 1st-century origins.
The origins of Christian song song are e@tremely dicult to trace. Indeed the subHect remains obscure een bet"een the later nd and earlier /th centuries! a period in "hich the eidence becomes relatiely more plentiful. )ot until the later /th century! the pea, period of patristic production! "as a measure of clarity achieed. Moreoer! it is not only insucient eidence that ma,es the earlier centuries so dicult to understand3 it is highly probable that the musical
practices "ere themseles in a state of considerable Fuidity until the later /th-century consolidation and standardi;ation of liturgical usage. The subHect has been rendered rendered all the more obscure in recent years because it has lost one of its principal certainties. Most liturgical and music historians had long assumed that the early Christian liturgy "as adopted from %e"ish ritual practices. )o"! ho"eer! it appears that for all the obious general inFuence of %udaism upon Christianity Christianity Christianity after all originated as a %e"ish sect it is often a mista,e to trace Christian liturgical usage to specic %e"ish practices. In many cases the %e"ish rites in uestion did did not yet e@ist in the *st century! but neither did their purported Christian counterparts. This applies most notably to the ancient $ynagogue serice and the pre-eucharistic syna@is! or 2ore-Mass! as it came to be called. The $ynagogue $ynagogue serice "as "as thought to hae consisted of four elements reading! discourse!
psalmody and prayer and to hae been adopted en bloc by the rst Christians. It is true that the reading of scripture and commentary upon that reading "as customary in the synagogues of the *st century3 indeed %esus himself participated in the practice 4Luke i.*E7. And it is not unli,ely that some sort of prayer might hae accompanied the synagogal readings! although there is no positie eidence for it. +ut at this time it "as the Temple that "as loo,ed upon as the centre of %e"ish "orship! and all the eidence suggests that a stable and formali;ed $ynagogue serice of prayer "as established only after the Temples destruction by the :omans in 68 ce. And een then it "as deeloped only gradually! indeed reluctantly! as a temporary substitute for the Temple Temple serice3 serice3 the hope that that the Temple Temple and its ritual "ould be be restored remained alie in %udaism for centuries. As for psalmody! its regular practice is not attested in the sources until the Jth-century tractate Sopherim! "hich tells ho" the recitation of the daily Temple
psalm "as nally allo"ed in the $ynagogue as a surrogate for its original performance at the moment of sacrice. +ut again! to deny the Christian adoption of specic %e"ish rituals rituals is not to deny a more general! indeed more profound! inFuence of %udaism upon early Christian "orship. At issue here is the status of the Temple Temple among %e"s %e"s at the time time of %esus. The Temple of %erusalem %erusalem shared a common ritual pattern "ith the pagan temples of antiuity. It "as fundamentally diKerent from a church or synagogue! "hereby a congregation "ould gather "ithin a room for instruction and prayer3 rather! the people stood in a temple suare and loo,ed on as priests slaughtered the sacricial animals. The sacricial act "as generally accompanied by the playing of musical instruments! "hich performed magical functions such as the frightening a"ay of un"anted demons. It is not true! as many hae maintained! that the more enlightened %e"s had by the da"n
of the Christian era reHected this form of "orship in faour of the $ynagogue3 most %e"s of the time remained loyal to the Temple and its ritual! een though they "ere engaged in the process of creating ne" religious resources. They deeloped a comple@ ethical code and a perasie habit of prayer! and they established a canon of sacred boo,s! among them the incomparable +oo, of Psalms. It is true that the $ynagogue! though as much a ciic as a religious institution! "as the centre of a considerable portion of this actiity! particularly those aspects of it that inoled instruction. +ut Hust as important "as the home3 indeed %esus berated the hypocrites "ho prayed publicly in the synagogues and on the street corners rather than in the priacy of their homes 4 Matthew i.57. And "ithin the home the eent that "as the focus of the most intense religiosity "as the eening meal! "hich "as also an eent of special musical signicance. The rst Christians maintained the religious practices of their %e"ish bac,ground. They
continued to "orship in the Temple and to gather for instruction and discussion in the $ynagogue! but there "as an increased emphasis upon the sacral meal no" a communal rather than family meal freuently referred to as the Bbrea,ing of bread. As the ne" religion spread beyond the borders of >alestine "ith >aul?s mission! the conerts "ere no longer e@pected to "orship in the Temple! and after an initial period of controersy they came to be e@empted from the more onerous aspects of the Mosaic =a" such as circumcision. Mean"hile! the process of conersion "as carried out in the synagogues and other public places! but the proper ritual gathering of the faithful "as the communal meal! "hich "as usually held in the home of some Christian prominent in a particular locality. It is not certain "hether eery mention in the )e" Testament of the Bbrea,ing of bread! or of related terms such as Bthe =ord?s supper! refers to a eucharistic celebration! but certainly many of them do.
The precise nature of the primitie eucharistic celebration is not ,no"n! een if it is no longer thought to consist of a preliminary $ynagogue-deried serice of reading! psalmody! prayer and discourse! follo"ed by a formal ritual meal. :ather than a split bet"een a serice of instruction and the &ucharist proper! there "as probably a sacral meal in "hich instruction "as freuently an integral part. +ut not much can be said "ith any certainty beyond that3 indeed the li,elihood is that there "as no set pattern but rather a ariety of practices. The process "hereby the &ucharist came to be separated from the eening meal and "as celebrated in the morning! preceded by a discrete serice of instruction! cannot be traced3 it is possible to obsere only that this classic pattern is manifested in %ustin Martyr?s mid-nd-century description of the :oman &ucharist 4see 0I! belo"7. The musical aspect of the &ucharist "hile it "as still celebrated in conHunction "ith an eening meal is also a matter for
speculation. T"o factors ma,e it probable that singing "as not uncommon at this meal. 2irst! musical diersion of some sort has been a constant feature of the common eening meal throughout history! and the meals of late antiuity "ere no e@ception. Once the eidence becomes more abundant in the rd century! the custom can be obsered among the pagans of the time! among the %e"s and indeed among the Christians. $econdly! the )e" Testament! een if its references to music are notoriously dicult to interpret! creates an unmista,able general impression of enthusiasm for sacred song. As for the nature of this singing! it is generally belieed that it consisted of ne"ly created material rather than Old Testament psalms. 2or e@ample! "hen >aul said to the Corinthians B'hat then! brethrenL 'hen you come together each one has a psalm! has a teaching! has a reelation! has a tongue! has an interpretation 4 1 Corinthians @i.E67! it seems that he "as referring to indiidual
contributions of the congregation. The Corinthians! it is true! "ere notoriously indiidualistic in their style of "orship! but they diKered from other Christians in this respect only by a matter of degree. Many scholars nd the )e" Testament to be permeated "ith fragments of liturgical hymns! and they consider the canticles of =u,e?s
probably hae been performed by indiiduals! the entire congregation must hae participated in short acclamations and responses. In the enthusiastic atmosphere of the time! one-"ord acclamations li,e BAmen! BAlleluia and BMaranatha must hae been common! as "ell as some"hat longer e@clamations such as do@ologies or perhaps faourite psalm erses. These "ere possibly chanted in response to prayers and readings! "hich themseles might hae been declaimed rather than read. And "hat of the Old Testament psalmsL :ecent scholarship! in emphasi;ing the prealence of ne"ly created material oer the aidic psalms! may hae gone too far in its e@clusion of the latter. It is said that the Old Testament >salter "as considered at this time in both %udaism and Christianity as more a boo, of readings than a hymnboo,. Although there is undoubtedly some truth in this! the obiously musical character of the psalms cannot be denied. $mith 4*87 has sho"n that considerably more
than t"o-thirds of the psalms "ere sung at one time or another in the Temple. $o "hile it is true that there "as no ritual pattern of psalmody in the $ynagogue of the time! and probably nothing of the sort in the early Church either! it is entirely reasonable to suppose that the rst Christians "ould hae sung selected psalms on occasion. See also %e"ish music! 0II! /! and >salm! 0I.
Christian Church! music of the early! 0I1 #istory 3. 2nd and 3rd centuries.
There e@ists one particularly clear description of the &ucharist from the mid-nd century! that of %ustin Martyr 4d c*E57. The portion that describes the pre-eucharistic syna@is reads as follo"s1 On the day named for the sun there is an assembly in one place for all "ho lie in the to"ns and in the country3 and the memoirs of the Apostles and the "ritings of
the >rophets are read as long as time permits. Then! "hen the reader has nished! he "ho presides spea,s! giing admonishment and e@hortation to imitate those noble deeds. Then "e all stand together and oKer prayers. 4First polog! ! E67 The precision of %ustin?s description is stri,ing3 he presents each element of the syna@is in seuence! separating them by some aderb that means Bthen. :eading! discourse and prayer are cited! but not the fourth element of the later syna@is! psalmody. %ustin?s description tallies in this respect "ith that of the early rdcentury Carthaginian Tertullian 4 d c571 BI myself shall no" set do"n the practices of the Christian community N 'e come together to surround
during the $unday liturgy1 BThe material for her isions is supplied as the scriptures are read! psalms are sung! the homily deliered and prayers are oKered 4 "e anima! i@./7. Although the last of these three descriptions mentions Bpsalms! it must be pointed out that the conte@t of the description is probably a serice of the enthusiastic Montanist heresy. The Bpsalms! moreoer! may ery "ell hae been heretical hymns! as is suggested by other passages in the "ritings of Tertullian "here he spea,s scornfully of heretical Bpsalms. On balance the rather scanty eidence creates the impression that psalmody "as not a formally ac,no"ledged feature of the nd- and rd-century preeucharistic syna@is3 ho"eer! the possibility that it "as present on occasion cannot be e@cluded. That singing "as typical of the earliest eucharistic gatherings but not as common in the &ucharist of the nd and rd centuries should not be surprising in ie" of the rites separation from the eening meal. In fact there is considerable eidence from the rd century
that singing continued to be a freuently encountered practice at the communal eening meals of Christians! "hether these meals "ere the so-called agapē 4Bloe feast7! at "hich the poor "ere fed! or simply informal social occasions inoling Christians. There is! for e@ample! a passage from Cyprian of Carthage 4 d 5J7 that sho"s a particularly "arm appreciation of sacred song1 )o" as the sun is sin,ing to"ards eening! let us spend "hat remains of the day in gladness and not allo" the hour of repast to go untouched by heaenly grace. =et a psalm be heard at the sober banuet! and since your memory is sure and your oice pleasant! underta,e this tas, as is your custom. ou "ill better nurture your friends! if you proide a spiritual recital for us and beguile our ears "ith s"eet religious strains. 4 d "onatum! @i7 It "as mentioned aboe that Tertullian "as disturbed by the phenomenon of heretical hymns. In one instance he contrasts the
psalms of aid "ith the hymns of Palentinus1 B)ot the psalms of that apostate! heretic and >latonist! Palentinus! but those of the most holy and illustrious prophet aid. #e sings among us of Christ! and through him Christ indeed sang of himself 4"e carne Christi! @@.7. Palentinus "as not the only heretical hymnodist of the early rd century. +ardaisan of &dessa 4d 7 composed a collection of *58 hymns in imitation of the aidic >salter! "hich his son #armonios is said to hae set to music. It "as +ardaisan?s "or, that spurred on the great poet &phrem $yrus 4d 67 to compose his o"n orthodo@ Christian hymns. The passage of Tertullian uoted aboe may be ta,en to imply that Old Testament psalms came to be sung in the rd century only as a reaction to heretical hymns1 psalms "ere canonical scripture and hence doctrinally safe. The great upsurge in the singing of the aidic >salter during the /th century has often been cited in support of such a ie"! reinforced by a passage from Canon 5 of
the Council of =aodicea 4possibly later /th century71 BOne must not recite priately composed psalms 4 psalmi idiotici7 nor non-canonical boo,s in the church! but only the canonical boo,s of the Old and )e" Testament. Again! the argument is that it "as the fear of heresy that encouraged the singing of biblical psalms. et! "hateer the interpretation of the /th-century eidence! it is Hust as easy to read the passage from Tertullian as indicating simply that in the early rd century the aidic psalms "ere being sung "ith some freuency and "ould hae been sung "hether heretical hymns had become fashionable or not. On another occasion Tertullian ma,es an apparent reference to the singing of Old Testament psalms 4and orthodo@ hymns as "ell7 at the agapē! this time "ithout mentioning heretical hymns1 BAfter the "ashing of the hands and the lighting of lamps! each is urged to come into the middle and sing to
noted that there is nothing in either of these passages from Tertullian to suggest that the singing of aidic psalms "as an innoation in his time. Christian Church! music of the early! 0I1 #istory 4. 4th century.
#o"eer common the singing of the Old Testament psalms "as in the rst three centuries of the Christian era! there appears to hae been a sharp increase in the practice during the /th century! particularly in its closing decades. This is obserable in three conte@ts especially1 the ne"ly emerging Oce! the popular psalmodic igil and! to a lesser e@tent! the Mass. 4i7 >salmody and the deeloping Oce. 4ii7 The psalmodic igil. 4iii7 >salmody in the Mass. Christian Church! music of the early! 0I! /1 /th century i! "salmody and the de#eloping $%ce.
Among the more important factors underlying the increase in
psalmody in the /th century "as the moement of desert monasticism. Ascetical groups had banded together before in the history of Christianity to pursue a common life of irtue! but "hat began to happen in the deserts of &gypt around the turn of the /th century "as so unprecedented in scope that the origins of Christian monasticism are generally traced to this time and place. =iterally thousands of stal"art souls Fed the cities and to"ns to see, a life of prayer and depriation in the harsh enironment of the &gyptian deserts. The connection bet"een psalmody and monasticism came about because the central ideal of desert monasticism "as to Bpray unceasingly 41 #hessalonians .*67. The means that the early mon,s found most appropriate to achiee this "as the Bcontinuous recitation of the >salter1 psalms "ere not singled out indiidually but "ere recited in order and! moreoer! in considerable uantity! een if interspersed "ith prayers. There are anecdotes from the time that tell of indiidual mon,s chanting the entire >salter
in a single night. The desert mon,s recited the >salter by themseles especially! but they did so also at their common morning and eening Oces. The typical manner of psalmody in common "as for a single mon, to chant "hile the rest listened in silence! occupying their hands in such tas,s as "eaing linen and plaiting rope! by "hich the mon,s supported themseles. The purpose of this psalmody "as not the later liturgical ideal of a ceremony of praise but rather a deice to sustain indiidual prayer and meditation. >resumably the musical character of the chanting "as sober and unassuming! een if not selfconsciously unmusical. esert monasticism stirred the imagination of /th-century Christianity. Many of the most eminent ecclesiastical gures of the time +asil! %erome! Cassian! :unus! >aul and >alladius isited &gypt to obsere the lies of the heroic mon,s and nuns in residence there. They "ent a"ay inspired to found and foster monastic communities of their o"n! in some cases in remote
regions but as often as not in the cities! "here they could sere as models for the general population. Pirtually eery important Christian leader of the /th century! including Augustine! %erome! +asil! %ohn Chrysostom! salter. >salmody "as! after all! emblematic of the monastic life3 irtually no contemporary description of the monastic life fails to mention it. %ohn Chrysostom! for e@ample! "rote1 BAs soon as they are up! they stand and sing the prophetic hymns N )either cithara! nor syrin@! nor any other musical
instrument emits such sound as is to be heard in the deep silence and solitude of those holy men as they sing 4$n $ #imotheum ! #omily QIP./7. +asil! in recommending the attractions of his monastic retreat at >ontus to his friend
4>seudo-Chrysostom! "e
poenitentia7
Monastic psalmody had a profound eKect upon the early deelopment of the Christian Oce. The Oces remote origins derie from the fact that certain times of the day "ere considered to be especially appropriate for prayer3 this "as true both of early Christianity and of %udaism before it. iKerent patterns appear to hae characteri;ed diKerent times and places3 there "as! for e@ample! the threefold pattern of prayer at morning! noon and eening! and the threefold pattern of the third! si@th and ninth hours! either of "hich might be combined "ith prayer in the middle of the night.
inFuence! and its psalmody and hymnody "ere distinctly diKerent from the psalmody of monasticism. In contrast to the continuous psalmody of monasticism! the musical component of the cathedral Oce "as carefully selected so as to be appropriate to the time of day. In the morning the hymn 'loria in e(celsis "as sung in many of the principal ecclesiastical centres! "hile >salm l@ii 4in the salter7! BO salms c@liiicl that "ould come to be the psalms par e(cellence of =auds. The eening serice opened! typically! "ith the lucernarium! the ceremony of lamp-lighting! accompanied by the hymn Ph)s hilaron 4BO gladdening light7. The standard psalm of the serice "as >salm c@l! "ith its appropriate second erse1 B=et my prayer be guided to thee as incense! and the lifting of my hands as an eening sacrice. $ignicantly! %ohn
Chrysostom spo,e of both >salms l@ii and c@l as psalms that his congregation ,ne" by heart. Monastic psalmody had its eKect upon the Oce in the later decades of the /th century. This is best obsered in &geria?s description of the Oce of %erusalem! the most detailed description of any urban Oce of the time. In the morning the monastic and cathedral Oces "ere combined! each one remaining intact but celebrated successiely. 'ell before daylight there "as the monastic igil of continuous psalmody! and then the morning cathedral serice of praise! a pattern still recogni;able in 'estern medieal Matins and =auds. &geria proides the follo"ing description of the monastic igil1 &ach day before coc,cro" N all the mona*ontes and parthenae! as they are called here! come do"n! and not only they! but also those lay people! men and "omen! "ho "ish to ,eep igil at so early an hour. 2rom that hour until it is light!
hymns are sung and psalms responded to! and li,e"ise antiphons3 and "ith eery hymn there is a prayer. 2or t"o or three priests! and li,e"ise deacons! "ho say these prayers "ith eery hymn and antiphon! ta,e turns to be there each day "ith the mona*ontes. 4$tinerarium! @@i.*7 Three essential points about this igil may be noted1 the prolonged psalmody is sung e@clusiely by the mon,s and nuns3 deout lay people arise early in the morning to obsere the igil3 and "hile the bishop is not present! a fe" representatie members of the local clergy are on hand to recite the prayers! thereby! it "ould appear! giing ecclesiastical sanction to the monastic serice. All this is in sharp contrast to the second serice! &geria?s description of "hich begins1 BAs soon as it begins to gro" light! they start to sing the morning hymns! and behold the bishop arries "ith the clergy 4$tinerarium! @@i.7. This serice continues "ith a series of prayers led by the bishop and concludes "ith his blessing. It is
clearly a cathedral serice1 the bishop and his clergy preside3 it ends "ith an episcopal blessing3 and the Bmorning hymns! presumably! are not continuous monastic psalmody but the special morning hymns of praise such as Ph)s hilaron! >salm l@ii and >salms c@liiicl. The time bet"een the morning and eening serices came to be lled in by those shorter serices at the third! si@th and ninth hours that are ,no"n as the =ittle #ours in the later 'estern Oce 4the serice at the rst hour! >rime! "as not yet present in the /th century7. These "ere typically serices of monastic psalmody3 &geria describes $e@t 4at %erusalem Terce "as sung only during =ent7 as follo"s1 BAgain at the si@th hour all come do"n N and sing psalms and antiphons until the bishop is called in. #e rst says a prayer! then blesses the faithful N And at the ninth hour they do the same as at the si@th 4$tinerarium! @@i.7. It should be noted that these serices consisted simply of psalmody! "hich "as performed in
the absence of the bishop! "ho made his entrance only at the conclusion to say a prayer and to bless the congregation. The eening Oce at %erusalem began "ith the cathedral element of the lucernarium and its proper hymnody! but continued "ith a period of protracted psalmody before the bishop and clergy arried and too, their places. The serice concluded "ith additional singing follo"ed by the customary closing prayers and bishop?s blessing. &geria?s description reads in part1 +ut at the tenth hour "hat they call here licinicon! and "hat "e call lucernare the entire throng gathers again! and all the lamps and candles are lit! producing a boundless light N And the psalmi lucernares! as "ell as antiphons! are sung for a long time. And behold the bishop is called and comes do"n and ta,es the high seat! "hile the priests also sit in their places! and hymns and antiphons are sung. 4$tinerarium! @@i./7
This serice appears to be a more comple@ mi@ of monastic and cathedral elements! een suggesting the oerall pattern of medieal 'estern Pespers! "ith its prelude of four or e psalms! sung in numerical order 4the monastic contribution7! follo"ed by a dierse grouping of prayers and chants 4the cathedral contribution7. An elaborate eening Oce of this sort "as typical for the principal ecclesiastical centres of the time3 in a fe" locations it "as follo"ed by a brief gathering of mon,s and nuns for a nal period of prayer and psalmody! a ,ind of protoCompline. 'hile &geria?s description of the Oce at %erusalem is the clearest and most detailed for any location! sucient eidence has been found to reconstruct the later /th-century Oce of seeral important centres! for e@ample! +asil?s Caesarea and %ohn Chrysostom?s Antioch 4see Taft! *JE7. There are diKerent combinations of cathedral and monastic elements in each location1 Taft has characteri;ed
the Oces of >alestine and Antioch! for e@ample! as Ba monastic cursus that has absorbed cathedral elements! and that of Cappadocia as Ba cathedral cursus onto "hich monastic hours hae been grafted. +ut the musical contribution of monasticism remains clear1 continuous psalmody as opposed to selectie psalmody and hymnody. A reerse inFuence must also be assumed! ho"eer1 the sober psalmody of desert monasticism could not hae remained totally unaKected by the more oertly musical urban psalmody. Christian Church! music of the early! 0I! /1 /th century ii! &he psalmodic #igil.
Monastic psalmody appears to hae played a part in the rise of the popular psalmodic igil! another important musical phenomenon of the later /th century. &geria?s description of the pre-da"n monastic Oce at %erusalem "as gien aboe. This serice! ho"eer! "as held on Hust si@ days of the "ee,3 in its place
on $unday the people themseles performed something remar,ably similar to it1 BOn the seenth day! that is! the =ord?s ay! all the people gather before coc,cro" N #ymns are sung and also antiphons! and there are prayers "ith each hymn and antiphon. 2or priests and deacons are al"ays prepared for igils in that place because of the cro"d "hich gathers 4$tinerarium! @@i.J7. It "ould appear that on $unday at %erusalem "hen the mon,s and nuns did not rise for their accustomed igil! the people held one in imitation of them. In his =etter 86! "ritten in the year 65! +asil defends the nocturnal psalmodic igil of his congregants3 in this case the principal performers of the psalmody appear to hae been the men and "omen of his diocese "ho lied a uasimonastic e@istence. &arly in his letter he admits that they are mere children compared to the famous desert mon,s of &gypt! >alestine and $yria! but he claims that they are brae souls! neertheless! "ho Bhae crucied
their Fesh "ith its aKections and desires! "ho! moreoer! Bsing hymns to our salm lS to the =ord! "hile each fashions his personal "ords of repentance. )o" if you shun us because of these practices! you
"ill shun the &gyptians! you "ill shun the =ibyans as "ell! and the Thebans! >alestinians! Arabians! >hoenicians! $yrians and those "ho lie by the &uphrates3 and indeed all those among "hom igils! prayers and common psalmody are esteemed. In discussing this much-uoted passage musicologists tend to d"ell upon the reference to antiphony! one of the ery fe" such references in patristic literature. The uestion of early Christian antiphony is ta,en up belo" 40II! 573 for the moment! attention should be focussed on the broader point! namely! that the passage describes a nightly psalmodic igil and that +asil felt constrained to defend the practice. #e concludes by asserting that Bigils! prayers and common psalmody are esteemed throughout all the regions of the Christian &ast3 his need to ma,e the claim suggests that the custom may hae been relatiely ne". +asil mentions only &astern localities! but Hust oer a decade
later! in JE! a psalmodic igil "as held in Ambrose?s church at Milan! an occasion made famous by Augustine?s description of it. Ambrose and his congregation "ere preented from leaing the city?s basilica because of guards posted outside by the Arian empress do"ager! %ustina1 )ot long since had the church of Milan begun this mode of consolation and e@hortation "ith the brethren singing together "ith oice and heart N At that time the custom began that hymns and psalms be sung after the manner of the &astern regions lest the people be "orn out "ith the tedium of sorro". The practice has been retained from that time until today and imitated by many! indeed! by almost all your congregations throughout the rest of the "orld. 4 Con+essions! IQ! ii.*57 Many hae interpreted the phrase Bafter the manner of the &astern regions as referring to the singing of psalms in antiphony. Augustine did not use the term! ho"eer! and the more obious
meaning of the passage is the broader one! that is! he "as referring to the custom of the nightly igil of psalmody and hymnody! "hich +asil told us "as common throughout the &ast seeral years earlier. Ambrose?s o"n description of the eent conrms this interpretation1 BI "as not able to return home! because the soldiers surrounded the basilica! ,eeping it under guard3 "e recited psalms "ith the brethren in the lesser basilica of the church 4%pistle ,, ! /7. There is no mention of antiphony here! "hereas the more general consideration that psalms "ere sung "as deemed signicant enough to merit inclusion in a minimally brief reference to a momentous eent. The term antiphona "as nally associated "ith the occasion some 6 years later in the biography of Ambrose "ritten by his secretary >aulinus in /1 BAt this time antiphons! hymns and igils rst began to be celebrated in the church of Milan 4&ita S mbrosii! *J7. >aulinus states e@plicitly that igils "ere an innoation at the time! and the
fact that he includes the term antiphona should come as no surprise in a passage that dates from the third decade of the 5th century! by "hich time the "ord appeared routinely 4as a noun7 in references to ecclesiastical song. The most e@tended discussion of psalmody at igils is that of )iceta of :emesiana 4 d after /*/7! "ho deoted an entire sermon to the subHect. This remar,able "or, for a long time remained un,no"n to musicologists because ot its false attribution in
of the t"o sermons to the famous igil at Ambrose?s Milan is obious1 they defend at great length the custom of psalmodic igils but ma,e no mention of antiphony. There is no eidence to suggest that mon,s or nuns "ere inoled in the igils of )iceta?s :emesiana 4no" +ela >alan,a in $erbia7! "hereas they may "ell hae been in Ambrose?s Milan 4both Augustine and Ambrose refer to the singing of Bthe brethren7. On the "hole there appears to hae been a broad inFuence of the monastic igil on the popular psalmodic igil! een if mon,s or nuns "ere not directly inoled at eery time and place. More important is the phenomenon of the congregational psalmodic igil considered in itself3 it appears to hae been greatly popular at the time! een if a puritanical minority obHected to it. Christian Church! music of the early! 0I! /1 /th century iii! "salmody in the 'ass.
The third area in "hich the aidic psalms came to play an important role in the later /th century is the Mass itself! although here their use "as more narro"ly dened. A psalm "as sung during the distribution of Communion! and this appears to be the ancestor of the +y;antine koin)nikon and 'estern communion chants3 another sung during the pre-eucharistic syna@is is the apparent ancestor of the +y;antine prokeimenon and the 'estern gradual. In addition to these t"o an alleluia psalm appears to hae been sung at %erusalem by the earlier 5th century. The psalm sung during the distribution of Communion "as probably the rst of these! and this is not surprising. The eent "as an occasion of Hoy occurring at the clima@ of the serice3 it "as also an action that "ould hae been conducted in silence unless accompanied by song3 and! nally! the distribution might still hae had associated "ith it lingering connotations of the common meal. The communion
psalm! in any eent! is attested by seeral sources from the second half of the /th century. These sources generally specify the singing of >salm @@@iii "ith its appropriate erse J1 BTaste and see that the =ord is good3 indeed this proto-communion might een be considered as an Ordinary rather than a >roper item of the Mass. $ignicantly >salm @@@iii.J still appears as the koin)nikon of the medieal +y;antine =iturgy of the >resanctied! and as such is the most common of the +y;antine communion chants. The history of the communion psalm in the 'est appears to be signicantly diKerent. There are hints in the sources that >salm @@@iii "as singled out in at least some localities as a special communion psalm! but Augustine referred at one time to the singing of Bhymns from the +oo, of >salms N "hile "hat has been oKered "as distributed to the people 4.etractationes! II.67. This might suggest that a diKerent psalm "as sung at Communion each day! at least in #ippo! and it is true that the
from >salm @@@iii.J! 'ustate et -idete! occupies a place of no special signicance in the liturgical year. 4 See also Communion.7 The history of the gradual psalm is uite diKerent from that of the communion psalm. Gntil recently the conentional ie" of its origin "as that it functioned as a musical response to a reading3 it "as thought to hae occupied this position in both the $ynagogue and the primitie Church. It is true that the medieal responsory! related as it appears to hae been to the gradual! functioned more or less in this manner! but there is no ancient eidence! %e"ish or Christian! that readings "ere customarily paired "ith complementary psalms. On the contrary! the gradual psalm "as at rst loo,ed upon as a reading itself. Augustine! for e@ample! said1 B'e heard the Apostle! "e heard the psalm! "e heard the gospel3 all the diine readings sound together so that "e place hope not in ourseles but in the =ord 4$ermon *E57. If! ho"eer! in the later /th-century literature!
the gradual psalm "as spo,en of as a reading! it "as at the same time Hust as clearly described as something that "as sung. The most plausible hypothesis! perhaps! to e@plain these apparently contradictory circumstances is that in earlier centuries a psalm had been selected on occasion to sere as the Old Testament reading in the pre-eucharistic syna@is! "hile in the later /th-century period of enthusiasm for psalmody! a psalm came to be chanted at eery preeucharistic syna@is and to be treated as a discrete musical eent. There are numerous patristic references to the responsorial singing of the gradual psalm. A typical formulation might be that of Augustine in his $ermon *5 "here he says1 B'e heard and "e responded together and "e sang "ith harmonious oice! Beatus -ir /uem tu erudieris0 domine 4>salm @liii.*73 or that of %ohn Chrysostom in his commentary on >salm c@ii1 BThe passage of the psalm "hich the people are accustomed to sing in response is
this1 This is the day "hich the =ord has madeU 4>salm c@ii./7. In spite of the "ealth of such references it remains possible that the gradual psalm! particularly on less festie occasions! might hae been chanted "ithout a congregational response. The sources freuently mention the singing of a psalm "ithout specifying a response erse3 in such cases it is simply not ,no"n "hether a response "as inoled or not. A nal point of considerable signicance concerning the gradual psalm is that the abundant 'estern references! in particular those from the sermons of Augustine! refer to a single psalm in the pre-eucharistic syna@is. This has an obious bearing upon the early history of the 'estern alleluia. If an alleluia psalm e@isted in the later /th and earlier 5th centuries! it might be e@pected that t"o psalms "ould hae been sung regularly in the syna@is1 the gradual psalm! and a second psalm "ith an alleluia response. +ut there is only the one psalm! een if its response
might on occasion be an Balleluia! particularly if it is one of those psalms that hae Balleluia pre@ed to them in the biblical te@t 4e.g. >salms c@c@iii7. The situation in the &ast is more comple@. There are seeral passages that suggest the singing of a single psalm in the syna@is! but others that appear to call for an indeterminate number. The postolic Constitutions 4PIII! @ii.67! for e@ample! state1 BAfter t"o readings Rfrom the Old TestamentS let someone else sing the hymns of aid! and let the people respond "ith erses. After this let our Acts be read and the epistles of >aul our fello" "or,er. 'hateer the interpretation of this passage 4it could be argued that it lists eerything that might be read in the course of the year rather than on a single day7! the testimony of the so-called Armenian =ectionary is unambiguous. This document 4:enou@! *E*7! "hich is belieed to reFect the liturgy of %erusalem for the earlier 5th century! assigns t"o psalms to each date in the calendar and pre@es the second
of them "ith the "ord Balleluia. 4See also
II. (pecial issues *. Instruments. . +iblical e@egesis. . The Hubilus. /. The singing of "omen in church. 5. Antiphony.
E. Music theory. 6. Metrical hymns. J. The musical character of early Christian song. Christian Church! music of the early! 0II1 $pecial issues 1. Instruments.
The polemic against musical instruments in patristic literature is remar,able for both its perasieness and its intensity. Pirtually eery one of the maHor Christian authors of the rd and /th centuries made peHoratie remar,s about instruments! and they seem almost to ie "ith one another in the ehemence of their rhetoric. %ohn Chrysostom! for e@ample! referred to musical instruments along "ith dancing and obscene songs as the Bdeil?s heap of garbage 4 $ Corinthios! #omily QII.57! and Arnobius of $icca as,ed1 B'as it for this that
instruments in an unfaourable light. A pagan author such as =iy! for e@ample! included the employment of "omen harpists at banuets among the undesirable lu@uries introduced to :ome from Asia 4 b urbe condita! @@@i@! E.673 and :abbi %ohana said1 B'hoeer drin,s to the accompaniment of the four musical instruments brings e punishments to the "orld 4Sotah! /Ja7. )eertheless the fulminations of the Christian authorities on the subHect go "ell beyond anything uttered by their pagan and %e"ish contemporaries. The most common e@planation gien for the patristic attitude is the association of musical instruments "ith pagan religious practices. Tertullian! for one! gae credence to the ie" "hen he said of the theatre1 B'hateer transpires in oice! melody! instruments and te@t is in the domain of Apollo! the Muses! Minera and Mercury. ou "ill despise! O Christian! those things "hose authors you can only detest 4"e spectaculis! @.7. +ut certainly the patristic position is not Hust one of theological
opposition3 the ethical element is at least as potent a factor. Indeed at times the t"o factors appears to merge in the minds of some Church 2athers! "ith the sense of se@ual immorality seemingly to be chieFy responsible for the intense emotional tone of their rhetoric. %ohn Chrysostom! for e@ample! "rote in this manner about the musical abuses at a marriage celebration1 )ature indulges in +acchic fren;y at these "eddings3 those present become brutes rather than men3 they neigh li,e horses and ,ic, li,e asses. There is much dissipation! much dissolution! but nothing earnest! nothing highminded3 there is much pomp of the deil here cymbals! auloi and songs of fornication and adultery. 4$n cta postolorum! #omily Q=II.7 A number of typical conte@ts for the patristic polemic may be noted1 the le"d behaiour of musicians in the theatre! the coarse singing and dancing at "eddings and the dubious profession of female harpists at
banuets. It is signicant that there are no instances of a patristic condemnation of musical instruments in church. If there had been! it "ould be reasonable to assume that the occasional intrusion of instruments into Christian ecclesiastical song "as a problem. +ut it "as not3 apparently the psalmody and hymnody "ere simply of such a musical character that the issue of instrumental accompaniment did not arise. This is not to say absolutely that at no time "ere instruments used in association "ith early Christian song. espite the lac, of positie documentary eidence! it is easy to imagine that in the earlier centuries in particular before the patristic chorus of condemnation had become so strident! and "hen Christian song "as especially spontaneous in character a psalm or hymn sung at an eening ritual meal might sometimes hae been accompanied by a lyre or ,ithara. See also +iblical instruments.
Christian Church! music of the early! 0II1 $pecial issues 2. Bi)lical e*egesis.
A considerable portion of the references to music in early Christian literature "ere made in an e@egetical conte@t. A large maHority of these references are found in a single e@egetical genre! the psalm commentary! "hich itself "as the most common genre of all patristic literature! "ith most of the maHor Church 2athers of the rd and /th centuries contributing their o"n e@ample of it. The typical psalm commentary is a lengthy "or,! e@plaining erse by erse each of the *58 psalms in order. There are many references to music in the psalms! especially references to musical instruments! and hence there e@ist a great number of corresponding passages from the psalm commentaries. The modern scholar cannot assume that these remar,s about music refer to the author?s contemporary circumstances! but their biblical conte@t must be ta,en into
account. This is all the more so because most psalm commentaries are "ritten in the style of the so-called allegorical or guratie e@egesis. This style! inFuenced in its early stages by the %e"ish )eoplatonist >hilo and deeloped by his Christian follo"er Origen! generally ignores the literal and historical meaning of a biblical passage and see,s instead to e@tract some spiritual! ethical or prophetic meaning from it. As for musical subHect matter! this is particularly obious in the "ay musical instruments are treated. At times the allegorical interpretations that the instruments are gien produce moderately successful gures! as in the follo"ing passage "here >seudo-Athanasius e@plains the distinction bet"een the t"o diKerent types of trumpet cited in >salm @cii.5E the trumpet of forged metal and the trumpet deried from an animal?s horn1 BA ferent and intense study of eangelical preaching is understood by the metal trumpets3 "hereas ,ingly dignity
is understood by the horn because ,ings are anointed from a horn. The treatment of the same passage in the psalm commentary of &usebius of Caesarea is! perhaps! less poetically apt3 for him the metal trumpet! beaten into shape oer a burning forge! signies the preaching of the Apostles "ho under"ent trial by re on account of their faith! "hile the horn represents action because the horn is ta,en from a beast of burden. The purpose of these interpretations! ho"eer! "as not to create good poetry in the :omantic sense3 it "as! rather! to proide theological and ethical edication. In any eent! "hat is note"orthy in this instance is a total lac, of reference to the historical obHects of the original psalmic passage! that is! the metal trumpets of the =eites and the shofar! and most certainly a lac, of reference to any contemporary Christian use of instruments. 'hile instruments account for much of the patristic musical e@egesis! other musical categories are also subHect to occasional
interpretation! most notably the set of related terms1 psalm! hymn and canticle. 2or e@ample! #ilary of >oitiers 4d E67! in the preface to his psalm commentary! proides a comple@ e@planation of the terms psalm and canticle as they appear in superscriptions to the Old Testament psalms. #e establishes four genres1 Bpsalm! Bcanticle! Bpsalm of a canticle and Bcanticle of a psalm. #e denes! for e@ample! the Bpsalm as the type "here Bthe oice rests and only the playing of the instrument is heard. A music historian "ho misses the e@egetical conte@t of #ilary?s interpretation might ta,e the passage to refer to the use of instruments by Christians in the psalmody of their o"n time. $ome Church 2athers distinguish the types of psalms by their content1 generally Bhymns and Bcanticles are said to be more e@altedly spiritual and Bpsalms more pragmatically ethical. In any eent these distinctions! generally made in reference to the superscriptions of the psalms! hae to do "ith diKerent categories of Old Testament psalms3 they must not
be confused "ith the threefold modern distinction of Old Testament psalms! ne"ly composed hymns! and biblical canticles. 'hile the maHority of patristic psalm commentaries employ the allegorical method! those produced by members of the Antiochene e@egetical school use the Bliteral or Bhistorical method. These e@egetes! then! "ere reuired to e@plain the use of instruments by the ancient Israelites3 "hy "as it! they as,ed themseles! that salm cl1 The =eites employed these instruments long ago as they hymned
from the error of idols. 2or since they "ere fond of play and laughter! and all these things too, place in the temples of the idols! he permitted them and thereby enticed the %e"ish people! thus aoiding the greater eil by aoiding the lesser. Christian Church! music of the early! 0II1 $pecial issues 3. &he +u)ilus.
The so-called Hubilus! mista,enly associated "ith the melismatic alleluia of the Mass! is also something that must be understood in the conte@t of biblical e@egesis. Pirtually all patristic references to the Hubilus occur in psalm commentaries by "ay of interpreting the term BHubilare and its deriaties 4not Balleluia7 as the "ord appears! for e@ample! in the opening erse of >salm @ci@1 ubilate "eo omnis terra. The Hubilus "as not a genre of Christian ecclesiastical song but rather a secular ocal phenomenon characteri;ed by the absence of "ords. At times it "as
described in the literature as a shout rather than a song! although at other times a more lyric character "as attributed to it. It appears in arious conte@ts but most often as a ,ind of rhythmic chant that agricultural "or,ers used as an aid to their labours. It earned its place in Christian literature "hen =atin Church 2athers appropriated it as a trope upon the "ord BHubilare3 Augustine in particular e@ploited the gure to great eKect in his irtually :omantic e@pansions upon the notion of a Hoy that surpassed ordinary speech. +ut no passage from patristic literature either states or implies that the Hubilus "as a deice of Christian ecclesiastical song. The application of the term BHubilus to the melismatic e@tension of the alleluia of the Mass "as rst made by Amalarius of Met; 4d cJ5871 BThis Hubilation "hich the cantors call the seuence! leads our mind to that state! "hen the spea,ing of "ords "ill not be necessary 4 Liber o2cialis! I.i! *E.7. The conte@t of this passage ma,es it clear that
Amalarius "as using the term seuence to refer to the melismatic e@tension of the alleluia. $till! the identication of the Hubilus "ith the alleluia "as not yet complete3 medieal authors! including Amalarius! used the term to refer to any sort of melismatic Fourish in the ecclesiastical chant! and it "as only in modern times that it came to be associated e@clusiely "ith the alleluia. See also Alleluia! 0I! ! and
%ubilus.
Christian Church! music of the early! 0II1 $pecial issues 4. &he singing of omen in church.
$t >aul set the tone for this issue "hen he "rote to the Corinthians1 B=et your "omen ,eep silent in the churches for it is not permitted unto them to spea, 41 Corinthians @i./7. Three centuries later $t Ambrose felt obliged to refer to >aul?s inHunction "hen adocating that all members
of the Christian congregation 4including "omen7 engage in psalmody1 BThe Apostle admonishes "omen to be silent in church! yet they do "ell to Hoin in a psalm3 this is gratifying for all ages and tting for both se@es 4%(planatio psalmi i! 7. >aul?s "ords aside! it appears that the issue of "hether or not "omen ought to sing at liturgical gatherings "as not freuently raised in the earliest years of Christianity. >resumably! "omen as a matter of course Hoined in the psalmody and hymnody of this time "hen ecclesiastical song "as more informal and spontaneous. The custom "as seldom uestioned until the rd and /th centuries! and een then not ery freuently. There are t"o obious reasons in addition to the inhibiting presence of >aul?s "ords "hy the issue "as nally raised. 2irst! the emergence of "omen?s choirs in heretical circles of the rd century! such as that "hich sang under the auspices of >aul of $amosota! may hae caused orthodo@ Christians to hae scruples oer the matter.
$econdly! there "as the spectacle of immoral female professional musicians! a phenomenon to "hich the Church 2athers of the rd and /th centuries made increasingly common allusion. :elated to this second reason "as a general puritanical sensibility that loo,ed upon all physical pleasure as morally suspect! se@ual pleasure in particular! but musical pleasure as "ell. %erome! for e@ample! "ell ,no"n as a rigorist on matters of se@uality from his notorious =etter on the subHect of irginity! betrays a hint of musical puritanism "hen he says1 BThe kakophonos! if he has performed good "or,s! is a s"eet singer before
,no" that "omen are to sing psalms in their chambers! a"ay from the company of menL ou! ho"eer! allo" them to put on display "hat they ought to do modestly and "ithout "itness 4Contra Pelagianos! i.57. +ut %erome?s position is that of the minority1 Ambrose! as stated! approed of "omen singing in church3 )iceta in his thoroughgoing discourse on psalmody at igils did not so much as allude to the issue! and neither did +asil and %ohn Chrysostom! the chief spo,esmen on ecclesiastical music in the &ast! in their numerous references to Christian song3 &phrem is said to hae actiely encouraged "omen?s choirs to sing his hymns. &en Augustine! "ho e@pressed an e@traordinary sense of guilt oer the pleasure he felt listening to the psalmody at Milan! neer once suggested in his many remar,s about singing in church that "omen ought to be e@cluded. +ut if "omen "ere not silenced in church by early Christian authorities! they "ere in later centuries as a result of historical
circumstances! namely! "hen lay congregations ceased to Hoin in the singing and an e@clusiely male clergy assumed control of church music. Christian Church! music of the early! 0II1 $pecial issues . ntiphony.
The role of antiphony in early Christian music is a matter of some controersy. 2or many years scholars maintained a neat threefold categori;ation of early Christian psalmody1 4*7 Bdirect psalmody the singing of a psalm from beginning to end "ithout responses or antiphons3 47 Bresponsorial psalmody the singing of the indiidual erses by a soloist! "ith a choral refrain sung after each erse3 47 Bantiphonal psalmody the alternate singing of the erses by t"o choirs. The third category! ho"eer! came to be uestioned by scholars such as #elmut #uc,e 4*57 and #elmut =eeb 4*E67. The primary diculty they had "ith the conentional ie" stemmed from the inconclusieness of the patristic
eidence. On the one hand there are e@tremely fe" unambiguous references to the alternate singing of t"o choirs 4li,e that of +asil?s =etter 86 uoted in 0I! aboe7! and "here such references do occur the term antiphony is not used to describe the phenomenon. On the other hand! those passages in "hich the term 4or some deriatie7 is used do not in fact describe the alternate singing of choirs. The uncertainty oer the issue focusses especially upon the t"o related passages that fall into the latter category. $ocrates and $o;omen! t"o early 5th-century ecclesiastical historians! in describing the same eent tell ho" Arians assembled outside at night and sang Bantiphonal songs e@pressing heretical ie"s on the nature and relationship of the 2ather! $on and #oly $pirit. Christians! in turn! "ere organi;ed to sing orthodo@ Trinitarian hymns! creating an impressie display for the faithful "ith their illuminated siler crosses. A confrontation bet"een the Arian and orthodo@ groups resulted in
serious iolence and a conseuent imperial ban on Arian hymnody. These t"o passages suggest a number of conclusions of arying degrees of probability. The Christian Bantiphonal song that they describe clearly inoled ne"ly composed te@ts celebrating the Trinity! and most scholars see a connection bet"een this obseration and the fact that later descriptions of antiphonal psalmody specify the use of a concluding do@ology. The passages also coney a general sense of musical e@citement! "ith the presence of enthusiastic cro"ds gathering in the nighttime. )e" melodies of a popular nature may hae been inoled! as "ell as a ariety of performance styles! choral and solo! including uite possibly some manner of antiphony! perhaps bet"een choirs of men and "omen! een if not a neatly symmetrical arrangement "hereby t"o choirs sang the erses of a psalm or hymn in alternation. The e@istence of a diKerent category of eidence seres to
complicate the issue still further. There are seeral passages concerning monastic psalmody that use the term antiphona as a noun "ithin a series of terms that appear to refer to diKerent modes of liturgical psalmody. &geria! for e@ample! in describing the singing of the %erusalem Bmona;ontes and Bparthenae! freuently uses e@pressions such as Band "ith eery psalm and antiphon a prayer is said! or Band there are prayers "ith each hymn and antiphon. $imilarly! the contemporary monastic :ule of >seudo-Augustine has e@pressions such as1 Buring May! %une! %uly and August there are eight antiphons! four psalms and t"o readings3 and that of the nun Melania the ounger1 B2or the night-time three responsories are to be completed N and at the morning oce fteen antiphons. A century later +enedict "ould "rite in his :ule of Bsi@ psalms "ith antiphons! and! conersely! Blet these three psalms be said straightfor"ard "ithout an antiphon. +enedict appears to spea, of the antiphon as a short
musical piece sung someho" in conHunction "ith the psalms! and it is not implausible that the /thand 5th-century passages uoted here use the term similarly. This has prompted some to claim that antiphonal psalmody "as nothing but responsorial psalmody "ith non-biblical refrains. This is surely an oersimplication! Hust as it is an oersimplication to euate antiphonal psalmody "ith the alternate singing of t"o choirs. >recisely "here the truth lies! ho"eer! may continue to elude een the most perceptie of modern commentators. Christian Church! music of the early! 0II1 $pecial issues /. 'usic theory.
Although the Church 2athers "ere igorous in their opposition to the concrete manifestations of pagan music! they "ere largely receptie to the classical discipline of music theory. This "as because their attitude to"ards music as an intellectual discipline "as simply one facet of their attitude to"ards classical intellectual culture as a "hole.
The early Christian authorities recogni;ed the necessity of a rapprochement "ith pagan learning. %erome might hae scrupled oer the pleasure he e@perienced in reading the classics! and the irascible Tertullian might hae as,ed disdainfully! B'hat has Athens to do "ith %erusalemL 'hat has the Academy in common "ith the ChurchL3 but most ac,no"ledged their dependence on classical learning. It "as after all the only intellectual system aailable to them3 they needed it if they "ished to e@press their beliefs systematically! to defend them eKectiely and to interpret the +ible "ith sophistication. Classical culture "as coneyed to the citi;ens of late antiuity in the educational system of the seen =iberal Arts. Much of the essential doctrine of the system "as present already in the educational teaching of >lato and Aristotle! een if it receied its denitie form only in the early 5th-century "e nuptiis Mercurii et Philologiae of Martianus Capella. This "or, proides short treatises
on each of seen arts1
concentrated on Hust t"o of the three principal diisions of Musica1 Metrica and :hythmica. #e announced his intention to contribute another treatise on the third diision! #armonica! a highly technical subHect that deals "ith the classical tonal system! but not surprisingly he failed to accomplish this. 4In fact his "or, on Musica "as originally conceied as part of an ambitious plan! again not reali;ed! to compose a treatise on all seen of the =iberal Arts.7 The early Christian acceptance of the pagan =iberal Arts "as of great signicance for subseuent music history. The tradition "as continued by the Eth-century Christian intellectuals +oethius and Cassiodorus! both of "hom attempted to summari;e classical music theory "ithin their encyclopedic treatment of the =iberal Arts. Their "or,! in turn! "as absorbed by the Carolingian music theorists! "ho applied the ocabulary and concepts of the classical Musica to the ecclesiastical chant of their o"n time. This uniue eKort not only
proided a systematic e@planation of their o"n music but probably helped to determine the subseuent course of 'estern classical music! characteri;ed as it is by its strong rationalistic bias. Christian Church! music of the early! 0II1 $pecial issues 0. 'etrical hymns.
To be distinguished from the anonymously composed! uasiprose hymns li,e Ph)s hilaron and 'loria in e(celsis are the metrical hymns of self-consciously artistic character created by ecclesiastical gures of the /th century. The greatest of the &astern poets "as &phrem $yrus 4d 67! "hose $yriac madr3she strophic hymns "ith refrain erses had an important inFuence upon later &astern liturgical hymnody! in particular upon :omanos the Melodist! the celebrated Ethcentury +y;antine hymnographer of $yrian descent. The rst of the =atin hymnodists "as #ilary of >oitiers 4d E67. It is not ,no"n "hether his highly comple@ poems "ere
intended for liturgical use! but those of his some"hat younger contemporary Ambrose of Milan 4d 67 most assuredly "ere. These "ere graceful erses in a simple iambic tetrameter that must hae been eminently singable from the start! een though it is not ,no"n if the beguiling tunes to "hich they are set in the medieal sources hae any relation to their original melodies. Many hymns of the Ambrosian type referred to in fact by the term Bambrosiana "ere composed in the early Middle Ages and "ere attributed to the reered bishop of Milan. At least four of them eterne rerum conditor ! "eus creator omnium! am surgit hora tertia and &eni redemptor gentium are most certainly his "or, and possibly another ten in addition. It remains something of a surprise that the Ambrosian hymn gained a place in the monastic Oce of Eth-century
monasticism as "ell as the early Christian reluctance to employ non-biblical te@ts. See also #ymn! 0I.
Christian Church! music of the early! 0II1 $pecial issues . &he musical character of early Christian song.
There e@ists only one certain monument of early Christian music! and a possible second. The rst is the so-called O@yrhynchus #ymn! a substantial fragment of a hymn to the Trinity discoered at O@yrhynchus in =o"er &gypt in about *8 by
ho" characteristic of early Christian music this seemingly isolated fragment "as. The possibly contemporary e@ample of Christian song is the simple $anctus melody that is best presered in the 'estern medieal :euiem Mass. (enneth =ey 4*5JE7 has argued persuasiely that this melody! and indeed the entire dialogue bet"een celebrant and congregation of "hich it forms a part! dates from the /th century. It is narro"er in range than the O@yrhynchus #ymn! as bets a congregational acclamation! and slightly more syllabic! "hile its diatonic tonality diKers from that of the #ymn in that it has a halfstep belo" its nal. &en if this $anctus is accepted as authentic music of the /th century! and its rough similarity to the O@yrhynchus #ymn is noted! the t"o proide little eidence on "hich to generali;e about the character of early Christian song. Only a number of broad reFections on the subHect are possible. It can be said "ith some degree of certainty that
early Christian music "as largely diatonic. The one or t"o presered e@amples aside! it appears that the music of the entire Mediterranean basin and Mesopotamian area! oer a period of many centuries! "as basically diatonic! een if sometimes embellished chromatically and microtonally 4see Croc,er7. )o doubt Christian music ineitably participated in this tonal enironment. It can also be said that early Christian music "as te@t-centered and as such probably tended more to"ards the syllabic than the melismatic melodic pole. This does not e@clude the occasional "ordless utterance in the enthusiastic atmosphere of primitie Christianity! but it does rule out the supposedly common rhapsodic types of song incorrectly associated "ith the Hubilus. Might it be said! then! that early Christian music "as Bsimple in characterL Certainly the ,ind of display inoled in song accompanied by a battery of instruments! li,e that of the %e"ish Temple or of many pagan cult
practices! "as foreign to it. And ta,ing into account that the Christian "orship of the rst centuries "as conducted in domestic settings! it is reasonable to suppose that the song of the time "as characteri;ed by a certain intimacy. +ut! accordingly! as Christian "orship moed into the great basilicas of the Constantinian period! its music "ould hae had to adapt to the ne" acoustical enironment. $till! it "as the soloist "ith congregational response! rather than the practised choir! that remained the dominant mode of performance in the /th century. The soloist! moreoer! continued generally to be called a lector rather than a cantor and freuently "as a mere youth rather than an adult. All this does not mean that Christian song "as dull and unattractie in the /th century. >robably the singing of the nocturnal igil! employing at times the so-called Bantiphonal songs! "as generally lielier and more popular in character than that of the &ucharist! although this is not
to say that the &ucharist "as altogether lac,ing in musical interest. Much depended! no doubt! upon the natie ability of the lector and also upon the uality of the tunes that "ere used as congregational responses. Of signicance for the latter is the remar, of Augustine about >salm c@@@ii.*! %cce /uam bonum1 B$o s"eet is that sound! that een they "ho ,no" not the >salter sing that erse 4 $n psalmum c@@@ii.*7. In summary it must be remembered that early Christian song "as the music of an oral tradition! indeed of many diKerent oral traditions! maintained in a ariety of regions oer a number of centuries. Pariety might ery "ell hae been its single most constant uality.
regorian chant A term conentionally applied to the central branch of 'estern >lainchant. Though not entirely appropriate! it has for practical reasons continued in use. ope $tephen II 46567 to (ing >ippin III 465*EJ7 in 65/. >ope $tephen! together "ith a considerable retinue of :oman clergy! including! presumably! the $chola Cantorum! remained for seeral months at $t enis and other Carolingian centres. (ing >ippin is reported to hae ordered the imposition of the cantus romanus at the time and to hae
called for the suppression of the indigenous ippin?s son Charlemagne 46EJJ*/7 issued numerous edicts endorsing his father?s policy. The association of the chant "ith the name of ope ope
Canterbury to conert them7! and &nglish scholars li,e Alcuin of or, dominated the Carolingian court circle. It "as
century "ith substantially intact melodies 4#ughes73 and a third! "hile agreeing "ith the latter ie"! contends that such melodic stability reuired the support of notated manuscripts! no" lost! that e@isted already in the time of Charlemagne 4=ey7. In any eent! the so-called
them in surface elaboration and tonal focus. Consideration of the momentous issues raised by the relationship of these t"o chant dialects has caused the conentional names for each to be called into uestion. It is hard to beliee that
$ld oman chant. Old :oman chant is a liturgical repertory of melodies that suries in certain manuscripts dating from bet"een the **th and *th centuries! but it must hae e@isted in some form or other centuries before. +ecause of the nature of the source material! musical and historical! most scholarly discussions of Old :oman chant hae related the repertory to the better,no"n # #&=MGT #GC(&9%O$&># &:
Old :oman. $uch terms! ho"eer! only lessen the degree of historical inappropriateness "ithout eliminating it altogether! and many scholars! "hile fully a"are of the inadeuacies of the standard terms! continue to use them for reasons of presentational conenience.
1. eneral.
Three graduals and t"o antiphoners surie1 one gradual from the church of $ Cecilia in Trasteere in :ome "ritten in *86* 4C45C6bodmer C 6/73 one gradual perhaps from $ ietro in :ome from the *th century 4.-at $ >ietro 2 73 one antiphoner from an un,no"n :oman church! perhaps $ Croce in ietro! :ome! from the *th or *th century 4 $5.-at $ >ietro + 67. All the manuscripts are thus of :oman origin. Te@tually and liturgically they conform to
manuscripts "ithout melodies 4missals and ordinals73 and on this basis it has been claimed that the e@istence of the Old :oman tradition can be traced bac, to the end of the Jth century. $ome of the unnotated BtWmoins indirects 4#uglo! *5/7 are of non:oman or northern proenance! and their releance as "itnesses of Old :oman chant has been challenged 42rWnaud! *57. In the critical literature there is no single ie" as to "hat this chant tradition should be called. The name BOld :oman chant 4BAltrXmischer
The authors of the introduction to Le r7pons5 graduel ustus ut palma 4>alMus! *st ser.! ii! *J*9 .7!
"ho published a melody of the Old :oman tradition for the rst time! regarded this tradition as a later! urban :oman distortion of the
*58 by +runo $tYblein. According to $tYblein the Old :oman tradition represents "hat "as sung at the time of >ope ope Pitalian 4E5667 these melodies "ere subHected to an Bingenious reshaping! the result of "hich is "hat "e ,no" as ope Pitalian "as actie in the eld of liturgical chant. The second basis for this dating is a list! contained in an Jth-century 2ran,ish manuscript 46rdo romanus ,$, 7! of persons "ho had done much for the cause of :oman chant. The list starts by enumerating popes and closes "ith the names of three abbots 4Catolenus! Maurianus and Pirbonus7 "ho "ere presumably aliated "ith the basilican monasteries around $ >ietro in :ome at the time of Pitalian. These three abbots "ere supposed by $tYblein to hae ta,en part in the reshaping of Old :oman into
else"here in :ome! especially in $ >ietro! the Old :oman rite "as used "ith Old :oman melodies. Pan iH, oKered circumstantial eidence that the special papal liturgy stretched bac, much further than the *th century and that it had been connected "ith ope ope Pitalian supposedly founded the :oman $chola Cantorum. $mits an 'aesberghe! on the other hand! argued that the Old :oman chant "as the chant of the papal liturgy! and that during the 6th century this chant "as transformed into
not adopted by Old :oman chant until late! and then only incompletely. This "ould be ine@plicable if
"as transmitted orally for a long time and that this oral tradition "as recorded in arious :oman churches independently of each other. espite the fact that the liturgical practices of the papal court! of the urban churches and of the :oman monasteries each had distinctie features 4Pan iH,7! that alone "ould be insucient eidence for the cultiation of t"o diergent musical styles in the same city. Apart from "hateer apprenticeship training in music might hae been aailable in the :oman tituli 4see :ome! 0II! *7! there e@isted in :ome only one singing school! the papal $chola Cantorum 4yer! *7.
e@tended period of oral transmission at :ome. The process by "hich Old :oman chant "as displaced by ope Innocent III 4**J**E7. According to a late */th-century report 4:adulph de :io7! the Old :oman rite and its music "ere ocially suppressed during the ponticate of )icholas III 4*66J87. 3. $ld oman chant style.
In spea,ing of the stylistic peculiarities of the Old :oman tradition the uestion must be ans"ered as to "hether these peculiarities are common to the diKerent classes of chant or "hether they occur predominantly or een e@clusiely in specic classes of chant. 2or e@ample! the manner of recitation! often cited as being characteristic of the Old :oman tradition! in "hich a t"o- or three-note ornamental gure is reiterated continually 4e@.*7! occurs predominantly in the oKertories.
more angular and assertie
one! so that the continuation of the melodic Fo" is apparent rather than the melodic structure. There is a need to inestigate the e@tent to "hich this is a uestion of the style of performance and the e@tent to "hich the musical notation should be understood as an indication of melodic structures or as a suggestion for a method of performance. In the Old :oman tradition the care ta,en in recording the melody is palpably less! and the freuency of ariations in the transmission of the same melody is irtually a characteristic. Another hallmar, of the Old :oman tradition as opposed to the
A stylistic characteristic in the Old :oman tradition! or at least in the larger part of its repertory! seems to be the tendency to allo" melismas and phrases to Fo" oer the caesura and to lin, each "ith the follo"ing
An initial general surey of the relationships bet"een the chants of the t"o traditions has been made by $no" 4*5J7. Among the introits some pieces in the t"o traditions sho" a ery close relationship! "hile most correspond only generally. iKerences of te@t occur more freuently in the oKertories than in other classes of chant. #ere the traditions diKer from each other more in the melodies of the erse than in those of the refrains. A peculiarity of the Old :oman oKertories is the occurrence of unusually long melismas that diKer stylistically from the melismas of the alleluias. In addition! there is a manner of recitation that occurs in the oKertories "hereby a
three-note ornamental gure is reiterated for successie syllables of te@t 4see aboe! e@.*7. The number of Old :oman alleluia melodies is smaller than in the
from a foreign musical language. The reised
communion and also for those of the introit. The Old :oman melodies of the Ordinary of the Mass appear to hae been ta,en oer "holesale from
. &he relationship )eteen the regorian and $ld oman melodies of the $%ce.
The diergencies of the Old :oman repertory from the
eidence of a diKerent stylistic character. A stri,ing characteristic of the Old :oman responsories is the fact that the indiidual melodic phrases Fo" directly into each other1 often the cadence of the rst part is only completed by the opening of the second part. As a "hole! the responsories of the nd mode in the Old :oman tradition are more uniform and consistent. In the case of Oce antiphons 4according to $no"7! most of the standard melodies of r\m! a "itness of the 2ran,ish tradition at the turn of the th and *8th centuries! about 5E[ recur in $5.-at $ >ietro+ 61 on the other hand! the *th-century antiphoner $5Lc E8* contains about E[ of the Old :oman antiphons. %ammers postulated that the Hoint corpus in Italy "as enlarged by later compositions from the th and *8th centuries. +ut only about half of the antiphons hae the same melody. In the antiphons for =ent! "hich probably belong to the oldest corpus! the traditions deiate from each other more considerably. Cutter has dra"n attention to the fact that standard antiphon melodies! used for diKerent te@ts! appear in the Old :oman tradition "ith eer ne" and diKerent ariants3 and that! in addition! they deiate mar,edly from one another in both Old :oman antiphoners. Therefore the relationship of the Oce antiphons in each of the t"o
traditions oKers a diKerent picture from that of the responsories. Old :oman psalmody has been inestigated by #uc,e. In the Old :oman graduals! ariants of the eight
"lainchant plainsong5 4from =at. cantus planus3 2r. plainchant 3 lain-chant musical7. musical 7. This article is concerned "ith the chant of the :oman and deried rites considered historically! historically! including its place "ithin Christian chant as a "hole and its relationship to the liturgy that it seres.
*. Introduction1 chant in &ast and 'est. . #istory to the *8th century. . $ources. /. +asic repertory repertory.. 5. $tyle. E. &@pansion of the repertory. 6. Chant in the religious orders. J. Chant in northern and central europe. . Chant in =atin America. *8. eelopments from *588 to *J88. **. :estoration and reform in the *th century. *. 8th-century deelopments. +I+=IO<:A># (&))&T# =&P9: 4*7! %O#) A. &M&:$O) 4**! 4**! "ith %A)& +&==I)<#AM +&==I)<#AM and API #I=&3 **4iii7 "ith +&))&TT ]O)7 1. Introduction6 chant in 7ast and 8est.
The roots roots of the liturgical liturgical chant chant of the Christian Churches lie partly in established %e"ish $ynagogue practice of the apostolic period!
partly in ne" deelopments "ithin early Christianity itself and partly in pagan music at the dierse centres "here the rst churches "ere established 4 see Christian Church! music of the early! early ! and %e"ish music! 0II 0II7. 7. Three centres e@ercised primary inFuence! %erusalem! Antioch Antioch and :ome! and and Constantinople! Constantinople! established as the eastern capital of the :oman &mpire in the /th century! became a fourth. In the centuries after the &dict of Milan 4*7! "hen freedom of Christian "orship "as sanctioned! there deeloped distinct families of &astern and 'estern 4=atin7 rites! each local rite haing its o"n liturgy and music. The music can be studied! ho"eer! only "here notation permits1 notation appears no"here before the th century! and precise representation of pitch is not found in liturgical boo,s until the **th century. The chief representa representatie tie of the the &astern liturgies is the alestinian elements3 it may hae
been subHect also to :oman inFuence! since it "as due to :ome that the ancient site of +y;antium "as endo"ed "ith a ne" imperial status. 2rom the *8th century! many manuscripts proide eidence of the +y;antine rite and its music3 by the *th century! the full repertory of +y;antine chant had been copied in a notation as unambiguous as the notation for 'estern alestinian 4Mel,ite7! )estorian and Chaldean rites 4see $yrian church music7 music7 as "ell as the Coptic rite 4 see Coptic church music7. music7. The
their notation is incomplete and transcription is problematic 4 see
obscure3 although it bears the name of
ordinary celebration3 or as a late! stylistically degraded outgro"th of the
importance! since "hat is presered comes from :aenna 4see :aenna chant7. chant7. A centre for similar deelopments may also hae been the inFuential patriarchate patriarchate of Auileia-
,ingdoms! only isolated traces surie in manuscripts dating from the th to the *th centuries. $ome rocessional77 and Ordinary chants. >rocessional The Mo;arabic Mo;arabic 4Old $panish7 rite deeloped in the Pisigothic ,ingdom in early medieal $pain from the end of the 5th century and continued to Fourish in Christian communities during the period of Arab dominance from 6** until its suppression suppression in faour of the
>atric, in the 5th century. Its early liturgy "as ery similar to that of the
4i7 The early centuries. 4ii7 The origins of lainchant! 01 #istory to the *8th century i! &he early centuries.
Consolidation of liturgical practices and the systematic compilation of lists of prayer formularies 4libelli missarum7 for local use in the 'estern Church began during the /th! 5th and Eth centuries. This process is manifest in the oldest suriing Mass boo, of the 'estern liturgies! the socalled =eonine $acramentary 4also ,no"n as the Perona Collection1 $5 &%cap =QQQP 4J873 ed. Mohlberg! *5E7! composed during the rst uarter of the 6th century. As far as is ,no"n! this fragment containing ** collects and other prayers is a composite collection of :oman libelli missarum assembled for use at Perona some time bet"een about 5E8 and E88. Most of its material is attributed to the "or, of earlier popes1 amasus 4ponticate EEJ/7! =eo I 4//8E*7! roper of the Mass! that is! specic formularies created for
and permanently assigned to indiidual dates in the liturgical year3 rather! the celebrant could choose from a libellus a ariety of prayers releant to each feast or he could compose his o"n. There is also some eidence that the te@ts of non-biblical chants "ere composed on a similarly ad hoc basis. Conseuently! in the absence of any >roper for the te@ts of the &ucharist there could be no >roper for the music. :eferences in medieal literature to the institution by arious popes of Bchants for the liturgical year probably refer to the collection and arrangement of libelli and should not be interpreted as eidence for the deelopment of a musical >roper. Mc(innon 42*5! pp.8*87 has argued that a >roper repertory could hae been created only by a group of cantors deoted to the cultiation and preseration of chant3 the single group of this ,ind ,no"n to hae e@isted in the 'estern Church before the Carolingian era is the :oman $chola Cantorum! founded probably in the second half of the 6th century. According to
Mc(innon! the chants of the other maHor 'estern liturgies "ere performed by soloists "ho largely improised the melodies they sang! although the simple chants sung by the congregation must hae had @ed melodies. Most of "hat is ,no"n about the early history of the music of the iine Oce comes from the suriing =atin monastic regulae 4B:ules7! "hich began to appear in the late /th century and usually contain descriptions of the cursus the diision of the >salter throughout the "ee,. Among the most important pre-Carolingian regulae "ere the 5th-century $nstituta of Cassian! used at =Wrins3 the early Eth-century .egula magistri! "ritten for an un,no"n monastery near :ome3 the :ule of +enedict of )ursia! composed sometime bet"een c58 and c5E8 for the abbey of Monte Cassino 4see 2orman and $ullian! 2*673 the regulae of Caesarius! bishop of Arles 4 c/68 5/73 and those of Columbanus 4 d E*57! the Irish mon, and founder of =u@euil and +obbio. +efore the th century! monasteries in
2rancia "ere free to choose or compile their o"n :ule and the singing of the cursus aried from community to community. uring the reign of =ouis the >ious 4J*/ /87! ho"eer! a series of decrees "ere issued! imposing on 2ran,ish communities the :ule of +enedict and the canonical :ule of Chrodegang. Although none of these regulae describes the actual sound of monastic chanting! they reeal that all full members of the community "ere e@pected to ,no" the entire >salter by heart and to participate in the singing of the Oce! "hich included both choral and solo chanting. #o"eer! some :ules! notably the .egula Benedicti! state that the solo psalmody should not proceed by order of seniority of the mon,s! as "as the case in many monasteries! but that only those "ho "ere able to edify the listeners should be permitted to chant. +efore the the mid-Jth century! "hen the Carolingians assumed political po"er in the 2ran,ish lands! the liturgical practices of the 'estern Churches
"ere ery dierse. Although the pope held authority oer doctrinal matters! he e@ercised no Hurisdiction oer the manner in "hich "orship "as conducted outside the :oman Church. &en "ithin separate ,ingdoms liturgical uniformity "as unusual3 the
Church! and by the Jth century they also regarded him as the source of their liturgy. The emulation of the :oman rite by the Anglo-$a@ons is particularly signicant for the history of 'estern plainchant! for it is clear that their desire for conformity "ith :ome "as not limited to the te@ts of the rite but also e@tended to its music! although it is impossible to Hudge the e@tent to "hich such ideals "ere enforced in practice. 2urthermore! it is li,ely that the legend of lainchant! 01 #istory to the *8th century ii! &he origins of regorian Chant.
A fundamental policy of the early Carolingian monarchy! one that began under >ippin the $hort 465*EJ7 and continued rst under >ippins son Charlemagne 46EJ J*/7 then under Charlemagnes son =ouis the >ious and his grandsons =othar! >ippin and
Charles! "as the reform of ecclesiastical discipline and the imposition of religious unity among the 2ran,s and their subHect peoples. An important means by "hich the Carolingians pursued their ideal of religious unity "as through the promotion of uniformity in "orship. They aimed to replace the dierse ippin the $hort and "as probably implemented under his direction. A ne" sacramentary "as issued that had been created from a mi@ture of
*E! 9*EJ! no.J553 and Moreton! *6E7. Although copies of the Jth-century ope ope #adrian I 46657! "hich arried in 2rancia some time bet"een 6J/ and 6*! "as deposited in the palace library as an e@emplar from "hich further copies could be made. Although the original manuscript of the sacramentary! ,no"n as the B#adrianum! is no longer e@tant! a single early copy of it suries in the sacramentary of Cambrai 4F5C *E/7! "ritten in J** or J* under the direction of #ildoard of Cambrai 4see
omini. #ic sacramentorum de circulo anni e@posito a sancto ope of :ome! "as "ritten using the e@emplar of the authentic boo, of the palace library7. The #adrianum! ho"eer! proed to be unsatisfactory in t"o respects. 2irst! it "as clearly not the Bpure! authentic te@t of entecost! neither did it proide prayers for the special liturgies for funerals! otie
masses etc. These apparent lacunae in the sacramentary decreed to be the 2ran,ish standard "ere lled only during the reign of Charlemagnes son! =ouis the >ious 4J*//87! "hen +enedict of Aniane 4 c658J*7! an Auitanian mon, and architect of many of =ouis church reforms! completed his supplement to the #adrianum 4see 'allace-#adrill! 2*J! pp.5J83 Pogel! +*EE! &ng. trans.! pp.67! "ith the missing material compiled from other sacramentary te@ts3 some uniuely
still circulating in 2rancia in the early th century! but it eentually supplanted the other te@ts to become the standard Mass boo, of the 2ran,ish Church and "as the sacramentary ,no"n to the most important liturgical commentators of the th century! including Amalarius of Met; 4c665cJ587 and 'alahfrid $trabo 4cJ85/7. 42or an edition of the #adrianum and its supplement! see eshusses! 2*6*J.7 Although most of the documentary sources for the Carolingian Church reforms concern the romani;ation of the sacramentary and the other liturgical te@ts! there is also eidence that the same ideals shaped the deelopment of plainchant under the early Carolingians. The earliest descriptions of the reform of chant "ere "ritten during the reign of Charlemagne! but seeral of them date the beginnings of the policy of replacing ippin! in particular to the isit of >ope $tephen II to 2rancia in 65 /. According to >aul the eacon
4c6J7 +ishop Chrodegang of Met; 46/EE7! "ho had escorted >ope $tephen to 2rancia in 65! began to instruct his clergy at Met; in the :oman manner of chanting 4PL! @c! 687. Chrodegang also established a stational liturgy based on the papal rite and formed a schola cantorum to perform the chant 4Andrieu! 2*873 this "as probably the rst such choir to be introduced into 2rancia 4see Mc(innon! 2*57. >ippins brother! +ishop :emedius of :ouen! also taught his clergy :oman chant. A letter from >ope >aul I 4M<#! %pistolae! iii! *J! pp.55/7 "ritten in 6E*9 describes ho" :emediuss mon,s "ere unable to learn :oman chant fully from $imeon! a member of the :oman $chola Cantorum! before he "as recalled to :ome! and ho" :emedius then sent his mon,s to :ome to continue their instruction in the $chola itself. >ope >aul also sent >ippin t"o :oman chant boo,s! an Bantiphonale and a Bresponsale 4see M<#! %pistolae! iii! *J! p.573 neither one is e@tant.
Gnder Charlemagne a number of royal decrees promoted and enforced the :oman rite and its chant throughout 2rancia. The most important "as the dmonitio generalis issued in 6J "hich stated that all the clergy should learn and practise the :oman chant correctly in conformity "ith >ippins attempt to abolish the
to introduce :oman chant and the nature of the relationship bet"een the music sung in :ome in the late Jth and early th centuries and that sung in 2rancia at the same time. The Carolingian belief that
Cantorum in the name of the highest ope =eo IP "ritten in the J58s threatened an abbot "ith e@communication if he and his mon,s did not perform the chant handed do"n by >ope ope %ohn PIII 4J6J7 in "hich ope by the #oly $pirit in the form of a doe 4see g.3 on the deelopment of the legend see Treitler! I*6/! and #iley! C*! pp.58*7. >resent-day scholars hae reHected this image of
composer of plainchant. Pan iH, 4<*E*7 proposed that the reform of the :oman liturgy by >ope ope
found that there "ere diKerences bet"een the te@ts and ordo sung in :ome and those performed in Met;3 'alahfrid $trabo 4 d J/7 accepted that elements of the ope apal $chola! 2*E7. Gnfortunately there is no means of directly comparing the music sung in :ome "ith that sung in 2rancia during the Carolingian era. )otation deeloped in 2rancia in the th century and fully-notated chant
boo,s are ,no"n only from the end of that century3 notated boo,s from :ome! ho"eer! surie only from the **th century on"ards. The repertory notated in the 2ran,ish chant manuscripts is ,no"n as alMus! *st ser.! ii! *J*9 .7 and Andoyer 4<****! pp.E! *867. $ince the *58s seeral theories hae been adanced to e@plain the relationship bet"een the
that the Carolingians "ere on the "hole successful in reproducing the original melodies. #uc,e! on the other hand! pointed to the accounts of contemporary "riters such as %ohn and eacon and )ot,er and argued that the
particular importance is the uestion of the degree to "hich melodies "ere @ed. Many of the arguments hae centred on the nature of the :oman $chola Cantorum and the role it played in the creation and maintenance of :oman chant. Its precise origins are obscure3 traditionally! its foundation "as ascribed to ope $ergius I 4 d 68*7 in the Liber pontifcalis 4ed. uchesne! 2*JJE7! "hich describes ho" the young $ergius "as handed oer to the prior cantorum for training. The $chola Cantorum is no" generally thought to hae been established some time in the second half of the 6th century 4Mc(innon! BThe &ighth-Century 2ran,ish-:oman Communion Cycle! 2*3 yer! 2*7. +y the time 6rdo romanus $ 4ed. Andrieu! 2** E*9.! ii! E6*8J7 "as composed!
probably at the beginning of the Jth century! the structure of the $chola "as rmly established. According to this 6rdo it "as led by the primicerius 4or prior 7! "hose duties included beginning and ending the chants of the liturgy! and three other subdeacons ,no"n as the secundus! tertius and /uartus 4also called the archiparaphonista73 the other adult members of the $chola! probably clerics in minor orders! "ere called paraphonistae! and the young pupils the paraphonistae in+antes. The e@act si;e of the $chola Cantorum is not ,no"n. 4See also $chola Cantorum 4i77. The :oman $chola Cantorum is the only institution dedicated to the teaching and performance of chant ,no"n to hae been formed in the 'est before the Carolingian era. :esearch by Mc(innon 4BThe &ighth-Century 2ran,ish-:oman Communion Cycle! 2*7 suggests that it "as largely responsible for the formation of the musical >roper in the :oman rite and the deelopment of a high degree of melodic @ity in the
:oman repertory. According to Mc(innon the :oman musical >roper emerged uic,ly oer a fe" generations beginning sometime in the second half of the 6th century and continuing into the early Jth! the reign of >ope
modes according to musical characteristics irrespectie of their liturgical function. Although the theory of the eight modes! as it deeloped from the th century on"ards! classies melodies by their cadence note 4nal7! ambitus and reciting note! mode also carries implications of melodic idiom! characteristic turns of phrase! "hich defy easy theoretical denition. $uch melodic characteristics "ere sometimes represented in theoretical "ritings and in tonaries by a set of eight short melodic phrases associated "ith syllables such as noeanne! noeagis etc.! probably borro"ed from +y;antine chant 4see +ailey! =*6/7. 'hile the "ord Btonus "as at rst preferred for this comple@ of meanings! Bmodus gradually became more usual 4Btonus referring to the harmonic interal! especially in polyphony7 4 see At,inson! =*J6 and *57. A distinction is still commonly made bet"een the theoretical concept of Bmode and the formulas for singing psalm erses or
responsory erses! usually called Btones. &he :rst concrete e#idence for the classi:cation of regorian chants in eight tones or modes is the fragmentary &onary of (t i;uier, F-Pn lat.131<, =.1/0> 1/0v see am)er, ?1/!, dating from +ust )efore 99 and contained in the "salter of Charlemagne copied at the a))ey of (t i;uier in northern rance. &he modal system already e*isted at an earlier date, hoe#er, in the 7astern Churches. It as taken up )y the ranks at the time of the esta)lishment of regorian chant in rancia, presuma)ly from Byantine practice. part from the earlier e#idence for the oktōēchos, urelian of DEme f 49s! says that it as adapted from the reeks, as are also the Fatin names gi#en to the modes protus authentus@ plagalis etc.!. See 'ode, GIIA $ktchosA and "salm, GII, />0.!
It is probable that the classication of the repertory according to melodic type aided the eKorts of 2ran,ish cantors to learn and perform the ne" repertory! particularly the psalmodic chants in "hich the mode of the antiphon determined the tone of the psalm erse. The composition of tonaries 4liturgical boo,s listing chant incipits classied according to the eight modes3 see Tonary7 containing a large number of chants indicates that such boo,s sered as a reference tool for cantors! for e@ample the Carolingian Tonary of Met; compiled in the rst half of the th century 4 F5M% 5*3 ed. =ipphardt! =*E57. #o"eer! it is clear that the deelopment of the system of the eight modes also sered a theoretical purpose as early as the reign of Charlemagne. The Tonary of $t :iuier "as probably designed as a didactic or theoretical te@t! for only a fe" chants are classied according to their modes and not all of the chant types listed 4introits! graduals! alleluias! oKertories and communions7 contain psalm
erses. It is li,ely that this tonary "as "ritten to demonstrate that the "hole of the repertory conformed to the system. The same belief is found in many of the early medieal treatises on music theory! beginning "ith the anonymous "or, ,no"n as the "e octo tonis "hich formed the basis of part of Aurelian of :WDmes Musica disciplina 4cJ/8587. 'ith the composition of the anonymous treatise lia musica in the second half of the th century the eight modes "ere identied 4erroneously7 "ith the seen octae species of ancient hrygian! =ydian and Mi@olydian3 and the plagal the #ypodorian! #ypophrygian! #ypolydian and the #ypomi@olydian. Although the Carolingians "ere coninced that their so-called :oman chant conformed to the system of the eight modes! the eidence of the notated melodies and seeral theorists sho"s that the
eidence that the eight modes "ere recogni;ed in :ome until lainchant! 01 #istory to the *8th century iii! &he origins of plainchant notation.
2e" present-day scholars of medieal music "ould disagree
"ith the premise that early chant melodies dating from before the time of >ippin 465*EJ7 "ere transmitted from generation to generation by oral methods alone. Isidore of $eille! "riting in the rst half of the 6th century! said that music had to be memori;ed because there "as no means of "riting the sound! and there is no eidence that music notation e@isted in the medieal 'est before the Carolingian era. The melody for the prosula Psalle modulamina in "5Mbs Clm 5/ 4see e@.7 is possibly the earliest datable e@ample of medieal notation 4see =ey! 2*5! esp.*6! n.57. The chant is follo"ed in the manuscript by the colophon of the scribe &ngyldeo! ,no"n to hae been a cleric at $t &mmeram in :egensburg bet"een J*6 and J/ 4see MXller! La tradi*ione dei tropi liturgici! M*J5 and *J6! pp.6E7! and +ischoK 42*/87 beliees the notated piece to be in his hand! although this has not been uniersally accepted. The earliest unambiguous eidence of the use of notation
occurs in the Musica disciplina ! a treatise "ritten in the J/8s by Aurelian of :WDme. &@amples of neumes are rare before the appearance of fully notated chant boo,s for the Mass at the ery end of the th century 4for a chec,list of th-century notated manuscripts see )otation! 0III! *! Table 7. 2ully notated antiphoners containing the music for the Oce did not appear until a century later. $ome hae argued that a large number of th-century notated sources hae been lost and that the "riting of music "as therefore much more "idespread than the suriing eidence suggests. =ey! in particular! has suggested that fully notated chant boo,s e@isted as early as the reign of Charlemagne and that these "ere ,ept in the palace library! together "ith the #adrianum and other liturgical te@ts! as the authoritatie e@emplars for the teaching of chant 4I*J67. In =eys ie" this e@emplar "as central to Charlemagnes policy of transmitting :oman chant accurately throughout 2rancia. #o"eer! no direct eidence for
such a manuscript suries! and most scholars beliee that the scarcity of notation before the turn of the *8th century is a true reFection of ho" little notation "as used during the th century 4Corbin! %.i *663 #ughes! I*! pp.E5E7. The notation found in the early chant boo,s is neumatic! that is! it represents the outline of a melody "ithout specifying the interals or pitches. Cantors had rst to learn a melody by oral methods before they could read it in the notation. The main purpose of such notation "as to sere as a reminder of the melody! and the earliest notated chant boo,s "ere probably used for reference rather than performance. Although specic pitch notations "ere deeloped by theorists in the second half of the th century! the notation of e@act pitch in chant boo,s "as not used until the **th century "hen seeral diKerent methods appeared. #eighted point neumes are found in notated chant boo,s from Auitaine in the early **th century! and an alphabetic system of dening pitch is found in the
iHon Tonary 4F5M6+ # *57 and some manuscripts from )ormandy and &ngland. At the same time
according to the uantities employed! for e@ample in =atin metrical erse3 others! including the mon,s of $olesmes! beliee that the chant "as more basically sung in eual notes but "ith rhythmic nuances. As "ith many other aspects of early chant history! the origins of plainchant notation are obscure. A number of diKerent e@planations concern the shape of the neumes. $ome scholars maintain that neumes are graphic representations of cheironomic gestures the moement of the precentors hands as he directed the singers 4see Mocuereau! >alMus! *st ser.! i! *JJ9 .3 #uglo B=a chironomie mWdiWale! I*E7. Others beliee that 'estern notation "as deried from +y;antine e,phonetic notation! a system used to direct the recitation of lections. Another group has suggested that the neumes o"e their form to the accents of classical prosody! "hether directly from manuals of =atin grammar or indirectly ia +y;antium 4see At,inson! I*57. Treitler 4I*J3 B:eading and
$inging and Bie &ntstehung! I*J/7 has proposed that neumes deeloped from the arious punctuation signs uestion mar,s! points! commas etc. employed by Carolingian scribes to aid readers in the deliery of te@ts. #o"eer! it may be that none of these theories alone can adeuately account for the shape of the neumes and that Carolingian notation eoled independently of any pre-e@istent source 4see )otation! 0III! *7. Most scholars "ould hold that the e@tant arieties of Carolingian notation all derie from a common origin! but they disagree as to the e@act nature of this origin. $ome argue in faour of a single primitie system of neumes as the source of all the later notations3 others consider it more li,ely that the diersity eident in the e@tant neumatic systems arose from a set of commonly held concepts about the function of notation and ho" musical sounds should be represented 4#ughes! I*J63 Arlt! Musicologie m7di7-ale; Paris 1<=>! %.i *J7. It is certain!
ho"eer! that neumes "ere
subHect to considerable change and adaptation in diKerent 2ran,ish centres throughout the th century. The three earliest e@tant notated graduals! all "ritten around 88 4C45S's from $t
its uniformity. Pariants in the melodies are generally minor and "ere probably caused by diKering opinions about ho" the melodies "ere to be sung rather than by scribal error 4see #ughes! I*J63 I*7. The same ariants are often found in groups of manuscripts copied in the same region. The transition from an oral tradition to the earliest types of "ritten plainchant notation and the role of notation in maintaining the uniformity of the tradition during the th century are the subHect of considerable debate. =eys argument for the e@istence of a notated e@emplar during the reign of Charlemagne assumes that the melodic repertory "as largely @ed by the end of the Jth century. This assumption is supported by #ughes 4I*J6! esp. 667! but "hereas =ey argues that the uniformity in the manuscripts resulted from the use and copying of notated chant boo,s! #ughes maintains that the chant had acuired a @ed melodic form "ell before the appearance of the earliest
suriing notated manuscripts and that cantors "ere capable of performing almost all their chants from memory "ith ery little ariation. Treitler and #uc,e! ho"eer! hae argued that performance of the
The determined eKorts by medieal scribes to ma,e records of the liturgy according to some ,ind of orderly plan parado@ically led to an almost endless diersity. +albonis attempts 4see *E* and *J57 to classify liturgical
boo,s by general type! though admirable! failed to deal adeuately "ith the boo,s internal diKerences. iersity among the original medieal sources! ho"eer! does not necessarily imply disorder 4a confusion that can easily occur "hen such a multiformity is ie"ed from the perspectie of modern liturgical boo,s71 it is rare to nd an unsystematic anthology of liturgical music 4see #uglo! *JJ7. 2our general categories of plainchant boo, may be distinguished1 the Mass boo,! the Oce boo,! boo,s containing Bparaliturgical chants and didactic boo,s. The principal types of chant boo, for the Mass are the gradual and the noted missal. Oce chants are found in the antiphoner and in the noted breiary "ith psalter and hymnal. Chants to be performed during liturgical processions "ere commonly included in Mass boo,s at the appropriate place in the liturgical year. In the =ater Middle Ages they "ere freuently collected in a boo, of their o"n!
the processional. =ater medieal forms! "hich hae largely fallen from use! are the paraliturgical chants 4arious chants consisting of musical and9or te@tual additions to the established liturgy71 tropes! seuences! prosulas! se/uentiae and -ersus. These occur in seeral congurations1 in separate olumes 4e.g. troparia! seuentiaria! ersaria73 in distinct sections "ithin medieal Mass boo,s3 or inserted either singly or in groups "ithin indiidual Mass >ropers. The tonary and certain ,inds of abbreiated gradual and antiphoner are pedagogical directories that assisted the cantor in the proper selection and performance of chants. Other types of liturgical directory prominent during the Middle Ages "ere the ordinal 4Liber ordinarius7 and the Consuetudines monasticae 4for modern editions of the latter see #allinger! V*E7. The ordinal "as a code of rubrics and incipits of formularies! chants and readings! and indicated the order for celebrating the serices in a particular church or monastery.
The 6rdines romani 4ed. Andrieu! 2**E*9.7! a collection of 58 formerly independent ordines! the earliest of "hich dates from the early Jth century! are a particularly aluable source of eidence for the deelopment of the :omano-2ran,ish rite. The monastic customaries include regulations concerning chanting by mon,s in both liturgical and non-liturgical conte@ts. $uch ordinals and customaries hae come to play an increasingly important role in plainchant research 4see Angerer! V*663 2assler! V*J53 2oley! V*JJ3 Pelle,oop! *E7. See also =iturgy and liturgical boo,s! 0II! and articles on indiidual boo,s.
ii! 'anuscripts6 dating, origin and distri)ution.
Only a small proportion of the medieal sources that once e@isted are e@tant today3 many manuscripts hae been lost to "ar! re! "ater and! in some cases! deliberate destruction.
+oo,s containing the te@ts or music for liturgies that "ere no longer practised "ere often neglected! "hich e@plains "hy so fe" boo,s of the
"ell ,no"n. &stablishing an uncontested origin or date for some medieal liturgical manuscripts is! on occasion! irtually impossible. One of the most important adances relating to these problems "as the reali;ation that the series of alleluias used at Mass for the $undays after >entecost freuently adhered to established local traditions that had persisted for decades or een centuries 42rere! *J/! p.l3 +eyssac! **7. 2or e@ample! a gien set of post->entecostal alleluias in manuscript B@ of ,no"n origin may closely match a series in manuscript By! thus strongly suggesting that both sources "ere copied for a specic church! although the manuscripts may hae been copied decades apart. Three **th-century series of post->entecostal alleluias are sho"n in Table . The $t enis 4>aris7 series "as rmly implanted by the mid-**th century 4see the eight manuscripts cited by :obertson! **! p.*8E7. That used by the Augustinians 4Canons
:egular7 at the abbey of $t Pictor in >aris is based on the gradual F5 Pa *6! K.J8- *8/- ! dating from *686! and the $t Pictor ordinal! Pn lat.*//5! K.E/J- ! dating from about *88 4see the manuscript descriptions in 2assler! V*7. The Cluniac series is ta,en from the **th-century Cluniac gradual F5Pn lat.*8J6! f.J6K. &en after centuries of obscurity! chant boo,s in priate possession hae continued to come to light! including the Cadouin collection 4see Corbin! *5/7! the gradual of $t Cecilia di Trasteere 4#ourlier and #uglo! <*57! the 'eingarten Troper 4Irten,auf! *5/7! the )eers Troper 4#uglo! M*567! the 'olKheim Antiphoner 4&merson! *5JE7! the $t Albans Miscellany 4#art;ell! *657! the Mont-:enaud Antiphoner 4>alMus! *st ser.! @i! *55E7 and the 2eininger collection 4
#esberts ntiphonale missarum se(tuple( 4*59.7! an edition of the Mon;a! :heinau! Mont-+landin! CompiZgne! Corbie and $enlis graduals! is the principal documentary means of determining the si;e and content of the alMus! *st ser.! i! *JJ9.7! "hich "as sureyed by >eter 'agner 4C9*8*! i! 857 4see Table 7. Comparable statistics for the si;e and nature of the
formularies plus ne"ly composed Oces from northern 2rance. 2rom that time to the *Eth century a huge number of special Oces "ere composed in honour of local saints! such as $t Thomas of Canterbury! $t =ouis IQ! ,ing of 2rance! or $t aid! patron of 'ales 4see #ughes! O*J7. +iblical te@ts! particularly the >salter! formed the basis of "orship in the 'estern Churches! although some liturgies admitted a greater number of non-biblical te@ts than others. Parious =atin translations of the psalms e@isted during the early Middle Ages! producing ariations in the te@ts of chants. The :oman >salter remained the ersion used in the :oman Church until the *Eth century. The salter! one of the seeral translations produced by $t %erome! "as faoured by the salter! thereby proing
their :oman rather than 2ran,ish origin. 42or a study of these early psalters and the readings of chant te@ts! see yer! 2*J/3 see also >salter! liturgical7. Most biblical chant te@ts are rather brief e@cerpts ta,en directly from the scriptures3 others! such as the communion &idens "ominus ?entes sorores La*ari for 2riday of the fourth "ee, in =ent 4 ohn @i.! 5! //! 7! are made up from seeral passages3 and some are paraphrases of the scriptures. The predominance of biblical te@ts in the basic repertory of Mass chant >ropers 4about E8 melodies in C45S's 7 is sho"n in Table / 4after 'agner! C9*8*! i! 857. Chants not normally using biblical te@ts include many Oce antiphons! processional antiphons! Ordinary chants! creeds! acclamations! preces! litanies! historiae or special Oces for local saints! hymns! seuences and most tropes. Accounting for the te@tual ariants bet"een chant boo,s is a problem sometimes encountered in
plainchant research3 some of the ariation can undoubtedly be attributed to the transmission of distinctie biblical readings belonging to local traditions 4for e@amples see
and transpositions7 E (yrie melodies 4=and"ehr-Melnic,i! (*559.7! 5E
4A#! @lii! *859.7 and 6JE tropes to >roper chants of the Mass 4A#! @li@! *8E9.73 'eiss 4M*687 edited 5 introit trope melodies from t"ele *8th- and **thcentury manuscripts from southern 2rance. #esberts monumental comparison of * secular and monastic antiphoners from the central Middle Ages 4CAO! ii@ii! *E67 emphasi;es the comple@ity of the sung Oce liturgy. The manuscripts that he collated contain about *J5 initatories! /88 antiphons! *88 responsories and 5 ersicles. It must be ,ept in mind! ho"eer! that these numbers "ould increase dramatically if all the ,no"n metrical and non-metrical chants from special Oces for local saints enerated throughout 'estern &urope "ere ta,en into consideration. In addition! a series of antiphoners freuently containing items not found in CAO hae been edited in the CA)TG$ series 4see Collamore and Met;inger! #he Bamberg ntiphoner ! *83 Ole@y! *3 $teiner! *E7. :andel 4#*67
inde@ed appro@imately 5888 musical items of the Mo;arabic rite! including many hymns that presumably had sung te@ts but for "hich the manuscripts do not proide notation. . (tyle. i! 'elody.
2rom a purely formalistic and stylistic standpoint! plainchant melodies of all types! both liturgical and paraliturgical! may coneniently be separated into three classes according to the ornateness of their melodies1 syllabic! neumatic and melismatic. In the rst group each indiidual syllable of the te@t is normally set to one note3 in the second! small clusters of t"o to ten or so notes may accompany a syllable3 chants in the third group are essentially neumatic in style! but "ith Forid passages embedded in them 4in rare cases a single syllable may be sung to seeral hundred notes7 4see e@.*7. &ach liturgical category of chant is in general characteri;ed
by a specic melodic type. $criptural readings! prayers! litanies!
Another common means of distinguishing plainchant melodies
is by their internal musical structure. Three main forms are usually cited1 chants sung to reciting notes or recitation formulae3 repetitie and strophic forms3 and a "ide ariety of Bfree forms. Collects! &pistles!
four-line stan;a of the traditional iambic dimeter or octosyllabic te@t is sung to the same melody. $euences are characteri;ed by a stri,ing form of coupled melodic phrases 4strophes7! freuently! but not al"ays! paired in series 4 BBCC"" etc.7. >eter 'agner 4%in+@hrung! iii! C**9.7 and! follo"ing him! Apel 4C*5J7 made a distinction bet"een Bgebundene and Bfreie 2ormen. +y Bgebunden 4Bbound! Btied7 'agner meant a type of deliery that remained constant "hateer te@t "as being sung! as for prayer! lesson and psalm tones 4Apel1 Bliturgical recitatie7. The Bfreie 2ormen 4Apel1 Bfree forms7 "ere those "here the melody "ould diKer substantially from piece to piece 4as in introits! graduals! alleluias! tracts! oKertories and communions7. The currency that the "ord Bfree thus gained may hae contributed to an impression that the chants lac, shape and sense! "hich is far from being the case. Their internal structure is largely determined by the syntactical structure of the te@t! reFected! for e@ample! in the
deployment of cadences. Many "ithin a particular type are lin,ed to each other by common melodic formulae. Many alleluias contain internal repetition. iii! 'odality.
2rom the standpoint of musical analysis! modality is probably the single most homogeneous feature of
the lo"est note of the ambitus "as the nal note3 among the plagal modes the ambitus began e semitones belo" the nal note 4see Table 57. $ome chants! particularly if they are in a plagal mode! do not cadence regularly but are considered to be transposed and to end on an alternatie nal note. This transposition "as done Bnot in order to bring them into a more conenient range! but because of the interallic structure of the melody 4Apel! C*5J7! particularly if! for e@ample! both + and + "ere reuired by the same chant. $ee aboe 04ii73 see also Mode! 0II. i#! "erformance.
The plainchant repertory is freuently diided into three general families according to the manner of performance1 antiphonal chants! sung by t"o alternating groups of singers3 responsorial chants! sung by a soloist 4or soloists7 in alternation
"ith the choir3 chants sung entirely by the celebrant! the soloist or the choir. According to present practice! the psalms! antiphons! initatories! introits and communions are sung antiphonally by t"o semichoruses3 the ater noster! arious salutations and do@ologies etc. are among the solo chants sung or intoned directly by the Mass celebrant. Considered more closely from a historical perspectie and not simply from the basis of modern usage! this seemingly orderly classication is subHect to many e@ceptions and conHectures. 2or e@ample! some scholars consider the oKertory an antiphonal chant3 others beliee it "as responsorial. #uc,e 4(*68! pp.*/7 admitted three forms1 an antiphonal type! a responsorial type and a middle or Bmi@ed type. =ater! yer 4(*J! p.87 concluded that there is no eidence "hatsoeer to support the commonly held ie" that the oKertorys mode of performance
changed from responsorial to antiphonal1 B)either the 6rdines romani! the medieal liturgists and music theorists 4"ith the possible e@ception of Aurelian7! nor the ope =eo I 4//8E*7 the gradual "as still a full psalm! but by the Eth century the te@t had probably been reduced to a single erse "ith an elaborate melody sung by a soloist. &en the grand countermoement of *8th- and **thcentury liturgical e@pansion! the
age of troping and Cluniac proli@ity! "as short-lied. +y the mid-*th century the ornate melismatic erses of the oKertory and the psalm erses of the communion had irtually disappeared! e@cept in most salmody! #*E7! and some of his interpretations diKer from those adanced by +rou and by +roc,ett. There is disagreement! for e@ample! oer "hether the responsory "as sung by one! t"o or three soloists! by three choirs! or by a combination of soloists and choir 4see +roc,ett! #*EJ! p.*/*73 on the other hand! a passage in the second prologue of the *8th-century =e^n Antiphoner 4%5L J3 see +rou and Pies! #*57 proides almost indisputable eidence that the Mo;arabic antiphon "as sung by t"o alternating choirs 4see :andel! op. cit.! J67.
The performance of Ambrosian chant in Milan to"ards the beginning of the *th century is "ell documented 4see 'ea,land! #*EE9.3 and +orella! #*E/! pp.*/*K7. The duties of singers at the Ambrosian Mass and at Pespers and the manner of performing arious chants are described in the ordinal of +eroldus 4ed. Magistretti! #*J/9.7 "ritten shortly after **5 and in the chronicle of =andulphus senior 4c*8J57. See also >erforming practice!
0I! 4i7.
2or more detailed discussion of the arious Mass and Oce chants see their indiidual articles.
/. 7*pansion of the repertory.
4i7 Trope. 4ii7 >rosula. 4iii7 Melisma.
4i7 $euence. 47 Conductus! ersus! cantio. 4i7 :orate chants. 4ii7 =iturgical dramas! laments. 4iii7 The medieal Oce. >lainchant! 0E1 &@pansion of the repertory i! &rope.
In its common generic sense! troping designates the intercalation or addition of music or te@ts! or both! to pre-e@isting chants. $pecic musical forms associated! correctly or mista,enly! "ith troping are the trope! prosula and seuence. It is adisable! ho"eer! to distinguish them according to clear liturgical and compositional criteria. In particular! not all can be regarded as additions to already e@isting chants. The notion of Ba single! clear e@planation N for the confusing "ealth of musical forms introduced in the th- and *8thcenturies N a ruling idea of a process "hereby all medieal music "as necessarily and intimately tied to pree@isting
materials is illusory 4Croc,er! M*EE7. The group of scholars at $toc,holm Gniersity "or,ing on the Corpus Troporum proHect proposed that tropes added to the
freuently also "ith the Oce responsory. The surey by Odelmann 4M*657! "hile reealing much ariety in medieal practice! ma,es it clear that the term Btropus "as used primarily to refer to the logogene category! and this nomenclature is retained here. An added te@t of the melogene type "as usually referred to as a Bprosa or Bprosula 4see 0E4ii7 belo"7. The se/uentia seuence 4also sometimes called Bprosa7 is a largely self-contained liturgical genre "ith its o"n independent musical form 4for separate discussion see 0E4i77. The te@ts of trope erses for introit! oKertory and communion that hae been edited in the series Corpus Troporum 4by * only those for Christmas! &aster and Marian feasts had appeared7! from manuscripts mostly of the *8th to *th centuries from all oer &urope! already number many hundreds. $ince the manuscript sources are highly ariable in their selection of erses and in ariant readings!
musical editions hae tended to concentrate on small groups of sources from particular areas 4Auitaine1 'eiss and &ans3 +eneento1 >lanchart3 )onantola1 +orders7. araclete! B>atris9BMatris7 and the matching of syllables helped bind its si@ lines to the older Mass te@t. The melody of the parent
omine 2ili unigenite! %esu Christe! 4*7 B$piritus et alme orphanorum >araclete! omine eus! Agnus ei! 2ilius >atris! 47 B>rimogenitus Marie! irginis matris! N suscipe deprecationem nostram 47 BAd Marie gloriam! N Vuoniam tu solus sanctus! 4/7 BMariam sancticans! Tu solus ominus! 457 BMariam gubernans! Tu solus altissimus 4E7 BMariam coronans! %esu Christe The duality of thought in the trope! acclaiming the Trinity and the +lessed Pirgin Mary! "as imitated by subseuent medieal and :enaissance composers. 2or e@ample! the fourth! fth and si@th phrases "ere Hoined to a troped $anctus 4from Mar@er! :*8J! p.*8571 $anctus! >ater omnipotens! BMariam coronans! $anctus! 2ilius unigenitus! BMariam gubernans! $anctus! $piritus >araclitus!
BMariam sancticans! ominus eus $abaoth Retc.S In yet another adaptation! the B$piritus lines "ere ta,en apart and interlaced into another poetic te@t 4from +u,of;er! M*/! *E5 E71 BMariam matrem gratie! :e@ regis regni glorie! Matrem pie Bsancticans. BMariam sine crimine! Omni pleni dulcedine! Pirgo matrem semper erans Matrem 2ilio Bgubernans Retc.S In an anonymous three-part doubly troped polyphonic M2C! @ii! *6E! no.! pp.8671 omine 2ili unigenite! %esu Christe. B$piritus et alme orphanorum >araclete R&M$>S&@ >atre semper genitus! R&M$>S>er Famen dulcis halitus! R&M$>SGt Fos nous est editus! R&M$>SPirga %esse fecundata.
omine eus! Agnus ei! 2ilius >atris. B>rimogenitus Marie! irginis matris R&M$>SAgnus ei pacicus! R&M$>Ssaac risus celitus Retc.S On J August *5E bishops at the Council of Trent declared that references to the Pirgin Mary in the Trinitarian
#o"eer! %onsson 4M*67 has sho"n conincingly that these interpolations hae nothing to do "ith tropes but are e@egetical comments by Amalarius on the Trinity. Although a number of logogene-type trope erses "ere composed for the (yrie! principally in the area of southern
misleading from a historical point of ie"3 the compositions are a special festal type of (yrie "ith =atin erses. 4See also (yrie eleison and Trope 4i7.7 According to the Liber pontifcalis! a biographical history of the popes in :ome 4see )oble! 2*J57! the Agnus ei "as introduced into the Mass as a separate chant! unconnected "ith the ope $ergius I 4EJ668*7! and "as sung by both clergy and congregation at the rite of the 2raction 4brea,ing of the bread7. =ater Jthand th-century accounts state that it "as sung by the $chola Cantorum and performed during the (iss of >eace. In his study of this Ordinary chant! At,inson 4M*657 regarded the earliest erses as distinctie tropes added to the ancient te@t1 Bone can! "ithout hesitation! spea, of the Agnus ei and its tropes! een "ith regard to its earliest settings. #is chronological categories ta,e into consideration a hypothesis adanced by #uglo 4M*657. According to this theory! "hich has since become central to
many early chant studies! the regionali;ation of the early trope repertory reFects the political diision of the Carolingian &mpire from about J/ 4the Treaty of Perdun7 to shortly after J68 4the Collouy of Meersen7. Agnus tropes found in both &ast and 'est 2ran,ish manuscripts! "hich display fe" ariant melodic readings! represent the oldest layer 4before J5873 a second group of trope te@ts found in both regions but set to diKerent melodies "as "ritten bet"een J58 and J653 a third class "as "ritten after J65! and these tropes are restricted to one of the t"o geographical ;ones. The appearance of poetic and symmetrical te@ts is characteristic of *8th-century troping techniues. The terms Bfarsing and Bglossing hae also been used as synonyms for troping 4 see 2arse7. B2arsa often occurred in connection "ith a special type of troping used in the &pistle in some of the festal liturgies of the Christmas season 4)e" ear! &piphany etc.3 see 0E47 belo"7.
#ere erses of the lesson alternated "ith phrases borro"ed from pre-e@isting chants 4seuences! hymns etc.7. The terms "ere also employed for certain Btroped deotional songs popular especially in +ohemia during the */th and *5th centuries 4see
>lainchant! 0E1 &@pansion of the repertory ii! "rosula.
A prosula is a te@t added syllabically to a pre-e@isting melisma. One of the oldest recorded e@amples is Psalle modulamina! in "5Mbs Clm 5/! f.**- ! for the alleluia "ith erse Christus resurgens3 this alleluia is not to be found in the earliest graduals 4see #esberts ntiphonale missarum se(tuple( ! *59.! *887 or in the late th-century full gradualantiphoner F5$ //! but is no" assigned to the fourth $unday after &aster. The manuscript "5
Mbs Clm 5/ may be the oldest
datable source of neumatic notation. 2or each note of the original melody a syllable of ne" te@t is proided! the complete alleluia te@t being itself incorporated! syllable by syllable! in the ne" prosula. A transcription 4by :ichard Croc,er7 of Psalle modulamina is gien in e@. 4the "ords in capitals represent the te@t of the original erse7. More common than the te@ting of a complete melody in this fashion "as the te@ting of indiidual melismas "ithin a chant! particularly those of the alleluia! oKertory erse and the
A substantial collection of * alleluia! oKertory and responsory prosulas is found in F5Pn lat.***J! K.**5*! an Auitanian troper dating from J5E 4see $teiner! M*E7. In prosulation the neume forms of the original melismatic notation! particularly such integral binary and ternary combinations as the /uilisma! podatus! cephalicus and epiphonus! "ere often separated! in a some"hat unorthodo@ manner! into indiidual notes! and each component note of the neume "as assigned a te@t syllable. &idence of this splitting can be obsered in the alleluia prosula Laudetur omnis tibi cater-a 4see e@.7 from F5Pn lat.8! the gradual-troper-proser of $t riei@la->erche! near =imoges 4see >alMus! *st ser.! @iii! *59 .! p.*6! lines E! J*87. The dual notation 4melismatic9te@ted7 of prosulas has raised many uestions about the method of performance1 simultaneous or alternatim 4see! for e@ample! #ofmann-+randt! M*6! pp.*/J3 (elly! M*6/3 More! >*E5E! pp.**7. The
same uestion has been raised in connection "ith seuences! "hich in most early sources "ere also set out in both melismatic and te@ted form. See also >rosula.
>lainchant! 0E1 &@pansion of the repertory iii! 'elisma.
$ince the presence or absence of responsory melismas is some"hat ariable in the manuscript tradition! it is not al"ays clear "hether they "ere there from the beginning 4"hateer that may mean7 or additions to a parent responsory. $ome appear to hae led a semiindependent life! as in the case of the famous Bthreefold melisma 4the Bneuma triple@ or Btrifarium neuma7 described by Amalarius of Met; in his Liber de ordine antiphonarii 4*J3 see #anssens! 2*/J58! iii! 5E7. According to Amalarius this neumed melisma 4see (elly! M*JJ7 originally belonged to the Christmas
responsory $n medio ecclesiae 4CAO! i! *68! no.E*7 for the feast of $t %ohn the &angelist 4J ecember7! but singers of his day! the Bmoderni cantores! transferred it to the Christmas responsory "escendit de caelis 4ibid.! no.E/**7! "hich ended "ith the phrase Blu@ et decus uniersae fabricae mundi. >rosulation of the last t"o "ords of the triple melisma! Bfabrice mundi! and one of its associate te@ts! Facinora nostra rela(ari mundi gloriam! that is! the addition of "ords to the interpolated neumed melodic melisma! may already hae begun in the late th century. Added melismas of a diKerent sort are to be found as embellishments of numerous introits and lainchant! 0E1 &@pansion of the repertory
i#! (e;uence.
The term Bseuentia is used here to refer to the te@tless melismas of arying length and melodic comple@ity designed to replace the repetition of the liturgical %ubilus of the alleluia of the Mass "ith a more e@tended melody1 alleluiaHubiluserse se/uentia. There is controersy as to "hether such melodies "ere actually performed as te@tless melismas! or "hether they "ere te@ted from the beginning the state in "hich they are ,no"n from the late th century on"ards. The earliest references to such melodies do indeed imply a te@tless state. The oldest record occurs in the Code@ +landiniensis of the end of the Jth century 4K.**/- **53 for manuscript details see 04ii7 aboe3 see also #esbert! *59.! *J7! "here si@ alleluia incipits ubilate "eo3 "ominus regna-it 3 Beatus -ir 3 #e decet h!mnus3 Cantate "omino canticum no-um3 Conftemini "omino are follo"ed by the rubric Bcum seuentia. 'riting bet"een t"o and four decades later! Amalarius of Met; 4 Liber
o2cialis! iii! *E3 see #anssens!
2*/J58! ii! 8/7 alluded to the se/uentia as BHubilatio uam cantores seuentiam ocant 4Bthis Hubilatio "hich the singers call a seuentia7. The term also appears in the late th-century 6rdo romanus & 4see Andrieu! 2**E*9.! ii! *57. Again! Amalarius 4Liber de ordine antiphonarii! *J3 see #anssens! op. cit.! iii! 5E7 related that "hen the pope celebrated &aster Pespers the alleluia "as adorned "ith erses and se/uentiae3 such melodies do indeed surie in sources of Old :oman chant! and much longer ones in Ambrosian alleluias 4see +ailey! #*J7. Most interesting are the canons of the $ynod of Meau@ in J/5! "hich not only mention the se/uentia as a solemn part of the alleluia but also forbid the addition of te@ts 4Buaslibet compositiones! uas prosas ocant7 4see Liturgische #ropen! M*J/! p.ii7. Only one suriing manuscript of the th century! F59# $J 4/7! transmits se/uentiae in musical notation! but the te@ts that )ot,er of $t
to seuence melodies some /8 te@ts to diKerent melodies aKord at least partial eidence of "hat melodies "ere ,no"n in the late th century 4)ot,ers "or, "as completed in JJ/7. &@actly "hich melodies "ere ,no"n to Amalarius or the delegates to the $ynod of Meau@ has not been determined3 those cited in the +landiniensis can be identied "ith reasonable certainty. +ut the balance of the eidence seems to faour the e@istence of at least a moderate number of unte@ted se/uentiae early in the th century! the practice of te@ting them already being ,no"n by the middle of the century. 4 See also $euentia.7 The seuences found in manuscripts from the early *8th century on"ards are usually transmitted in both melismatic and te@ted forms. It is! ho"eer! dicult to say e@actly ho" many of the melodies thus recorded date bac, to the early th century. $ome may hae been relatiely recently composed as a unity! that is! te@t and music being conceied simultaneously. Croc,er in
particular 4M*67 has stressed this ie" of the genre3 indeed! he "ould argue that most if not all of the seuences that hae come do"n to us "ere te@ted from the start. At the same time! a fe" notated collections of seuence melodies surie "ithout any te@ts. 2or e@ample! F5C4.m /6! dating from about 88! is the oldest3 C45S's /J/ is a $t
early sources is the names gien to the melodies 4diKerent names in diKerent areas7. $ome relate to alleluia erses! others 4in 2rench sources7 to seuence te@ts! "hile many are colourful appellaties "hose meanings seem uite obscure! such as Metensis! urea! Planctus cigni and Ploratum 4see g./7. >lanchart 4.echerches nou-elles sur les tropes liturgi/ues! M*! pp.6*! n.57
has underlined the confusion in terminology that e@ists bet"een the terms se/uentia and prosa1 The problems are as old as the repertory itself in that! "est of the :hine! the purely melodic addition to the alleluia "as called se/uentia! and the te@t to the se/uentia and by e@tension the entire piece "as called prosa. &ast of the :hine! se/uentiae "ere irtually neer copied as separate pieces! instead they "ere entered in the margin of the te@ts to "hich they "ere sung! "hich "ere proided "ith no music other than the marginal se/uentiae. The singer had thus
the possibility of singing the melody "ith or "ithout "ords. &ast 2ran,s used the term se/uentia for the entire combination of "ords and music. Independent se/uentiae "ere all but un,no"n in Italy! "here irtually all manuscripts transmit the te@t "ith the music set directly aboe it. et! the Italians adopted the 'est 2ran,ish terminology! "here the te@t "ith its music "as called prosa or prose! and the purely melodic "or, "as called se/uentia. The seuence "as the single most important genre "ith an independent musical structure to emerge during the th century. Its normal position "ithin the Mass "as bet"een the alleluia erse and the reading of the
relationship often e@ists bet"een the nal note of the composition and its many internal cadences. The origin of the seuences distinctie double-erse structure is not clear. e hillips 4M*J7 assert1 There is no need to insist further that the identication of these te@ts as Barchaic seuences rests on uestionable grounds. Aspects of their te@t structure! content! and early manuscript tradition simply do not support a ninth- and tenth-century function as seuences of the mass. It is our t"entieth-century approach to the music of that era "hich is the principal diculty here. 'e ,no" nothing of the early use of these te@ts! and most seem to hae been of ery limited dispersion.
The parallel structure characteristic of normal seuences occurs in a
diKerent pre-e@isting melodies for the same te@t! "hile the usual process of contrafacture! proiding ne" te@ts for established melodies! continued as before. Many te@ts composed by the >arisian canon Adam of $t Pictor 4? rst half of the *th century7 gained special popularity. 42or a discussion of the Pictorine seuences used in >aris! see 2assler! M*7. See also $euence 4i7.
>lainchant! 0E1 &@pansion of the repertory #! Conductus, #ersus, cantio.
A number of *th- and early *th-century sources contain =atin songs! ariously named conductus or -ersus! mostly in accentual! rhyming erse! "hich e@hibit strophic and refrain forms of the utmost ariety and inentieness. The manuscripts fall into t"o groups. $ong collections "ith relatiely little indication of the liturgical function of the songs are
F5Pn lat.**! 6* and 5/
4from Auitaine3 many songs set polyphonically7! 'B5Lbl Add.EJJ* 4from L2rance3 many polyphonic7! Cu 2f.i.*6 4from L&ngland3 many polyphonic7! and %5Mn JJ! J and */* 4from )orman $icily7. Many of the same songs and others li,e them are also found in sources of the special festal liturgies of the Christmas season associated "ith the B2east of 2ools on )e" ears ay! the 2east of the Circumcision. These are the )e" ears ay Oce of $ens 4F5S% /E3 ed. Pilletard! O*867! the )e" ears ay Oce of +eauais 4 'B5Lbl &gerton E*53 ed. Arlt! O*687! the &piphany Oce of =aon 4 F5L E7! and the $t %ames Oce of $antiago de Compostela 4%5SC! ed. 'agner! O**3 many polyphonic songs7. The picture that emerges is one "here the songs are used as substitutes for traditional chants! especially for the ersicle Benedicamus "omino; "eo gratias! and for accompanying
liturgical actions 4entrances and e@its! the procession of the reader to the lectern! etc.7.
$uch songs subseuently ta,e their place in an e@tensie literature of rhymed prayers and deotional erse poetry cultiated in southern oland from the late *th century to the *6th. Many of these =atin poems "ere published by Mone 4(*J559.7 and rees 4A#! *JJE*9.! i! @@! @@i! @@@iii! @l b7. Among the faourite obHects of this pious deotion "ere the Trinity! Corpus Christi! the #oly Cross! patron saints! the angels and! aboe all! the Pirgin Mary. A fe" of the earlier songs reeal #ussite sympathies! such as the Corpus Christi chant esus Christus nostra salus 4A#! @lb! *8/9.! no.*857! "hich contains as an acrostic the name IO#A ))&$! the =atini;ed rst name of %an #us 4see #. (amins,y1 4istor! o+ the 4ussite .e-olution ! +er,eley! *E63 and aid! $*57. It is often dicult to determine the function of these pieces because the sources proide fe" helpful titles or rubrics3 they may hae been sung generally at Pespers! during
processions and for priate deotions. A clue pointing to some formal use in a serice is the freuent inclusion of the terminal abbreiation &oae of the do@ology. It is also interesting to note that many of these moderately short poems are in trochaic metre! popular for marches or processions. The te@ts of these poems and songs are deeply imbued "ith styli;ed symbolism e@pressed in botanical! astronomical! musical and biblical metaphors. Many are constructed on an acrostic scheme or contain glosses from the =ords >rayer! -e Maria or Sal-e regina. Among the lengthy metrical Marian psalters! some of "hich hae musical prologues! each of the *58 erses may begin "ith stoc, acclamations! such as BAe! B$ale! BPale or B&ia. The musical forms are highly ariable. $trict poetic forms tend to follo" regular patterns such as aab! aabbc or similar arrangements. Macaronic te@ts and musical refrains are used! but not to the same e@tent as in the contemporary &nglish carol. On
the other hand! throughcomposed melodies! "hich contain at most a fe" brief internal repeats! are associated "ith poems lac,ing end-lines! free poetic metre! or articial constructions such as the alphabetic acrostic in e@./ e@./.. A Cantional Cantional is is a collection of these deotional songs and other chants brought together either as a separate section "ithin a gradual! antiphoner or processional! or as an independent boo,. Most of the music is monophonic "ith =atin te@ts! but polyphonic pieces and ernacular translations often appear. The principal manuscript cantionals are C:54 II.A.E II.A.E 4olim /7 4*Eth century73 Pnm QIII.A. 4*Eth century73 Pu III..*8 4*5th century7! P.#.** 4*/th century7! PI.+./ 4*Eth century7! PI.C.8a 4*5th or *Eth century7! Q.&. 4*5th or *Eth century73 &B / 4dated */*873 "5Bsb germ.J_ *J8 4*5th century7 and J8 4*5th or *Eth century73 %N */ 4*/th century73 Mbs Cgm 6*E 4probably from Tegernsee! Tegernsee! c*/87! Clm 55 4*5th century73 Mu _ *5E! the
Moosburg
#.s 4*/73 PL5.k 5J 5J 4*5th
century7. >lainchant! 0E1 &@pansion of the repertory #i! orate chants.
Another group of +ohemian liturgical songs "ith =atin and C;ech te@ts are the :orate chants! chants! a repertory of Masses and cantiones lin,ed "ith the introit for the fourth $unday in Adent! .orate coeli. These otie chants! "hich "ere used during the season of Adent! probably originated in >rague in about the mid-*/th century and enHoyed "ide circulation from the *Eth century on"ards 4see Mr`e,! M*6J7. >lainchant! 0E1 &@pansion of the repertory #ii! Fiturgical dramas, laments.
There has has been much discussion about the time and place of origin of the famous dialogue bet"een the Marys and angel4s7 at the tomb of Christ! Auem /ueritis in sepulchro! "hich
is generally seen as mar,ing the beginning of the so-called Bliturgical Bliturgical drama. The earliest sources are roughly contemporaneous! F5Pn lat.*/8 from =imoges and C45S's /J/ from $t
of the Marys and the assertion of Christs resurrection by the angel4s7! but supplementary supplementary erses "ere usually added. The dialogue "as also adapted to the Christmas season! as an e@change bet"een the mid"ies at the stable and the shepherds see,ing the infant Christ! and for Ascension! "here angels as, the apostles "hom they beliee to hae risen into heaen. 2rom the **th century on"ards e@tra scenes from the &aster story "ere also gien a dramatic form. >articularly interesting is the "ay in "hich pre-e@isting Oce antiphons and responsories "ith biblical te@ts might be drafted in as part of a ne" ceremony. $ometimes they retained their original liturgical melody! "hich might cause changes of mode from one item to another3 sometimes they receied a ne" setting! "ith unied musical material 4see :an,in! )*J*7. Another important deelopment of the **th century "as a reision of the old dialogue Auem /ueritis in sepulchro ! "ith ne" te@t and music 4the central
erses in & mode instead of 7. The ne" ersion ersion "as made made in south eter and %ohn run to the tomb. The The seuence &ictime paschali laudes! "hich includes elements of dialogue! and the
and the ne"er dramatic play! although such a distinction is dicult to dene precisely or to apply in indiidual cases. $ome of the earliest representations of the &piphany story 4the Magi see,ing %esus! #erod! #erod! the $laughter $laughter of the Innocents7 seem to go "ell beyond reasonable liturgical bounds 4see rumbl! )*J*7 and suggest non-liturgical origins. Other plays on sacred matter but "ith no obious liturgical connection are the Sponsus play! about the "ise and foolish irgins a"aiting the Bsponsus 4bridegroom7! in F5Pn ** 4early *th century! from =imoges7 and the erse plays about the miracles of $t )icholas! in F56 8* 4early *th century! ,no"n as the B2leury >layboo,! perhaps from the cathedral school at OrlWans7. These plays plays are lin,ed lin,ed by the use use of strophic erse! "here the same music may be used for seeral strophes 4in the case of one of the )icholas plays! for all strophes7. +y contrast! the Ludus "anielis composed by students of the cathedral school of +eauais 4in 'B5Lbl &gerton E*5! early *th
century7 is astoundingly rich and aried in musical material! mi@ing the occasional reference to liturgical melodies and conductus from the Circumcision repertory "ith a large number of original compositions. The episode of the $laughter $laughter of the Innocents inspired a number of laments of the mother :achel. 2ar more numerous! at least in Italian and
>lanctus.. >lanctus
>lainchant! 0E1 &@pansion of the repertory
#iii! &he medie#al $%ce.
The most ambitious ambitious compound compound musical form that Fourished in the central Middle Ages "as the Oce in honour of local saints. $uch Oces freuently contained more than /8 separate chants and a plethora of recited prayers1 initatories! antiphons! responsories! ersicles! hymns! canticles! collects! psalms! lessons etc. The three nocturns of the night d matutinum7! Oce! Matins Matins 4 4 d generally follo"ed one of t"o main schemes. Among the monastic 4Bregular7 orders! "ho lied according to the :ule of $t +enedict 4ed. A. de Pog\W! La .Dgle de Saint BenoEt ! >aris! *6*67! the Oce adhered to the Bmonastic cursus. Matins "as made up of * antiphons and psalms! * lessons and * responsories! the *st and nd nocturns each consisting of E antiphons and psalms! / lessons and / responsories! and the rd 4BAd cantica7 of * antiphon "ith its canticles! / lessons and / responsories. At diocesan
4Bsecular7 establishments! "here the Oce "as said according to the Bcanonical or B:oman cursus! Matins consisted of antiphons and psalms! lessons and responsories! responsories! eually distributed among the three nocturns. )ot all medieal Oces follo"ed these schemes rigidly! ho"eer3 #esbert 4CAO! ii! *E5! p.ii7 demonstrated that some Oces in the early **th-century #art,er Antiphoner from $t alMus! nd ser.! i! *687! display a Bmi@ed cursus. Ta,en Ta,en together! together! the the antiphon! lesson! and responsory te@ts in both the canonical and monastic Oces "ere called the Bhistoria! a term that can be traced bac, to the early th century 4see >.%.<. =ehmann1 %r+orschung des Mittelalters0 ! $tuttgart! *E! pp.*7. Among the oldest
the recoery or the transfer 4translationes7 of relics! and stories of miracles! sermons etc. In these patronal Oces the narratie continuity of the saints biography "as carried on at some length in the lessons! "hile the normally brief antiphon and responsory te@ts proided a pious commentary. The techniue of creating a single liturgical formulary from an older -ita is sho"n in the follo"ing e@ample. #ere! an antiphon from the oldest suriing Oce of $t Paleria of =imoges 4in F5Pn lat.*8J5! K.6J*- 7 is deried from the &ita anti/uior of $t Martial! the rst bishop of =imoges! "hich dates from before J/E 4see &merson! O*E571 At the basilica of $t $alatoris Mundi in =imoges! eight feasts commemorating $t Martial "ere introduced into the local liturgy at arious times bet"een 8 and *558. These included his B)atalis 48 %une and its Octae! 6 %uly7! the rst Translation of his relics to $olignac 4*8 and *6 October7! the second Translation to Mons
4* and * )oember7! the BApparitio Martialis 4*E %une7 and an Oce said on certain Thursdays. 2or purposes of identication the principal B)atalis Oce of Martial 48 %une7 is referred to as the BPenerandam! a name tag ta,en from its rst distinctie patronal formula! the antiphon &enerandam beatissimi patroni nostri domni Martialis. In fact! the BPenerandam Oce in a truncated form 4dating from before in F5Pn lat.*/8! f.EJ7 sered as a Bmother Oce1 as these arious feasts entered the basilical liturgy oer the decades! this prototype Oce "as reformatted! freuently "ith ne" patronal material! to create Oces for the ne" BoKspring feasts. The t"o e@amples that follo" indicate the manner by "hich patronal Oces "ere often assembled using the practice of shifting pre-e@isting liturgical formulae from one source to another. The rst concerns the BApparitio feast of $t Martial on *E %une3 dating from shortly before *88! it commemorated
the miraculous manifestation of Christ to Martial *5 days before the saints death 4i.e. his Bnatalis or Bbirth into heaen 8 %une according to the &ita proli(ior ! a lengthy and highly imaginatie recension of the &ita anti/uior 7. In this particular case! some of the original BPenerandam responsories for Matins 4rst column7 "ere transferred to the later monastic rhymed Oce of Martial! Martialis +estum recolens /uitania plaude 4second column7 found in F5Pn lat.5/8! K.**E- **- 1 The second e@ample is a feast uniue to )otre ame in >aris 4/ ecember7! the canonical Oce $n susceptione reli/uiarum ! probably composed bet"een **J8 and *88 4see 'right! O*J53 and +alt;er! O*JJ7! commemorating the reception of e relics into the ne"ly built gothic cathedral. +ased on F5Pn lat.*5*J*! f.E*- ! this "as a composite Oce! Bcut "holecloth from pre-e@isting liturgical materials 4see 'right! op. cit.! 673 its nine Matins responsories! for e@ample! "ere
borro"ed from e diKerent feasts1 These local saints Oces "ere initially composed in the 2ran,ish empire. The dating of the CompiZgne gradualantiphoner 4F5Pn lat.*6/E7 to J66 4#uglo! *7 indicates that the Oces for such northern 2rench saints as Medardus! bishop of )oyon 4J %une7! Crispinus and Crispinianus! martyrs of $oissons 45 October7! Pedastus! bishop of Arras 4E 2ebruary7! Vuintinus! martyr of $t Vuentin 4* October7! and aris 4J May7! "ere in circulation before J66. As ne" patronal feast-days entered the liturgy! especially after the **th century! hundreds of ne" Oces "ere composed! freuently "ith te@ts in alliteratie prose! and! from the *th century! in accentual! rhymed erse. The tunes of the chants accompanying these te@ts "ere freuently arranged in modal order! as found in the rst nocturn of the monastic Paleria Oce cited aboe1
2or basic studies of rhymed and ersied Oces! see #ughes! O*J and O*/E3 see also Persied Oce.
0. Chant in the religious orders. i! Cluny.
2rom an e@amination of the e@tensie literature about Cluny! it is clear that the monastery! e@empt from episcopal and lay control since its foundation in *8! "as the dominant monastic institution in 'estern &urope at least until **65. Gnder the direction of a remar,able succession of abbots! +erno 4*8 67! Odo 46/7! Aymard 4/ 5/7! MaHolus 45/7! Odilo 4/ *8/7 and #ugh 4*8/**87! the monastery set patterns of reform that inFuenced the entire Church. The :ule of $t +enedict "as follo"ed ferently3 there "as a mar,ed tendency to"ards uniformity! since Clunys many proincial dependencies "ere administered directly from the
monastery3 and there "as a strong emphasis on contemplatie spirituality. An elaborate liturgy occupied most of the mon,s daily life at Cluny! yet there are fe" substantial modern studies of the Cluniac liturgy 4see :osen"ein! V*6*7. It has been suggested that Cluny "as not creatie in its liturgy Bthe monastery borro"ed and did not create 4#unt! V*E6! p.*87 and that there "ere fe" unprecedented customs 4see :osen"ein! op. cit.! *7. >lainchant practice at the monastery is also poorly documented 4but see $teiner! V*J/7. =iturgical boo,s "ith musical notation that are ,no"n to hae been used at Cluny itself are rare 4see #ourlier! V*5*! pp.*73 they "ere probably destroyed "hen the monastery "as pillaged in the *Eth! *6th and *Jth centuries. The maHor **thcentury source F5Pn lat.*8J6 4a gradual! proser! ,yriale and seuentiary3 see $ources! M$! 0I7 may not! in fact! be from the monastery at all! een though it contains the Oce of $t Odilo! the
patron saint of Cluny 4see g.57. :esearch into Cluniac plainchant is of necessity based primarily on documents from the monasteries dependent on Cluny 4see #uglo! V*56! pp.J*3 and #ourlier! V*57. uring the abbacy of #ugh of Cluny! an obscure mon, named +ernard "as directed to codify the traditional liturgical and administratie practices of the monastery. The resulting institutionali;ed customary of +ernard 4ed. M. #errgott! &etus disciplina monastica! >aris! *6E! pp.*/E/7 "as probably compiled bet"een *86J and *8J 4see +ish,o! V*E*! pp.5/7! or compiled about *865 and reised bet"een *8J/ and *8JE 4see #allinger! V*68! pp.**7. =ess than a decade later 4*8J57 Glrich of Cluny prepared another customary! heaily indebted to +ernards "or,! for 'ilhelm of #irsau 4PL! c@li@! E566J7. The liturgical usage of Cluny is also reFected in the order of chanted serices adopted by houses dependent on Cluny. The
basilica of $t $alatoris Mundi at the monastery of $t Martial in =imoges is a good e@ample. In $eptember *8E this monastery "as forcibly reformed by a contingent of Cluniac mon,s and placed under the ecclesiastical proince of +ourges3 AdWmar de Chabannes "as installed as abbot! and the basilica remained under Cluniac rule for /6 years! until *55. $oon after the reform! the Cluniac alleluia cycle 4see aboe! 0/7 "as used in a gradual and t"o prosers from the basilica 4 F5Pn lat.**! **/ and **67. =ater sources from the basilica that date from the *th to the *Eth centuries adhere closely to the Cluniac order of serice codied by +ernard3 these include F5Pn lat.*8 and *8/ 4editions of +ernards 6rdo o2cii and 6rdo missae7! lat.6/* 4a capitulary and collectarium7! lat.J*8 4a lectionary7 and L' / 4a breiary copied in */*7. See also Cluniac mon,s! and
+enedictine mon,s.
ii! $ther orders.
The deelopment of the other maHor religious orders too, place in t"o stages. Three monastic orders "ere founded in the **th and *th centuries1 the Carthusians in *8J/! the Cistercians in *8J and the >remonstratensians in **8 4see Carthusian mon,s3 Cistercian mon,s3 >remonstratensian canons7. The t"o mendicant orders follo"ed later1 the 2ranciscans in *8 and ominicans in **6 4see 2ranciscan friars and ominican friars7. Much of this type of monasticism! "ith a ;ealous emphasis on poerty! simplicity! solitude and a return to strict conformity to the :ule of $t +enedict! had its roots in such **th-century centres as Camaldoli! 2onte Aellana and Pallombrosa. &en though the formal establishment of the Augustinians too, place in *5E "ith the B
2rance as early as *8 4 see Augustinian canons7. Monastic reforms of a locali;ed nature occurred about **88 at $aigny! 2ontWrault! and remonstratensian! #\schen 4B2ran;is,aner! M''17 on 2ranciscan! and elalande 4V*/7 on ominican! but for a number of reasons no adeuate oerie" of this music has so far been possible. 2irstly! there has been a tendency to neglect the monastic repertory because it is thought to represent the beginnings of a Bdecadent or Bdebased chant! one that deteriorated progressiely until the restoration reforms of the late *th century. $econdly! research in this eld has often lac,ed obHectiity and breadth of perspectie because it has been carried out by ardent apologists
for particular religious orders. Thirdly! and more seriously! there are no substantial studies of Cluniac chant! the precursor of all these monastic chant repertories3 undue emphasis is placed on the Cistercian reforms as the Bcrest of a "ae! the implication being that the liturgy of Cluny "as simply a ponderous forerunner of a more enlightened use that eoled at Cteau@. a! Carthusians.
Oer /8 years separate the foundation of the Carthusian order in *8J/ by $t +runo and the rst Consuetudines cartusiae 4PL! cliii! E56E87 in **6 by
+ec,ers "or, 4V*6*7 seems to conrm "hat had long been suspected1 that the original Carthusian breiary and antiphoner follo"ed the :oman 4secular7 cursus! "ith nine lessons and nine responsories prescribed for Matins3 and that by the time of
Catholic %nc!clopedia! iii! )e" or,! *E6! p.*E67 is not acceptable. =ambres 4V*687 pointed out that the Carthusian series of graduals and alleluias for the >entecost season agrees ery closely "ith that of
simplication assisted the hermits in memori;ing the rules and melodies of plainchant. $econdly! te@ts that "ere not authentically biblical! such as those ta,en from the Apocrypha! those based on lies of the saints! or te@ts of priate poetic inspiration! "ere suppressed. Thirdly! lengthy melodic melismas "ere discouraged! ornamental neumes that reuired special performance! such as the /uilisma! "ere abandoned! and ertical bars "ere added to the melodies to assist the singers 4see =ambres! V*68! pp./7. Gse or e@clusion of the + in Carthusian chant "as not uniform 4see Carthusian mon,s7. )! Cistercians.
There are understandable reasons for the interest of scholars in *th-century Cistercian chant reforms. The stylistic changes initiated at Cteau@ are historically important3 the modications to the melodies can be readily obsered in the sources3 the principles of melodic and modal reision are supported by the eidence of a group of early
Cistercian musical treatises3 and traditional Cluniac liturgical and musical practice can usefully be studied in the light of Cistercian reforms. The basic Cistercian treatises 4PL! cl@@@ii! ***EE7 hae been reie"ed by $"eeney 4V*6! pp./J7. According to the %(ordium par-um 4compiled c****7! one of the early documents of Cistercian history! :obert! abbot of Molesme! together "ith * mon,s bro,e a"ay from the monastery because of Bhindering circumstances and founded a community at Cteau@! near iHon. 2or the ne@t /8 years! during the tenures of Alberic 4*8**87 and $tephen #arding 4**87! practically nothing is ,no"n of musical practice! e@cept that the Carta carita prior of *** called for uniformity in all liturgical boo,s and chanting. After **/8 the picture begins to change. T"o uniue musical statements a prologue! Bernardus humilis bbas Clare-allis! and a preface! Cantum /uem Cisterciensis ordinis 4ed.
"ere included in the Cistercian antiphoner of about **/6. The author of the prologue! undoubtedly +ernard of Clairau@ 4*88**57! described the origins of Cistercian chant. The founding fathers of the order "ere dissatised "ith their chant boo,s and dispatched seeral men 4scribes7 to Met; to transcribe and bring bac, a copy of the cathedrals antiphoner! "hich "as considered to be authentically
should presere the integrity of proper neumatic structures and not separate them or Hoin them together at "ill3 and
"as reie"ed by (aul 4see V*/J1 @iii! *5*! p.567! $tYblein edited JE melodies from 54% 8 4*thor *th-century7 and other manuscripts 4(*5E9.7! and 'addell later edited the Cistercian hymnary ane" 4V*J/7. Most sections of the prototype manuscript used to correct the copies 4correctorium! Normalkode( 7! a collection of *5 liturgical boo,s compiled in **6 and *** to ensure uniformity of Cistercian liturgical te@ts and melodies! are no" lost 4 F5"m **/3 see =erouais! */! pp./7. . Chant in northern and central europe.
4i7 oland. 4i7 +ohemia and Moraia. 47 #ungary. 4i7 $loenia and Croatia. >lainchant! 0J1 Chant in northern and central europe i! eneral.
A signicant phase in the history of the 'estern Church from about 58 to *58 "as the conersion of $candinaia and central &urope. This e@pansion of =atin Christianity into Iceland and )or"ay in the north and to Croatia and almatia in the south began "ith the decisie defeat of the Magyars and $las by Otto I at the =ech rier near Augsburg in the summer of 55. &angeli;ation under the Ottonian emperors follo"ed! leading rst to the formation of national ,ingdoms and then to modern states. The consolidation of Christianity among the $las! +ulgar-Tur,s! Magyars! G;hs! >echenegs and (umans adhered to a general pattern 4see 2aly! $*J67. At rst! inFuential ruling families "ere accepted into the Church! then net"or,s of dioceses "ere formed! among them Magdeburg 4557! >o;na 4EJ7! >rague 467! &s;tergom 4*8887! =und 4then part of enmar,! *8E87 and ]agreb 4*8/7. At the same time +enedictine monasteries "ere founded and by the *th century the inFu@ of other monastic and
mendicant orders "as "ell under "ay. 2rom a musical standpoint this process of Christiani;ation raises seeral fundamental uestions concerning the types of liturgical boo, that "ere brought into these lands by missionaries! the types of musical notation they contained! and the types of plainchant that "ere transmitted to the ne" dioceses. As the conersion proceeded! cults of local saints gre" up! and by the late **th century these confessors and martyrs "ere beginning to be recogni;ed ocially in local liturgies3 for e@ample! Thorlac of $,`lholt in Iceland3 Magnus in the Or,ney Islands3 Olaf II #araldsson! #allard and $unnia in )or"ay3 Ans,ar and Canute in enmar,3 &ric! +ridget 4+irgitta7 and $igfrid in $"eden3 #enry in 2inland3 $tanislas! Adalbert 4'oHciech7! #ed"ig 4%ad"iga7! #yacinth 4%ace,7 and 2lorian in >oland3 $tephen 4Ist`n7! &meric 4Imre7 and =adislas 4=`s;l^7 in #ungary3
and =udmilla and 'enceslas 4P`cla7 in +ohemia. 'hen the construction of monasteries! cathedrals and churches "as "ell under "ay! scriptoria "ere set up in ecclesiastical schools. =ocally produced liturgical boo,s copied after the late *th century tended increasingly to conform to ne"ly codied orders of serice. $pecic diocesan uses became "ell entrenched from )idaros 4Trondheim7 and =in,Xping to &s;tergom and ]agreb. $tudy of the ordinals and customaries reFecting these uses is aluable for the light they cast on the tradition of the imported liturgies and music! and for the means they proide for determining the nature of later reforms! "hich! in some cases! lasted "ell into the *Jth century. A good deal of research has been carried out into >olish! C;ech! #ungarian and Croatian plainchant! particularly in the area of manuscript studies3 e@tensie "or, has also been done on the national seuence collections of
#ungary 4:aHec;,y7! )or"ay 4&ggen7! $"eden 4Moberg7 and >oland 4(o"ale"ic; and >i,uli,7. >lainchant! 0J1 Chant in northern and central europe ii! ?enmark, Joray, (eden and inland.
The conersion of the three $candinaian ,ingdoms of enmar,! )or"ay and $"eden can be traced bac, to the founding of the
baptism of Olof $,Xt,onung in about *888 and his sons Anund %a,ob 4c*8587 and &dmund 4c*858E87. In Iceland Irish hermits settled as early as the Jth century! but it "as not until *888 that the national parliament! the Althing! accepted Christianity as the national faith. uring the **th century! three northern sees came under the administration of the +remen-#amburg archbishopric! then at the pea, of its inFuence1 )idaros in )or"ay 4 c*8**87! $,`lholt in Iceland 4*8E87 and the anish proince of $,Yn,e 4*8E87. uring this period of conersion and the establishment of bishoprics! the liturgies and music that "ere introduced into $candinaia emanated from ractically all the suriing original sources are
strips of parchment that "ere used to reinforce the spines of *Eth- and *6th-century ta@ records and boo,s. anish sources are e@ceptionally rare3 * notated manuscripts dating from the *th to the *Eth centuries hae been listed by As,etorp 4$*J/7. Oer 88 )or"egian fragments recoered from old ta@ lists are retained by the )or"egian $tate Archies 4:ecord Oce7 in Oslo! and there are many fragments in seeral $"edish libraries! particularly the Gniersity =ibrary in $toc,holm. The Icelandic fragments are no" chieFy in the :ey,Hai, )ational Museum and the Arnamagnaena Collection at the Gniersity =ibrary in Copenhagen 4see
from &nglish traditions 4Taitto! $*7. $imilarly! "hile the scattered melodies in the *thcentury Manuale nor-egicum 4ed. 2aehn! $*E! "ith musical commentary by $tYblein7! a priests handboo, of the )or"egian rite of )idaros! are essentially Messine forms from north-"est &urope 4the =o" Countries and northern 2rance7! aris! *5*7 and Missale nidrosiense 4Copenhagen! *5*73 the Missale aboense 4=\bec,! */JJ73 the Missale lundense 4>aris! *5*/7 and Bre-iarium lundense 4>aris! *5*673 the Bre-iarium arosiense 4+asle! *5*73 the Missale upsalense -etus 4=\bec,! */J/7! Missale upsalense no-um 4+asle! *5*7! Bre-iarium upsalense 4$toc,holm!
*/E7 and Bre-iarium strengense 4$toc,holm! */E7. A denitie discussion of compositional techniues is dicult until further studies are made! but generally spea,ing most of the ne" chants "ere adaptations. The hymnographers set their ne" te@ts to "ell-,no"n melodies! a representatie e@ample being the great! late *th-century Olaf seuence Lu( illu(it laetabunda! "hich honours the maHor patron and (ing of )or"ay! $t Olaf II #araldsson [email protected]. At least seen of its melodic phrases 4Btimbres7 hae been identied as direct borro"ings from the repertory of Adam of $t Pictor 4 ? rst half of the *th century7. +oth :eiss 4$**7 and $andi, 4$*/*7 belieed that the anonymous author studied in >aris! but &ggen 4$*EJ! p.*7 "as probably correct "hen he concluded Bthat the composer N probably "as a )or"egian! "ell ersed in the international style of seuence melodies! RandS that he mainly leaned upon Anglo-2rench patterns instead of
>lainchant! 0J1 Chant in northern and central europe iii! "oland.
The eangeli;ation of >oland began in EE "ith the conersion of u,e Mies;,o I! founder of the >iast dynasty that ruled the nation until *JE. 'ith the erection of the rst bishoprics in >o;na! 'roca"! (ra,^"! oland! particularly through +ohemia 4see $chen,! $*E! 9*J6! pp.*/5K7. A "ide ariety of chant sources suries in >olish libraries 4lists of these manuscripts hae appeared from time to time in the Hournal Musica medii ae-i7. 2eicht 4$*E57! in his surey of early >olish music! diided the deelopment of chant into three historical periods1 a +enedictine phase 4EJ**587! a Cistercian phase 4**65*87 and a 2ranciscan-:oman phase 4after */87. 'co"s,i 4$*EJ7 sho"ed that south-
neumatic notation is found in the sacramentary of Tyniec 4 PL5n 87 copied in Cologne in about *8E83 the 6rdinarius pontifcalis anti/uus copied in the archdiocese of $al;burg at about the end of the **th century 4.k */73 the &angelarium of >oc, 4* *867 of about **83 and the Missale plenarium 4'Nd */3 facs. in +iegas,i and 'oronc;a,! $*6867 from )iederaltaich! dating from bet"een *868 and ***. Among the oldest ,no"n >olish chants are those for $t Adalbert 4'oHciech7! consecrated +ishop of >rague in J. These include his metrical Oce Benedic regem cunctorum! the antiphon Magna -o( laude sonora! and the seuence nnua recolamus sancti dalberti gaudia commemorating the translation of his relics to :ome in *888. The edition by (o"ale"ic;! Mora"s,i and :egine, 4$**7 of hymns in >olish sources contains 6* breiary hymn tunes set to *5 te@ts! including the important 'aude mater Polonia! dedicated to $t $tanislas! bishop of (ra,^" 4inaugurated *867! martyr! and
the rst >ole to be canoni;ed 4*57. The rst Cistercian monasteries in >oland "ere founded in about **/ at +r;enica-%dr;eH^"! =jd and =e,no! but their reformed liturgy and chant seems to hae had little impact on established diocesan use and remained conned to the order. $eeral important *th- and */th-century music manuscripts 4PL5Pa E3 P% **J*! *5E8/! = *! = *! = 53 .u I.2./***J7 surie from the abbeys of =ubij; 4founded **657! #enry,^" 4*67! >arady 4*/7! (amieniec ]jb,o"ic,i 4*7 and >elplin 4*5J7. A study by Mora"s,i 4Polska lir!ka mu*!c*na! $*67 of a set of / Cistercian seuences! found in seen graduals! indicates that they originated at $t oland used by the friars
is the gradual of the >oor Clares coent in (ra,^"! copied in the period bet"een appro@imately */ and *E8 4PL5klar 857. A companion manuscript is the 2ranciscan gradual of >oc, dating from about *J8 4PLd PI..57. Other signicant noted manuscripts are in libraries in $tary $jc;! olish liturgy and music has been demonstrated by >i,uli, in his general surey of /65 seuences from E diocesan and monastic manuscripts 4$*67. In addition to the Cistercian group! the Imbramo"ice and (ra,^" >remonstratensian seuences and the 2ranciscan repertory "ere formed in +aaria and $"it;erland. +ut among the >remonstratensian graduals from 'roca" and C;er"ins, and the ominican boo,s! 2rench types dominate! especially those of Adam of $t Pictor. The "riting of natie seuences occurred mainly at the %agellonian Gniersity in (ra,^"! founded in *E/. Most of
the ne" metrical te@ts "ere set to "ell-,no"n foreign melodies. Actie composition of patronal liturgies in >oland continued into the *6th century. In addition to the Oce of $t Adalbert! seeral historiae "ere composed commemorating the maHor patrons of >oland. The Oce of $t $tanislas! "ies adest celebres 4A#! ! *JJ9.! p.7! "as "ritten by a ominican friar! 'incenty of (ielce 4c*5573 the Oce of $t #ed"ig 4%ad"iga7! Fulget in orbe dies 4A#! @@i! *J69 .! p.JE7! dates from the end of the *th century3 and the Oce of $t #yacinth 4%ace,7! dest dies celebres 4A#! @l a! *8/9.! p.**57! "as "ritten by three ominicans! &;Has; of =ipnica 4 d *E87 and the friars Adam and Andr;eH. >lainchant! 0J1 Chant in northern and central europe i#! Bohemia and 'ora#ia.
The eangeli;ation of Moraia began in JE! by $$ Cyril and Methodius of the +y;antine Church! but the destruction
caused by the Magyar inasions halted the progress of this Christiani;ation. It "as rather from +aaria that :oman Christianity "ith its liturgy and music became established! the bishopric of >rague in +ohemia being created in 6 4archbishopric *//7! that of Olomouc in Moraia in *8E. Important monastic foundations also date bac, to the *8th century! for e@ample! the +enedictine conent of $t rague in E6! follo"ed later by the houses of the >remonstratensians 4$traho! >rague! **/87 and Cistercians 4$edlec! **/7. rague! in the mid-*th century 4e@amples in #utter! $*8! **3 >loce,! $*67. >roper Oces for the national saints Adalbert! >rocopius! 'enceslas and =udmila hae
suried 4>atier! $*68! $*JE7. +ohemia "as strongly inoled in the production of ne" Ordinary of Mass melodies! otie antiphons! and especially cantiones 4see 0E47 aboe3 see also Orel! $*7 in the */th and *5th centuries! although from the suriing sources it is not al"ays clear in some indiidual cases "hether a piece originated in +ohemia or in south lainchant! 0J1 Chant in northern and central europe #! Hungary.
The Christiani;ation of the Magyars reached a critical stage in 55 "ith the baptism of
4reigned 667! prince of the rp`d dynasty! and his son and successor >rince PaH,! later $t $tephen 4Ist`n7! ,ing of #ungary 46*8J! canoni;ed *8J7. (ing $tephen founded ten bishoprics at &s;tergom 4=at. $trigonium3 Wcs 42\nf,irchen7! )yitra 4)eutra7! P`c 4'ait;en7 and Csan`d. uring the same period +enedictine monasteries "ere founded at >annonhalma 4Martinsberg7! +a,onybWl! and >Wcs`rad 4see obs;ay! B>lainchant in Medieal #ungary! $*87. After tribal reolts in *8/6 and *8E! Christianity "as rmly established by $t =adislas 4=`s;l^3 reigned *866573 Croatia and almatia "ere brought under #ungarian control by his nephe" Coloman 4(`lm`n7 I 4*85***E7. In an eKort to retain a uniform :oman liturgy! the #ungarian bishops in about **88 prescribed the order of serice in +ernold of Constances Micrologus de ecclesiasticis o2ciis. Gntil *E8
t"o diocesan rites dominated the #ungarian liturgy1 the primatial use at &s;tergom and the archbishopric use at (alocsa. The origins of these liturgies are belieed to go bac, to about *8/. The earliest suriing plainchant manuscripts in #ungary are notated in assau and )iederaltaich7. The order of serice seems to follo" the &s;tergom use.
escriptie studies of other #ungarian chant sources hae been made by :aHec;,y and :ad^ 4$*5E! 9*J7! $;igeti 4$*E7! :ad^ 4$*67! $;endrei 4$*J*7 and obs;ay 4$*J57. :ad^s Libri liturgici manuscripti bibliothecarum 4ungariae 4$*67
includes studies of the >ray Manuscript! a sacramentary dating from **5 in Messine notation 4no.73 nine missals from >o;sony 4>ressburg! +ratislaa7 4nos.***/! 6! /5E73 the *thcentury Missal of #ungary 4no.E73 the P`c Manuscript of */ 4no./873 the missal of `l^c;i! */ 4no./*73 the Liber -ariarum cantionum of *5*E 4no.673 the &s;tergom pontical and antiphoner 4nos.*/5 and *J873 the (aschau gradual 4no.*673 the graduals of Cardinal +a,^c; and (ing =adislas II 4nos.*6*73 and an antiphoner from
and $;endrei has transcribed the &s;tergom gradual 4*87. The complete #ungarian antiphon repertory has been edited by obs;ay and $;endrei 4*7. The earliest chants produced in #ungary by local poets and composers include an Oce for $t $tephen! -e beate Stephane! for 8 August! in the $;W,esfehWr`r Antiphoner 4K.**/**/- 73 and three other Oces 4ed. 2aly! "rei .eimo2*ien! $*EJ71 Con+essor Christi Stephane! for $t $tephen3 Laetare0 Pannonia! for &meric! his son 4d *8*73 and Fons eternae pietatis! for $t =adislas 4canoni;ed **7. T"o Oces for $t &li;abeth of #ungary 4canoni;ed *57! 'audeat 4ungaria and Laetare 'ermania! hae also been edited 4#aggh! O*57! but these did not originate in #ungary. >lainchant! 0J1 Chant in northern and central europe #i! (lo#enia and Croatia.
In medieal $loenia and Croatia! t"o Christian liturgies coe@isted. The rural $laonic rite "as "ritten in
dominated in $loenia and other areas controlled by the
before *8J 4see #udos,q! $*E67 and a sacramentary 4 :u M: *E7 "as ta,en to ]agreb from #ungary by +ishop uh in the late **th century. Among the early +eneentan manuscripts! part of the **thcentury Missale plenum "as copied at Monte Cassino and part in almatia 4see #udos,q! $*E57. $pecimens of +eneentan notation occur among the &@ultet chants in three
After the conuest of the ancient Amerindian nations of >eru! Me@ico and the south"estern part of the )orth America by the $panish colonists! net"or,s of administratie Hurisdiction "ere set up by early *Eth- and *6thcentury missionary fathers. In many respects the ecclesiastical history of )e" $pain resembles
the eangeli;ation of $candinaia and eastern &urope some e centuries earlier. At rst liturgies and sacred music imported from the Old 'orld "ere used! but these "ere rapidly supplemented and modied to harmoni;e "ith local natie languages and customs. espite the surial of much eidence! both direct and indirect! ,no"ledge of this chant repertory is still supercial! no doubt largely because it has been regarded as one of the Bcorrupt post-Tridentine ersions. )eertheless! "hen ie"ed in its o"n historical and social setting! this chant has an interest of its o"n. >lainchant sources used in the )e" 'orld can be separated into three general categories1 liturgical boo,s "ith musical notation issued by "ell-,no"n publishing houses in Italy! ortugal and introduced by the missionaries3 chant boo,s printed in the Americas! especially in Me@ico3 and manuscripts produced locally. About a do;en e@tant Me@ican incunabula "ith plainchant melodies "ere printed
before *E88! the earliest being the Augustinian ordinary of *55E 4see $pell! T*3 and $teenson! T*EE7. In archial sureys of $outh American libraries! $piess and $tanford 4T*E7 and $teenson 4T*687 hae recorded no fe"er than 58 e@tant plainchant manuscripts. #o"eer! since the primary interest of these scholars has been directed to"ards polyphonic music! their descriptions of chant boo,s rarely go beyond brief notices. 2or e@ample! in the +ogot` Cathedral archie there are B atlas-si;e plainchant choirboo,s e@pensiely copied on ellum bet"een *E8E and *E8J by the professional music scribe and miniaturist! 2rancisco de >`ramo 4$teenson! T*68! p.73 and in the cathedral library at >uebla 4Me@ico7 there are about *J plainchant tomes "ith illuminations mainly by =agarto 4see $piess and $tanford! op. cit.! 67. >lainchant manuscripts are also found in other =atin American cities! including Me@ico City! Vuito! and Cu;co 4>eru7.
&en as late as the early *th century! manuscript choirboo,s "ere being produced in the Californian missions 4see :ay and &ngbec,! T*6/7. 2rom *6E until *J/! "hen they "ere seculari;ed! a chain of * 2ranciscan missions Fourished along the central coast of California 4see (oegel! T*7. Among these interesting late sources! for e@ample! is a Mass boo, compiled in *J* by >adre )arcisco ur`n 4*66E*J/E7 for the church of $t %oseph at the Mission of $ %osW 4e@tract in g.E7. In his solicitous Prologo 4&ng. trans. in da $ila! T*/*! p.7! ur`n e@plained his need to simplify plainchant melodies for the Amerindian neophytes.
unison by instruments. 'ith all the practical instincts of a good choir director! ur`n recommended that the older! married! trained musicians be proided "ith Bdomestic employment! such as "eaing! shoema,ing or smithying! in order to hae them al"ays on hand "hen there is singing or playing to be done. 19. ?e#elopments from 199 to 199.
4i7 Tridentine reforms. 4ii7 )eo-lainchant! 0*81 eelopments from *588 to *J88 i! &ridentine reforms.
In *5E a bull of conocation "as issued by >ope >aul III 4ponticate *5//7 conening the *th &cumenical Council of the 'estern Church! the Council of Trent 4*5/5E7. The purpose of this Council! held in Trent 4at that time Austrian7! "as to clarify doctrinal beliefs and legislate for disciplinary reforms "ithin the Church as a reaction to the
>rotestant :eformation! in particular to combat the religious reforms of =uther! ]"ingli and Calin. Oer a period of *J years! 5 sessions "ere held in three separate sittings. ecrees relating specically to church music "ere issued on *6 $eptember *5E. The most important pronouncements appeared in the proceedings of session QQII! chapter IQ! canon IQ! "hich conrmed the sacricial character of the Mass and &ucharist1 "ecretum de obser-andis et e-itandis in celebratione missarum 4Becree concerning the
things to be obsered and to be aoided in the celebration of Mass3 see Concilium tridentinum! i@1 ctorum! ed. $. &hses! 2reiburg! */! pp.E7. The bishops unanimously agreed in the $eptember session1 4*7 that any simony! irreerence and superstition be banished from Mass3 47 that any un,no"n priest be forbidden to celebrate Mass3 47 that music be uplifting for the faithful3 4/7 that spo,en "ords or sung liturgy be clearly intelligible3 457 that all music! "hether for the
organ or oices! "hich contained things deemed lasciious or impure 4Blascium aut impurum7 be e@cluded3 and 457 that all conersations! "al,ing about! or distracting noise be repudiated during Mass. In $ession QQIP 4** )oember *5E7! Canon QII1 "ecretum de re+ormatione lectum 4see Concilium tridentinum! i@1 ctorum! ed. $. &hses! 2reiburg!
*/! p.J/7! rather ague instructions "ere issued that proincial synods could establish musical practices according to the local needs and customs of the people. The decrees relating to music that "ere adopted at the Council of Trent set out broad principles and instructions and "ere generally couched in negatie language3 they "ere not directly implemented by the Council itself! but "ere put into practice by a series of papal actions during the ne@t 68 years up to *E/. The initial attempts to introduce a uniform and uniersal recitation of the Oce and Mass in accordance "ith the mandates of the Council "ere completed
during the ponticates of >ius IP 4*55E57 and >ius P 4*5EE67. In October *5E a commission "as established to reform the breiary and missal. >ublication of the reformed :oman breiary "as announced on %uly *5EJ! and of the corrected :oman missal in a bull dated */ %uly *568. All dioceses "ere obliged to use the missal. 42or a reie" of the impact of the *568 missal on southentecost and >entecost "ee,3 Lauda Sion 4by Thomas Auinas! c*56/7 for Corpus Christi3 and "ies irae 4by Thomas of Celano! d c*587 for the Commemoration of the ead.
'ard! %phemerides liturgicae! c@i! *6! pp./5/7! it is possible that diKerent editions contain the seuence Stabat mater 4by %acopone da Todi! d *8E7. T"o important reisions of the *568 >ian missal "ere issued1 one in *E8/ under Clement PIII 4*5 *E857! and the other in *E/ during the ponticate of Grban PIII 4*E//7. Once the ne" ocial liturgical te@ts had been proclaimed! eKorts "ere begun to adapt standard chant melodies to them. On 5 October *566 >alestrina and Annibale ]oilo "ere commissioned by alestrina! published in :ome the rst complete post Tridentine chant boo,! the "irectorium chori ad usum sacrosanctae basilicae -aticanae et aliarum cathedralium et collegiatarum ecclesiarum. It
continued to be republished until *658 and contained the basic elements for singing the iine
Oce1 cadence formulae! the principal psalms! hymns! ersicles! short responsories! reciting notes for psalms! lessons! ennas "irettorio del canto +ermo 4Modena! *EJ73 Andrea di Modenas Canto harmonico 4Modena! *E89.73 adua! *EJ73 O. :osa de Cairanos .egole del canto +ermo detto gregoriano
4)aples! *6JJ73 and %.<. Mettenleiters %nchiridion chorale
4:egensburg! *J57. 4On the instrumental accompaniment of plainchant from the *Eth century! see 0** belo".7 The most important chant boo, conforming to the reforms of the Council of Trent "as the ne" :oman gradual. On * May *E8J >aul P 4ponticate *E85*7 granted <.+. :aimondi printing rights! and si@ musicians "ere commissioned as editors 2elice Anerio! >ietro 2elini! :uggiero alestrina. 'hen :aimondi died on * 2ebruary *E*/ publication "as transferred to the Medici >ress in :ome3 the 'raduale iu(ta ritum sacrosanctae romanae ecclesiae cum cantu0 Pauli &G pontifcis ma(imi iussu re+ormatio e( t!pographica Medicaea appeared
in t"o olumes! in *E*/ 4#emporale7 and *E*5 4Sanctorale7.
The Anerio-$oriano Medicean edition of the gradual strongly reFected *Eth- and *6th-century humanist interest in the relationship bet"een te@t and melody. The liturgical te@ts "ere reised to Bimproe the uality and character of the =atin! cadential patterns "ere reshaped! certain stereotyped melodic gures "ere associated "ith certain "ords! melodic clichWs "ere introduced to Be@plain "ords! melodies "ere made more tonal by the introduction of the + ! melismas "ere abbreiated! and accentual declamation "as introduced to improe the intelligibility of the chanted te@t. 2or e@ample! some typical melodic and tonal ariants may be obsered in the Medicean ersion of the rst responsory for &aster Matins [email protected]. uring the interim period bet"een the papal commission to >alestrina and the appearance of the Medicean gradual! arious Breformed graduals "ere brought out by Penetian publishers! the rst! by
follo"ed by a ne" ersion! by e;;ana. The te@ts "ere the standard ones of earlier centuries! although some "ere slightly reised in accordance "ith the ne" missal. +y *E*J an independent Breformed gradual "as issued in Ingolstadt! and a further one appeared in *E8 in Ant"erp. +y *E6 the rst of a series of editions constituting a >arisian tradition had been published. Minor similarities are eident bet"een certain traditions! but borro"ings on a "ider scale are generally rare. The importance of the Medicean gradual deried from :omes position as an ecclesiastical centre! but its readings had little if any inFuence else"here. Parious religious orders also created their o"n ersions! in some cases much earlier than the date the re"or,ings "ere rst documented. The diKerent readings e@isted side
by side "ith more traditional ones almost "holly rooted in *5th- and *Eth-century chant practice. In general!
trained %esuits! 2amiano $trada! Taruinio etrucci and Matthias $arbie"s,i! 5 corrections "ere made to the J hymns included in the breiary 4see =enti! G*! p.*7. In their ;eal to restore classical metre and prose to the =atin te@ts! the reisers recast some hymns and in so doing created almost unrecogni;able substitutes. These changes in the hymn te@ts "ere sanctioned by the Congregation of :ites on March *E! and the ne"ly reised Bre-iarium romanum "as approed by Grban PIII 4*E//7 on 5 %anuary *E* 4see =enti! op.cit.! 7. The follo"ing e@ample sho"s a single hymn in its original and reised ersions 4from aniel! M*J/* 5E9.! i! 7. In defence of these reised %esuit hymns! no" often considered Bdecadent! >oc,nee 4G*5/! p.7 obsered that Bthe later hymns hae a rugged sincerity! a biblical tone! and a clear presentment of the facts of belief "hich more than atoned for the change of literary style. Although the reised hymns "ere
made obligatory for the Church at large! most of the monastic orders the ominicans! +enedictines! Cistercians! Carthusians and the >apal Chapel itself reHected Grbans reised hymnal and maintained the earlier forms. The process of standardi;ation that began at Trent has! unfortunately! often been misunderstood. The Council "as! in fact! a truly conseratie moement. )o ne" liturgy "as set forth 4the terms BTridentine Mass and BTridentine Oce are misleading73 religious establishments throughout &urope "ere reuired to follo" prescribed customs and normatie usage as "ell as to use Bcorrected liturgical boo,s. 2urthermore! the intended musical reforms "ere not reali;ed! for despite the ocial imprimatur a@ed to most chant boo,s %( decreto Sacrosancti Concilii #ridentini restituti a be"ildering
ariety of chant melodies continued to Fourish for another 88 years. >lainchant! 0*81 eelopments from *588 to *J88
ii! Jeo-allican reforms.
The 2rench nationalistic tradition of relatie independence from :ome in both political and ecclesiastical aKairs has its roots in the early Middle Ages. uring the *6th and *Jth centuries a particularly strong surge of antipapal feeling caused a "idespread theological schism "ithin the ran,s of the 2rench national church. The "eclaratio cleri gallicani 4* March *EJ7! ,no"n as the B2our aris under Archbishop 2ranois de #arlay de Champallon 4*E557! a reised Bneo-
&en more radical editions appeared under Charles de Pintimille du =ac 4archbishop of >aris! *6/E7! and these "ere adopted by more than 58 2rench dioceses. In the Pintimille edition only * original hymns "ere retained! although ne" hymns by contemporary hymnographers abounded1 J5 by %ean-+aptiste de $ante\il 4d *E67! nearly *88 by Charles Con 4d *6/3 see g.J7 and 6 by lesser-,no"n 2rench authors. Closely associated "ith these neo-oisson! %ean =ebeuf and 2ranois de =a 2eillWe. In his M7thode nou-elle pour apprendre par+aitement les rDgles du plain5chant et de la psalmodie0 a-ec des messes et autres ou-rages en plain5chant fgur7 et musical 4>oitiers! 9*665!
pp.E**E7! =a 2eillWe proided a
detailed e@planation of the types of notes and principles of performance. In addition to elision! tremolo! accidentals and prolongation signs! the basic note alues "ere as follo"s1 the /uarr7es ordinaires H /ueue 4large suare notes "ith a descending stem to the right73 the /uarr7es sans /ueues 4large suare notes73 the demi5/uarr7es H /ueue 4small suare notes "ith a descending stem to the left73 the demi5 /uarr7es sans /ueue 4small suare notes73 the grandes brD-es 4large diamond-shaped notes73 and the petites brD-es 4small diamond-shaped notes7 4see =aunay! op. cit.! esp. /**! and pls./567. espite the out"ard simplicity of this metrical system! performance of chant fgur7 reuired sophisticated improisatory s,ills! including tremolo! ibrato! portamento and ornaments. In order to maintain measure! the choirs "ere freuently accompanied in unison by a bass instrument! such as a serpent! ophicleide! bassoon! trombone! double bass etc. 4see
=ebeuf! G*6/*9.! p.*663 and C. +urney1 #he Present State o+ Music in France and $tal! ! =ondon! *66*! 9*669.! *8K7. >erformance of this chant "as highly e@pressie. Perses in the Messe musicale of =a 2eillWe! "hich "ere sung by a soloist and a choir in alternation! indicate freuent shifts in tempo from lent ! lentement or gra-ement to gai or gracieusement 4see g.7. Another type of metrical plainchant "as commonly practised in the neo-rim! G*E*7. :esponsories! antiphons and introits in particular "ere subHect to this type of accompaniment. The plainchant melody "as usually sung in strict measured cantus rmus style by strong bass oices accompanied in unison by a bassoon or serpent! "hile the Forid descant melodies
"ere improised aboe it. #armonic and metrical rules "ere set out in at least ten treatises! especially by &tienne =ouliW! $Wbastien de +rossard! :enW Ourard and >ierre-=ouis >ollio 4see Montagnier! B=es sources manuscrites! G*57. The aris! *J5E7. In reality
neo-
liturgical setting! desering further detailed research. See also )eo-
and >lain-chant musical.
11. estoration and reform in the 1 |
4i7 &arly reform in 2rance. 4ii7 lainchant! 0**1 :estoration and reform in the *th century i! 7arly reform in rance.
'ith the Concordat of 6 October *J8* bet"een )apoleon I and >ius PII 4ponticate *J887 and later concordats of reconciliation 4see
&nlightenment! gradually subsided. The decline of such political and religious theories as 2ebronianism! aris! *J//7 and the Liber gradualis
4Tournai! *JJ7 prepared by om %oseph >othier mar,ed a signicant period of chant reform. 'ith the success of the Gltramontane moement in 2rance 4see Moulinet! G*67! by the *J/8s it "as generally recogni;ed that the #arlay and Pintimille chant boo,s "ere unsuitable and needed to be replaced by boo,s that once again conformed to the :oman liturgy. This need had been e@pressed three decades earlier by Choron in his Consid7rations sur la n7cessit7 de r7tablir le chant de lI7glise de .ome dans toutes les 7glises de lI%mpire +ranJais 4>aris! *J**7.
espite repeated calls for unity! return to the old Tridentine use proceeded ery slo"ly! diocese by diocese 4see especially &.-<. %oue1 "u mou-ement liturgi/ue en France durant le ,$,e siDcle ! >aris! *JE87. &cclesiastical ocials and music scholars "ere sharply diided as to "hich chant melodies should be used. Many faoured a return to the early Medicean chant boo,s3 others considered that the chants in these boo,s "ere debased in comparison "ith the ones in **th-! *th- and *th-century sources in ietro Aleri! Adrien de =a 2age! 2Wli@ anHou! ThWodore )isard 4nW )ormand7! )icholas Cloet! 2Wli@ ClWment! )icholas %anssen! C.C. +ogaerts! &dmond ual! %ules Tardif! =ouis =ambillotte! Anselm $chubiger! >adre %. ufour! $tephen Morelot! Augustin
Charles Peroitte and Ale@andre Pincent. In *J/6 anHou discoered the important **th-century tonary of $t +Wnigne de iHon! F5M6+ # *5 4facs. in >alMus! *st ser.! iiiii! *8*59.3 see g.*87! a manuscript "ith uniue! doubly notated melodies in 2rench neumatic and alphabetical notations. A hand-copied transcription of the manuscript by )isard 4completed *J5*3 F5Pn lat.JJJ*! formerly suppl. lat.*867 "as used as the basis of the :eims-Cambrai 'raduale romanum complectens missas
4>aris! *J5*7! "hich represents the rst serious attempt to restore medieal chant to modern boo,s. The editors! >.C.C. +ogaerts and &. ual! defended their "or, in %tudes sur les li-res chorau( /ui ont ser-i de base dans la publication des li-res de chant gr7gorien 7dit7s H Malines
4Mechelen! *J557! but reactions to the :eims-Cambrai editions "ere freuently sour. =a 2ages "e la reproduction des li-res du plain5 chant romain 4>aris! *J57 is a
thinly disguised polemic against
the :eims-Cambrai gradual. =ouis Pitet 4 ournal des sa-ants! *J5/! p.7 "as astonished that a group of four notes in the >aris gradual of *JE had been replaced in the :eims-Cambrai edition by a melisma of /J notes. And )isard 4Bu rythme dans le plain-chant! G*J5E7! defending his o"n conseratie! post-Tridentine-style 'radual et -esperal romains
4:ennes! *J557! considered impossible the Bradical and reolutionary attempt to replace current chant melodies by a literal return to the Bchants of $t
the :oman liturgy! as for e@ample! Michel Couturier in his "7cadence et restauration de la musi/ue religieuse 4>aris! *JE7! or Anselm $chubiger in "ie .estauration des irchengesangs und der irchenmusik durch das k@n+tige allgemeine Concilium 4]\rich!
*JE7. Another eKort to restore aris! *J567! ostensibly based on this manuscript! contained truncated melodies. As regards the printing of plainchant! it "as a mon, of the Cistercian abbey of )otre-ame de :Wconfort!
Three other pioneering "or,s appeared in the mid-*th century1 Coussema,ers 4istoire de lIharmonie au Mo!en5ge 4>aris! *J59.7! the rst comprehensie reie" of medieal notations based on modern critical methods! "hich set a standard for subseuent serious palaeographical inestigations of chant neumes and rhythm3 %oseph dOrtigues "ictionnaire liturgi/ue0 histori/ue et th7ori/ue de plain5 chant 4>aris! *J59.7! the rst
maHor dictionary of terms relating to plainchant! containing lengthy e@cerpts from the "or,s of a "ide ariety of contemporary scholars! among them )isard! =ebeuf! 2Wtis! :ousseau! Coussema,er! %umilhac! anHou! +aini! >oisson! 2or,el! =ambillotte! +rossard! u Cange and (iese"etter3 and =a 2ages Cours complet de plain5chant
4>aris! *J55E7! containing the rst substantial bibliography of plainchant sources J items are classied according to printed liturgical boo,s! music treatises and practical performance manuals.
An article in Ortigues dictionary on the instrumental accompaniment of plainchant is particularly illuminating and holds a special place in the e@tensie literature on the subHect 4see $Xhner! G**3 and 'agener! G*E/7. This practice "as "ell ,no"n een at the time of Adriano +anchieris LIorgano suonarino 4Penice! *E85! 9*E**! 9*EJ9.7 and assumed a maHor role in the performance of plainchant after the deelopment of the thoroughbass in stile nuo-o church music. A eritable deluge of practical manuals "ere published from the *6th century instructing the organist on the problems of rhythm! the choice and placement of chords! the use of homophonic and contrapuntal accompaniments! the rules for harmoni;ing each mode! the roles of intonation and cadential formulae! the use of embellishments and ho" to transpose 4see [email protected]. In May *JE8 oer 58 people interested in plainchant reform attended a congress held at &rards in >aris concerned "ith the
restoration of plainchant and religious music 4see "e la musi/ue religieuse; Paris 1=K and Mechelen 1=K and 1=K! ed.
T.%. de Proye! >aris! *JEE7. J8 diKerent chant boo,s and manuals published mostly bet"een *J5/ to *JE8 "ere presented for consideration! and topics under discussion included the true character of church music! plainchant accompaniment! the place of choral societies! the performance of church music in certain dioceses and the proper performance of liturgical chant. In 2rance the performance methods promoted by =ouis )iedermeyer at his Institut de Musiue d&glise 4founded *J57 "ere printed in La maEtrise; Oournal de musi/ue religieuse 4*J56E*7 and in his #rait7 th7ori/ue et prati/ue de lIaccompagnement du plain5chant
4>aris! *J56! 9*J6J3 &ng. trans.! *857. These publications e@erted considerable inFuence for oer a century 4see M. aris! *J7. Among the better-,no"n *th-century chant treatises are those by
+ogler 4*J8J7! $chiedermayer 4*JJ7! $tehlin 4G*J/7! Toepler 4*J/J7! +en; 4*J587! $tein 4*J57! ClWment 4*J5/7! )isard 4*J5/! *JE87! lainchant! 0**1 :estoration and reform in the *th century ii! ermany and the Cecilian mo#ement.
uring much of the *th century the emphasis on church music in alestrina cult began to Fourish under such adocates as A.2.%. Thibaut!
'ith the appointment in *J8 of (arl >ros,e as a canon of the Alte (apelle in :egensburg! that city soon became the centre of this reial actiity in
Important editions of the polyphonic masters appeared in >ros,es Musica iina 4:egensburg! *J56E9.7 and $electus )ous Missarum 4:egensburg! *J55E*9.7! and in 2ran; Commers Collectio Operum Musicorum +ataorum $aeculi QPI 4+erlin! *J//5J7! Musica $acra 4+erlin! *J/! continuing as $electio Modorum! *JE8J67 and Cantica $acra 4+erlin! *J687. 2urther reforms too, place in the last third of the century "ith the rise of the Cecilian moement! "hich had its roots in the scholarship of >ros,e and Commer 4see '. (irsch1 BCaecilianismus! M''> 7. In *JEJ the +aarian priest 2.Q. 'itt founded the Allgemeine CYcilien-Perein f\r (atholische (irchenmusi,3 based initially in the alestrina ocal style! and the reform of plainchant and organ
playing. 'itt propagated his theories in t"o music periodicals! the Fliegende Bltter +@r katholische irchenmusik 4*JEE7 and Musica sacra 4*JEJ7! both of "hich he founded 4see =ic,leder! G*JJ7. Cecilian societies "ere also founded in America! of "hich the most important centre "as that in Mil"au,ee! 'isconsin! inFuenced by %ohn Martin #enni 4*J85J*7! rst archbishop of Mil"au,ee! and %ohn +aptist $ingenberger 4*J/J*/7! editor of Caecilia; &ereinsorgan des merikanischen Caecilien5&ereins
4founded in *J6/7. 42or a reie" of the Cecilian moement in Italy! see Moneta Caglio! G*J.7 :eform of the ustet in :egensburg! "hich had been granted a priilege 4* October *JEJ 7 by the $acred Congregation of :ites in :ome to publish all the ocial chant boo,s of the Church according to the Medicean edition. Accordingly! the ne" :egensburg gradual of *J6*! edited by 2.Q. #aberl! "as largely a reprint of the
Medicean edition of *E*/*53 the >ustet antiphoner of *J6J "as based on t"o editions 4Penice! *5J5! and Ant"erp! *E**7. On / August *J6* >ius IQ ocially sanctioned the >ustet editions as the authentic form of lainchant! 0**1 :estoration and reform in the *th century iii! 7ngland and Ireland.
The reial of plainchant in &ngland had begun during the *Jth century "ith the :oman Catholic scribe and publisher %ohn 2rancis 'ade 4*6**9*JE7. #is manuscripts and printed boo,s circulated "idely throughout the =ondon embassy chapels and among many aristocratic Catholic families. 'ades earliest "or,s consist of hand-copied manuscripts and boo,s "ith preprinted staes and te@t onto and aboe "hich plainchant "as notated by hand. Manuscripts
dating from *66 to the *668s coer most liturgical functions. 'ades rst printed boo,s "ithout plainchant "ere &nglish=atin esperals. Other plainchant scribes and publishers "ere actie during 'ades lifetime! but those manuscripts that hae suried from priate aristocratic and embassy chapels are generally considered of inferior uality to 'ades. >rinted sources include #he rt o+ Singing 4=ondon! *6/J7 published by Thomas Meighan and #he #rue Method to Learn the Church Plain5Song 4=ondon! *6/J7
published by %ames Marmadu,e. %ames Coghlan introduced moable
indebted to 'ade and perhaps "rongly attributed to $amuel 'ebbe the elder. In the *th century the reial continued unabated "ith the "or,s of the Catholic publisher Pincent )oello! the earliest of "hich! Collection o+ Sacred Music 4=ondon! *J**7! included
$amuel 'esleys te@ts. An abortie 'esley-)oello proHect to publish comprehensie
4=ondon! *J7. :ichard :edheads Laudes diurnae 4=ondon! *J/7 enHoyed brief popularity but "as critici;ed for retaining =atin prosody at the e@pense of &nglish accentuation. 'illiam yces ersion of Merbec,es #he Book o+ Common Pra!er Noted! "hich "as published in =ondon in *J/! proides rules for good &nglish prosody! although these are not al"ays easy to apply in #he Psalter 4=ondon! *J/7! "here notes are proided for each syllable of te@t only for e@amples
of each tone! not for the complete >salter. The *th-century &nglish plainchant reial produced many aesthetic controersies. Anglican plainchant apologetics surfaced in music maga;ines such as #he Choir and Musical .ecord! #he Musical #imes! #he Musical orld and #he Auarterl! Musical Maga*ine! and in religious periodicals such as #he British Critic! #he Christian .emembrancer ! #he %cclesiologist and #he Parish Choir . Concerns included &nglish ersus =atin rules of prosody! the nature of accompaniment! the social9moral role of
Association! and in the same year the >lainsong and Mediaeal Music $ociety met for the rst time. In * the $ociety of $t atric, 'ogan 4ublin! *67 and Plain and Concise Method o+ Learning the 'regorian Note; also a Collection o+ Church Music0 Selected +rom the .oman ntiphonar! and 'radual by
>atric, #oey 4ublin! *J887. 'ogan also published 4igh Mass and Sunda! &espers as Sung in Most o+ the "i8erent .oman Catholic Chapels throughout the 9nited ingdom 4*J*J7 4see ]on!
G*E3 and also 'hite and =a"rence! G*7. >lainchant! 0**1 :estoration and reform in the *th century
i#! &he reformed editions of (olesmes.
The maHor editions of chant boo,s issued in the second half of the *th century! the :eimsCambrai gradual and antiphoner 4*J5* and *J57! the )isard gradual 4*J567! the t"o editions of the gradual edited by Michael #ermesdorK 4Trier! *JE and *J6E7 and #aberls :egensburg gradual and antiphoner 4*J6* and *J6J7! represent scholarly! B:omantic attempts to restore the pre-eminence of plainchant in the :oman liturgy. These boo,s "ere! ho"eer! outFan,ed by a igorous campaign to restore the melodies of the earliest chant manuscripts! a far more radical restoration than that so far attempted! and
reHecting the outright reial of the Medicean gradual by #aberl. The restoration culminated in the editions issued by the +enedictine mon,s of $olesmes bet"een *JJ and the end of 'orld 'ar I. 2rom the time of the monasterys reconstitution in *J by om >rosper ope een in administratie decisions. aris! *J/85*! 9*J6JJ57! formed the theoretical and philosophical basis of all subseuent chant reform by the $olesmes +enedictines. :ousseau 4G*/57 and Combe 4G*E7! t"o historians of $olesmes! traced the beginnings of serious chant studies at the
abbey to about *J5E! "hen om >aul %ausions began transcribing the :ollington >rocessional! a *th- or */th-century &nglish manuscript. This "as nearly 8 years after the re-establishment of the monastery! at a time "hen the :eims-Cambrai editions "ere already in use. In *JE8 %ausions "as Hoined by om %oseph >othier! destined to become the most respected gure in the restoration moement! and they began a laborious 8-year proHect of preparing completely ne" chant boo,s for the $olesmes Congregation based on early neumatic sources. =i,e the other chant boo, editors 4+ogaerts! ClWment! )iers! #ermesdorK and #aberl7! >othier published his o"n treatise 4Les m7lodies gr7goriennes dIaprDs la tradition! Tournai! *JJ89.7! in "hich he dened his general editorial policies and theories of restoration! e@plained the rudiments of neumatic and staK notation! and at the same time put for"ard an oratorical interpretation of rhythm.
and absolute note alues3 therefore the chant "as sung in a natural! non-metrical style. Organi;ation of the melody "as controlled by t"o oratorical determinants1 the tonic accent of the =atin te@t and the natural diisions of the te@t into "ords and phrases. >othiers ideas "ere inFuenced by the M7thode raisonn7e de plainchant; le plain5 chant consid7r7 dans son r!thme0 sa tonalit7 et ses modes of AbbW
Augustin aris! *J57. A stri,ing feature of >othiers Liber gradualis of *JJ! apart from its typically romantic preface referring to >ope othiers direction ne" musical type "as engraed by esclWe! =efebre Cie in Tournai! +elgium. The hybrid design of these typographical neume characters "as modelled on the notation of *th- and */thcentury 2rench manuscripts. $pecial ornamental signs representing the /uilisma! cephalicus and epiphonus "ere adapted from pre-*th-century
othier-esclWe$olesmes font! "hich is noted for its diersity of type characters and its ability to depict liuescent neumes 4see g.**7! is still used by some scholars for contemporary transcriptions of early plainchant notations. +ut there is also a tendency to moe a"ay from the $olesmes font to the use of isolated blac, note heads "ithout stems 4see #iley! C*7. The modern era of plainchant palaeography began in *JJ "ith another $olesmes enterprise! the series >alWographie Musicale1 les >rincipau@ Manuscrits de Chant N >ubliWs en 2ac-$imilWs >hototypiues 4>alMus3 see $olesmes! 0/7. This "as the rst signicant attempt to adapt the ne" technology of photography to the study of plainchant notation. The manuscripts "ere not al"ays reproduced in their entirety3
paraliturgical sections! for e@ample! "ere omitted. A century before the >alWographie Musicale began to appear! engraed specimens of neumes "ere used as illustrations! some on polychromatic plates! by ustets priilege to publish the ocial chant boo,s had been "ithdra"n. Among the last >ustet publications "as the :egensburg-)e" or,Cincinnati missal of *JJ "hose title publici;ed the earlier reforms of the Council of Trent and those made under >ius P 4ponticate *5EE67! Clement PIII 4*5 *E857! Grban PIII 4*E//7 and
=eo QIII 4*J66*87. The reocation came at the culmination of a comple@ and often bitter struggle bet"een factions supporting the Allgemeine CYcilien-Perein on the one side and the +enedictines of $olesmes on the other. The dispute seen from the $olesmes position "as chronicled in detail by Combe 4G*E7! and #aberls lengthy rst-hand account 4G*87 remains an inaluable source for understanding the other point of ie". 12. 29th-century de#elopments.
=eo QIII had long maintained a beneolent attitude to"ards #aberl and >ustet! but een before the popes death in *8 there "as a moe to replace the >ustet chant boo,s "ith those of $olesmes! and his successor >ius Q 4ponticate *8*/7! almost immediately after being elected! too, decisie action. In his famous motu proprio of )oember *8! #ra le sollecitudini! >ius Q dened the nature and ,inds of
sacred music! the role of singers! the use of instruments in "orship and the length and performance of church music. The highest type of sacred music "as the ancient chant of the liturgical manuscripts B"hich the most recent studies Ri.e. those of $olesmesS hae so happily restored to their integrity and purity. #e also encouraged the use of classical polyphony and permitted Bgured music and +alsobordoni on certain occasions. 'ithin t"o months of the appearance of the motu proprio! on J %anuary *8/! the Congregation urged that the traditional chant be introduced as uic,ly as possible3 the Patican edition "as ocially announced during a general congress held bet"een / and April *8/. A second motu proprio of implementation "as issued on 5 April *8/ stating that publishing rights for the ne" boo,s "ould remain "ith the Patican3 that the restored melodies should conform to the ancient codices3 that a special commission of ten members 4"ith >othier as president7 and ten consultants
should be appointed to superise the ne" editions3 and that the mon,s of $olesmes "ere to be entrusted "ith the editing of the music. espite repeated clashes "ithin the commission oer editorial policies and the loss of editorship by $olesmes! three maHor Patican chant boo,s "ere published1 the !riale seu ordinarium missae 4*857! the 'raduale sacrosanctae romanae ecclesiae 4*8J7 and the ntiphonale sacrosanctae romanae ecclesiae 4**7.
Once the ,yriale had been published 4see othier! eter 'agner7! considered it important that the choral tradition of the late Middle Ages also be represented. $ince the criteria adopted by the
commission faoured the traditionalist position and inclined more to practical "isdom than to abstract theory! manuscripts representing arious national practices "ere used! some dating from as late as the */th and *5th centuries. The diersity allo"ed in the Patican edition e@posed the commission to criticism on the most fundamental aesthetic leel. +esides the problems of determining the authenticity of the restored melodies! there "as the diculty of the restoration of the melodies original rhythmic structure. +y the mid-*th century many scholars! including 2Wtis! Coussema,er! anHou! )isard! Pitet! =a 2age! Cloet! =ambillotte! Pincent! %umilhac and +aini! had faced this problem. And een at this time opinion "as diided as to "hether chant should be performed in a free oratorical manner "ithout measured note alues! or according to some metrical scheme. +et"een *J5 and **/! Hust as the Patican editions "ere being prepared! argument among scholars on this matter "as at its most intense.
The early mensuralists! among "hom "ere #ugo :iemann! Antoine echerens! =ud"ig +onin! eter 'agner! conHectured that chant "as sung to notes of uneual alue that usually bore a proportional 1* relationship. The results of their rhythmic interpretations! ho"eer! "ere "idely diergent. In the editions of echerens a large number of notes are reduced to the status of rapid ornaments 4G*89.7. Many of the rhythmic interpretations rely to a greater or lesser e@tent on the sophisticated detail in the notation of the early manuscripts from $t othier and Mocuereau! >othier regarding the notation as a local! passing phenomenon! Mocuereau arguing that it "as an essential element of the earliest recoerable state of
chant. In accordance "ith >othiers ie"s! the $acred Congregation of :ites authori;ed the use of one uniform musical notation in the Patican editions 4** and */ August *85! */ 2ebruary *8E! 6 August *86! J April *8J73 the addition of certain rhythmic signs "as tolerated only under e@ceptional circumstances. In *85! the same year that the Patican ,yriale appeared! the rm of esclWe published a !riale seu ordinarium missae cum cantu gregoriano ad e(emplar editionis -aticanae concinnatum et rh!thmicis signis a solesmensibus monachis diligenter ornatum! "hich
reFected the rhythmic theories of om AndrW Mocuereau. The basis of the BmWthode bWnWdictine adocated by $olesmes! "hich stood in direct opposition to mensuralist theories! "as set out by Mocuereau in Le nombre musical gr7gorien 4*8J67. 'hile retaining >othiers basic ideas of free rhythm! Mocuereau deeloped an intricate theory of rhythmic motion deriing from the free binary and ternary metres of
superimposed on the melodies to depict the ebb and Fo" of the arsis and thesis moement 4see g.*7. Although much labour and B:omantic scholarship "ent into the preparation of the >othier! Patican and $olesmes chant boo,s! the latter cannot be considered critical editions in any sense! because they lac, commentaries and do not specify the manuscript sources of each melody. $pecial collections! such as the $olesmes &ariae preces 4*JE7 and Carl Otts 68ertoriale 4*57 4see $teiner! (*EE! p.*E/7! proide some clues to the sources. #o"eer! the modern chant boo,s are by and large functional compilations. To the ine@perienced student! these boo,s can easily seem to possess an absolute authority! both musically and liturgically! and can stand as formidable barriers to a true understanding and appreciation of the immense diersity of medieal chant. $uch an understanding may be further impeded by the "idespread use of te@tboo,s based almost entirely
on these publications 4for e@ample! Apels 'regorian Chant ! C*5J7. In the later decades of the 8th century an oKshoot of the $olesmes school emerged "hose adherents associated themseles "ith the palaeographic theories of the $olesmes +enedictine mon, om &ugZne Cardine 4*85JJ7. This is the eld of
/! ii! p.587 reported that oer !88 rhythmic letters occur in C45% ** 4facs. in >alMus! *st ser.! i! *J/9.7! oer /*88 in S's 5 4>alMus! nd ser.! ii! */9.7 and oer *!88 in S's 8 and * 4>alMus! nd ser.! i! *889 .7. The ne" inestigation of these rhythmic signs is important in t"o respects1 rstly! it has stimulated considerable interest in close reading of primary sources3 second! and perhaps more fundamentally! it may contribute to a better historical and musicological understanding of early chant. $emiotics has gained "idespread popularity in other elds of music 4see %.-%. )attie;1 B:eFections on the eelopment of $emiology in Music! Mn! iii! *J! pp.*653 and %.M. %oncas1 BMusical $emiotics and =iturgical Musicology1 Theoretical 2oundations and Analytic Techniues! %cclesia orans! iii! **! pp.*J*8E73 but despite the e@traordinary claims made for
is probably still too early to assess its practical implications. Most semiological chant research is published in %tudes gr7goriennes! .i-ista interna*ionale di musica sacra! Beitrge *ur 'regorianik and Studi gregorianiG
A deelopment of great importance in the history of 'estern plainchant began on / ecember *E "hen the $econd Patican Council 4** October *E to J ecember *E57 promulgated its rst ocial document BThe Constitution on the $acred =iturgy 4 cta apostolicae sedis! li! *E/! pp.*J7. Out"ardly! the article in chapter 5! BOf $acred Music! seems ery similar to earlier 8thcentury legislation on church music! such as >ius Qs #ra le sollecitudini of )oember *8 4 cta sanctae sedis! @@@i! *8 8/! pp.73 the "i-ini cultus sanctitatem of 8 ecember *J 4 cta apostolicae sedis! @@i! *! pp./*73 the Mediator "ei et hominum of 8 )oember */6 4ibid.! @@@i@! */6! pp.5JJ*73 the Musica sacra disciplina of 5 ecember *55 4ibid.! @liii! *5E! pp.5573 and the $nstructio de
musica sacra et sacra liturgia of
ecember *5J 4ibid.! l! *5J! pp.E8E7.
hae ta,en place that hae profoundly aKected the nature and function of traditional
,eyboards etc.7 and its secular ethos! much of this music is barely distinguishable from certain genres of pop music.
'ass
sacred music published since *88! the Patican and $olesmes chant boo,s and later liturgical publications 4such as the :oman gradual of *6/! the 'raduale triple( of *6 and the
necessary to create a conte@t for this emphasis. It thus concentrates on the B#igh or B$olemn Mass! in "hich irtually all the te@ts are sung! as opposed to the B=o" Mass! in "hich they are simply read. $ubspecies of the Mass include the Chorale mass! "hich uses lenary mass! "hich contains polyphonic settings of both >roper and Ordinary chants3 and :euiem Mass! or Mass for the ead. 4See also :oman Catholic church music.7 2or non-:oman eucharistic serices and their music see Ambrosian chant! +eneentan chant! resbyterian church music3 and $erice. I. =iturgy and chant II. The polyphonic mass to *E88 III. *E88888 %AM&$ '. Mc(I))O) 4I7! T#&OO: <==)&: 4II! * 7! MA:ICA:M&) <M&] 4II! 57! =&'I$ =OC('OO9A):&' (I:(MA) 4II! E7! &)I$ A:)O=9%O#) #A:>&: 4III7 Mass
I. Fiturgy and chant
*. &arly history. . The early medieal :oman-2ran,ish Mass. . =ater medieal deelopments. /. :eform. +I+=IO<:A># Mass! 0I1 =iturgy and chant 1. 7arly history.
It can be said that there "as singing at the ery rst Mass. Matthe" and Mar, conclude their descriptions of the =ast $upper "ith the same "ords1 B'hile singing a hymn they "ent out to the Mount of Olies. If! as the three $ynoptic assoer! this Bhymn might hae been the #allel 4>salms c@iiic@iii7. It is signicant that the Mass had its origins in a %e"ish ceremonial meal3 such meals "ere freuently accompanied by religious song! a characteristic that "as maintained in early Christian communal suppers! "hether eucharistic or not. The earliest full description of a Christian &ucharist is that of %ustin Martyr 4 d c*E53 First polog! ! E67. It comes from a time "hen the &ucharist "as no longer celebrated at an eening meal! possibly because of abuses such as those cited by >aul 4 1 Corinthians @i.*6/7! but early on $unday morning. The language of the document creates the impression of great precision1 And on the day named for the sun there is an assembly in one place for all "ho lie in the to"ns and in the country3 and the memoirs of the Apostles and
the "ritings of the >rophets are read as long as time permits. Then! "hen the reader has nished! he "ho presides spea,s! giing admonishment and e@hortation to imitate those noble deeds. Then "e all stand together and oKer prayers. And "hen! as "e said aboe! "e are nished "ith the prayers! bread is brought and "ine and "ater! and he "ho presides li,e"ise oKers prayers and than,sgiing according to his ability! and the people gie their assent by e@claiming Amen. And there ta,es place the distribution to each and the parta,ing of that oer "hich than,sgiing has been said. The oerall shape of the /th-century &ucharist! and indeed of all later Christian eucharistic serices! is already present here1 an initial period of scripture reading! instruction and prayer the so-called $erice of the 'ord or 2ore-Mass follo"ed by the eucharistic serice proper! consisting of bringing in the sacred elements! saying the eucharistic prayer oer them and distributing them to the people. The only essential eent not mentioned! because it had yet to be introduced! is the dismissal of the non-bapti;ed after the conclusion of the 2ore-Mass! an action that "ould bring about the diision into a BMass of the Catechumens and BMass of the 2aithful. %ustin?s description of the 2ore-Mass has caused some disuiet among music historians because of its failure to mention psalmody. =iturgical scholars and musicologists once broadly assumed that the 2oreMass "as an adoption en bloc of the $ynagogue liturgy! a standardi;ed serice consisting of the four
essential elements of reading! discourse! prayer and psalmody. It no" appears! ho"eer! that the truth is not so simple1 the $ynagogue serices "ere not nearly so formali;ed at the time of the rst Christians! nor indeed "ere the serices of the Christians themseles 4see +radsha"! *7. The characteristic custom of the $ynagogue "as the reading of $cripture "ith attendant commentary! and it "as this in particular that early Christians continued to include in many of their gatherings and that became an integral part of the pre-eucharistic serice. The singing of psalms and hymns! as a discrete ritual act! is more obiously appropriate to communal eening meals than to early morning instructional serices! and the practice of obligatory psalmody established itself in both the $ynagogue serice and the Christian 2ore-Mass only in subseuent centuries as the t"o deeloped independently of each other 4$mith! *J/3 Mc(innon! *JE7. This is not to say that psalms "ere neer chanted in the 2ore-Mass of %ustin?s time! but only that psalmody had not yet been recogni;ed as a discrete and independent element of that serice as it "ould be by the later /th century. It must be assumed that psalms "ould occasionally hae gured among the biblical readings of the 2ore-Mass! "here their lyric character might ery "ell hae called for a more melodious cantillation than that accorded to the other readings. This assumption is supported by the patristic eidence of the later /th century! relatiely abundant at that time as opposed to the meagre and scattered references of preious centuries. A psalm in the 2ore-
Mass "as still spo,en of as a reading3 Augustine! for e@ample! commented in $ermon *E51 B'e heard the Apostle! "e heard the >salm! "e heard the salter sing the erse 4 %nnarratio in psalmum c(((ii7. 'hy the psalmody of the 2ore-Mass came to achiee its later /th-century status is a matter for speculation. )o doubt one of the factors inoled is the increasingly public and ceremonial character of the liturgy during the period after the emancipation of Christianity under Constantine in *3 it "as a liturgy! moreoer! conducted "ithin the acoustical ambience of great stone basilicas as opposed to the house churches of earlier centuries. The &ucharist! too! must hae felt the inFuence of that general! later /th-century enthusiasm for psalmody that "as more obiously manifested in the deelopment of the sung Oce and the rise of the popular psalmodic igil 4Mc(innon! *7. In any eent the /th-century literature sho"s psalmody rmly established at t"o points in the &ucharist1 in the 2ore-Mass! and also during the distribution of Communion. The latter deelopment occasions no surprise1 the distribution of Communion is a Hoyous eent! one not occupied by the reading of any te@ts or prayers and one that might "ell retain
associations of the eening eucharistic meal. The psalm sung during Communion "as usually >salm @@@iii 4:eised $tandard Persion1 @@@i7 "ith its highly appropriate erse J! BTaste and see that the =ord is good. The psalmody of the 2ore-Mass is more problematic! largely because of a set of commonly held assumptions about its relationship to the readings. It "as once "idely belieed that in all Christian liturgies there "ere t"o readings before the
and that such a psalm could be thought of as the ancestor of the tract. On other occasions! especially during >aschal Time! the response of the psalm "as the acclamation BAlleluia! so it might be said that the ancient gradual psalm sometimes too, on the form of an alleluia. A genuine proto-alleluia! ho"eer! "ould seem to reuire the regular singing of t"o psalms in the 2ore-Mass. $uch a situation is in fact documented for the rst time in early 5th-century %erusalem. The Armenian =ectionary 4see :enou@! *E6*7! "hich appears to reFect the liturgy of %erusalem at that time! gies the incipits of t"o psalms in its pre-eucharistic syna@is! the second of "hich is regularly proided "ith an alleluia response. It is probable that this #agiopolite alleluia e@ercised its inFuence on the liturgical centres of the &ast at a far earlier date than on those of the 'est! "hich "ere already becoming isolated in the 5th century by the barbarian incursions attendant upon the collapse of the :oman &mpire. +roadly spea,ing! by the turn of the 5th century! as Christian antiuity "as dra"ing to a close! the 'estern Mass 4or at least its African-Italian manifestation7 had the follo"ing general aspect. The serice opened abruptly "ith a greeting from the celebrant and the readings follo"ed on immediately 4the introductory items of introit psalm! (yrie! aul and less often from the cts o+ the postles or the Old Testament. A psalm "as chanted either before or after the &pistle by a lector3 this psalm "as freuently
responded to by the congregation "ith melodious refrains! including alleluia refrains during >aschaltide! and it may also hae been declaimed "ithout refrains! particularly on penitential occasions. The rayer oer the elements by e@changing a series of greetings "ith the congregation. This prayer! "hich "as chanted aloud! and the e@change of greetings "as already ery close to its early medieal form. The prefatory portion of the prayer concluded "ith the singing by all of the $anctus! and the entire prayer ended "ith a solemn congregational BAmen. =ey 4*5JE7 has argued persuasiely that the melody of the $anctus! and indeed of the entire eucharistic dialogue bet"een clergy and faithful! is closely related to that of the early medieal 'estern sources 4the $anctus is the familiar one of the :euiem Mass7. After the &ucharistic >rayer there follo"ed the B>a@! the 2raction of the consecrated bread! the Pater noster ! and nally the distribution of the sacred elements to all in attendance! during "hich a psalm usually >salm
@@@iii 4:eised $tandard Persion1 @@@i7 "as sung responsorially "ith BTaste and see as refrain. See also Christian Church! music of the early.
Mass! 0I1 =iturgy and chant 2. &he early medie#al oman-rankish 'ass.
4i7 The Mass of BOrdo romanus I. 4ii7 The Mass Ordinary. 4iii7 The Mass >roper. Mass! 0I! 1 =iturgy and chant1 The early medieal :oman-2ran,ish Mass i! &he 'ass of K$rdo romanus IL.
Augustine died in /8 as the Pandals held the city of #ippo under siege. #is passing is emblematic of the closing of the era of abundant patristic literature and the beginning of a centuries-long period of comparatie silence during the barbarian ascendency. There is ery little information about the deelopment of the :oman Mass until the appearance of the celebrated 6rdo romanus $! "hich describes in detail the >ontical Mass of about 688. This serice is of great importance because it became the model for the manner in "hich Mass "as celebrated oer much of =atin Christendom3 moreoer! irtually all the principal prayers! readings and chants of the mature medieal Mass 4see Table *7 are already present in it. The pope celebrated Mass each day at a diKerent one of the so-called stational churches! of "hich there
"ere about 8 at the turn of the Jth century. #e arried at the church "ith his retinue and ested in the secretarium! a sort of sacristy near the entrance. uring his procession through the nae of the church to the altar! the introit psalm "as chanted by the $chola Cantorum! preceded by the singing of the >roper introit antiphon. On arrial at the altar the pope bo"ed before it in prayer! e@tended a greeting of peace to the clergy and then nodded to the $chola to curtail the chanting of the psalm and to go to the concluding 'loria Patri and repetition of the antiphon. There follo"ed the singing of the (yrie eleison by the $chola! and the roper oration that brought the introductory rites of the Mass to a close. After the pope and clergy seated themseles in the apse behind the altar! a subdeacon mounted the steps of the ambo to recite the &pistle. )e@t a cantor! "ith Bcantorium in hand! mounted the ambo and chanted the Bresponsum or gradual! no longer the complete responsorial psalm of patristic times! but rather an elaborate response follo"ed by an eually elaborate erse and a repetition of the response. A second cantor follo"ed "ith either the alleluia or tract! depending on the liturgical occasion. The alleluia! sung on most feast days of the Church year! consisted of a rhapsodic rendering of the response BAlleluia! follo"ed by a moderately Forid erse and repetition of BAlleluia. The tract! performed on a limited number of penitential occasions! lac,ed a response and "as rather a psalm! or seeral erses thereof! sung to a
limited number of elaborate formulaic tones. This portion of the serice came to a clima@ "ith the chanting of the ontical Mass are! by contrast! altogether e@pected. There "as no Credo! because this chant of the Ordinary made its "ay into the :oman Mass only in the **th century. )either "ere there prayers of the catechumens! dismissal of the catechumens nor prayers of the faithful. These rites "ere no longer obsered in the :oman Mass3 the nonbapti;ed "ere no" admitted to the eucharistic portion of the Mass! "hile the prayers of the 2ore-Mass had been moed to the introductory portion of the serice! "here they too, the form of the (yrie eleison! still a litany at the end of the 6th century. The absence of prayers from their traditional place in the Mass "as mar,ed by the estigial BOremus! uttered by the celebrant at the beginning of the oKertory. The >roper chant called the oKertory! "hich consisted of an initial chant of moderate melodic elaboration 4referred to neither as a response nor as an antiphon in the sources7 follo"ed by t"o or three erses! "as sung "hile a comple@ series of ritual acts "ere performed3 among these "ere the reception by the pope of the gifts 4including "ine and leaened
bread7! the "ashing of the pope?s hands! the preparation of the gifts by the clergy! and prayers said by the pope oer the gifts. At the conclusion of these ceremonies the pope nodded to the $chola to complete the singing of the oKertory! and he began his o"n chanting of the >reface "ith a series of greetings beginning Bominus obiscum. The >reface concluded "ith the clergy singing the $anctus! presumably in the simple ancient tone mentioned aboe. After the $anctus! "hich no" included its second portion! B+enedictus ui enit 4 Matthew @@i.7! the pope began the Canon "ith the "ords BTe igitur. The Canon! "hich by the end of the Jth century "ould be read in silence! "as at the time of 6rdo romanus $ recited in a subdued tone rather than being chanted aloud as it had been in the early Church. And it "as not interrupted by the eleation of the host or chalice! acts of eucharistic adoration that "ould not be introduced until the *th century. The Canon concluded "ith the "ords Bper omnia saecula saeculorum and the response BAmen. The introductory communion rites of the early Jth century follo"ed a diKerent order from those of the early Church3 the Pater noster came rst! follo"ed by the B>a@ and nally the 2raction. uring the 2raction the Agnus ei "as sung3 it had been introduced under >ope $ergius I 4EJ668*7. Communion "as distributed to the clergy in hierarchical order and then to the laity! rst to the men and then the "omen! "ho occupied diKerent sides of the church 4in the follo"ing centuries there "ould be a sharp decline in the freuency of lay Communion7. uring the distribution the $chola sang
the communion chant! "hich "as much li,e the introit in e@ternal aspect! consisting of a psalm "ith >roper antiphon. And as "ith the introit the pope nodded to the $chola to cease the singing of the psalm and to conclude "ith the atri and antiphon "hen the distribution "as completed. After the communion the celebrant recited the oration called the postcommunion! then announced BIte missa est 4to "hich the response "as Beo gratias7 and returned in procession "ith attendant clergy to the secretarium. Mass! 0I! 1 =iturgy and chant1 The early medieal :oman-2ran,ish Mass ii! &he 'ass $rdinary.
The term BOrdinary! as opposed to B>roper! refers to any part of the Mass! sung or spo,en! that has the same te@t at eery enactment of the serice. The sung Ordinary is usually said to consist of e items1 (yrie!
aKorded to the Ordinary seres to denigrate the importance of other parts of the Mass such as the >roper chants. The early history of the (yrie eleison remains controersial. It "as once thought to hae originated "hen the "eprecatio 'elasii! a litany purportedly adopted from the &ast by >ope
into the :oman Mass only gradually! being restricted at rst to Christmas ay and later to episcopal serices. +y the **th century it "as sung at most masses other than those of penitential occasions. The Credo is a =atin translation of a creed or Bsymbolum! "hich "as recorded rst in rayer as a sort of concluding do@ology to the >reface! has a comple@ and controersial early history. Its original portion! the Btersanctus! deried from $saiah i. 4and .e-elation i.J7! "ould appear to hae been adopted from %e"ish liturgical practice! but it does not gure in eery presered ersion of the early Christian &ucharistic >rayer. It had become almost uniersal! ho"eer! by the later /th century. Its second portion! B+enedictus ui enit 4 Matthew @@i.7! from the narration of %esus?s triumphal entry into
%erusalem! is rst attested by Caesarius of Arles 4 d 5/7. The +enedictus closes "ith the e@clamation B#osanna in e@celsis3 eentually this "as added to the $anctus portion of the chant as "ell. In performances of the polyphonic $anctus! the t"o portions "ere separated! "ith the +enedictus being sung after the &leation. The introduction of the Agnus ei 4B=amb of ope $ergius 4EJ668*7 appears to hae been an act of theological deance against +y;antium. The chant "as sung in $yria 4$ergius himself "as $yrian7 but "as not allo"ed in Constantinople because of a ban on depicting Christ in animal form. The Agnus may originally hae been a litany3 it "as in any eent at rst repeated as often as necessary to coer the actions of the 2raction! al"ays "ith the response BMiserere nobis. +y the **th century the chant "as limited to three repetitions of the Agnus! and the nal response "as changed to Bona nobis pacem 4Bona eis reuiem in the Mass for the ead7! a reference to the Hust completed >a@. Ordinary chants "ere probably originally sung to fairly simple tones1 the $anctus! for e@ample! to the tone ,no"n from the :euiem Mass! and the Agnus! perhaps! to the similar tone gien in the Patican &dition under BMass QPIII. In the th century among the 2ran,s! ho"eer! the process of proiding a ariety of ne" and more elaborate melodies had already begun3 such melodies "ould eentually be organi;ed into musically compatible chant Bordinaries after the manner of the polyphonic mass. The beginnings of this
deelopment "ere closely tied to the creation of tropes. (yrie tropes for a particular feast! for e@ample! might inspire the composition of a ne" (yrie melody! "hich "ould in turn be associated "ith the festial in uestion. These melodies! "ith or "ithout their tropes! came to be organi;ed in portions of manuscripts referred to later as B,yriales. The (yrie melodies "ould be grouped together! follo"ed by those of the apal Curia3 here the ,yriale consisted of about ten chant Bordinaries "ithout tropes! arranged in (yrie to Agnus order! "ith each set of chants assigned to a diKerent class of festial. The chant Ordinary "as much cultiated in the *5th and *Eth centuries after the model! apparently! of its polyphonic counterpart. Mass! 0I! 1 =iturgy and chant1 The early medieal :oman-2ran,ish Mass iii! &he 'ass "roper.
The >roper consists of the introit 4 see Introit 4i773 the gradual 4see
close to"ards the mid-5th century3 but the rst uneuiocal testimony to the e@istence of the other items is to be found in 6rdo romanus $! dating from appro@imately t"o and a half centuries later. As a general obseration! it may be said that ariable psalmody appears to characteri;e the :oman >roper more radically than the >ropers of most other Christian liturgies! and this trait may shed light on the origins of certain chants. 42or further discussion of origins see the indiidual articles mentioned aboe.7 The entrance and oKertory chants to the +y;antine &ucharist! for e@ample! are Ordinary chants rather than psalmic >ropers1 the Trisagion "as the original entrance chant and the Cheroubi,on the oKertory chant. These hymns "ere introduced in turn into =atin eucharistic liturgies such as the Mo;arabic and salm @@@iii on most days! but by the mid-Jth century had achieed a repertory of nearly *58 >roper antiphons! far more
than any other Christian communion chant! &astern or 'estern. Its "ee,day =enten series of numerically ordered psalmic te@ts! moreoer! may betray the inFuence of the numerically ordered psalms of the Oce. In any eent the core repertory of the :oman Mass >roper "as in place by the time of its transmission to the Carolingian realm in the second half of the Jth century. That is to say there e@isted chants "ith the same te@ts as those of the so-called Old :oman 4**thcentury :oman7 and roper "as substantially complete by the mid-Jth century! ery little is ,no"n about ho" it deeloped. At one time it "as thought that
reision and organi;ation of the >roper too, place some"hat later than roper prayers and readings than of the chants! and both prayers and readings! "hich may be at least as ancient as chants! became @ed at :ome only to"ards the mid-6th century. On the other hand! much of the chant repertory "as certainly completed by the time of roper is that all Christian liturgies obsere a broad moement from the ad hoc selection of prayers! readings and chants each day by the celebrant to the permanent assignment of these items! and the recording of them in "riting! for the entire year. An analysis of the patristic eidence ma,es it clear that the psalms sung in the &ucharist! e@cept for rare e@ceptions such as the &aster gradual response B#aec dies 4Pulgate >salm c@ii./7! "ere not yet @ed in the /th and 5th centuries. The same consideration also has chronological implications for the later stages of a >roper?s deelopment. There is reason to suspect that chants lac,ing stable assignments in the sources! that is! chants that ary from manuscript to manuscript 4as does a large portion of the alleluia repertory7! are later
creations than chants "ith uniformly stable assignments. Another factor to be ta,en into account "hen speculating on the time of a chant >roper?s creation is the e@istence of a group of ecclesiastical singers capable of creating and maintaining it. The :oman Mass >roper comprises some 558 chants of considerable elaboration3 the te@ts "ere recorded in "riting but the melodies "ere not. The body responsible for their performance from year to year "as the $chola Cantorum 4see $chola Cantorum 4i77! a clerical group that resided at the pope?s =ateran palace. It "as formerly thought that roper as a "hole in the hope of discoering layers of compositional planning has proed to be a fruitful area of study. >eter 'agner "as engaged in this ,ind of research in the early *88s! reealing! among other things! patterns in the "ay that psalmic and non-psalmic te@ts "ere assigned oer stretches of the liturgical year. One interesting result of his analysis is the conclusion that the nal reision of the Mass >roper "as carried out more genre by genre than festial by festial. This particular insight has receied a measure of corroboration in later liturgical inestigation! "hich sho"s that the :oman
compositional planning is more easily discerned! and then moes on to an e@tensie analysis of the music. Mass! 0I1 =iturgy and chant 3. Fater medie#al de#elopments.
The Mass had achieed its classic medieal shape by the time of its transmission from :ome to 2rancia in the mid-Jth century. Its subseuent history might be described as an initial phase of accumulation in "hich the basic structure "as heaily elaborated! and a subseuent phase of reform in "hich there "as an attempt to undo the elaboration and return to earlier forms of the serice. =iturgical additions to the Mass in the th century and thereafter "ere particularly prominent at the beginning and end of the serice3 musical additions "ere more perasie! consisting especially of the accretion of tropes to most chants of the Ordinary and >roper 4see Trope 4i77. All the items of the Ordinary! e@cept for the Credo! "ere subHect to regular troping! "hile among the items of the >roper the introit "as most often troped and the gradual least often. The alleluia came in for special treatment! tending to accumulate arious additions after the erse3 these include tropes! se/uentiae 4long melismatic e@tensions of the original Hubilus7 and! of course! the poetic genre ,no"n as the seuence. Independent chants "ere also added to the Mass1 antiphons! for e@ample! before the
sperges me "ith >salm l throughout most of the year! and &idi a/uam "ith >salm c@ii during >aschal Time.
These additions reached their clima@ during the **th and *th centuries. The Mass of the time! and the Oce for that matter! must hae been splendid spectacles. Conducted in great :omanesue monastic churches and cathedrals! the liturgy beneted from the literary contributions of the most talented citi;ens of &urope and "as performed by these same indiiduals! mon,s and canons "ho had sung chant daily from early childhood. It could be said! ho"eer! that this form of liturgy "as doomed to collapse under its o"n "eight! sapping the energy of its e@ecutants and leaing them little time to ,eep abreast of other deelopments in the rapidly changing society of the #igh Middle Ages. Mass! 0I1 =iturgy and chant 4. eform.
Among the rst to react against this liturgical grandeur! particularly in its +enedictine manifestations! "ere the *th-century Cistercians3 purporting to return to the pristine monasticism of $t +enedict?s time! they too, aim at "hat they sa" as liturgical e@cess! e@cising many of the +enedictine additions and een applying surgery to the melismas of the core chant repertory 4Matre! *57. +ut a reform of greater long-term signicance "as that underta,en in the >apal Curia of the *th century. Motiated less! perhaps! by the sort of spiritual concerns that impelled the Cistercians than by the
practical need to sae time for harried bureaucrats! the Curial reform sought to pare do"n the liturgy to a form not far remoed from that of the earlier th century. The Curial liturgy "as embraced in turn by the 2ranciscan friars "ho themseles actie and itinerant in their eKorts to bring religion to the laity helped to propagate it throughout &urope 4Pan iH, and 'al,er! *E87. The later medieal Mass! then! "as less burdened in many localities by an e@cess of subsidiary chants than it had been in earlier centuries! but it came to labour under the abuses of a diKerent nature. It diKered so "idely from diocese to diocese! not least from the proliferation of local saints? days! that it lost a good measure of its uniersality. And still "orse! it degenerated in the minds of some into a sort of spiritual coinage1 paying a stipend to hae a Mass said or sung could sae a soul or secure some temporal faour! and such masses "ere thought to be all the more ecacious if they too, the form of a otie Mass or that of some faoured saint! rather than that called for by the liturgical calendar. The Council of Trent 4*5/5E7 addressed the problem of the late medieal Mass in general terms in its "ecretum de obser-andis et e-itandis in celebratione missarum of *5E! leaing matters of detail to be coered by the preparation of a reform missal! "hich appeared in *568. The missal called for a lean :oman Order of the Mass to be obsered precisely throughout the entire Church. A scaled-do"n ersion of the introductory prayers "as retained! including the BIntroibo 4Pulgate >salm @lii7 and BConteor! as "as the BIn principio erat erbum 4 ohn
i7 at the end of Mass. All tropes "ere eliminated! ho"eer! and also all seuences e@cept for the highly faoured &ictimae paschali laudes of &aster! &eni Sancte Spiritus of >entecost! Lauda Sion of Corpus Christi and "ies irae of the :euiem Mass. As for the calendar! the celebration of sanctoral feasts and the use of otie masses "as sharply curtailed. The general spirit of the reforms "as to secure central :oman control and to preent change. A point of considerable musical signicance "as the decision to retain the polyphonic Ordinary. The chant >ropers did not fare so "ell1 under the direction of >ope >aul P 4*E85*7! the composers 2elice Anerio and 2rancesco $oriano prepared a reform gradual in "hich the medieal melodies "ere reised according to humanistic standards! a process that reuired! among other things! the e@cision of many melismas or their transferal from unaccented to accented syllables. The mid-*th century sa" the birth of the modern =iturgical Moement. >rominent among its early proponents "ere the 2rench +enedictines of $olesmes! "ho made it one of their principal aims to restore the medieal chant. They achieed an undeniable success "ith the chant melodies! and "hile the rhythmic system they deised for the performance of the chant "as historically uestionable! it resulted nonetheless in the deelopment of a practical church music of great beauty and renement. At the same time groups such as the
century the ultimate liturgical ideal of Mass celebration "as the scrupulous obserance of the Tridentine rubrics by the presiding priest and the dignied chanting of his prayers in =atin! "hile an e@pert choir! preferably "ith boy trebles! sang a chant >roper and an Ordinary by >alestrina or some contemporary. This "as to change drastically as the =iturgical Moement entered into a ne"! more populist phase! "hich culminated in the reforms of the $econd Patican Council 4*E57. 'hile it is not al"ays easy to distinguish bet"een the intentions of the Council and their reali;ation at the local leel! the central aim of the reforms may be characteri;ed as an attempt to inole the lay congregation more actiely in the Mass3 in spirit and style there is a moement a"ay from ritual to informality! and! historically! an abandonment of the medieal ideal in faour of the early Christian. The introit is generally replaced by a hymn of the chorale type 4in the ernacular! of course! as is the entire ceremony73 the introductory prayers such as the BIntroibo and BConteor are omitted. The reading cycle on $undays and festials includes an Old Testament pericope! a psalm sung responsorially to a simple contemporary setting! a )e" Testament reading! a tuneful Alleluia "ith a fe" psalm erses and nally the rayer! no" ariable! is recited aloud3 a simple congregational B#oly! holy! holy occupies its accustomed place! "hile
