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Structures of the prehistoric period, although interesting for archaeological reasons, have have little or no architectural value, value, and will w ill only be lightly touched touche d upon. The remains may be classified classifie d under : i. Monoliths, or single upright stones, also known as menhirs, a well-k w ell-known nown example example 63 feet high, 14 feet in diameter, and weighing 260 tons, being at Carnac, Brittany. Another example is at Locmariaker, also in Brittany (No. 2 B). ii. Dolmens (Daul, a table, and maen, a stone), consisting consisting of one large flat stone supported by upright upright stones. Examples are are to be found near Maidston M aidstonee and other places in England, also also in Ireland, Northern France, the Channel Islands, Italy (No. 2 F) and India. iii. Cromlechs, or or circles c ircles of stone, as at Stonehen S tonehenge ge (No. (No. 2 G), Avebury A vebury (Wilts), and elsewhere, consisting consisting of a series of upright stones arranged in a circle and supporting horizontal slabs. iv. Tumuli, or burial mounds, were we re probably prototypes prototypes of the Pyramids P yramids of Egypt (No. 4) and the beehive huts found in Wales, Cornwall, Ireland (No. 2 D, E) and elsewhere. e lsewhere. That at New Grange (Ireland) resembles somewhat somew hat the Treasury Treasury of Atreus at Mycenae (No. (No. 15). v. Lake Dwellings, Dw ellings, as discovered in the lakes of Switzerland, Sw itzerland, Italy and Ireland consisted of wooden w ooden huts supported on piles, and were so placed for protection against hostile attacks of all kinds. Divided according to period as follows:i.Paleolithic i.Paleolithic Age ii.Mesolithic ii.Mesolithic Age iii.Neoli iii.Neolithi thicc Age iv.Chalcolith iv.Chalcolithic ic Age v.Bronze v.Bronze Age
It covers the greatest portion of humanity's hum anity's time time (roughly 99% of human hum an history) on Earth Earth,, extending from 2.5 or 2.6 million years ago, with w ith the introduction of stone tools by hominids such as Homo habilis , to the introduction of agriculture and the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 10,000 BC. The Paleolithic era era ended with the Mesolithic,, or in areas with an early neolithisation Mesolithic neolithisation,, the Epipaleolithic Epipaleolithic.. During the the Paleolithic humans were grouped together together in small s mall scale societies such as bands and gained their subsistence su bsistence from gathering plants and hunting wild animals. [12] The Paleolithic is characterize characterizedd by the use us e of knapped stone tools tools,, although at the time, humans also used wood and bone tools. Other organic commodities commodities were adapted for use as tools, including leather and vegetable vegetable fibers; fibers ; however, given their nature, these have not been preserved pres erved to any great degree.Througho degree.Throughout ut the stone age, man was w as a food gatherer. Lower Paleolithic Age The oldest recognizable tools made by members m embers of the family of man m an are simple stone choppers, such as those discovered at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. Lower Paleolithic stone industries of the early s pecies of humans called Homo erectus. Stone tools of this period pe riod are of the core type, made m ade by chipping the stone to form a cutting edge, or of the flake type, fashioned fas hioned from fragments struck off a stone. Hand axes were the typical tool of these early hunters and food-gatherers.
e g A c Middle Paleolithic Age i It includes the Mousterian culture, often associated with Neanderthal man, an early form of man, living betw een h Neand erthal remains remains are often found in caves with w ith evidence of the use of fire. t 40,000 and 100,000 years ago. Neanderthal i l Neanderthals were hunters of prehistoric prehis toric mammals, and their cultural remains, though unearthed chiefly in o Europe, have been found also in N Africa, Palestine, Pale stine, and Siberia. Stone tools of this period are of the flake fla ke e tradition, tradition, and bone implements, such as needles, indicate indicate that crudely sewn furs and skins were used as body l prim itive religion may have been practiced. practice d. a coverings. Since the dead were painted before burial, a kind of primitive P
Upper Paleolithic Age In this period Neanderthal man disappears and is is replaced replace d by a variety of Homo sapiens sap iens such as Cro-Magnon Cro-M agnon man and Grimaldi man. Pit houses, the first man-made shelters, shelters, were built, sewn clothing was worn, and sculpture and painting originated. Tools were w ere of great variety, including flint and obsidian blades and projectile points. Their Their stone s tone tools are finely worked, w orked, and they made a typical figure eight –shaped blade. They They also a lso used bone, horn, and ivory and made necklaces and other personal ornaments. They They carved the so -called Venus figures, ritual statuettes of bone, and made outline drawings draw ings on cave walls. w alls.
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The houses hous es and dwellings dwellings of the Palaeolithic Palaeolithic period are generally classified classified as, • Huts (Terra Amata, Nice) are the earliest known structures. In In this case they were w ere built by nomadic hunters hunters who returned to the same sandy beaches, each spring. The The construction c onstruction consists of walls made of a palisade palisad e of timber stakes, arranged in an oval plan, with w ith a bracing ring of stoners on the outside. The interior had a central ce ntral hearth and the floor was made of a beaten beate n layer of ash and organic material. There There is no evidence evidenc e that suggests the shape of the roof. • Lean-to (Le Lazaret, Nice) was erected against one wall of a cave. c ave. The The assembly as sembly probably consisted of a timber frame with w ith post supports and a skin covering, pinned to the ground by a circle of stones. s tones. • Tents Tepee-like tents were w ere a common feature of glacial g lacial Europe (Czechoslovakia, Germany and France). The structure consisted of a timber framework framew ork covered with animal (mammoth?) (mamm oth?) skins. The skirts were w ere invariably weighed down with stones and the interior paved.
Middle Stone Age, period in human development developme nt between the end of the Paleolithic period and the beginning of the Neolithic period. It began bega n with the end of the last glacial period over 10,000 years ago and evolved into the Neolithic period; this change cha nge involved involved the gradual domestication of plants and animals an imals and the formation of settled communities communities at various times and places. While Mesolith Mes olithic ic cultures lasted in Europe until almost 3000 B.C., Neolithic Neolithic communities developed in in the Middle East E ast between 9000 and 6000 B.C. Mesolithic cultures represent a wide variety of hunting, fishing, and food gathering techniques. This This variety may be the result res ult of adaptations to changed ecological conditions associated with the retreat of glaciers, glacie rs, the growth of forests in Europe and deserts in N Africa, and the disappearance of the large game of the Ice Age . Characteristic of the period were hunting and fishing settlements settlements along along rivers and on lake shores, s hores, where fish and mollusks were abundant. Microliths, the typical stone implements of the Mesolithic Me solithic period, are smaller and more delicate than those of the late Paleolithic P aleolithic period. Pottery and the use of the bow developed, develop ed, although their presence in Mesolithic cultures may only indicate contact with early Neolithic peoples.The peoples .The Maglemosian, named for a site in Denmark, is found in the Baltic region and N England. Eng land. ItIt occurs occ urs in the middle midd le of the Mesolithic Meso lithic period. It is there that hafted hafted axes, an improvement over the Paleolithic Paleolithic hand axe, and bone tools are found. The The Ertebolle culture, also named for a site in Denmark, spans most of the late Mesolithi Mes olithic. c. It is also known as the kitchen-midden culture for the large deposits of mollusk mollus k shells found around the settlements. Other late Mesolithic cultures are the Campignian and Asturian, both both of which may have had Neolithic Neolithic contacts. Domestication Domestication of the dog as a hunting companion probably dates to this period. The earliest earlies t known known battle occurred oc curred during the the Mesolithic Mes olithic period at a site in Egypt E gypt known as Cemetery 117.
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The Neolithic, New Stone Age, was w as characterized by the adoption of agriculture, the so -called Neolithic Revolution, the development developme nt of pottery, polished stone tools and more complex, larger settlements se ttlements such as Çatal Hüyük and Jericho. Jericho. The The first Neolithic Neolithic cultures started started around around 7000 7000 BC B C in the fertile fertile crescent. Agriculture and the culture it led to spread s pread to the Mediterranean, the Indus valley, valley, China C hina and Southeast Asia. Due to the increased need to harvest and process plants, ground stone and polished stone artifacts artifacts became much more widespread, including tools for grinding, cutting, and chopping. The first large -scale constructions were built, including settlement settlem ent towers and walls, e.g., Jericho and ceremonial sites, eg: eg : Stonehenge. These These show that there was sufficient resources and co-operation co-o peration to enable large groups to work on these projects. To what extent this was a basis for the development of elites and social hierarchies hierarchies is a matter m atter of on-going on -going debate.[18] Although some late Neolithic societies socie ties formed complex stratified chiefdoms similar to Polynesian societies such as the Ancient Ancien t Hawaiians, most Neolithic societies were relatively simple and egalitarian[19] though Neolithic cultures were noticeably more hierarchical than the Paleolithic cultures that preceded them and Hunter-gatherer cultures in general.[20] The The earliest e arliest evidence for established estab lished trade trade exists in the Neolithic with newly settled se ttled people importing exotic goods over distances of many hundreds of miles. miles . The The Ġgantija temples of Gozo in the Maltese archipelago are the oldest surviving surviving free standing s tanding structures structures in the world, w orld, erected c. 3600-2500 BC. Skara Brae located on Orkney Orkney island is land off Scotland is is one of Europe's best examples of a Neolithic village. The community co mmunity contains stone beds, shelves and even an indoor toilet linked to a stream.The stream.The Aztec and Inca empires came into existence during during this particular particular time. Petroglyphs Petroglyphs were developed during this period.
The dwellings of the Neolithic period were w ere generally small timber-framed, timber -framed, uni-cellular, single-family houses, or large longhouses for extended and multiple families. Dry-stone Dry-ston e multi-cellular houses were we re also built. Between 4500 – 1500BC, there originated a widespread w idespread practice of burial in Megalithic Me galithic collective tombs, particularly in Western Europe, as far as Scandinavia and the Mediterranean. These These are of two types, passage pas sage and gallery graves. They differed from region to another in their purpose, purpos e, plans, and methods of construction. cons truction. Temples from this period (Ggantija and Hal Tarxien, Tarxien, Malta) M alta) represent some of the earliest European buildings with a specific function. function. They They were formally planned with trilithion trilithion entrance passages. passages. The The structure structure consisted of megalithic stone-faced earthen walls.
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The principal form of construction is known as megalithic (megas-lithos, (m egas-lithos, Gk. great stone). Huge stone blocks were assembled without withou t mortar in basic structural configurations that are still used us ed today. Sometimes blocks were set-up merely to rest against each other. More important is the post-and-lintel (or trabeated construction) in which a horizontal beam rests on vertical uprights. This is the single s ingle most important structural device used in architecture.Megalithic structures may be of two categories, • Tombs Apart from the hypogea, or rock-cut caves, they are of three thre e basic arrangements; • Chamber tomb (a single stone ston e roof supported by two or more uprights) • Passage grave (a rectangular rec tangular or polygonal chamber with an entrance passage, generally gene rally used for collective burials) • Gallery grave (an elongated, rectangular grave that was sometimes sub -divided further, without an entrance passage). All varieties were we re covered by a circular or oval mound of earth, often fortified with w ith retaining walls of stone. • Non-sepulchral single uprights Usually standing alone (menhirs) or in composite, circular groups (cromlechs or henge monuments).
B. C. people people began to to By 8000 B.C.
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grow wheat, barley barley and peas instead of gathering gathering them them wild. w ild. B. C. they domesticated domestic ated sheep , pigs and goats. By 7000 B.C. By 6000 B.C. they also domesticated cattle. B. C. farming has started in China And In Indus Valley Civilization. By 5000 B.C. w agons.. By 4000 B.C. people used oxen to plough and even wagons Donkey was also used. Also by 5000 B.C. they learnt to dig canals to bring water from rivers to their crops. As a result they began to farm the arid land between betw een the Tigris Tigris And A nd Euphrates. This This area a rea came to be known know n as Mesopotamia. comm unities instead instead of being Nomadic, Nomadic , when food supply improved . New People began to lived in settled communities skills were we re developed example, making pottery using metals. Finally they invented writing. w riting. Pottery was 1 st made in the middle-east m iddle-east and and South Africa about 7000 B.C. B .C. Also around the same time horses were domesticated in the steppes of Eurasia.
Stonehenge is surely Britain's greatest national icon, symbolizing mystery, power pow er and endurance. Its original purpose is is unclear to us, but some have speculat s peculated ed that it was a temple made for the worship w orship of ancient earth deities. It has been bee n called an astronomical observatory for marking significant events on the prehistoric calendar. Others claim that it was a sacred sac red site for the burial bu rial of high-ranking high -ranking citizens from the societies s ocieties of long ago. While we can't say with w ith any degree of certainty what it was w as for, we can say that it wasn't w asn't constructed for any casual purpose. Only something very important to the ancients would have been w orth the the effort and investment investm ent that it took to construct con struct Stonehenge. The stones we see se e today represent Stonehenge in ruin. Many of the original stones have fallen or been removed by previous generations gene rations for home construction con struction or road repair. There has been serious s erious damage to some of the smaller bluestones resulting from close visitor contact con tact (prohibited since 1978) and the prehistoric prehis toric carvings on the larger sarsen stones show signs of significant significant wear. e normous stones built in stages beginning 5000 yrs ago. It consists of the ring of enormous Built And re-built over a 1500 yrs period Construction started started around 3100 B.C. B. C. when the outer ditch and banks were built. Construction An inner circle of granite stones called bluestones from their organic covering ( colouring). Inner part was erected 1000 yrs later. brought from the preseli mountains mountains in the southern Wales, Stones weighed up to 4 tons each and were brought nearly 250 miles away. aw ay. w hich make Stonehenge instantly instantly recognizable recognizable were dragged to the site Around 1500 B.C. the huge stones which erected in a circle and topped by equally massive lintel lintel to make the sarsen s arsen (the type of sandstone) trilithons. trilithons.
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Carnac (Breton: Karnag) is a commune beside the Gulf of Morbihan on the south coast of Brittany Brittany in the Morbihan department in north-western France. Its inhabitants are called Carnacois. Carnac is renowned for the Carnac stones – one of the most extensive Neolithic Neolithic menhir collections collections in the world – as well w ell as its beaches, which are popular with tourists.
e c n Carnac isis famous as the site s ite of more than 3,000 prehistoric prehistoric standing stones. The The stones were hewn from local a and erected by the pre-C pre-Celtic eltic people of Brittany. Local tradition claims that the reason reas on they stand in such r rock straight lines is that they are a Roman R oman legion turned to stone by Merlin (Brittany (B rittany has its own local F perfectly , versions of the Arthurian cycle). The Carnac stones were erected during during the Neolithic period which lasted from around 4500 BC until 2000 BC. s The s tones is difficult to ascertain as little dateable datea ble material has been found beneath them, e precise date of the stones phas e of activity is commonly attributed to c. 3300 BC. BC . One interpretation of the site is that n but the site's main phase successive successive generations generations visited the site to erect a stone s tone in honour of their ancestors. o t S c a n r a C
