Raptor Manual

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR CAPTIVE RAPTORS IN GEORGIA

A TECHNICAL GUIDE FOR THE USE OF RAPTORS IN ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS Joe N. Caudell

Wildlife Biologist Warnell School of Forest Resources University of Georgia

Ken A. Riddleberger, Jr.

Senior Wildlife Biologist Special Permit Unit Wildlife Resources Division Georgia Department of Natural Resources

A PUBLICATION OF THE GEORGIA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES WILDLIFE RESOURCES DIVISION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank the faculty of the University of Georgia Warnell School of Forest Resources including Drs. Brian Chapman and Sara Schweitizer. We also thank Dr. Cheryl Greenacre of the University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, for taking the time to assist with this project and manuscript. We also thank Mike Conover of the Jack H. Berryman Institute for Wildlife Damage Management for allowing us the time to complete the manuscript and for providing funding for travel to the 1999 Annual Conference of the Wildlife Society where portions of this manual were presented. Additional funding and support was provided by the Georgia Department of Natural Resources and the University of Georgia, School of Forest Resources. We thank John Karger of Last Chance Forever, San Antonio, Texas for providing a technical review of the manuscript.

Note: The Georgia Department of Natural Resources neither endorses products listed herein nor accepts any liability arising from the use of products listed.

Current Address:

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Joe N. Caudell Jack H. Berryman Institute Utah State University 5210 Old Main Hill, Natural Resc, Rm. 206 Logan, Utah 84322-5210 [email protected]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION NON-RELEASABLE RAPTOR MANAGEMENT Using this Manual ............................................................................................................................. 7 Contents ............................................................................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER 1 THE SURVEY Methods............................................................................................................................................. The Sample .......................................................................................................................... The Survey .......................................................................................................................... Results .............................................................................................................................................. Sample Results ................................................................................................................... Survey Results .................................................................................................................... Discussion .........................................................................................................................................

8 8 8 9 9 10 11

CHAPTER 2 FACILITY REQUIREMENTS Housing .............................................................................................................................................. General Enclosure Design ................................................................................................................. Location ............................................................................................................................................ Indoor Enclosures ............................................................................................................................. Outdoor Enclosures .......................................................................................................................... Indoor / Outdoor Enclosures ............................................................................................................. Wall Construction ............................................................................................................................. Roof Construction ............................................................................................................................. Entry Design and Construction ......................................................................................................... Floor Substrate .................................................................................................................................. Separation of Species ........................................................................................................................ Visual Separation .............................................................................................................................. Separation from Other Animals ........................................................................................................ Space Requirements .......................................................................................................................... Food Platform ................................................................................................................................... Perches .............................................................................................................................................. Baths ................................................................................................................................................. Cleaning ............................................................................................................................................ Common Disinfectants ...................................................................................................................... Chlorine Bleach .................................................................................................................. Virkon-S®........................................................................................................................... Phenol (1-stroke®) ............................................................................................................. Hot Water ............................................................................................................................ Quaternary Ammonia Solutions (Quats) ............................................................................ Chlorhexidine ..................................................................................................................... Facility Management .........................................................................................................................

15 15 15 16 17 17 17 19 21 20 22 22 22 23 24 24 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 28

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CHAPTER 3 EQUIPMENT

Jesses ................................................................................................................................................. Jess and Aylmeri Sizes ......................................................................................................... Traditional Jess .................................................................................................................... Modified Jess ...................................................................................................................... Snap Jesses .......................................................................................................................... Aylmeri Bracelets ................................................................................................................ False Aylmeri Bracelets ..................................................................................................................... Maintenance ....................................................................................................................................... Leashes and Swivels .......................................................................................................................... Falconer’s Knot ................................................................................................................................. Scales ................................................................................................................................................. Gloves ................................................................................................................................................ Miscellaneous Supplies ..................................................................................................................... Hoods ................................................................................................................................................. Travel Enclosures ...............................................................................................................................

29 29 29 30 31 31 32 32 32 33 34 34 34 34 34

General Feeding Habits ...................................................................................................................... Laboratory Mice ................................................................................................................................ Laboratory Rats ................................................................................................................................. Day-old Chicks .................................................................................................................................. Commercial Bird-of-prey Diet ........................................................................................................... Other Commonly Used Diets ............................................................................................................. Quantity ............................................................................................................................................. Quality ............................................................................................................................................... Vitamin and Mineral Supplements .................................................................................................... Casting ............................................................................................................................................... Food Preparation and Storage ........................................................................................................... Water .................................................................................................................................................. Laboratory Mice Husbandry .............................................................................................................. Housing .............................................................................................................................. Cage Tops ............................................................................................................................ Water Bottles and Holders ................................................................................................... Feeding Apparatus ............................................................................................................... Food .................................................................................................................................... Bedding Material ................................................................................................................ Breeding Stock ....................................................................................................................

35 35 35 35 36 36 37 37 39 39 39 39 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40

CHAPTER 4 FEEDING

CHAPTER 5 RAPTOR HEALTH Veterinarians ...................................................................................................................................... Maintenance Exams ........................................................................................................................... Handling Techniques ......................................................................................................................... Weighing Raptors .............................................................................................................................. Fecal Exams ....................................................................................................................................... Zoonosis ...........................................................................................................................................

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41 41 41 42 42 42

Vitamin and Mineral Deficiencies ..................................................................................................... Vitamin A ............................................................................................................................ Vitamin B Group ................................................................................................................. Vitamin C ............................................................................................................................ Vitamin D ............................................................................................................................ Calcium and Phosphorus ..................................................................................................... Trace Elements .................................................................................................................... Parasites ............................................................................................................................................. External Parasites ................................................................................................................ Internal Parasites ................................................................................................................. Conditions Related to the Environment ............................................................................................. Chemical Poisoning ............................................................................................................ Frostbite .............................................................................................................................. Heat Stroke .......................................................................................................................... Physical Injury ................................................................................................................................... Diseases and Other Illnesses .............................................................................................................. Aspergillosis ........................................................................................................................ Avian Tuberculosis .............................................................................................................. Bacterial Enteritis ................................................................................................................ Bumblefoot .......................................................................................................................... Candida ............................................................................................................................... Capillaria ............................................................................................................................. Coccidiosis .......................................................................................................................... Gapeworm ............................................................................................................................ Hypoglycemia ...................................................................................................................... Inflammation of the Crop..................................................................................................... Newcastle’s Disease ............................................................................................................ Pneumonia ........................................................................................................................... Respiratory Infection ........................................................................................................... Roundworm and Tapeworm Infestation ............................................................................... Salmonellosis ...................................................................................................................... Sour Crop ............................................................................................................................ Starvation ............................................................................................................................. Stomatitis ............................................................................................................................. Toxoplasmosis ..................................................................................................................... Trichinella ............................................................................................................................ Trichomoniasis (Frounce) ................................................................................................... Stress ................................................................................................................................................. General Signs of Distress ................................................................................................................... Beak and Talon Trimming ..................................................................................................................

42 42 42 42 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 46 46 46 46 46 46 46 47

CHAPTER 6 EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS Selecting a Program Bird ................................................................................................................... Raptor Behavior.................................................................................................................................. Handling ............................................................................................................................................ Educational Program Training ........................................................................................................... Educational Programs ........................................................................................................................ Teaching Strategies ............................................................................................................................ Sample Raptor Curriculum ................................................................................................................

48 48 48 48 49 49 50

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LITERATURE CITED ............................................................................................................................................. 56 APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Specifications for Humane Handling, Care, Confinement, and Transportation of Wild Animals in Georgia ............................................................................................................................ 59 Appendix 2 State of Georgia Regulations for Wildlife Exhibition ....................................................................... 63 Appendix 3 USFWS Standard Conditions, Special Purpose - Possession / Education (Live Specimen) ............ 65 Appendix 4 Survey Instrument Sent to Participants in Georgia ............................................................................ 67 Appendix 5 Survey Instrument Sent to Participants Throughout the United States ............................................. 72

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INTRODUCTION The objective of this manual is to provide guidelines for the care and use of non-releasable raptors (NRR) in environmental education (EE) programs. The guidelines are based upon scientific data and current management practices. It is written to provide caretakers, biologists, and prospective permit applicants with a concise guide to captive raptor management. EE centers in Georgia and throughout the United States were surveyed to examine current management practices. Housing, feeding, levels of veterinary care and other important aspects of captive raptor management were documented. The information was then compiled with literature from peer-reviewed scientific journals, literature from raptor centers with existing management plans, onsite visits, and interviews with professional caretakers to develop a set of general guidelines for the care and use of NRR in Georgia. All NRR possessed are to be used for educational programs. These birds should not be cared for simply because they cannot be returned to the wild, although every bird may not be handled. If a bird does not prove to be useable for educational programs and facilities are not available for on-site programs, the bird can be relocated to another facility, another handler, or euthanized. It is generally neither feasible nor desirable for an educational facility to keep every NRR that is offered. USING THIS MANUAL This manual is not intended to be the final word on NRR management. It can be used by the caretaker to improve or affirm current management practices. This manual also can be used by law enforcement personnel or wildlife biologists who may perform inspections of raptor facilities. Although we reviewed many sources in developing this manual, it does not cover all management techniques. A technique considered useful by some sources may not work in every situation. If new management techniques are used or developed, the methodology and results should be carefully documented. Documentation is important for several reasons. For instance, if a bird continually injures itself on a particular cage material, this should be recorded. The caretaker may develop or discover a new material that has not been described previously. If

the center was inspected or reapplied for a permit, such documentation may be crucial to the re-issuance of permits or passing inspection. Officials are more likely to allow a new material to be used if the caretaker can show the process used in choosing the material. Careful documentation also may be used in preparing journal articles so that others can share in the same technique. CONTENTS • Chapter One describes the results of a survey used to document common management practices in Georgia and throughout the United States. Data from the survey are referred to several times throughout the manual. The remainder of the manual is a review of common management practices and is often compared to the results of the survey. • Chapter Two covers facility design, construction materials, and other information on housing raptors. • Chapter Three contains information about additional supplies or equipment needed for a raptor education program. References are made to common management practices that were documented in the survey. • Chapter Four discusses feeding requirements for raptors. It provides information and suggestions about common food items used and rodent husbandry. No guidelines for absolute feeding amounts are provided since these vary by season, physiology, species, individual bird behavior, and location of facility. • Chapter Five describes common medical problems associated with housing NRR (listed in alphabetical order). Initiation of treatment should always be carried out by a trained professional. Common problems are described to assist the caretaker in communicating with the veterinarian about clinical signs. Other sections are included for maintenance of the bird’s health. • Chapter Six discusses handling raptors and developing educational programs. A brief section is included on training birds of prey for handling in an educational program. There is a section on basic bird biology and natural history, as well as a section on raptor natural history. This chapter also includes a sample education program and activities.

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CHAPTER 1: THE SURVEY1 Most native birds, including raptors, are protected by federal or/and state laws. It is illegal to injure, catch, or confine raptors except under appropriate licenses or permits (falconry, scientific collecting, education, etc.). At times, raptors are injured due to both natural and unnatural events. Some people feel a responsibility to help raptors injured through contact with humans by attempting to rehabilitate and release them back into the wild. However, many of these birds cannot be released with a reasonable expectation of survival. For these birds there are few options. They are commonly either euthanized or used in education programs. Non-releasable raptors (NRR) are often used in environmental education (EE) centers to enhance their educational programs. Federal and state permits are required for this purpose and proper care must be provided for these birds. Although accurate, inexpensive books written on the husbandry of many vertebrates and invertebrates are available, concise information written on the captive management of birds of prey is deficient. One recent publication (Arent and Martell 1996) documents management practices used by the Minnesota Raptor Center. Other sources of information include falconry books, veterinary manuals, rehabilitation guides, operating guides for established raptor centers, and scientific articles. The objective of this study was to document management practices of centers that use NRR for educational programs in Georgia and throughout the United States by surveying individuals and organizations who use raptors in educational programs. This information can be used as a tool for wildlife agencies when developing regulations, as a model when a center is designing a management plan, or as validation of existing management plans by established centers. The survey was followed-up by on-site inspections and interviews with caretakers. Results from Georgia were compared with centers from outside Georgia and with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) captive raptor regulations. Aspects of NRR management that caretakers cannot find in the literature are usually discovered by trial and error. This has led to an evolution of techniques that are sound in practice, but not published. Unpublished techniques developed by caretakers were compiled and assessed during interviews and on-site visits. These management recommendations may be useful to EE centers with NRR and may also be valuable for natural resource managers or law enforcement personnel who must deter-

mine if a management practice is sound in the event of an inspection. METHODS The Sample Questionnaires were mailed to a sample of individuals and organizations possessing raptors used in EE programs in 1996. The Georgia sample was compiled from persons possessing special-use permits for raptors. The United States sample was compiled using two methods. A search was conducted using LYCOS®, YAHOO®, Infoseek®, and EXCITE® search engines from 1 January 1998 to 1 February 1998. Keywords included raptor(s), bird of prey, environmental education, rehabilitation, and combinations of these. Links were examined at each site to locate additional related internet sites. A list of raptor centers throughout the United States that indicated that they rehabilitated raptors, used raptors in EE programs, or maintained raptors in captivity was compiled from internet web pages. Those indicating that they had e-mail were then sent a query to determine if raptors were used for educational programs and if they would participate in the survey. The survey was mailed to respondents providing a positive response. The second method was to survey list-serv users. Membership registers and messages were examined to determine how many members likely held NRR for education programs. E-mail inquiries were placed on two list-servers for rehabilitators and one for falconers. The inquiry consisted of a message explaining the nature of the survey, time needed to complete the questionnaire, and purpose for the research. Respondents indicating that NRR were possessed and used for EE programs were mailed a survey. Both methods were dependent upon the respondents owning a computer and having access to the world wide web (WWW) or listservers. The Survey The survey questions were based on Official Code of Georgia Annotated (OCGA) §27-5-6 which contains the specifications for management of captive wild animals (Appendix 1). In general, the survey consisted of questions about the species and number of raptors possessed, facilities, space requirements, feeding, watering, sanitation, employees, separation of species, veterinary care, handling, and transportation (Appendix

Note: At time of publishing, Chapter One had been accepted for publication in the Journal of Raptor Research (Caudell and Riddleberger in press) 1

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4). Questions were designed to obtain quantitative data for each of these areas. The United States survey was slightly modified to increase response rate (Appendix 5). The Georgia surveys were mailed from the Georgia Department of Natural Resources (GADNR) office in Social Circle, in late August 1997. A second survey was mailed to non-respondents during the first week of January 1998 and reminders sent three weeks later. Request for United States participants were e-mailed from the last week of December 1997 until 20 February 1998. Surveys were mailed to United States participants with return envelopes enclosed. Respondents and non-respondents in Georgia were randomly chosen from a stratified sample for on-site visits in March and April 1998. Questions regarding training procedures, past inspections, and educational programs were asked. Table 1-1:

Measures of central tendency were calculated for cage sizes. Percent occurrence were calculated for materials used in raptor facilities. Relative percent occurrence were calculated for both physical injuries and common food items. RESULTS Sample Results Twenty-three individuals and organizations that possessed Georgia permits for raptors used in EE programs were sent the questionnaire. Seventeen surveys were returned (74% response rate). Of the five centers that did not return the survey, two reported that they did not have the time to answer, one did not believe that they used birds in programs in the way specified in the instructions, and two did not respond. Nine centers (six respondents and

Numbers and relative frequency of non-releasable raptors used in environmental education programs in the United States and Georgia. US Survey

Scientific name

Common name

Buteo spp. Otus spp. Falco sparverius Bubo virginianus Strix varia Falco spp. Haliaeetus leucocephalus Tyto alba Aquila chrysaetos Cathartes aura Asio spp. Aegolius funereus Accipiter spp. Parabuteo unicinctus Coragyps atratus Circus cyaneus Pandion haliaetus Ictinia mississippiensis Polyborus plancus Athene cunicularia Glaucidium spp. Nyctea scandiaca

broad-winged hawks screech owls American kestrel great-horned owl barred owl falcons bald eagle barn owl golden eagle turkey vulture eared-owls boreal owl woodland hawks Harris’ hawk black vulture northern harrier osprey Mississippi kite caracara burrowing owl pygmy owls snowy owl

Total Relative Number Frequency 84 45 43 41 29 29 28 25 17 14 13 11 10 10 10 5 5 3 2 2 1 1

19.6 10.5 10.1 9.6 6.8 6.8 6.5 5.8 4.0 3.3 3.0 2.6 2.3 2.3 2.3 1.17 1.7 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2

Georgia Survey Total Relative Number Frequency 27 15 1 15 19 0 1 10 0 5 0 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

28.13 15.6 1.0 15.7 19.8 0.0 1.0 10.4 0.0 5.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 2.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

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three non-respondents) were chosen for on-site inspections. From the internet search, 43 sites were located that likely had NRR for educational programs. Of these, 11 facilities indicated that they had birds and would participate in the survey. From the list-serv, 42 facilities were identified that likely had NRR for educational programs and 29 responded. Forty surveys were mailed. Nine surveys were returned from the internet search and 27 were returned from the list-serv search. Response rate from the combined groups was 90%. The two samples were not mutually exclusive. Four centers used in the United States sample also possessed raptors in Georgia. These four were selected because they voluntarily returned the survey and had internet access. Survey Results Number and species of raptors possessed were analyzed by genus. Sixteen Georgia facilities reported housing 98 raptors during 1996. Thirty-six facilities in the United States reported housing 428 raptors. Buteo was the most frequent genus used for educational programs and were found at more centers than any other genus in both Table 1-2:

Enclosure sizes for non-releasable raptors used in environmental education programs in the US.

hawks

eagles

large falcons

small falcons

vultures

large owls

small owls

mean STDS1 median n range

5.0 3.4 4.2 30 2.1-18.3

5.3 1.8 5.4 12 2.4-7.6

3.3 1.7 2.4 13 1.2-7.3

3.3 1.6 3.1 21 0.9-6.1

6.9 3.9 4.9 5 3.7-12.2

4.8 3.5 3.7 31 1.8-18.3

2.2 0.9 2.4 27 0.9-4.6

mean STDS median n range

3.2 1.6 2.4 30 1.4-9.1

4.2 2.0 3.7 12 2.4-9.1

2.6 0.8 2.4 13 1.2-3.7

2.6 1.7 2.4 21 0.8-9.1

2.8 0.6 2.4 5 2.4-3.7

3.1 2.0 2.4 31 1.2-12.2

1.7 1.1 1.4 27 0.6-6.1

mean STDS median n range

2.9 0.8 2.4 31 1.8-4.8

2.9 0.5 2.8 12 2.1-3.7

3.2 1.7 2.4 13 1.8-8.0

2.4 0.7 2.4 21 0.9-4.6

2.8 0.6 2.4 5 2.4-3.7

2.6 0.7 2.4 32 1.8-4.6

1.9 0.5 2.0 26 0.6-2.5

mean STDS median n

19.9 22.3 11.8 31

24.0 16.5 16.7 12

9.2 6.9 7.4 13

9.9 11.6 5.8 21

21.0 16.2 11.8 5

19.1 30.7 9.6 34

4.0 3.6 3.2 27

range

2.9-111.6

5.7-55.5

2.2-27.0

0.7-55.5

8.9-45.1

2.8-148.8

0.5-18.9

Measurement Length (m)

Width (m)

Height (m)

Area (m2)

STDS - sample standard deviation

1

10

the United States and Georgia (Table 1-1). Enclosure sizes among facilities varied (Table 1-2) as did the types of materials used in cage construction. There was no obvious differences between the median enclosure size of species found in Georgia and the United States. Most facilities throughout the United States (92%) provided a water dish large enough for the raptors to bathe in if necessary. All facilities in Georgia provided a large water dish. The two most commonly used perch materials were artificial turf and tree branches (Table 1-3). Other perch materials included rope, stumps, large stones, and wood blocks. Perch material selection was not mutually exclusive. A tree branch or wooded block was sometimes wrapped with rope. More than one perch often was used in the enclosure, as was the case in 93% of the facilities. Round river rock was the most widely used substrate material in the United States (Table 1-4). In Georgia, the two most commonly used substrates were pine needles and crushed gravel. Other commonly used substrates were crushed gravel, sand, concrete, and newspaper. The two most common building materials used for the sides and tops of enclosures were solid wood or wooden

Table 1-3: Relative percent of perch materials used at raptor facilities throughout the United States and in Georgia. Material Branches Artificial turf Stumps or logs Rope Large stone Wood block Coca mat Other

US Survey

GA Survey

27.3 24.6 17.3 11.8 6.4 6.4 2.7 3.6

38.9 22.2 16.7 11.1 2.8 5.6 0.0 2.8

Table 1-5: Relative percent of materials used in wall construction at raptor facilities throughout the United States and in Georgia. Material Solid wood Wood slats Plastic mesh Conduit bars Hardware cloth Chain-link fence Netting Chicken wire Other

US Survey 29.6 25.9 11.1 7.4 7.4 4.9 4.9 2.5 6.2

GA Survey 8.7 17.4 17.4 4.4 13.0 13.0 4.4 8.7 13.0

slats (Table 1-5 and 1-6). Plastic mesh was the next most widely used material followed by netting, galvanized hardware cloth, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) bars. A large percentage of mesh, tin, shingles, and chain-link fence was used. A combination of construction materials was used in some enclosures. For instance, roof or sides may be made partially with tin and partially with netting. The number of employees or volunteers at facilities varied. The average number of employees in facilities in Georgia was 4.5 (SD=5.1) and ranged from 1 to 20. The average number of employees in facilities throughout the United States was 14.8 (SD=22.2) and ranged from 1 to 83. The amount of formal training provided to employees

Table 1-4: Relative percent of substrate materials used at raptor facilities throughout the United States and in Georgia. Material Round river rock Crushed gravel Dirt Grass Sand Pine needles Concrete Newspaper Other

US Survey

GA Survey

24.2 12.9 12.9 12.9 9.7 6.5 4.8 3.2 12.9

11.5 19.2 15.4 3.9 7.7 19.2 7.7 7.7 7.7

Table 1-6: Relative percent of materials used in ceiling construction at raptor facilities throughout the United States and in Georgia. Material

US Survey

GA Survey

Solid wood Wood slats Tin Plastic mesh Netting Chain-link fence Hardware cloth Shingles Conduit bars

15.1 15.1 12.8 11.6 10.5 8.1 8.1 7.0 2.3

8.7 4.4 30.4 17.4 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 0.0

Other

8.1

4.4

or volunteers ranged from a few hours to months. The mean number of years of the primary caretaker’s experience reported in Georgia was 12.2 (SD=8.6) and ranged from 4 to 30 years. The mean number of years of the primary caretaker’s experience reported throughout the United States was 13.5 (SD=8.3) and ranged from 4 to 40 years. The level of experience ranged from having no formal experience to having training as veterinary technicians. In Georgia, three caretakers reported having rehabilitation experience and three reported having a wildlife-related degree. Approximately 33% of the caretakers across the United States had rehabilitation experience and only one reported having a degree in wildlife or a related field. 11

Table 1-7:

Relative percent occurrence of problems reported in both the US and GA surveys.

Problem

US GA n =428 n=132

Problem

1

Physical injury Bumblefoot Old age Feather problems Internal parasites Re-injury Avian pox Oral lesion, beaksores Obesity Bacterial infection

2.26 1.40 1.40 1.27 0.93 0.70 0.70 0.47 0.70 0.47

0.76 0.76 0.00 0.00 0.76 0.00 0.00 1.52 0.00 0.00

External parasite GI problems Vitamin deficiencies Stress Respiratory infection Egg bound Cloacal prolapse Predation Salmonellosis Other

US n=428

GA n=132

0.47 0.47 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.00 0.70

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.52 0.76 0.76

n=total number of reported problems

1

Information on cleaning frequency and methods, pest control, carrying cages, and program length was requested only on the Georgia survey. The frequency of cleaning water bowls and food dishes ranged from once per day to once per week. The frequency of cleaning cages and substrate ranged from once per day to once per month. Commonly used disinfectants and cleaning solutions included chlorine bleach (57%), other disinfectants (including Simple Green®, Lifeguard®, and unnamed disinfectants), soap and water (14% each), Lysol®, and dishwasher detergent (7% each). Few centers (25%) have an established pest control program for either external parasites, internal parasites, or predators. Most facilities (88% ) have at least one transport cage per bird. All facilities provided a rest break between performances that was at least as long as the performance period. All facilities in Georgia and throughout the United States had regular veterinarians. Of the veterinarians used in Georgia and throughout the United States, 75% and 86%, respectively, reported having prior raptor experience. Visits to raptor facilities by veterinarians in Georgia ranged from none to weekly. Throughout the United States, visits to raptor facilities ranged from none to daily. Of the 98 NRR reported being housed in Georgia, only 10 (10.2%) problems were reported in 1996. Of the 428 raptors housed in the United States, 62 (14.5%) problems were reported (Table 1-7). Raptors were fed a variety of foods (Table 1-8). Few birds were fed strictly one food. The most commonly fed foods among all birds were mice or rats. The most notable exceptions were bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and Accipiter spp., which were fed mostly fish and chicks, respectively. Nutrient supplements were used by 60% of 12

the facilities. Vita-hawk® and Vionate® were the two most commonly used supplements. There did not appear to be any major discrepancies or misrepresentation between our inspections and responses to the survey. The most noticeable differences were due to acquisition of new birds and new construction. DISCUSSION Although it was stated in the instructions that responses from Georgia were voluntary, mailing the survey from the GADNR Special Permit Unit may have affected the responses in several ways. Fear of not receiving permit renewal may have influenced persons to return surveys. Also, one participant refused to participate due to animosities with the GADNR (personal communication). The primary sample bias from throughout the United States was that most respondents were probably from the better centers (i.e. those with enough funds for internet access and computers and those that were willing to provide details about their center’s operations). Participants may have been more willing to assist a university research project rather than a governmental agency. Most people interviewed expressed positive support toward the research. However, some distrusted GADNR’s role in the project believing that GADNR was attempting to “crack down” on how they were allowed to keep their birds. Others on the list servs expressed animosity toward the USFWS for revising the special use permit requirements. Some people explicitly stated that if USFWS had been involved, they would not have participated in the survey. Species abundance at education centers reflects popular beliefs about certain species. Accipiter spp.

Table 1-8:

Percent food items fed to captive raptors used in environmental education programs. Food Items

Species Accipiter spp. Aegolius spp.

Aquila chrysaetos

n

Mice

Rats

Poults

BOP2 diet

Road kill

Quail

Insects

Other

9.7 ± 2.5

9.7 ± 2.5

4.7 ± 1.2

0.0 ± 0.0

0.0 ± 0.0

66.7 ± 8.6

0.0 ± 0.0

9.3 ± 2.4

0.0 ± 0.0

0.0 ± 0.0

0.0 ± 0.0

3

mean±SE

3

mean±SE 83.3 ± 4.3

10 mean±SE 3.9 ± 1.4

Asio spp. Bueto spp., Parabuteo sp. Bubo virginianus

2 mean±SE 100.0 ± 0.0 34 mean±SE1 31.9 ± 4.6 23 mean±SE 45.6 ± 5.0 7.5 ± 2.0 103 Cathartes sp., Coragyps sp. 10 mean±SE 26.8 ± 3.2 43 0.0 ± 0.0 Falco sparverius 24 mean±SE 69.8 ± 4.5 Falco spp. Helianthus leucocephalus

Ictinia mississippiensis Otus spp. Strix varia Tyto alba

7 12 43 2 24 103

0.0 ± 0.0

13.3 ± 3.4

0.0 ± 0.0

3.3 ± 0.9

51.9 ± 5.0

8.7 ± 3.6

0.0 ± 0.0

7.9 ± 2.5 10.5 ± 2.3 0.0 ± 0.0 15.1 ± 3.5

0.0 ± 0.0 29.3 ± 4.4 23.4 ± 3.7 42.5 ± 7.5 47.0 ± 5.6 57.5 ± 8.4 1.7 ± 0.8

0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 12.5 ± 2.9 7.8 ± 3.5 1.0 ± 0.4 11.5 ± 3.6 3.9 ± 2.8 0.9 ± 0.4 36.1 ± 7.8 7.1 ± 3.1 3.0 ± 1.3 7.1 ± 1.2 0.0 ± 0.0 1.0 ± 0.5 5.0 ± 1.9 0.3 ± 0.1 25.0 ± 9.6 12.2 ± 2.8 0.4 ± 0.3 0.2 ± 0.2

mean±SE 20.7 ± 2.9 1.4 ± 0.6 mean±SE 1.3 ± 0.5 24.9 ± 2.8 10.0 ± 2.4 16.3 ± 3.8 mean±SE 50.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 mean±SE 75.2 ± 4.8 1.3 ± 0.7 42.0 ± 7.7 6.0 ± 2.6

15 mean±SE 45.5 ± 5.7 133 16.9 ± 4.6 14 mean±SE 38.9 ± 4.3 73 22.1 ± 6.9

24.0 ± 5.0 28.5 ± 7.4 21.4 ± 3.8 32.1 ± 7.4

0.0 ± 0.0 7.0 ± 2.2 5.0 ± 2.7 4.0 ± 1.6 2.0 ± 0.9 12.5 ± 4.8 9.4 ± 3.0

0.0 ± 0.0 0. 9 ± 0.8 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 1.0 ± 0.6

0.0 ± 0.0 9.4 ± 3.2 8.7 ± 3.5 0.0 ± 0.0 16.1 ± 2.5 0.0 ± 0.0 3.6 ± 1.1

10.0 ± 2.7 0.0 ± 0.0 11.3 ± 3.9 0.0 ± 0.0 25.0 ± 8.4 10.0 ± 3.8 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 18.9 ± 4.6 0.4 ± 0.3 37.5 ± 8.2 5.0 ± 3.0

0.0 ± 0.0 38.6 ± 5.6 0.0 ± 0.0 2.7 ± 1.3 10.8 ± 3.4 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 10.0 ± 3.8 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 2.5 ± 0.5 47.5 ± 0.5 0.2 ± 0.2 1.7 ± 0.9 1.0 ± 0.6 2.0 ± 1.2 5.0 ± 3.0 0.0 ± 0.0

29.3 ± 7.2 49.9 ± 3.3 24.0 ± 6.8 0.0 ± 0.0 1.4 ± 0.6 2.0 ± 1.2

21.8 ± 5.1 0.0 ± 0.0 28.8 ± 7.5 19.7 ± 6.8 28.6 ± 4.6 0.0 ± 0.0 33.6 ± 8.2 7.1 ± 3.6

1.7 ± 0.7 2.7 ± 1.2 1.1 ± 0.4 0.7 ± 0.4

1.0 ± 0.4 0.0 ± 0.0 6.4 ± 2.2 0.0 ± 0.0

6.0 ± 2.9 3.1 ± 1.4 2.9 ± 1.0 2.9 ± 1.5

0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0 0.0 ± 0.0

SE=standard error BOP=commercial bird of prey diet 3 data from Georgia survey 1 2

generally are considered “nervous” birds that are difficult to keep in captivity and undesirable as educational birds (Arent and Martell 1996). Therefore, they are not a commonly used species. Most Buteo spp., such as redtailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), are regarded by falconers as a “beginner’s bird” and are recommended highly as educational birds (Parry-Jones 1994, Arent and Martell 1996). The American kestrel is another bird that adapts well to captivity and to use in educational programs. Golden eagles, bald eagles, peregrine falcons, and prairie falcons are recommended for experienced handlers only. Ospreys are considered to be one of the most difficult raptors to maintain in captivity. Most owls can be kept successfully in captivity and are useful for educational programs (Arent and Martell 1996). As with all generalizations, there are always exceptions. Each bird should be evaluated based upon its individual merits and nature. In many cases, differences between species used in Georgia and throughout the rest of the United States can be attributed to regional species abundance. Spotted owls, golden eagles, snowy owls, and pygmy owls do not normally occur in Georgia (Johnsgard 1988, 1990). Because many birds used in educational programs are

injured migrants or resident species, a disparity of species used between regions of the United States is expected. However, even though American kestrels are resident species in Georgia and are considered an excellent program bird (Arent and Martell 1996), they are rarely used in Georgia. Types of raptor species used in educational programs are discussed further in Chapter Six. Median enclosure size is probably a more important measure than mean enclosure sizes for deciding upon minimum recommended enclosure sizes. Several centers reported having enclosures much larger than the mean enclosure area (Table 1-2). This may be due in part to large numbers of birds being housed together. However, the number of birds per enclosure was not determined in the survey. Another source of variation could be attributed to the fact that centers with birds used for display only were asked to participate if these birds were part of educational programs, such as walk-by lectures. From on-site inspections made in Georgia, larger enclosures were often used as static displays rather than for housing birds that were “manned” (held on a glove during programs) for educational programs. 13

Providing additional width and length may be more important in NRR housing than providing additional height. Many NRR have damaged wings or reduced vision and do not need tall cages. Perches set too high in a tall cage may cause injury to a raptor with an amputated wing if it falls (Gibson 1996). The mean enclosure height for redtailed hawks was 2.8 m with a range of 1.8 m to 4.8 m. Non-releasable raptors used for EE programs must be accessible while providing the bird with a non-stressful environment. The highest perch should be no higher than the caretaker can comfortably reach to capture the bird (Arent and Martell 1996). Gibson (1996) recommends that perches be set no higher than 1.2 m for amputee birds. Current (at time of printing) Texas Parks and Wildlife Department regulations regarding captive raptors (69.305.d-1) require a minimum height of 3.7 m for NRR. The space above the caretaker’s reach is either wasted or utilized by the bird to escape the caretaker. Gibson (1996) states that a high ceiling may cause stress to a bird if the perch is set far below it, as would be required with amputee birds. Static displays can be taller than cages used to house NRR used by handlers in programs. However, the safety of the bird should be taken into consideration in cage design and perch placement. Construction materials varied among centers surveyed. Wood, the most common material, was used in more than 50% of the facilities. Cages of wood had either solid sides or slats. Plastic mesh, welded-wire, and conduit also are appropriate materials for housing raptors (Parry-Jones 1994, Arent and Martell 1996, Gibson 1996). Both conduit and vertical slats should be spaced close enough to prevent the bird from placing its closed foot though the bars. Facility and enclosure construction is discussed further in Chapter Two. The type and amount of training of the primary caretaker varied considerably. However, this did not

14

appear to impact the level of care provided to the birds. Most facility management practices followed suggestions from the literature. Other management practices were based upon trial-and-error or experience from other facilities. The amount of training provided to assistants also varied. Several raptor facilities (personal communications) have levels of training for assistants; whereby, as the level of training increases, the type of bird the assistant is allowed to handle changes. This system works well with volunteers. Chapter Six provides further discussion on training both birds and volunteers. Few medical problems were reported. Since many raptor facilities have few or infrequent visits from veterinarians, problems that are difficult to diagnose or have clinical signs that slowly manifest over several months or years may go unnoticed by handlers. However, there were no significant differences between facilities that had veterinarians visit the facilities on a regular basis and those that did not. Some diagnoses are fairly obvious, such as bumblefoot or physical injuries, and can be made by experienced handlers. Others problems, such as bacterial infections or vitamin deficiencies, require a veterinarian. Common medical problems are discussed in Chapter Five. Most raptor facilities had a regular veterinarian with prior raptor experience. A veterinarian experienced with raptors can provide suggestions about housing, maintenance, and other aspects of raptor management. An inexperienced veterinarian may not be able to provide this type of information. Food items fed to the raptors varied greatly. Few centers fed strictly one type of food to birds. There also were few dietary related health issues reported. However, clinical signs from nutritional deficiencies may take years to manifest. Diets fed to captive raptors generally followed recommendations in the literature (Chapter Four).

CHAPTER 2: FACILITY REQUIREMENTS Non-releasable raptors (NRR) have different requirements than their wild counterparts. Wild raptors require large spaces for territories, breeding, and hunting. Nonreleasable raptors used in educational programs require space, food, water, and shelter, but those requirements are now met by the caretaker. Construction materials and methods, space requirements, perches, and related housing information are presented in this chapter. The goal of housing NRR used in educational programs is to provide for secure shelter and the bird’s well-being. HOUSING Educational birds have different housing requirements than raptors that are being kept for rehabilitation or falconry. However, the basic construction materials and methods are similar and ideas can be gleaned from the literature related to these related activities. The most significant difference between falconry or rehabilitation enclosures and enclosures for NRR used in educational programs is the arrangement of space. Injuries such as wing amputation and blindness limit the use of tall enclosures. However, for the bird to feel secure, enclosures should be tall enough to allow perching in an upright position at a height equal to the height of the caretaker. If cost is an issue, height should be traded for floor space. An enclosure 2 m x 2 m x 4m (length x width x height) is less desirable than an enclosure 3 m x 3 m x 2 m. The enclosure should be tall enough for the caretaker to stand in an upright position. Providing for the needs of NRR may require experimentation with materials, perches, jesses, and furniture. Flightless raptors may require perches that allow them to climb to a comfortable height. Because raptors tend to choose the highest perch in an enclosure, Gibson (1996) recommended that if a bird can jump down from a perch 1 m high without injury, the enclosure should be no taller than 2 m. If the ceiling is much higher, the bird may become stressed in its attempt to locate a higher perch. Another problem with amputee birds is a reduced ability to retain body heat (Gibson 1996). An additional heat source may be required to maintain body temperature in colder climates. Arent and Martell (1996) did not recommend the use of bilateral wing amputees for educational programs. Many problems exist with housing and using them effectively in educational programs. GENERAL ENCLOSURE DESIGN Enclosures should take into account the behavior, size, and natural history of the animal to be housed. A raptor enclosure should be designed to be maintained easily while providing safety, security, and sanitary conditions for its inhabitants (Clubb and Flammer 1994). It also must meet

the psychological needs of the birds. Birds should be provided with a secluded space, which is violated as little as possible. This can be a corner in a larger cage or a nest box in a smaller cage. Having visual barriers from other birds also is important in a secure environment. LOCATION In general, raptor enclosures should be in an area with minimal disturbance and low traffic. Harriers and Accipiter spp. are easily agitated and do not adapt well to areas with constant disturbance (Crawford 1983). Enclosures should also be easily accessible by handlers, both on foot and in vehicles. Preparing for off-site programs is much easier if the cages can be loaded directly into vehicles. If river rock or sand is used as a substrate, a nearby area should be provided for dump trucks to make deliveries. Vegetative cover is an important consideration. Overhead vegetation can provide relief from the summer heat. Evergreens provide year-round shade and can block winter winds with proper placement. However, sunlight is desirable in the winter to keep the birds warm. Deciduous trees provide shade in the summer while allowing sunlight to warm the enclosures in the winter. Do not place enclosures directly under large trees. Falling branches can damage the tops of enclosures. Proximity of enclosures to amphitheaters or arenas is important for on-site programs. Facility managers may choose to build seating near the enclosures (Fig. 2-1). Another option is to build temporary holding enclosures near existing performance areas. This will depend upon the facility design and resources.

Raptor enclosures

Performance area with bow perch

Seating for students

Figure 2-1: Layout for performance area near raptor enclosure 15

INDOOR ENCLOSURES Indoor housing (Fig. 2-2) has several advantages over outdoor facilities. These include pest control, the ability to manipulate lighting, temperature, and humidity, and protection from the weather (Clubb and Flammer 1994). Routine care is not affected by seasonal changes, rainfall, and weather conditions. Disturbance by predators and other wildlife and the exposure to infectious agents through contact with free-ranging birds is minimized. However, indoor facilities are generally more crowded than outdoor facilities. The per-unit cost of building and maintaining indoor units is generally higher than outdoor facilities. Indoor areas require more frequent cleaning to prevent the accumulation of feces, food waste, bacteria, fungi, and dust. An effective air exchange system is also necessary. Full spectrum lighting must be used to facilitate Vitamin D synthesis, which is important for the general health of the bird (Clubb and Flammer 1994). Walls and floors should be designed to allow pressure washing. Floor drains should be of sufficient size to prevent blockage by debris. The use of ventilation fans and air filters is necessary to ensure adequate air quality (Clubb and Flammer 1994). The air exchange system should also be quiet. Second-hand or inexpensive systems may produce excess noise which can stress the raptors. Owls are especially disturbed by noise (Gibson 1996). The air exchange and filtration system must be efficient. Air should be completely exchanged or filtered every two minutes. A humidifier may be required in the winter. Some ventilation may be created by screen-covered vents at ceiling level and floor level (Gibson 1996) that can be blocked with covers in the winter.

Figure 2-3: Minimal outdoor cage 16

Figure 2-2: Indoor enclosure

OUTDOOR ENCLOSURES Outdoor facilities provide raptors with more natural conditions than indoor facilities. Raptors in outdoor facilities are exposed to sunlight which is essential for producing vitamin D (Arent and Martell 1996), but care must be taken to prevent the raptors from overheating in the summer and becoming too cold in the winter. Providing a water dish to bathe in or lightly spraying the bird with water can cool the bird down. In the winter, a heated perch (Parry-Jones 1994) can be provided to prevent frostbite on the toes, as can shielding one side of the enclosure from the wind. Steps must also be taken to minimize contact with native wildlife including predators, other birds, and invertebrates. Placing perches away from the enclosure sides or burying wire around the perimeter of the enclosure can help minimize contact with predators. Figure 2-3 demonstrates the minimum requirements of an outdoor enclosure. This particular enclosure is used only to display birds during the day in fair weather. The bird is brought in each night into an indoor mews area. INDOOR / OUTDOOR ENCLOSURES A combination indoor/outdoor facility can be designed to provide optimum conditions (Fig. 2-4). Heated indoor facilities that are attached to outdoor cages provide distinct advantages for raptors. In the winter, the bird can move to the interior to get warm at night. The outdoor section of the cage provides opportunity to move outside to the sunlight during the day. Food and water can be left inside to prevent freezing.

WALL CONSTRUCTION There are many designs and variations for housing but quality materials are important when constructing any facility. What may work well for one bird, may not work for others. There is no perfect material for building raptor enclosures. A common material used in covering openings of enclosures for both falconry and educational raptors is vertical barring (Parry-Jones 1994, Gibson 1996, Caudell and Riddleberger in press). Vertical bars provide a visual barrier for the bird. Bars or slats should be spaced ~2.5 cm - 5.0 cm apart (Rapp and Crawford 1982) or be spaced no wider than the width of the bird’s closed foot. The slats themselves must be wider than the bird’s open foot. Commonly used vertical bars are wooden slats, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe, and metal conduit. The dimensions of wooden slats vary. The bars should be wide enough to prevent the bird from gripping them. Care should be taken when using metal conduit in colder climates. Frost-bite can occur if a bird’s foot contacts a frozen bar. PVC bars are easily handled. They also “give” if a bird flies into them. However, PVC can become brittle with age and exposure to sunlight and may break unexpectedly. Vertical bars often are used in conjunction with other materials, such as metal wire (Chapter One). The bars can prevent injury caused by flying into metal wire while retaining the security provided by the strength of the wire (Enderson 1986).

Education Building

Figure 2-4: Indoor / outdoor facility Figure 2-5: Behlan enclosure

17

Caution must be taken when using metal wire for enclosures. Chicken wire should not be used where raptors may come into contact with the material (Gibson 1996, Arent and Martell 1996). Rapp and Crawford (1982), Gibson (1996), and Arent and Martell (1996) reported that birds housed in facilities constructed with chicken wire may experience broken feathers, cuts on the cere, sliced toes, and broken talons from contact with chicken wire. The types of metal wire most commonly used for raptor enclosures are chain link fencing and welded-wire. Chicken wire and other types of metal wire can be buried in the ground or placed around the outside of an enclosure as an inexpensive predator guard. Wiemeyer (1987) reported housing eastern screech owls (Otis asio) in cages constructed with metal wire. Fledglings housed in these enclosures often had damaged ceres and eyes. Some of the eye injuries resulted from cage mates while others were probably caused by striking the pens or objects in the pens Crawford (1983) recommended that wire should not be used with Accipiter spp. or harriers. Behlan® wire can be purchased as a standard, circular enclosure (Fig. 2-5) or as panels for use in custom designs. Figure 2-6 shows Behlan® wire used in a rectangular, outdoor cage. Welded-wire is buried beneath the surface to prevent predators from tunneling under (the wire is barely visible in figure 2-6 under the leaf-litter before burial). Behlan® wire is strong and weathers well, but is expensive. Galvanized wire should not be used except on the exteriors of enclosures. Galvanized wire can cause zinc or lead toxicosis depending upon the type of galvanization. If galvanization is needed in areas where metal is prone to rust, such as on the coast, the wire should be scrubbed with acetic acid and a wire brush to remove any loose galvanization material (Clubb and Flammer 1994). Immediately after scrubbing, the wire and the surrounding area should be rinsed throughly. Some materials, such as the wire used in Behlan® enclosures, are galvanized, but are also coated with non-toxic materials. Vinyl mesh, such as Bird Barrier®, and netting are adequate materials for raptor enclosures (Arent and Martell 1996, Gibson 1996). Some caretakers have experienced problems with vinyl mesh. Specifically, they found that it did not provide enough of a visual barrier. Vinyl mesh also may cause feather or foot damage in active birds and the plastic may eventually become brittle and break. Gibson (1996) stated that plastic mesh is appropriate for use as ceilings and enclosures for educational birds. Some types of plastic mesh have rounded mesh while other have angled mesh. Angled mesh may cut the bird’s feet when grabbed. A sample should be requested before purchasing large amounts of material to determine if it is appropriate. The gaps in the netting should be small enough that the raptor cannot stick its head through and that predators cannot enter the enclosure. Birds are more likely to see the Bird Barrier® and are less likely to fly into it and become entangled. Vinyl mesh appears to be more flexible than 18

Figure 2-6: Rectangular enclosure with Behlan wire sides

Figure 2-7: Raptor enclosure with wooden lattice siding

either metal wire or vertical bars. This flexibility may prevent injury when a bird bates or attempts to elude the caretaker. The most commonly used siding material is wood, either in slats or solid wood sides (Chapter One, Caudell and Riddleberger in press). Wood is often used in combination with other materials, such as metal wire or plastic mesh. A common type of construction for NRR enclosures is to build a chamber with a wooden frame, solid wood knee wall, and mesh-covered openings extending to the ceiling. One facility used wooden-lattice as a wall panel material (Fig. 2-7). Wooden and plastic lattice can be purchased in various thicknesses. The thickest lattice should be used. It is not known how well this material will stand up to stress or time. Some caretakers feel that wooden lattice is poorly constructed and does not present the raptor with the same degree of visual barrier that vertical barring provides (J. Karger, Last Chance Forever, personal communication). McKeever (1979) reported using translucent solid panels in place of wooden panels. The entire facility should be set up on a concrete curb so thatno wood contacts the ground. This increases the life of the structure substantially in areas of high humidity. A concrete curb also deters predators from digging underneath. If the interior walls are not set upon a

concrete curb, wire should extend from the wall into the ground. A few caretakers reported that rain washed out sand floors leaving a gap between individual enclosures, allowing a larger raptor to pull a smaller raptor under the wall and kill it. Raptor enclosures should be built with the finished side in to aid in cleaning the inside (Gibson 1996). Also, this prevents raptors from perching on exposed studs used in construction. Common walls of two enclosures should both be finished. If enclosures will be visited and a finished exterior is desired, both sides can be finished. Building material should also be easy to clean. Rough surfaces will hold feces and other debris making them harder to clean. The surfaces should be smooth-sealed with a weather sealant to facilitate cleaning. Because hawks have “projectile” feces, a sheet of plastic can be placed on the walls behind a hawk’s perch to ease cleaning. Clean or replace plastic frequently to prevent build-up of feces. ROOF CONSTRUCTION When building the roof or any other part of the structure, there can be no exposed nails or screws. If a tin roof is used, there should be an air space between the tin and the birds. In the summer the metal will get hot and the

Figure 2-8: Partially covered roof. Notice that water drains to the inside of the enclosure. This should be avoided. A gutter system could be added to this structure to improve the design. 19

Figure 2-9: Raptor enclosure with roof sloping away from the interior of the enclosure

birds can suffer thermal burns if they touch the inside surface. Common roof materials include solid wood, shingles, slats, metal wire, plastic mesh, translucent panels, and tin panels (Chapter One, Caudell and Riddleberger in press). The roof can be completely open, partially open, or completely covered (Fig. 2-8). If the roof is completely open, a box or other covered structure where the animal can escape the elements should be provided. Opinions differ as to the amount of roof coverage. Arent and Martell (1996) and Gibson (1996) stated that a section of the roof should remain open (but covered with wire) to the elements to allow the bird to sun or bathe in the rain. Arent and Martell (1996) recommended that 25% to 50% of the roof be solid material to provide protection from the elements. If a partially open roof is used, the covered part should be pitched away from the open area to prevent water from draining into the enclosure (Fig. 2-9 and 2-10). However, complete roofs are stronger in high winds (Parry-Jones 1994). Solid roofs are also more resistant to damage in the event a tree limb falls on them. If nylon mesh or vinyl wire is used to cover open areas, they can accumulate leaf litter which is difficult to clean and can damage or stretch the wire.

Floor Plan Existing enclosure with single entry way

Add on double entryway Figure 2-10: Raptor enclosure with second entryway retrofitted to a single entry enclosure. Adapted from Glasier (1978). 20

Work area Fold down work table

Enclosure 1

Enclosure 2

Enclosure 3

Enclosure 4

Enclosure 5

Fig 2-11: Floor plan of facility in figure 2-12. This plan demonstrates the use of a hallway for a double-door system. ENTRY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION The most important design aspect of entry construction is the use of double doors. When entering raptor enclosures, birds may fly at the opening and escape. A second door will prevent escape. Enclosures without double doors can be retrofitted with a second door (Fig. 210). Doors also should be equipped with spring hinges and latches that are easy to work. Do not use springs that are exposed because they can injure the birds. To maximize space and the use of construction materials, several enclosures can be designed into one facility with a hallway / workroom with a second entry that serves as the double door (Fig. 2-11 and 2-12) FLOOR SUBSTRATE The material used should be easy to maintain and not be a breeding ground for disease. Floor substrate should prevent birds from coming into contact will their own waste (Heidenreich 1997). Pine needles or other vegetation are aesthetically pleasing as floor substrate, but should not be used because such materials retain moisture and heat, are difficult to clean, and promote fungal growth such as Aspergillus (Parry-Jones 1994, Gibson 1996). Nevertheless, some facilities reported using pine straw and other similar materials with no reported adverse effects (Chapter One). Wiemeyer (1987) reported using fine hardwood chips for the propagation of eastern screech owls and included no mention of illness or death related to the substrate. If pine straw or other such materials is used, it should be changed at least weekly. Sand is commonly used as floor substrate (Chapter One). Opinions vary as to whether or not sand is an appropriate substrate for raptor enclosures. Gibson (1996) stated that ingestion of sand on food items can cause digestive problems. The Raptor Trust (flight cage plans, Millington, NJ USA.) recommended using crushed gravel covered with sand. Heidenreich (1997) also recommended

sand as an appropriate floor substrate for small aviaries. A thick layer of washed, round river rock or pea gravel is a good choice (Weaver and Cade 1991, Heidenreich 1997). Gibson (1996) recommended that pea gravel be at least 7 cm to 10 cm deep. To provide cushion for flightless birds jumping down from high perches, it should be at least 30 cm deep. Gravel is fairly inexpensive and allows proper drainage during heavy rain. However, Parry-Jones (1994) stated that large gravel can damage feathers. Parry-Jones (1994) also reported that finer pea-gravel can become so hot as to damage the birds feet. Round-river and crushed gravel were the most commonly used floor substrate material used by educational facilities throughout the United States (Chapter One). Gibson (1996) recommended that gravel be changed at least annually. The ground should be prepared before the rock is placed. A 10% solution of chlorine bleach in a hand pump sprayer can be used to spray the ground thoroughly and allow it to dry. Place rock in the enclosures 5cm to 10cm deep. To clean the cage, remove the soiled rock down to dry earth and replace it with fresh gravel. Both the ground and the gravel should be sprayed with cleaning solution, throughly rinsed with fresh water, and allowed to dry. Do not wash the interior of the cage while the birds are present. After rinsing, let the cage air out before returning the bird. Do not place the bird back in the enclosure if you detect any odors. Birds can experience respiratory distress if chlorine fumes are present. A concrete floor with central or corner drainage is easy to clean. Such floors also can be disinfected rapidly and do not have to be replaced periodically. However, if the concrete has a brushed surface, it can damage the bird’s feet (personal communication Burnie Kessner, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources Division). A thick layer of river rock can be added over the surface to prevent damage to the bird’s feet and still permit proper drainage. 21

Many raptor facilities use either dirt or grass in raptor enclosures (Chapter One). Heidenreich (1997) stated that large, open aviaries do well with planted grass and small bushes. The wire mesh ceiling allows rain to wash feces into the soil. The removal of dirt directly underneath perches several times per year help cages remain clean. SEPARATION OF SPECIES Animals housed in the same enclosure must be compatible. In Georgia, animals cannot be housed near other animals that will interfere with their health or cause them discomfort (Appendix 1). Raptors should not be in view of predators or prey species to minimize stress and related health problems. Many raptors are incompatible with conspecifics and some cannot be housed with a different sex of the same species. Most conspecifics can be housed together with the exception of human imprinted birds, american kestrels (Falco sparverius), and Accipiter spp. (Arent and Martell 1996). An imprinted bird may not have the “social skills” needed to protect or assert themselves. Birds already housed in an enclosure may harass a new cage mate, particulary if the new resident is disabled and cannot defend itself. McKeever (1979) stated that regardless of its disability, female owls will never be attacked or harassed by a male of its species. Turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) can be housed with several different species such as bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), greathorned owls (Bubo virginianus), red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), rough-legged hawks (Buteo lagopus), and Swainson’s hawks (Buteo swainsoni). Swainson’s hawks can be housed with all of the preceding species except the owls and eagles. Eagles can be housed with each other and turkey vultures. Great-horned owls can be housed with red-tailed hawks, rough-legged hawks, and turkey vultures. Red-tailed hawks can be housed with great horned owls, rough-legged hawks, Swainson’s hawks, and turkey vultures. Rough-legged hawks can be housed with the same species as red-tailed hawks. Peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) and prairie falcons (Falco mexicanus) can be housed with each other (Arent and Martell 1996). This list of compatible species is not complete or absolute. Some individuals may not be able to be housed with another bird. Do not put two birds in the same cage if one is the other’s prey. If two birds are placed together, observe them often to determine if one is being harassed and separate them if needed. If there is any doubt about whether a bird can be housed with another bird, contact a local rehabilitator, zoo, or other educational facility with raptors. If birds are housed together, each bird must have adequate food, shelter, and perches. If shelter boxes are provided, each bird must have its own. All perches should be placed at approximately the same height for each bird. If there is only one high perch, the birds may fight over it.

22

VISUAL SEPARATION In many cage designs, walls are shared. If this is the case, there should be visual separation between the cages if raptors of different species and sizes occupy adjoining cages. Some raptors feel threatened by the presence of another species or conspecifics and may become anxious, flighty, or may stop eating (Arent and Martell 1996). Solid walls between the enclosures reduces stress and prevents larger birds from injuring smaller birds (Fig 2-12). Two layers of mesh, mesh of a small size, or shade cloth are other alternatives. Another solution is to provide a shelter box. The size of this box is dictated by the size of the raptor. A screen can also be erected inside large cages to allow excitable birds (such as Accipiter spp.) the ability to escape each other visually (Rapp and Crawford 1982). SEPARATION FROM OTHER ANIMALS Raptor enclosures should be located away from other animal facilities. Disease may be spread between raptors and other avian species, such as domestic chickens. Pets should not be kept or allowed near raptor enclosures. The presence of canines and other animals may cause stress. Environmental education or nature centers that display other wildlife should prevent both visual and actual contact between raptors and other species. The presence of species that normally prey on raptors may be a constant source of stress to the birds. The birds also should be protected from native wildlife. Raccoons can dig underneath walls and kill or maim captive birds. Wire should be buried underneath the

Figure 2-12: Visual seperation at this facility is accomplished by solid partitions between the enclosures

Table 2-1:

Recommended minimum enclosure sizes for captive raptors adapted from Arent and Martell (1996).

Size of Raptor

Flight ability

Length (m)

Width (m)

Height (m)

Small Raptors1

flighted flightless flighted flightless flighted flightless

1.8 0.9 3.7 1.8 12.2 3.7

1.8 0.9 1.8 1.8 3.1 3.1

2.1 0.9 2.1 2.1 2.7 2.7

Medium Raptors2 Large Raptors3

American kestrels, screech owls, and saw-whet owls. Buteo sp., great-horned owls, barn owls, barred owls, and goshawks. 3 Eagles, vultures, and osprey. 1 2

Table 2-2: Type of raptor Hawks Eagles Vulture Large Falcons Small Falcons Large Owls Small Owls

Median enclosure dimensions of non-releasable raptors from raptor centers throughout the US (Chapter One this volume). Length (m) 4.2 5.4 4.9 2.4 3.1 3.7 2.4

Width (m) 2.4 3.7 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.4

floor substrate and outside the cages to prevent burrowing animals from entering the facilities. Burrowing predators quickly become discouraged when they encounter buried wire (Gibson 1996). Another method to discourage burrowing predators is to construct a concrete curb extending into the ground. Enclosure wire should be small enough to prevent predators from reaching in an grabbing the birds. Some animals may transmit pathogens to the birds. Rats that enter in an attempt to eat the raptor’s food items may have been poisoned or diseased. Contact with wild raptors or other birds should be minimized. SPACE REQUIREMENTS Determining the space requirements for raptors is difficult. Few attempts have been made to set minimum standards for enclosure sizes for birds of prey. Arent and Martell (1996) provide suggestions for both flighted and non-flighted raptors (Table 2-1). Heidenreich (1997) provided suggestions for aviary dimensions. Both California Department of Fish and Game and the Texas Parks and Recreation Department have established guidelines for enclosure size for NRR. Other enclosure suggestions can be found by examining literature regarding the propagation of raptor species (Carpenter et al. 1987b, Wiemeyer 1987,

Height (m) 2.4 2.8 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.0

Area (m2) 11.8 16.7 11.8 7.4 5.8 9.6 3.2

Weaver and Cade 1991), falconry literature (Glasier 1978, Parry-Jones 1991), and rehabilitation literature (McKeever 1979, Conroy 1981). Guidelines for enclosure sizes in Georgia are based on median cage sizes for raptor centers from across the United States (Table 2-2). Enclosures should be constructed and maintained to provide sufficient space for each animal to make normal postural and social adjustments with adequate freedom of movement. Inadequate space may be indicated by malnutrition, poor condition, debility, stress, or abnormal behavioral patterns. However, for NRR used for educational programs, larger spaces are not always better. Spaces that are too tall may make it difficult for the caretaker to catch the bird. Individual species habits and requirements should be taken into consideration when designing raptor enclosures. Harriers and Accipiter spp. must have as much room as can be provided due to their nervous disposition (Crawford 1983). Smaller raptors, such as screech owls (Otis spp.) do not require as much space as larger birds. It is important to determine which species are desirable for the program, set a limit for the number of species housed at the facility, and build enclosures to suit those needs.

23

(~10 cm x 10 cm x 100 cm) over the holes. Mark the end of the post where the screws are to be attached. Remove the post and put silicon sealant on the bottom of the post and around the screw holes. Attach the post to the oil pan with appropriately sized wood screws. Allow sealant to set according to the directions. Fill with water and check for leaks. Screw a section of plywood to the top of the post. Place the tray on top of plywood for easy removal to clean food residue from the tray. The pan should be large enough to provide enough weight to prevent the platform from tipping over. To increase weight, gravel can be placed in the bottom of the pan.

Figure 2-13: Ant resistant platform FOOD PLATFORM A clean feeding container for the birds is essential. Contact between feces and the bird’s food should be minimized. Even though the ground may appear clean, fecal material may be present that can contaminate food. A non-porous material should be used as a food container, such as school lunch trays, slabs of slate, pet food dishes, and plastic plates. Dishes should be resistant to damage caused by the bird perching on it or biting it. A dish can be placed on the ground or an elevated platform. Elevated platforms should be large enough for the bird to perch on comfortably and eat its meal. A perch constructed of appropriate material should also be provided. The food platform itself can be attached to the wall or placed under the feed slot. In areas where ants pose a problem, a free-standing, “ant-resistant” platform can be constructed (Fig. 2-13, J. Karger, personal communication). A large water pan, such as a new oil change pan, can be used as a base. Drill three to four small holes in the center of the pan. Place a post

PERCHES Proper perches are important for bird health (Rapp and Crawford 1982). Forbes and Parry-Jones (1996) stated that the majority of bumblefoot cases are caused by improper perches. Each species and each individual bird may have different perching needs. Often a bird will sit on an inadequate perch, even if it is causes foot damage (Glasier 1978). Perches that are too small can exert too much pressure on a localized spot on the bird’s foot, leading to bumblefoot. Size and shape are important considerations when building perches. Falcons prefer to perch on flat surfaces but other raptors like to grip around an object (Forbes and Parry-Jones 1996). Arent and Martell (1996) suggest that bumblefoot can be prevented in some species with the use of specifically designed perches (Fig. 2-14). Forbes and Parry-Jones (1996) note that falcons have bumblefoot more often than other raptors. They recommend that falcon feet be checked 2-3 times per week for early signs of bumblefoot. Be observant of the bird’s behavior both in the enclosure and sitting on the perch. It may be necessary to change the perch size, location, material, or height before the bird is comfortable. Perch widths are determined by the size of the raptor’s foot (Fig. 2-15). This measurement can be used as an

2.5 cm

Cork bark or other covering

2 cm

9 cm 2 cm

4 cm

4 cm

1.3 cm

Shaped wood block

4 cm

Figure 2-14: Cross-section of shaped wood blocks used for raptor perches. Adapted from Arent and Martell (1996) 24

X

Figure 2-15: Location of measurement for determining perch width; X = width of perch initial size for the trial and error process of providing the proper perches. Birds with new perches should be monitored daily for perch use and pink spots (erosions) developing on their feet. Perch size may need to be adjusted for the size of the bird. The bird’s toes should never encircle the perch (Rapp and Crawford 1982). Avoid putting perches in the corner of the chambers. They should be a minimum of 0.5 m from a wall to prevent the raptor from damaging its feathers by hitting the walls. There should be perches in both the indoor and outdoor areas of the enclosure. Rapp and Crawford (1982) recommend two to three perches per enclosure. Check outside perches for underlying surface wetness. Physically

check perches each day. Flightless raptors require step-up perches or perches that are low enough for the bird to hop onto (Rapp and Crawford 1982). Rough or irregular materials are necessary to prevent foot problems. Smooth perches can result in “hot spots” on the raptor’s foot. The hot spots are the equivalent of blisters in humans. The material must be easily cleaned and replaced. Climate is also a factor in determining what type of perches to use. In warm moist climates, such as Georgia, the material must not absorb or hold water. Absorbent materials can cause fungus to develop in the perch and possibly infect the bird with pathogens if the raptor’s foot is damaged. Monsanto Tall Turf ® and artificial turf are commonly used perch materials (Chapter One, Jones 1993). They are durable, inexpensive, and have rough surfaces that are beneficial to the raptor’s feet. They also are easy to clean and hold up well in warm, humid climates. Cork bark is another perch material that is inexpensive, aesthetically pleasing, and has many irregular surfaces (Forbes and Parry-Jones 1996, Heidenreich 1997). However, cork bark is rarely used in the United States (Chapter One). Tall Turf® and cork bark are used to cover both perches and platforms. Cork bark and artificial turf can be easily attached with “cable ties” (available from hardware stores). Tall turf should be replaced when it starts looking flat and thread-bare. Natural branches, stumps, and logs are the most commonly used perches in raptor facilities throughout the United States (Caudell and Riddleberger in press, Chapter One). Natural branches must be the correct size, the bark must be intact, and they must be replaced often, especially

Tree branch or other bar Perch ring Rubber strap

Figure 2-16: Bow perch; perch cover goes over tree branch or bar. Rubber strap (Fox 1995) is used for cushioning when the bird bates.

25

when they become smooth. Avoid cherry (Prunus spp.), rose (Rosa sp.), beech (Fagus spp.) and other smoothbarked wood. Do not use branches or stumps with thorns or other sharp protrusions. Replace any perch material that shows loss of irregular surfaces, build up of fecal matter, or other condition that may damage the bird’s foot. Weaver (1991) and Jones (1993) recommended using “coca mats” for falcons. The mats are long lasting and provide cushion to prevent bruising of the feet. Indoor/ outdoor carpeting is another perch material commonly used throughout the United States (Chapter One). Some facilities recommend using sisal or manilla rope to wrap perches (Jones and Gumbs 1984, Arent and Martell 1996). Rope is aesthetic and provides an irregular surface, but in Georgia and other humid climates it may pose problems. If rope is used, it should be checked regularly for mold and fraying. Bow perches are used often in falconry and educational programs. Jones (1993) described the construction of a horizontal bow perch that can be affixed permanently in raptor enclosures. Bow perches (Fig. 2-16) can be covered with rope, coca mat, astroturf, or leather (Jones 1993, Parry-Jones 1994, Fox 1995, Arent and Martell 1996). Cable ties can also be used to attach perch covers to bow perches. They are inexpensive and can be replaced each time the perch material is replaced. However, they should not come into contact with the bird’s feet. Crawford (1983) recommended that a small piece of emory cloth wrapped around a portion of the perch will provide an area for birds to “freak” their beaks. Large stones placed in the enclosures may also facilitate this process. Not all birds will utilize these items efficiently and trimming of the beaks may be required. BATHS Some birds of prey do not drink often (Glasier 1978, Bird 1987) because they get most of their water from prey items. However, many birds do like to bathe occasionally (Glasier 1987, Carpenter et. al 1987a). A water container should be large enough for the bird to bathe in, but not so deep that it could drown. Water containers can be made from several different materials. McKeever (1979) suggested that the surface of the pool not be plastic or metal, since both are slippery and frightening to owls. However, Wiemeyer (1987) used stainless steel watering pans for eastern screech owls with no reported problems. In the winter, freezing temperatures can pose a problem with providing water. Caretakers at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Maryland placed warmers underneath metal water pans during winter months to prevent freezing (Wiemeyer 1987). In the Southeast, long periods of freezing temperature are infrequent. Water can be checked often or removed at night to prevent freezing. In large water containers, placing a perch on one side that dips into the water will allow a bird to move in and out of the water easily. Adjustments in design should be made 26

to accommodate birds with disabilities. Perches near the bathing container allow the bird to dry upon exiting the water. If the bird is wild and has not yet adapted to captivity, the bath should be placed on the side of the cage least likely to be approached by anyone (Glasier 1978). A commonly used design for exhibition facilities is to build a concrete pool in the enclosure. The surface should be lightly brushed while the concrete is setting to prevent slipping. It should not be so rough that cleaning is hampered. The sides should allow the birds to move in and out freely and facilitate cleaning. Another option for exhibition facilities is to use baths that blend in with the bird’s environment. The largest owls (e.g. great-horned owls) will require a water container ~2 m in diameter (McKeever 1979). Smaller owls, such as screech owls, will require a container with a diameter of 0.3 m. Depth is more critical than diameter. The depth of the water should not come above the abdomen of the bird when it is standing in the container. Small owls should have water 5 cm deep. Larger owls require water 15 cm deep. Weimeyer (1987) used a 20 cm diameter x 7 cm deep container for eastern screech owls. The sides should not be so high or steep that it would hamper the bird exiting from the container. Water containers should be cleaned daily because some species tend to defecate in water. It is important to flush the container with a large amount of water to remove chemical residues after disinfection. CLEANING Good hygiene involves frequent cleaning of the bird’s enclosure and is far more important in the prevention of disease than the use of disinfectants (Perry 1994). Organic debris must be physically removed before a disinfectant will be effective. Water and food containers should be physically scrubbed or placed in a dishwasher at least twice weekly (preferably daily) to prevent slime and algae from forming (personal communication, Dr. Cheryl Greenacre, University of Georgia School of Veterinary Medicine). Place the bird in a spare enclosure or travel carrier to prevent stress while cleaning, even if your bird enjoys being sprayed with water. Remove feces from cage walls and perches using a water hose and a brush. A garden hose adaptor used to add soap to the water will facilitate the process. A mild soap will work to remove most mutes and debris. When cleaning, take precautions to avoid inhaling spores and dried aerosolized particles of feces. Arent and Martell (1996) recommended that each pen be cleaned daily. This includes removing castings (pellets coughed up by raptors consisting of undigested food) and food remains and providing fresh water. Pens should be throughly disinfected at least once per week. Birds should not come into direct contact with or be exposed to the fumes of any disinfection agent. The constant use of powerful disinfectants in the absence of a disease threat is not beneficial and continued contact with these chemicals

can be detrimental to the birds and to caretakers (Clubb and Flammer 1994). Gravel should be completely replaced every 2 years (Ardent and Martell 1996). Gravel underneath the perches and other areas contaminated with feces and food remains should be removed weekly and throughly washed. Gravel can be washed by spreading it out and soaking it with a disinfectant. It should then be rinsed thoroughly with water and allowed to dry. The surface underneath the gravel should be sprayed with disinfectant after the gravel is removed and allowed to dry. Before the bird is returned, fresh gravel must be placed on the cleaned surface. Hard surfaces, such as concrete, can be cleaned in the same manner as the walls. Ideally, cleaning tools should not be used for more than one cage (McKeever 1979). The initial outlay for a large number of brushes and other tools will be offset by the reduction in the possible spread of pathogens. However, for birds in permanent collections that are in close contact, providing separate brushes may not be necessary. COMMON DISINFECTANTS A disinfectant is a germicidal compound that is usually applied to inanimate objects. A compound may act both as an antiseptic and a disinfectant, depending on the drug concentration, condition of the exposure, and number of organisms. To achieve maximum efficiency, it is essential to use the proper concentration of the disinfectant for the purpose intended. The logic that “if a little is good, then more must be better” is not only uneconomical, but often has toxicological implications (Fraser 1991). Many disinfectants emit toxic fumes and should only be used in a well ventilated area and never near the bird. Disinfectants should be rinsed thoroughly from the enclosure and off accessories to prevent the bird from coming into contact with chemical residue. Household chlorine bleach is the most cost efficient of the common disinfectants. Few disinfectants are effective in the presence of organic residue. Directions on the use of the chemical should be followed closely. All disinfectants are toxic and should be used in a conservative fashion for the specific purpose of preventing exposure to infectious agents. There is no such thing as a safe disinfectant. If it is safe, it does not kill microbial agents (Clubb and Flammer 1994). The least toxic agent that will effectively meet the disinfecting needs should be chosen. In most cases, a 5% dilution of sodium hypochlorite is the safest and most efficacious, with the least potential for leaving toxic residues. A disinfectant should kill disease agents to which raptors are susceptible (Arent and Martell 1996). These agents include strains of Pseudomonas, Salmonella, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Escherichia coli, Chlamydia, Candida, and Mycobacterium. Chlorine Bleach - Chlorine exerts a potent germicidial effect against most bacteria, viruses, protozoa,

and fungi (Fraser 1991). Chlorine bleach is effective in killing Pseudomonas spp., Salmonella spp. Streptococcus spp., and Staphylococcus spp. and other bacteria (Clubb and Flammer 1994) It is ineffective against Mycobacterium spp. To use as a disinfectant, chlorine bleach should be mixed with water on a 1:10 ratio (bleach:water). The longer chlorine is in contact with an organism, the more effective it is (Ritchie and Harrison 1994). The effectiveness of chlorine bleach can be increased by either decreasing the pH of the water or by increasing the temperature (Clubb and Flammer 1994). It is important to use only liquid chlorine bleach and not granulated chlorine. The latter can release toxic levels of chlorine gas. Birds should never come into direct contact with chlorine bleach. Exposure to chlorine fumes can cause epiphora, coughing, sneezing, rhinorrhea, and dyspna in most avian species (Ritchie and Harrison 1994). Chlorine can react with some metals and it is also difficult to rinse out of porous materials. Virkon-S® - Virkon-S® (a phenol) is a broad spectrum disinfectant designed primarily for use in chicken houses. It is effective against many bacteria, viruses, and fungi. A normal application requires spraying or soaking the object in the solution and then rinsing (Durvet Inc. 1996). Phenol (1-Stroke®) - Phenol (carbolic acid) is bactericidal / fungicidal used at 1-2% concentrations. The bactericidal activity is enhanced by warm temperatures and is decreased by alkaline medium, lipids, soaps, and cold temperatures. Phenol has been implicated as a carcinogen (Fraser 1991). Hot Water - Water above 180 oC can be useful for disinfecting food and water dishes. Many dishwashers use water at or above this temperature; however, check the manufacturer’s literature to be certain. Do not use the same dishwasher that is used on household dishware. Quaternary ammonia solutions (Quats) - Roccal® is a name brand of quat used in veterinary hospitals. Quats are used as table washers and cold sterilization. They can also be used to clean enclosures or to soak nets, dishes, perches, and other equipment (Johnson-Delaney 1994). Because the solutions are toxic to birds, the equipment should be rinsed throughly after disinfection. Quats are effective against some fungi (including yeast), protozoa, most bacteria, and is recommended for chlamydia. Quats are ineffective against mycobacterium, viruses, and spores (Fraser 1991, Clubb and Flammer 1994). Quats are of limited value in the presence of blood and tissue debris (Fraser 1991). Rubber gloves should be worn because it is an irritant. Chlorhexidine - Nolvasan® (Fort Dodge, Bio Ceutic) is available as a disinfectant solution that is usually mixed at 90 ml/3.8 L. Fraser (1991) stated that it has a potent antimicrobial activity against most grampositive and some gram-negative bacteria, but not against spores. A 0.1% aqueous solution is bactericidal against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomo27

nas aeruginosa in 15 sec. It is somewhat less active against other gram-negative organisms and most viruses. Nosocomial infections by Pseudomonas sp. have occurred from the use of contaminated chlorhexidine solutions in which the bacteria persisted (Fraser 1991). Chlorhexidine is not effective against gram-positive cocci (Ritchie and Harrison 1994). Chlorhexidine is more gentle on tissue than quats and is effective against viruses and candida. However, it is not effective against Chlamydia and many other pathogenic bacteria (Johnson-Delaney 1994). The effectiveness of chlorhexidine is reduced by the presence of organic matter (Fraser 1991, Perry 1994). Chlorhexidine is extremely toxic to aquatic environments. Waste products must be handled carefully. Chlorhexadines can also irritate eyes and mucus membranes (Ritchie and Harrison 1994).

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FACILITY MANAGEMENT Policies concerning cleaning, bookkeeping, training of volunteers or paid employees, and use of the birds should be set and followed. While policies are tedious to set, they can prevent confusion among workers in the long run. An important policy to set at a facility is program fees. Deciding how much to charge for programs can be difficult. All costs must be taken into consideration including food, maintenance, yearly veterinary charges, employee payroll, and travel for programs. Incidental costs such as replacing substrate, cleaning fluid, repairing or replacing gauntlets, jesses, leather conditioner, etc. must also be considered. Facility managers must keep in mind the need for construction of new enclosures, upkeep of old enclosures, and modifications required by changes to state or federal regulations. A portion of the yearly budget should be dedicated for construction and maintenance.

CHAPTER 3: EQUIPMENT Using non-releasable raptors (NRR) in educational programs will require falconry equipment. Jesses, leashes, swivels, bow perches, and other supplies will be needed for using birds in demonstrations. Additional equipment, such as radio-telemetry equipment may also be necessary if freeflights are performed. Purchasing quality materials is of upmost importance. A broken jess or leash can lead to the loss of a raptor that the caretaker has spent many hours training. It may also mean death for a bird that has escaped, but cannot fend for itself. JESSES Jesses are small leather straps placed on the raptor’s leg. They are used for attaching a leash (Chiles and Crawford 1985). Jesses and Aylmeri bracelets are made from high quality leather such as kangaroo hide or cow hide (Heidenreich 1997). Hides of lesser quality leather such as goat or elk can also be used (Glasier 1978). The leather must be pliable and strong. Leather can be tested before buying it by cutting a strip the width of a jess and pulling on each end to see if it will break. If it does not break, cut a small slit in it to see if it will rip easily. Leather has varying degrees of stretch. It will stretch more down the length of the grain than across the grain. Be sure to allow for the stretch when crafting the jess. Equipment needed to craft jesses include a pair of sharp scissors, a small sharp knife, a cutting board, and a leather punch (Glasier 1978, Parry-Jones 1994). If Aylmeri bracelets are used, grommets and a grommet tool will be needed. Never use a hammer and anvil to attach an Aylmeri to a bird’s leg. Two jesses should be used on raptors. As a raptor bates (attempts to fly off the handler’s glove), a large amount of stress is placed on the jess and the bird’s leg. If only one leg is attached to a jess, twice as much force is applied to the raptor’s leg compared to a raptor that has two jesses (Chiles and Crawford 1985) . Jesses also can break. If the bird has two jesses and one breaks, it will not be able to fly away. However, improperly maintained jesses have been known to break at the same time. Jesses should always be placed on the bird with the rough side of the leather away from the bird’s leg. Jess and Aylmeri sizes - The length and width of the jesses will vary for each bird. A hawk’s leg (tarsometatarsus) is longer than a falcon’s. Therefore, a hawk’s jesses should be cut wider than a falcon’s jesses to provide more support (Glasier 1978). Do not cut the jesses longer than necessary. Jesses may become entangled on the furniture in the cage and may injure the bird. Arent and Martell (1996) provided suggested sizes for both Aylmeri bracelets and jesses. For small birds (<200 g), use a jess 15 cm long and 6.4 mm wide. Medium sized

birds (200 g - 2000 g) should have a jess 20 cm long and 10 mm - 13 mm wide. Jesses for large birds (>2000 g) should be 25 cm long and 19 mm wide. The tail-width of the jess should be ~4 mm narrower than the body width (Fig. 3-1). The length of the body will be based upon measurement taken from the leg of the raptor. These are suggested sizes. Individual birds may need jesses tailored to fit more precisely. Aylmeri bracelets for small birds should be from 6 mm - 10 mm with an eyelet <6 mm. For medium sized birds, bracelets should be 13 mm - 19 mm with a 6 mm - 8 mm eyelet. For large birds, bracelets should be 25 mm - 32 mm wide. Traditional Jess - Traditional falconry jesses are still used but are now illegal for use in falconry when a bird is being flown (50 CFR 21.29(g)(2)). Traditional jesses have the tendency to twist as the bird moves around on the

Tab 1 A

Body B

Total length Tail

C Tab 2

Figure 3-1: Traditional jess 29

Tab 1 Slit A

Body

Slit B Figure 3-2: Attaching a traditional jess to a raptor’s leg handler’s glove or its perch (Chiles and Crawford 1985). Others feel that traditional jesses have a tendency to tighten on the bird’s leg and should NEVER be used (personal communication, John Karger, Last Chance Forever). Traditional jesses can be used for educational birds, but cannot be used for free-flight demonstrations (Arent and Martell 1996). Discontinue use if the bird develops sore spots under the jess. Begin with a strip of leather 2-4 cm wide and ~30 cm long. The initial size can be taken from either the suggestions provided above or by measuring around the bird’s leg (for the body length of the jess). The hole for slit A (Fig 31) should be punched where the taper of tab 1 begins. Slit B should be made between the body and the tail. Slit C should be made near the end of the tail, but not extending into tab 2. Pressure relief slits (Fig. 3-1) should be cut into the jess body to prevent sore spots from developing on the bird’s leg. To attach the jess, wrap the body around the leg of the bird. Insert tab 1 into slit B. Pull tab 2 through slit A. Slit C is used for attaching swivels or clips. Modified Jess - A modified version of the traditional jess (Fig. 3-3) was described by John Karger (personal communication). It is an alternative to using an Aylmeri or traditional jesses. This modified jess is less likely to tighten around the birds leg because of the squared-off intersection of tab 1 and the body. This jess also retains it shape better than the traditional jess. Figure 3-4 shows how to attach the jess to the raptor. Although needle-nose pliers are not essential, it is quicker and easier to put the jesses on the bird if they are used. To make the modified jess, begin with a strip of leather 2-4 cm wide and ~30 cm long. Adjust the jess to size of bird. A larger width is needed for larger birds (>2000 g). A smaller width is used for smaller birds (<200 g). The first step is to cut a tab at one end of the leather approximately 0.5 cm in towards the center (on both sides) and about 4 cm from the end in the center of the strip. 30

Tail

Slit C

Tab 2 Figure 3-3: Modified jess as described by John Karger Next, measure around the bird’s leg (smooth side of the leather against the bird’s leg) so that the squared off corners of the tab contact the leather of the jess on the other side forming a loop. Mark using your fingernail or pen to indicate where slit B (Fig. 3-3) will be made. The body must be measured correctly to ensure the bird wears the jess comfortably. It should not bind the bird, but it should not be so loose that the bird can work it off its foot. Cut slit B (Fig. 3-3) the exact width as the width of the tab. Cut out the lower portion of the jess by folding the tab section over so that the base of the tab lies on slit B. Cut the lower portion of the jess the same width as the base of the tab 1. The length of the tail is determined by checking that the jess does not extend past the tail feathers, but it must be long enough to be held comfortably in the gloved hand. Cut slit C approximately 2.5 cm long. Cut pressure relief slits on the part of the jess that is around the bird’s leg. Cut slit A about the width of the tail of the jess. After the jess is finished, you should soak it in a leather conditioner for 24 hours (Chiles and Crawford 1985). After it has soaked, pound the jess with a hammer or a

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Figure 3-4: Attaching a modified jess to a raptor’s leg mallet. This will strengthen the jess and increase its life. The slits around the edge are to relieve direct pressure from the bird’s leg. The holes at the ends of the slits are important to relieve pressure from the leather to prevent it from tearing (Glasier 1978). Wrap the body of the jess around the bird’s leg (Fig. 3-4, step 1). Feed the tab through slit B and pull snug (Fig. 3-4, step 2). Take tail of the jess, double it back through slit A (Fig. 3-4, step 3), and pull snug . Double check the fit then make the second jess for the other leg following the same procedure. Snap Jesses - Snap jesses (Fig. 3-5) have been developed independently and used by several centers with varying degrees of success. They were developed to be used temporarily or with Tab 1 raptors that are especially Snap 1 adapted to removing jesses in their enclosures. Careful attention must be paid to the raptor to prevent the jesses from unfastening Body them while in use. The snap jess presented here is adapted from the modified jess. Follow Slit A instructions to make the Snap 2 modified jess, but do not cut slit A into tab 1 (Fig. 33). Place snaps on tab 1 and below slit A. The distance from slit A to snap 2 should be the same distance as snap 1 is from Slit B the upper end of the body (Fig. 3-5). Place the jess around the bird’s leg. Tab 2 Thread tab 1 and snap 1 through slit A and close Figure 3-5: Snap jess snaps (Fig. 3-6).

Figure 3-6: A snap jess attached to a raptor’s leg Aylmeri bracelets - Aylmeri bracelets were designed to take the place of traditional jesses (Glasier 1978). They consist of two leather anklets, one on each leg, which are secured by a metal grommet (Fig. 3-7). A leather “mews jess” with a button or knurl knot (Fig. 3-8) at one end or a jess made from nylon parachute cord is threaded through the grommet (Glasier 1978, Parry-Jones 1994, Arent and Martell 1996). A swivel slit is cut or tied at the other end. Originally, Aylmeri were intended only for small falcons, but are now rapidly coming into general use for all

Figure 3-7: Aylmeri bracelets. Note: always place smooth side of leather against the bird’s leg. 31

FALSE AYLMERI BRACELETS False Aylmeri bracelets (Fig. 3-9) are another option for attaching a leash to the bird (Glasier 1978). The false Aylmeri is made the same way as the traditional or modified jess with a few modifications. Instead of the long tail that is on a traditional jess (Fig. 3-1), a shorter tail is used. A grommet then is inserted into the tail as is done with the Aylmeri bracelet (Fig. 3-7). The false Aylmeri then is put on the same way as the traditional jess. A mews jess is threaded through the grommet, as is done with the Aylmeri. Glasier (1978) states that it is possible for the bird to get its hallux caught in the grommet on a false Aylmeri.

Figure 3-8: An Aylmeri and mews jess attached to a raptor’s leg types of hawks and falcons. Some birds, particularly kestrels, frequently pull the buttons off the end of mews jesses (Glasier 1978). The size of the grommet is dependent upon the size of the bird and the jess. Smaller raptors, such as the American kestrel (Falco sparverius) or the eastern screech owl (Otus asio), generally require a smaller grommet (size 2: 8 mm hole). These can be put on with grommet pliers. Larger birds require larger grommets. A red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) may require a #3 (10 mm hole) grommet. Eagles may require a #4 (11 mm) grommet (Chiles and Crawford 1985). These usually are put on with a grommet tool (ParryTab 1 Jones 1994). A hammer and anvil is another method used for A attaching grommets; however, this should NEVER be used with raptors since an accident Body may result in breaking the raptor’s leg. When putting Aylmeri bracelets on a new bird B it will be necessary to hold the bird during the process. Glasier (1978) states that once birds Tail become accustomed to the process, Aylmeri can be attached with the bird sitting on the fist. Tab 2 To make a bracelet, cut a piece of leather about 15 cm Figure 3-9: False Aylmeri long and about 4 cm wide. Cut a hole for the grommet. Size the bracelet around the bird’s leg and mark the spot for the grommet hole on the other side. Cut pressure relief slits around the bracelet. Using a grommet tool, assemble the bracelet around the bird’s leg. The mews jess then is threaded through the grommet (Glasier 1978). 32

MAINTENANCE It is important to prevent jesses from hardening. Chiles and Crawford (1985) recommend soaking jesses in a leather preservative for at least 24 hours before attaching them to the bird. Jesses should be changed when they become hard and worn, or at least once per year (ParryJones 1994). Jess grease should be non-toxic because raptors sometimes pick and chew on the jess. Jess grease can be made by melting ~30 g beeswax and 70 g paraffin wax together (Glasier 1978). Add 280-340 ml of medicinal paraffin. Mix well and pour into a wide-mouth, shallow jar with a lid. In cold weather, additional liquid paraffin will be required. If the mixture is too stiff, melt it down and add more liquid paraffin. Use the jess grease frequently. If the leather is allowed to become too hard it will be difficult to get it supple again. Commercially available non-toxic leather conditioning products from a shoe or saddle store can also be used. Parry-Jones (1994) recommended checking and greasing jesses on a daily basis. This is also a good time to check the bird’s feet for hot, pink, or red spots. If the jesses harden it can cause sores to develop on the bird’s leg. LEASHES AND SWIVELS Leashes and swivels must be provided for the raptors. Leashes are tied to both the perch or instructor and jesses (via a swivel). They are used to prevent raptors from escaping when they are being used in programs (Arent and Martell 1996). Leashes should be made from quality nylon cord. Traditionally, leashes were made from leather cord. Parry-Jones (1994) stated that anyone still using leather leashes must be “mentally deficient” because leather leashes can break without warning. Leashes are

Figure 3-10 Snap swivel

used to prevent the raptor from flying off should their jesses be released during a presentation, while being weighed, or while some other activity is performed outside of their enclosure. Swivels are used when a bird is tethered to a perch or being used in a demonstration. If swivels are not used, jesses can twist, entangle the bird, or break. Either ball-bearing or snap swivels (Fig. 3-10) can be used. Snap swivels are often used in educational programming because of the ease and speed they can be attached or removed. However, only ball-bearing swivels should be used for tethering a bird to a perch and they should not be used on unattended birds. Raptors may Figure 3-11: Swivel open snap swivels and escape. attached Figure 3-11 shows the proper to jesses way of attaching the jesses to a ball-bearing swivel. Parry-Jones (1994) and Heidenreich (1997) recommended purchasing top quality swivels to lessen the chance they will break.

Step 1

Step 4

FALCONER’S KNOT The falconer’s knot is the proper knot to use when tying a bird to a perch, or to yourself, when the bird is outside the cage (Glasier 1978, Parry-Jones 1994). The knot must be learned using only one hand since the bird will be resting on the other hand. Learn to tie the knot with both your left and right hand. Figure 2-12 shows in detail how the knot should be tied. Imagine that a bird is on your gauntlet with the leash clipped into the jesses. Pull the free end of the leash through the ring on the perch or whatever you are tying to. Pull about 2/3 of the leash through and away to your left. Lie the working part (the part of the leash that has passed through the ring) between the end of the index and middle finger. The thumb will be over the standing part (the portion of the leash attached to the bird). Now move the gloved hand away from the perch until the leash is just taunt. Within ~3 cm of the ring pass your thumb under the portion of the leash between your forefinger and the ring. Curl up your fingers then straighten them out, but at the same time keep your thumb well up, so that the loop that is around it will not slip off. Turning your hand away from you, as if your thumb were the axis on which it rotates. Keep the loop on your thumb. The back of your hand should now be facing upward. Move your thumb and fingers towards each other. The part of the leash resting on the ball of your index finger is now pushed through the loop on your thumb, at the same time your thumb is pushed out of the way. The working part is now pulled a short distant through the thumb loop, so that it itself forms a loop. Pull the right-hand side tight and the second loop will tighten. Having tightened the knot, put the free end of the leash through the newly formed loop (Glasier 1978).

Step 3

Step 2

Step 5

Step 6

Figure 3-12: Tying a flaconer’s knot. Adapted from Arent and Martell (1996) and Glasier (1978).

Step 7 33

SCALES A scale must be available to weigh the raptor and food (Glasier 1978). It should be graduated to increments of at least 0.01 g and have a tare feature. Construct or purchase a perch that will attach onto the plate of the scale to facilitate weighing the bird. The tare feature compensates for your perch so it does not have to be subtracted from the weight each time. Be sure your scale has the capacity for any bird you need to weigh plus the weight of the perch. Scales dedicated to weighing birds can be purchased from falconry or veterinary suppliers. Perches with suction cups can also be purchased and attached to any scale to make it easier to weigh birds. GLOVES Leather driving gloves are adequate for small hawks or owls. For larger birds, such as a red-tailed hawk, thicker gloves are needed (Fig. 3-13). Glasier (1978) recommended gloves of pigskin or deerskin. Motorcycle gauntlets will serve, though many of these are made with the skin side out and will quickly get pricked by the bird’s talon. Chrome tanned industrial or gardening type gloves are usually hard and uncomfortable. Large raptors have a strong grip that can easily drive their talons through what appears to be thick leather. Good gloves are judged by density and not by thickness. There has to be a certain degree of flexibility in the glove. Properly tanned buckskin, while difficult to obtain, is a type of leather which combines strength, flexibility, long life, and comfort. Often, gloves advertised as “buckskin” are actually made of something else. The best way to acquire real buckskin gloves is to make them or have them made. Vet-Pro™ Leather / Kevlar Animal Handling Gloves are excellent gloves for working with raptors. They are made with cowhide leather to protect hands from blunt trauma and Ballistic Kevlar™ to prevent talons from penetrating the skin. The glove has an extra wide cuff that can be worn over clothing and is long enough to protect the forearms. However, they are available in only one size. MISCELLANEOUS SUPPLIES A rake, pitch fork, and wheel barrow are needed to clean the enclosures. The roof must be swept, raked, or blown with a power blower occasionally to remove leaf

34

litter. The facility also will need a water hose long enough to reach all enclosures. A dry, clean storage shed with electricity and water to keep equipment and for food storage is ideal. If such a building is not available, a small closet can be constructed in the raptor facility to keep carrying cages, equipment, cleaning supplies, and scales. HOODS Hoods are used in falconry to calm birds (Parry-Jones 1994, Fox 1995). They can be used in EE programs for transport, weighing, and examinations. Hoods are used with falcons and hawks. Hoods should not be used with owls (Parry-Jones 1994). However to calm an owl, a light cloth can be placed over their eyes temporarily. A hood should not be over-used. Hoods can be purchased from falconry suppliers or made from plans found in falconry manuals (Fox 1995, Glasier 1978). TRAVEL ENCLOSURES Appropriately-sized dog kennels work well for raptor travel cages (Fox 1995). Arent and Martell (1996) provided the following recommendations for kennel carrier sizes. Small raptors (<200 g) should have a kennel 51 cm x 28 cm x 32 cm (length x width x height). Medium sized raptors (200 g - 2000 g) should have a kennel 66 cm x 51 cm x 51 cm. Large raptors (>2000 g) should have a kennel 102 cm x 79 cm x 76 cm. Perches can be attached to the inside of the carrier by placing a perch that extends from one side of the enclosure to the other. Screws can then be driven through the enclosure side into the end of the perch. Proper substrate can then be attached to the wooden perch. The perch should not be so high as to cause improper posture of the bird. Another option is to build free-standing perches (a cadge) and place them in the enclosure (Arent and Martell 1996). The bottom of the cage should be lined with artificial turf or newspaper (Fox 1995). A separate travel enclosure should be provided for each bird possessed. They are relatively inexpensive and are invaluable in the event of an emergency that would require evacuation of your facilities. They can also be used to house birds inside in the event of an extreme temperature drop. Providing a separate travel enclosure also will help prevent the spread of disease.

CHAPTER 4: FEEDING Feeding captive raptors properly is an important aspect of management. Raptors fed insufficient diets can develop health problems. Calcium, for example, is used in bone formation, blood clotting, nerve impulse transmission, and muscular contraction (MacWhirter 1994). Phosphorus is important for many bodily functions including bone formation, maintenance of acid-base balance, and carbohydrate metabolism. Raptors must be provided with the proper quantity of food that contains appropriate amounts of nutrients in a digestible form. GENERAL FEEDING HABITS Raptors are carnivores. They should be fed wholeanimal diets which resemble their natural diets as closely as possible (Enderson 1986). Small mammals and birds are commonly used food items for most raptors. Birds such as bald eagles (Haliaetus leucocephalus) and osprey (Pandion haliaetus) eat mainly fish. The food should always be fresh and of good quality. Food caught in the wild can be used, but there is a risk that the bird may contract parasites or other diseases. John Karger (personal communication, Last Chance Forever) related instances of caretakers using meat substitute, such as soy products to maintain raptors. This is not an acceptable diet because raptors do not have the proper digestive enzymes for effective digestion of plant material. Raptors should be fed as close to their natural feeding times as possible. Owls usually eat once per day near dusk. Great-horned owls (Bubo virginianus) hunt both day and night, but are mostly nocturnal. Hawks and falcons are diurnal. It may not be possible to feed the raptor during the hours it would normally eat in the wild due to the operating hours of the facility. No literature is available regarding whether or not this is detrimental to the bird’s health. However, spoilage or re-freezing food is a concern. In the summer, food presented to owls in the morning may not be consumed until dark and could spoil or become infested with maggots by the time the bird is ready to eat. In the winter, food could re-freeze making it dangerous for the bird to consume. Typically, owls should be fed by staff at the end of the day. Whatever time of day raptors are fed, a routine should be established and maintained (Arent and Martell 1996). The correct quantity of food should be presented to the bird. Any remains will either freeze or become maggotridden. Most raptors (other than vultures and eagles) will not normally eat carrion. Great-horned owls tend to partially bury uneaten remains (McKeever 1979). During the warm months, a common practice among raptor caretakers is to provide a “fast” day (a day without feeding) for the birds. Do not put two fast days back to back. Fast days should not be observed during the winter

because the birds have a greater need for calories. Fast day should never be used as an excuse not to feed the birds on a weekend or a time that is inconvenient for the handler. Although fast days are an accepted practice in captive raptor management, there are no published papers documenting or researching the benefits. LABORATORY MICE Domestic mice (Mus musculus), ranging from 20 g to 50 g, are considered to be an appropriate food item for many captive birds of prey (McKeever 1979). Mice are similar to the natural food of many birds of prey (Johnsgard 1988, Johnsgard 1990, Kaufman 1996 ). “Wild” mice probably have different diets compared to captive mice. They eat a wide variety of vegetation, tubers, and other plant material. However, it is unknown whether the wild diet is more complete than captive diets. Nutritional content of mice will depend on their diet. Mouse food is available that is nutritionally complete or mice can be fed a wide range of food to improve their diet. Use mice that have just entered the adult phase. Older mice are more likely to have developed a high fat content. By raising the mice in-house, the caretaker is able to determine the quality by feeding the mice a complete diet. Excess mice can be frozen for future use before they begin to put on additional body fat. This also gives the caretaker control over preparation and initial freezing. LABORATORY RATS If mice are not readily available during the year, weanling domestic rats (Rattus norvegicus) can be temporarily substituted. McKeever (1979) suggested that weanling rats are a superior food source to day-old chicks, primarily because natal down is an intestinal irritant. Administer comprehensive vitamin-mineral supplements if weanling rats are used. Supplements are administered in liquid form by injecting the fluid into the base of the neck of the food item (McKeever 1979). Avoid injecting the lower portion of the abdomen and rump. These parts are often left uneaten. Whole adult rats, even though they are of excellent nutritional value, are often too large a meal except for large raptors. However, adult rats can be cut in half and presented to smaller raptors. Parts of the rat are often left uneaten and, if not removed, will decompose leaving an unhealthy environment in the enclosure. DAY-OLD CHICKS There are many questions and misunderstandings about feeding day-old chicks to raptors. Day-old poultry (domestic chickens and turkeys) are similar in size to natural prey. Forbes and Perry-Jones (1996) suggested that 35

chicks are inadequate as the sole source of nutrition. Bird and Ho (1976) showed that chicks have less calcium, phosphorus, and other minerals and vitamins than mice. However, it has not yet been determined what this means in nutrient availability to captive raptors. The use of chicks for raptor food is well-documented (Crawford 1983, Bird 1987, Wiemyer 1987, Forbes and Perry-Jones 1996). However, chicks do not consist of a major portion of the diets fed to captive raptors throughout the US (Chapter One). Bird (1987) cited an unpublished study by Andre Lavigne which showed that nestling kestrels raised on unsupplemented chicks showed growth patterns superior to nestling kestrels raised on laboratory mice. This line of research could be explored further to determine if there are differences in growth patterns and health based on different diets. Heidenreich (1997) stated that birds of prey fed solely on chicks can remain perfectly healthy. However, overgrown beaks may result from the soft consistency of the chicks. Heidenreich (1997) also stated that since the chicks are hatched from relatively sterile eggs and are killed soon after they are hatched, the chicks should be safe from a pathogen standpoint. However, this is not universally agreed upon (personal communication, Dr. Cheryl Greenacre, University of Georgia School of Veterinary Medicine). Another suggested reason to avoid feeding chicks to raptors is that the natal down of chicks is an intestinal irritant (McKeever 1979). Some of the finer natal down may pass through the sphincter of the muscular stomach and form a small clump in the upper intestine. This can cause inflammation of the mucous membrane. These problems can be solved by using poultry at least two weeks old. However, by the time the chicks are two weeks old they may be too large to be handled by raptors, except for larger species. It may be possible to increase the nutritional value of the chicks by taking possession of them alive and feeding them a nutritional diet for a few days. An inexpensive chicken coop can be constructed and a commercially available, nutritionally complete diet fed to the chicks until they are 1-2 weeks old. This would allow the bones to calcify and the chicks to become a healthy diet. The chicks can be euthanized by cervical luxation or carbon dioxide (CO2) and frozen for future use. If day-old chicks are fed to raptors, thiamine supplementation (30 mg/kg, as fed basis) on alternate days is recommended (Fraser 1991). Feeding the chicks wet will help prevent the irritant down problem and allow the nutrient supplement to adhere to the food. Until more research is done on the value of chicks in raptor diets, supplements of other food, vitamins, and minerals should be provided. COMMERCIAL BIRD-OF-PREY DIET Commercial bird-of-prey diet can be used successfully by many species and often provide a simple, economical 36

alternative to whole prey items. A commercial diet suitable for a variety of raptor species is 55-60% moisture and contains (dry-matter basis) 45-50% crude protein, 18-20% ether extract, 2.2-2.5% crude fiber, 1-1.5% calcium, and 0.7-1% phosphorus (Fraser 1991). Due to the soft consistency of these diets, it is desirable to provide wholeprey items at least twice per week to prevent beak overgrowth and to provide insurance of a complete diet (Fraser 1991). OTHER COMMONLY USED DIETS Road-killed prey items should not be used to feed raptors. It is difficult to determine how long the animal has been dead or the cause of death. The animal could have been weakened by disease, poisoned, or shot before it was killed on the road. Some may argue that in the wild, some birds, such as turkey vultures (Cathartes aura) or bald eagles, commonly eat road-killed prey. In enclosures the bird is in close contact with its feces and under stress. The immune system can be weakened and the constant exposure to pathogens may cause the raptor to be susceptible to a disease it is normally not susceptible to in the wild. Other animals or animal parts that are not recommended include wild caught or shot game birds, pigeons (Columba livia), pork, mutton, liver, lungs, heart and kidneys (Glasier 1978). Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) can carry Trichinella spp. (Fraser 1991). Pigeons can carry several diseases and parasites including trichomoniasis (Trichomonas spp.) and gapeworm (Syngamus spp.). Arent and Martell (1996) recommended against the use of pigeons as a food for raptors. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may be used in small amounts, but it is important to supplement the meat with other, more nutritionally complete foods. Venison is high in protein and can dehydrate a bird (personal communication, John Karger, Last Chance Forever). In the wild, bald eagles and osprey eat fish. Fish can be fed to raptors live, freshly killed, or frozen and thawed. However, freezing and thawing reduces the water soluble nutrients, especially thiamin. Thiamin supplements are recommended when frozen fish is used. Domestic rabbit meat is another alternative that can occasionally be used to feed raptors. Rabbits are relatively easy to raise and yield large quantities of meat. Whole rabbits are too big for most birds, but rabbits can be fed in pieces to the birds at intervals with mice. Fur and bones should be left attached because they are important for proper beak and talon development and for normal casting (pellet formation and expulsion). Rabbit carcasses must be thoroughly pounded to crush the bones prior to feeding them to raptors. The bones tend to splinter when broken by the raptor and, if swallowed in this condition, may injure the bird internally. Quail is another common food item. Crawford (1983) states that Accipiter spp. do well on a diet of quail. It also is a common food item for several other birds of prey (Caudell and Riddleberger in press, Chapter One).

QUANTITY A raptor’s weight can be used to determine how much they will eat initially. Table 4-1 shows the amount of food and approximate percentage of body weight that raptors will consume. The information presented in table 4-1 can be used as an initial guideline from which the actual consumption of food of individual raptors can be determined. It is important that the bird gets the proper caloric value and not just the proper weight of food. This can be determined by monitoring weight trends and the relationship of the keel to the breast muscles (Fig. 4-1). The condition of the bird can be checked by palpating the breast muscles (Ritchie and McConnell 1990). A firm, well developed muscle overlying the keel indicates that little weight loss has occurred. A loss of muscle mass, represented by an easily palpable keel (also known as hatchet-breast), indicates the animal has been unable or unwilling to eat for several days and is losing weight. Consult a veterinarian immediately if the bird is severely underweight. Rehydrate before any solid food is administered. If the keel cannot be palpated at all, the bird may be overweight. A chronically overweight bird can develop serious health problems. Reduce caloric intake and monitor the weight. Contact a veterinarian if there are trends in the feeding/weight data that cannot be explained. Small raptors can consume as much as 25% of their body weight per day, whereas a larger raptor may consume only 4% of its body weight. Raptors should be weighed regularly to monitor weight gain and loss. Adjust food intake accordingly (Fraser 1991). Each bird will eat different amounts according to activity level, temperature, mental condition, health, and season. Learn each bird’s eating habits. Keep weight and feed charts to spot trends that are detrimental to the bird’s health. Regular weighing is an important guide to the bird’s condition (Cooper 1978). Spikes (abrupt weight changes) in the chart are expected if the bird is weighed every day. Always weigh the bird at the same time of day, preferably before a meal. Weigh raptors a minimum of once per week. New birds should be weighed every day for a month until its optimum weight can be determined. Chart these

weights so trends in the bird’s weight can be monitored. For example, a bird eating well but gradually losing weight may indicate a need to increase the portion of food or the bird may have an underlying disease or intestinal problem. Feeding records must also be kept to show significance to the trends in weight. QUALITY Quantity is not as important as quality. Unfortunately, there are many unanswered questions about the quality of common food items. It is possible to provide sufficient or, even excess amounts, of food and not meet the daily nutrient requirements of the raptor. The important constituents of a diet are water, protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and roughage. Insufficient or excess quantities of these can result in disease (Cooper 1979). Bird (1976) showed the differences in some mineral levels of commonly used prey items but no one has researched the availability of those nutrients for absorption by the bird. The moisture/roughage ratio of the food item is important. A diet low in roughage and high in moisture for over 14-21 days can result in diarrhea (Cooper 1978). Roughage can be added by using feathers, hair, or other indigestible material from prey animals. Too little moisture content with low amounts of roughage can lead to an impaction of the crop. Moisture content is often deficient when prey items are slowly thawed after being frozen. Thawing the item in warm water can prevent dessication. Wallach and Flieg (1970) believed the optimum ratio of calcium/phosphorus (Ca/P) is 1.5 : 1. An all meat diet may have a Ca/P ratio as skewed as 1 : 40. The average Ca/ P ratio of mice and day-old chicks is 1.4 : 1 and 1.3 : 1 respectively (Bird and Ho 1976). Raptors with deficient levels of calcium in their diet will not show a dramatic decrease in calcium in the blood chemistry because calcium is reabsorbed from their own bones to maintain blood calcium levels. Clinical signs of calcium deficiency, such as brittle bones or fractures, may not show up for years in adult animals. The percentage of protein needed for raptors is unknown. Cooper (1978) estimated it to be 15% - 20% by weight based upon information for poultry diets. Because

Figure 4-1: Palpate the breast muscles to feel for the prominence of the keel (Ritchie and McConnell 1990, reprinted with permission of GADNR) A - severly underweight B - underweight C - proper weight D - overweight 37

Table 4-1:

Approximate amount of whole-prey items for feeding raptors. Data for owls are from McKeever (1979) and Johnsgard (1988). Data for other raptors adapted from Cooper (1978), Dunning (1984), Arent and Martell (1996), and Johnsgard (1990). Suggested feeding amounts from: 1 Weights based upon suggested weight for daily intake of captive raptors in Minnesota (Arent and Martell 1996). Food items include mice, rats, rabbits, poultry, quail (180g), and fish. 2 Weights based upon adult mid-winter (Jan-Feb) diets of owls maintained at a sustaining weight in Canada (McKeever 1979). Diet consisted of various sized mice. 3 Weights based upon food consumption of raptors (Brown and Amadon 1968). 4 Weights based upon winter food consumption of raptors at a facility in south Georgia.

Common name

Scientific name

American kestrel 1 - 3

(Falco sparverius)

25 -50

27

bald eagle 4 - 1

(Haliaeetus leucocephalus)

220-350

7

(Tyto alba)

50-150

24-27

barred owl 2 -1, 4

(Strix varia)

70-150

10-12

boreal owl 2

(Aegolius funereus)

25

16-21

broad-winged hawk 1

(Buteo platypterus)

50

18

burrowing owl 1

(Athene cunicularia)

50

32

eastern screech owl 1, 4

(Otis asio)

25-30

12-14

golden eagle 1, 3

(Aquila chrysaetos)

250-350

6

great grey owl 2

(Strix nebulosa)

120-90

8-9

great-horned owl 1 - 2, 4

(Bubo virginianus)

120-175

9

long-eared owl 2 - 1

(Asio otus)

35-50

13

northern goshawk 1

(Accipiter gentilis)

100-150, 180

12

osprey 1

(Pandion haliaetus)

250

16

peregrine falcon 1, 3

(Falco peregrinus)

75-100, 180

15

prairie falcon 1

(Falco mexicanus)

75-100, 180

12-15

northern hawk owl 1

(Surnia ulula)

50-60

14-16

northern pygmy owl 2

(Glaucidium brasilianum)

20

33

red-tailed hawk 1, 3, 4

(Buteo jamaicensis)

100-150

11

rough-legged hawk 1

(Buteo lagopus)

100

9

northern saw-whet owl 2 -1

(Aegolius acadicus)

20-25

17-21

sharp-shinned hawk

(Accipiter striatus)

short-eared owl 1

(Asio flammeus)

50-60

14-15

snowy owl 1

(Nyctea scandiaca)

200 - 240

11

Steller’s sea eagle 3

(Haliaeetus pelagicus)

251

3

turkey vulture 1

(Cathartes aura)

150-200

12

barn owl 1 - 2,

38

4

Weight of food (g)

Approximate % of body weight

25

raptors and chickens have different food habits, the needs of raptors can not be inferred from the needs of poultry. However, until research is done on the dietary requirements of raptors, estimating the needs of raptors based upon other birds may be the only option. Even less is known about the importance of dietary fat. Since much is still unknown about the dietary requirements of raptors, it not recommended for operators to formulate “homemade” artificial diets. VITAMIN AND MINERAL SUPPLEMENTS Vitamins can be added to ensure that raptors are receiving the highest quality diet (Arent and Martell 1996). Vitamin and mineral supplements must be in a form that can be absorbed. There are several vitamins specifically developed for birds. D. B. Scientific produces Vita-Hawk Vitamin Supplement® in a breeding and maintenance formula. It is a supplement used by falconers, zoos, and educational facilities. Another supplement developed for raptors is Nekton-S®. Other supplements used include Fort Dodge Clovite® and Purina 12/12®. Both of these are vitamin and mineral supplements designed for horses, but can be used in small amounts for raptors. No scientific information exists regarding the use and value of vitamins and minerals. A small amount (1/8 - 1/4 teaspoon) sprinkled on food is adequate. Over supplementation can be detrimental to the birds health. Birds housed indoors should be provided with Vitamin D3 supplements. Vitamin D3 is made when ultraviolet light from sunlight converts D2 into D3. Cod liver oil can be added to food items once per week by injection at 0.5 cc per kilogram of the raptor’s weight (Arent and Martell 1996). Additional cod liver oil can cause problems with calcium metabolism. Calcium supplements are important for bone development and other bodily functions. Boneall®, a calcium powder developed for horses, can be used for raptors by sprinkling a small pinch (1/8 - 1/4 teaspoon) on the food. CASTING Birds fed pure meat will not cast. Casting may be an important aspect of the bird’s physical, and possibly mental health (Glasier 1979). Whether or not it is of any value to the bird, it is a natural function and does them no harm. A common practice is to provide casting material two meals per week, but it can be given every day. Casting material can be made by putting feathers (larger feathers should be cut up first) and short animal hair in a bucket. Drop moist food in the bucket and roll it around until coated. FOOD PREPARATION AND STORAGE If possible, food items should be received alive. The caretaker can properly prepare the food and can determine if food items are healthy. Carbon dioxide is a humane method used to euthanize rodents and poultry (McKeever

1979, Burnham et al. 1991, Andrews et al. 1993, Arent and Martell 1996). Carbon dioxide can be purchased in compressed form in cylinders or in a solid state as “dry ice.” It is inexpensive, nonflammable, nonexplosive, and has minimal hazards. The carbon dioxide is pumped into a sealed container where it will kill the mice or chicks. Food items are commonly stored in a freezer. For sanitary reasons, prey items should not be stored with food used for human consumption or prepared in areas used for human food preparation. Large quantities of chicks and mice that will be frozen should be air cooled first (Heidenreich 1997). Burnham et al. (1991) suggested fasting prey items for 24 hours before euthanizing and freezing them. When the prey items are freshly killed their body temperature is high. If they are frozen in a mass, it takes a long time for the heat to dissipate, causing improper freezing. This is especially the case with chicks. Down is an excellent insulator and can retain a high internal body temperature for several hours. If prey items are purchased frozen, inquire as to the methods of euthanasia and freezing. Food items are harder to separate if frozen in a large mass. Raptor food should be wrapped throughly with freezer paper or other suitable wrap to prevent freezer burn. Separating the items with freezer paper, wax paper, or freezer bags will facilitate preparation of raptor meals. One center visited in Georgia used newspaper as an inexpensive method of individually wrapping prey items. Weights of food items were marked on the paper and the items were stored in weight classes to facilitate meal preparation. Arent and Martell (1996) stated that prey items can be frozen for six months with only a minor decrease in quality. No more than a six month supply of food should be kept on hand. Freezers can malfunction or power outages can occur ruining food supplies. If the items are not rotated (old items used first) they can spoil, even in a freezer. Freezing food can be beneficial by killing Trichinella spp. larvae that are encysted in the muscle tissue (Heidenreich 1997). WATER There should be a source of potable water near the facilities. Even though hawks do not drink often, water should be provided (Glasier 1979). Birds of prey get the majority of water they need from meat (Parry-Jones 1994). Additional moisture can be provided either on or in food items. One center in Georgia injects water into food items. Clean water also is important for birds housed outside in the summer. Raptors may require occasional spraying to cool them off. Before refilling the drinking container, allow water to run out of the hose or pipe for several minutes. Water that has been sitting in plastic or copper pipes can accumulate toxic levels of some chemicals (Perry 1994). By allowing the water to flow for a minute, the chemicals will be flushed out. 39

LABORATORY MICE HUSBANDRY Housing - Enclosures should provide adequate threedimensional space to allow for normal postural adjustment and species-specific behavior (Fraser 1991). Primary enclosures should be constructed of durable materials, be easily cleaned and sanitized, and designed for comfort and safety. Ten gallon aquaria can be used. Larger aquaria can also be used, especially when housing large numbers of mice that eventually will be frozen. Slightly damaged aquariums are often available from pet stores at a reduced price. Specially designed rodent cages that are easier to clean and maintain also are available. These can be found in biological supply catalogs and are worth the additional expense in saved time and food cost. Besides being easier to clean than aquariums, the specially designed top protects food from mice feces and urine and protects water bottles from damage. These speciality cages are lighter than aquariums and can be stacked on racks. Cage tops - Manufactured cage tops from pet stores can be expensive. Inexpensive tops can be constructed from hardware cloth or wire mesh. It can be formed around the top of the aquarium with a wooden frame to keep it in place. The holes should be small enough to prevent mice from escaping. Water bottles and holders - An inexpensive watering system is to use a 16 oz water bottle on the outside of the cage (on the cage top) with only the watering nipple on the inside. The mice will need a structure inside their cage to reach the water if this method is used. The alternative is to put the water bottle inside the cage enclosed by a metal guard. Feeding apparatus - Any small, easy to clean bowl, that the mice cannot destroy, is suitable to hold feed. Feeders that hold several days supply of food are also available. These devices prevent waste and contamination of the food. Food - Food should be palatable, free of contaminants, and nutritionally adequate (Fraser 1991). Food specifically manufactured for research animals are more likely to be uniformly constituted, nutritionally complete, free of contaminants, and mill dated. Use fruit to supple-

40

ment mouse diet. This will increase the nutritional value of the mice and make them more valuable as a food source. Bedding material - Bedding substrate should be non-irritating, absorbent, free of chemical contamination and pathogens, and in adequate quantities to keep animals dry and clean between changes of bedding (Fraser 1991). Cedar shavings absorb odor better than pine or aspen shavings and are relatively inexpensive. Some veterinarians do not recommend the use of cedar shavings, because mice may experience respiratory disease from the aromatic resin in cedar. It is recommended to use aspen shavings, towels, or paper as a bedding substrate (personal communication Dr. Cheryl Greenacre). Bedding material should be changed 1-3 times per week. Breeding stock - Inform your supplier that you are breeding mice for raptor food. Purchase adult mice if they are available because juvenile mice will not produce a litter immediately. A 1:3 male to female ratio is adequate for each cage (Fraser 1991). Problems with mice eating their young can be avoided by providing plenty of food, space, and water. Even then, the first litter is often cannibalized. Cannibalization can also occur if the mice are stressed. Breeding mice can save money in the long run. Once the initial investment has been made, it is inexpensive to raise mice. Excess mice can be frozen for future use when supplies are low due to seasonal availability. Look for strong healthy individuals that may be used for breeders and keep them instead of freezing them or using them for food. Rats can be bred the same way, but require a larger enclosure. In general, the cage temperature should be maintained at 66-79°F for most rodents. Relative humidity should be maintained at 40-70%. Ventilation rates should be 10-15 air changes per hour (Fraser 1991). Air should not be recirculated unless it has been treated to remove gaseous and particulate contaminants. Lighting intensity should be evenly distributed, and adequate to permit inspection of the animals and maintenance of sanitation and personal safety. Day/night cycles, as determined for a given species, should be controlled by automatic timers (Fraser 1991).

CHAPTER 5: RAPTOR HEALTH Captive animals require periodic health care. Nonreleasable raptors (NRR) may have problems that require constant attention. Programs for disease prevention, parasite control, euthanasia, and adequate veterinary care should be established and maintained. Animals should be observed every day by the primary caretaker or by someone working under their direct supervision. Georgia law requires that sick, diseased, stressed, injured, or lame animals be provided with veterinary care or humanely destroyed, unless such action is inconsistent with the purpose for which the animal was obtained and held (Appendix 1). The use of NRR for use as program birds by environmental education (EE) facilities is allowed under permits. This section addresses diseases or problems commonly associated with housing NNR. It is not intended as a treatment guide. Symptoms can be monitored and related to veterinary health care professionals. This section will also allow the caretaker to communicate more effectively with veterinarians. VETERINARIANS A good relationship with a qualified veterinarian is important to the health of your raptors. An ideal situation would be for a veterinarian to visit your facility monthly or bi-monthly to give the raptors a check-up in their enclosures. Veterinarians may be able to detect changes in behavior that may not be apparent in the exam room, such as sitting in an awkward position on a perch. They may also notice a problem with your facility that has gone unnoticed. Ask the veterinarian about their experience with raptors. They may be able to refer you to someone in the area with more experience with captive wildlife. Make every possible attempt to find a veterinarian experienced in treating captive raptors. It is important to include estimated veterinarian costs when developing a budget. Veterinary bills can be high, especially at the onset of a new program. Recently acquired birds may injure themselves before becoming adjusted to their new environment. To keep the cost of veterinary services low, at least one person on your staff should be comfortable continuing treatments prescribed by the veterinarian. This may include administering injections, flushing wounds, and giving oral medication to raptors. The easiest way to keep the bird in good health is by providing the necessary housing conditions and diet. Birds must be housed so that it can avoid unnecessary dampness or dryness and to choose conditions freely. Raptors must have ample sunlight and shade and be protected from drafty conditions or excess heat. The food provided to the raptor should conform as closely as possible to their natural diet.

MAINTENANCE EXAMS Arent and Martell (1996) suggested giving captive raptors perodic maintenance exams. This includes checking the feet, feathers, beak, talons, and “equipment” once per week for small raptors (<200 g), twice per month for medium-sized raptors (200 g-2000 g), and once per month for large raptors (>2000 g). Others feel it prudent to check all raptors once per week because problems such as bumble foot can become serious if left unattended for a month. A schedule should be established and followed closely. It is recommended to give a thorough external examination to locate evidence of recent injuries and to detect any external parasites. External parasites fall into three groups: mites, lice, and hippoboscids. Most birds have a small number of external parasites and without serious problems. Large numbers of parasites can cause diseases and weaken the bird’s resistance to secondary infection (Heidenreich 1997). HANDLING TECHNIQUES Raptors must be restrained periodically for examinations and maintenance. Untrained raptors can be restrained by cornering them in their enclosure, throwing a light blanket or towel over them, and grasping the upper part of their legs. Initially, grab one leg in each hand and then transfer both to one hand. Hold the raptor upright with its back against the handler’s chest. To minimize struggling, keep the head covered, but not so much as to interfere with breathing. The towel is useful for restraining the bird’s wings and for weighing (remember to subtract the weight of the towel later). A towel can be partially removed to view areas of the bird’s anatomy. Trained birds can be grabbed from the glove using either the body grab (for small birds <200 g) or the leg grab technique (for larger birds). The body grab consists of placing a towel around the bird, grabbing it around the body, and grasping their legs. Legs must always be grasped on the upper parts. The leg grab consists of grabbing the bird’s legs first. The bird can then be wrapped with a towel to minimize struggling. The raptor should be held upright with its back against the handler’s chest with the legs in one hand. Holding the bird on its back or upside down can cause the contents of the bird’s crop to be regurgitated and aspirated. Always hold the bird’s upper legs since the bird can break its legs from struggling if the feet are held. The bird can be recovered by placing the bird back on the trainer’s glove. It may “bate” (jump off the glove in an attempt to escape) at first but should quickly recover (Arent and Martell 1996). The bird can also simply be released back into its enclosure. 41

WEIGHING RAPTORS Trends in a raptor’s weight are an important tool for diagnosing health problems. Arent and Martell (1996) recommended weighing the bird on the same interval as the maintenance exam. However, weighing a raptor monthly may not show periodic trends in the bird’s weight. Initially, a new bird should be weighed daily for a month or two. Weights should be graphed at regular intervals with RAPTOR WEIGHT on the Y-axis and DATE on the X-axis. A graph allows quick visual inspection of weight trends. Weighing raptors can become a routine handling chore worked into training. The bird will have fluctuations in its weight until it becomes accustomed to the facility, food, and handler. Once a baseline for the bird’s weight has been established, weighing the bird one or two times per week is sufficient. Weigh the bird at the same time and with the same equipment (e.g., jesses, hoods, etc.) each time. Trained birds can be placed on a scale modified with a perch as described in the equipment section of this manual. Birds that have not been trained can be captured with a towel and placed on a scale. If the head is covered, the bird will struggle less. Lay the covered bird on the scale and slowly release your hold on the bird. Without touching the bird, quickly read the weight and remove the bird. Weighing should be done indoors to prevent escape. FECAL EXAMS Fecal samples should be periodically examined by a veterinarian to detect internal parasites such as intestinal worms, coccidia, and pathogenic bacteria (Heidenreich 1997). The dark central part of the feces is required for examinations. Collect a sample of fresh feces from the bird’s enclosure and place it in a Styrofoam® cup, plastic 35 mm film canister, or other suitable container. Feces are easily collected by spreading plastic around the bird’s perch (or on the wall behind it in the case of hawks) to catch them. This prevents contamination from the enclosure substrate. Take the sample to the veterinarian for a gram stain, fecal float, or other diagnostic test. With training, the proper reagents, and a good microscope, these tests can be run at your facility. However, no diagnosis should be made without consulting a veterinarian. Feces can also be rinsed with water and strained through a sieve to check for abnormal materials, such as sand, grass, or fibrinous pseudomembranes (Heidenreich 1997). Whenever abnormal feces are noticed, it is essential to get a laboratory examination as soon as possible. When pathogenic bacteria are present, antibiotic sensitivity tests also are required to administer the proper antibiotic. In the case of bacterial enteritis, coliforms are often responsible. In this case, ampicillin is a useful broad spectrum antibiotic with which to initiate treatment should laboratory results be delayed. Dehydration is often a complicating factor and considerably increases the severity of the condition, particularly with severe cases of enteritis. Treatment should be carried out using lactated ringers, 42

preferably by injection and where possible, by intravenous route (Williams 1978). ZOONOSIS There are over 200 diseases that can be transmitted directly from animals to humans. Birds transmit several of these diseases to humans (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b), but the chance of infection from the majority of zoonotic diseases can be reduced with proper management practices and personal hygiene. Rabies can be carried by any warm-blooded animal and is probably the most well known zoonotic disease. It is unlikely that birds carry rabies, other than in clinically induced cases (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b). However, handling carcasses of road-killed mammals used for raptor food may pose a risk to the caretaker. Salmonellosis is a common zoonotic disease that could be transmitted from both raptors and prey items (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). Tuberculosis, Newcastle disease, and other zoonotic diseases are discussed in detail later in this text. The risk of infection from zoonotic diseases may be minimized through personal hygiene and clean facilities. Minimizing the use of wild prey items also decreases the chance of disease. However, domestic food items can carry zoonotic diseases. VITAMIN AND MINERAL DEFICIENCIES Vitamin deficiencies from inadequate diet or improper management can cause problems in captive raptors. Vitamin deficiencies were infrequently reported in our survey but other reported illness may have been the result of undiagnosed deficiencies. Nevertheless, they appeared to be of minor importance (Chapter One). Vitamin A - Vitamin A deficiencies can cause low fertility in males and females, produce changes in the lining of the respiratory and alimentary tracts which makes infection easier, affect eyesight, result in poor skin quality, cause corns on the feet, and cause embryo death (Cooper 1978). Raptors fed solely on meat (muscle only) are often deficient in vitamin A. Add supplements such as cod-liver oil, animal liver, or manufactured vitamin supplements to the diet (Arent and Martell 1996). However, switching the animal to a whole-animal diet is probably the best course of action. Vitamin B group - Vitamin B (B1 in particular) deficiencies can cause nervous disorders, retardation in growth and development of feathers, poor fat metabolism, and poor chick development. Raptors fed a diet of fish, muscle, or poultry chicks should receive B1 (thiamin) supplements. Arent and Martell (1996) recommended 50 mg thiamin/250 g fish. Thiamine deficiency can cause a loss of coordination that may vary from slight loss of balance to an inability to stand. It can also cause wing fluttering and spasmodic convulsions (Williams 1978). Vitamin C - Vitamin C deficiencies can cause poor albumin quality of the egg. However, this is not a major problem in birds used only for educational purposes.

Vitamin D - Vitamin D is essential for normal mineral metabolism. Deficiencies can cause rickets and softshelled eggs. If natural sunlight is present, raptors can normally produce vitamin D. If raptors are kept inside without exposure to full sunlight (windows can block the wavelengths necessary to produce vitamin D), then supplements should be given. Calcium and phosphorus - Calcium and phosphorous are important in a bird’s diet and has been studied in some detail. Phosphorus is needed to stimulate the production of a hormone that draws calcium out of the bones of a digested prey item. Excess phosphorus can lead to bone disease because it also binds the calcium in the intestines and prevents it from being absorbed into the blood (Arent and Martell 1996). The optimum ratio of Ca:P intake is 1.5 : 1. This is needed to maintain good health and bodily functions in raptors (Wallach and Flieg 1970). Day-old chicks have a ratio of ~1.3 : 1 (Bird and Ho 1972). Mice have a Ca:P ratio of ~1.4 : 1. Beef liver and beef muscle can have a Ca:P ratio as skewed as 1:44. The Ca:P ratio found in chicks and mice is close enough to the required levels to avoid supplements. Trace elements - Trace elements are a group of chemicals required by the bird in small amounts. In the wild, these elements are consumed by eating a variety of foods. In captivity, trace elements can be obtained from most standard vitamin and mineral supplements (Williams 1978). PARASITES Both internal and external parasites are common in captive and wild raptors (Chapter One). However, Redig (1993) stated that parasites are seldom significant. They can become a problem if the bird is under stress from the environment, over-used in programs, continuously reinfected from a contaminated enclosure, or weakened from a disease or other illness. External parasites - Several species of mites can cause trouble by biting the bird and sucking its blood. They cause irritation and, in large numbers, can cause anemia (Redig 1993). Some mites cause internal irritation by burrowing into the tissue around the eyes and cere. Some species can cause feather damage. Lice are often present and pose no threat in small numbers but can cause similar problems in larger numbers. Hippoboscids are small, insect-like creatures that can infest the feathers of the bird. They are relatively harmless, but in some cases are suspected in transmitting certain types of blood parasites. If any of these parasites are suspected, veterinary advice should be sought for of identification and treatment. Internal parasites - Internal parasites are common in raptors. However they rarely cause problems to healthy raptors. Often another illness, such as bumblefoot, will weaken the birds and parasites can multiply to problem levels. Haemoproteus spp. are common blood parasites that can be transmitted by hippoboscids. Other internal parasites such as roundworms, Trichomonas spp., Capil-

laria spp., and Syngamus spp. are discussed in detail later in this chapter. Arent and Martell (1996) recommended feeding only food from a known source that has been properly stored to prevent infestation of internal parasites. CONDITIONS RELATED TO THE ENVIRONMENT Chemical Poisoning - can occur from several sources. In the wild, birds ingest prey that may have eaten insects that have been sprayed with insecticides. This is also possible in captivity if either contaminated wild prey is fed to raptors or it directly feeds upon insects that have been sprayed as part of the center’s pest control program. Organophosphates are a common type of insecticide that cause problems in raptors (personal communication, Dr. Cheryl Greenacre, University of Georgia School of Veterinary Medicine). No instance of chemical poisoning was reported in our survey (Chapter One), but undiagnosed instances may have been the cause of other problems. Symptoms include a rapid loss in condition, occasional convulsions, and death. Avoid using wild prey. Consult a veterinarian before beginning any pest management plan involving chemicals. Do not store chemicals near jess material, enclosures, or near other equipment with which the raptor may come into contact. Frostbite - Frostbite is most likely to occur on unfeathered area of the bird’s body during periods of excessive cold (Arent and Martell 1996). However, instances of frostbite in raptors in rare in the southeastern United States (personal communication, Dr. Cheryl Greenacre). No instance of frostbite was reported in our survey (Chapter One). Frostbite begins as a brownish-pink discoloration on the toes or as fluid-filled patches of skin on the wing tips (Arent and Martell 1996). A small shelter box will prevent ice build-up on perches and aid the bird in staying warm. Heat Stroke can be caused by excessive heat and humidity. A sick or distressed raptor may have trouble cooling itself properly. Symptoms of heat stroke include excessive panting, wing droop, weakness, and collapse. However, Arent and Martell (1996) stated that some species droop their wings to shade their legs. Provide the raptor adequate shade, and access to drinking and bathing water. Never leave the raptor in a hot car, and be aware of the raptor’s condition during programs on hot days. Northern species of raptors tend to be less tolerant of heat than species native to the south (Arent and Martell 1996). If the program uses northern species, limit their use to cooler days or indoor programs. During long, hot summer days, a sprinkler system on an automatic timer can help cool birds. Be sure to have areas where raptors can retreat from the sprinkers. PHYSICAL INJURY The most common injury or illness reported in our survey was physical injuries (Chapter One). Physical injury can result from a bird flying against the enclosure material, jumping from a high distance (especially if the 43

bird is flightless), during handling, contact with other animals, or improper perches. Improper perches can result in bumblefoot if not diagnosed early enough. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has restricted the use of amputated birds as program animals (Appendix 3) partly due to their inability to maintain their balance. Cage mates or wild animals can also injure or kill a program bird by reaching through or under an enclosure. Instances of physical injuries can be reduced with proper management techniques, but injuries cannot be completely eliminated. DISEASES AND OTHER ILLNESSES Aspergillosis - Aspergillosis is a fungal infection that has been identified in raptors for years (Cooper 1978). It may be the most common cause of death of raptors in both the United States and Britain. Though not reported as a cause of illness in our survey, this disease may be the cause of respiratory infections or other problems reported by caretakers (Chapter One). The spores often infect raptors, but usually only immunosuppressed individuals present clinical signs (Arent and Martell 1996). Symptoms include increased respiratory rate, difficulty in breathing, and appetite loss (usually in terminal stage). Arent and Martell (1996) also report a change in the raptor’s “voice.” Aspergillosis is almost always a secondary invader. Often, the bird’s resistance was initially reduced by some other disease, poor or insufficient food or bad housing (Williams 1978). Reducing stress to the bird can hlep prevent aspergillosis (Arent and Martell 1996). Stress can be caused from noise, abnormal or unaccustomed temperatures, contact with other raptors, and over-use in programs. Cleanliness is also important. A build-up of feces can infect other birds and the handler. The fungus that causes aspergillosis is found in wheat straw and corn. Neither of these materials should be stored near raptor enclosures. Humans can become infected from breathing fecal dust. Proper cleaning of facilities and use of a dust mask will help protect handlers. Avian Tuberculosis - Tuberculosis is caused by infections of Mycobacterium spp. Incubation can last weeks to months (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). Mycobacteria are found in many species of birds including raptors. Avian tuberculosis is mainly caused by M. avium, but birds are also susceptible to M. tuberculosis and M. bovis. Symptoms include a loss of coordination, though less violent than with a Thiamin deficiency. There is also a general loss of condition (Williams 1978). Tuberculosis is usually contracted by feeding infected food to captive birds. Pigeons are common carriers. Throughly examine the carcass, particularly the liver and other viscera, for yellowish-white foci of tuberculosis infection (Williams 1978). Tuberculosis bacilli are resistant to typical cleaning. The best preventative practice is to minimize contact with wildlife (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). Birds are rarely implicated in the transmission of tuberculosis to humans (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). However, due to the 44

length of incubation, it is often difficult to assess the source of infection. Bacterial Enteritis - Enteritis is common in raptors (Cooper 1978). Symptoms include diarrhea, loss of weight, loss of appetite, and watery, discolored mutes (Williams 1978). Cooper (1978) states there may also be regurgitation of food. Proper cleaning of facilities can lessen the chance of infection by bacterial enteritis. There is no zoonotic potential. Bumblefoot - Bumblefoot is a general term for inflammation of raptor “feet” from infection (Arent and Martell 1996). A healthy foot will be rough to the touch and not have any smooth spots. Bumblefoot is commonly caused from a blister that forms, breaks, and becomes infected or from a puncture wound. Bumblefoot was the second most frequently reported problem in our survey (Chapter One). Symptoms of bumblefoot include swollen, hot feet. The bird will rest on one foot and in severe cases will lie down. Depending upon how long the infection has been active, there may be a scab in the mid-underside of the foot (Williams 1978). This type of lesion occasionally is seen on the toes and upper parts of the foot. In generally, infections of the foot are difficult to treat. Veterinary advice should always be sought at the first signs of bumblefoot. Bumblefoot is a serious problem that can be avoided by checking the bird’s feet at regular intervals (at least twice per week). Bumblefoot is caused by the wrong type (size or material) of perch and can be corrected with the proper perches (Chapter Two). To check for the onset of bumblefoot, hold the bird and feel its feet for excess heat, pinkness, smoothing, and swelling. For any open wound, consult a veterinarian immediately. There is no zoonotic potential. Candidiasis - Candidiasis is a yeast infection of the gastrointestinal tract that is often a secondary complication from another illness (Arent and Martell 1996). Symptoms include small white plaque in the mouth, decrease or loss of appetite, problems with swallowing, and vomiting (Arent and Martell 1996). Monitor the bird during any illness for onset of this problem. There is no zoonotic potential associated with candida. Capillariasis - Capillaria sp. are threadlike worms that live in the raptor’s intestines, esophagus, or oropharynx (Heidenreich 1997). The eggs, usually in the soil, can be ingested by birds. Capillariasis symptoms are similar to roundworm infestation. The bird’s appetite is variable and its mutes watery. In severe infestations, a bird can have blood-stained mutes, regurgitation of crop contents, and frounce-like lesions in the mouth (Williams 1978). Soil ingestion must be controlled to reduce exposure to earthworms because they play a major role in transmission of the disease (Heidenreich 1997). Providing proper substrate and placing food on a tray should be sufficient to reduce soil contact. There is no zoonotic potential. Coccidiosis - Coccidia spp. are parasites that live in the raptor’s liver, digestive system, kidneys, and other tissue (Cooper 1978, Arent and Martell 1996). There is a

general loss of condition, variable appetite, and often blood-stained mutes in raptors infected with Coccidia spp. (Williams 1978). The feces may initially may be soft progressing to runny brown, and eventually turning bloody (Heidenreich 1997). Captive raptors are difficult to protect from exposure to coccidia. A substrate consisting of 2 to 3 cm of pea gravel underlain by a layer of lime will allow mutes to drop away from the bird and reduce exposure to earthworms (Heidenreich 1997). Also, always feed birds on a platform or use some other method to keep the food off of the ground. There is no zoonotic potential. Gapeworm - Gapeworm (Syngamus spp.) are nematodes found in a bird’s trachea. If nematodes are numerous, they can interfere with the bird’s respiration (Heidenreich 1997). Initially, the bird’s respiratory rate increases. Later, gasping, open-mouth respiration develops. In heavy infestations, the worm can be seen in the trachea (Williams 1978). Gapeworm may also cause a gurgling sound in the bird’s throat (Cooper 1978). Wild birds can be infested with gapeworm (Heidenreich 1997). Infestations in captive raptors can be reduced by limiting contact with wild birds, including not feeding wild birds to raptors. Converting an existing aviary for raptor use requires removal of all substrate and several inches of the underlying dirt and thorough disinfection There is no zoonotic potential from gapeworm. Hypoglycemia - Hypoglycemia is low blood sugar, usually caused by an inadequate diet (Cooper 1978). Symptoms of hypoglycemia include seizures and muscle weakness. Weight and feeding records are important in making a proper diagnosis. Report any significant changes in weight to a veterinarian. There is no zoonotic potential. Inflammation of the Crop - Cooper (1978) states that inflammation of the crop has been seen in falconery birds for years. Bacterial or parasitic infection of the crop is a likely cause. Clinical signs of inflammation of the crop include persistent regurgitation of crop contents and watery mutes (Williams 1978). Also immediate regurgitation or flicking food away may be observed (Cooper 1978). To prevent inflammation of the crop, feed raptors food from known sources. There is no zoonotic potential. Newcastle’s Disease - Newcastle’s disease is found worldwide. Development of clinical signs depends upon the health of the host, the strain of the virus, and degree of viral exposure (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b). Newcastle’s disease primarily affects gallinaceous species but also occurs in owls, quail, and pigeons. Clinical signs vary but generally include depression, diarrhea, anorexia, ruffled feathers, ocular and nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, dyspnea (difficulty breathing), ataxia, wing tremors, paralysis, muscle tremors, and sudden death (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b). Proper management techniques (disinfection, quarantine of new birds, minimize contact with wildlife) will lessen the chance of Newcastle’s disease. Feeding raptors food from known sources (no wild prey items) will also reduce the chance of infection. Newcastle’s disease can be transmitted to humans from

aerosolized respiratory exudates and contact with feces (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988b). In humans, clinical signs include mild acute granular conjunctivitis, general malaise, and sinusitis that is resolved in 7 to 20 days. However, Ritchie and Dreesen (1988b) could find no reports of transmission of Newcastle’s disease to humans. Pneumonia - Pneumonia results from damage to the lung that is caused by a foreign body, faulty administration of medicine, improper hand feeding, inhalation of fluids, bacterial or fungal infections, or direct trauma to the lungs (Fraser 1991). Symptoms include an increased respiratory rate, a distressed appearance, rapid reduction in appetite, dyspnea, and (occasionally) nasal discharge (Williams 1978). Most cases of pneumonia are probably bacterial in origin but chilling and exertion can contribute to it (Cooper 1978). Providing the bird a dry retreat in its enclosure will help. There is no zoonotic potential. Respiratory Infection - Respiratory infection is any general infection of the respiratory system. Clinical signs of respiratory infection include nasal discharge, swollen eyelids, increased respiratory rate, variable appetite that may be altogether lost in later stages, and regurgitation (Williams 1978). General cleanliness of enclosures and reduction of stress will minimize chances of respiratory infection. There no zoonotic potential. Roundworm and Tapeworm Infestation - Roundworms are long, smooth, unsegmented worms that are tapered at both ends. They live in the stomach and intestines of infected birds. Some species may live in the air-sacs of raptors. Tapeworms are long, segmented, worms with a head and a tapered end. They are found in the stomach and intestines of host species (Arent and Martell 1996). Symptoms include watery mutes, voracious appetite but with no increase or loss in weight, and diarrhea (rare) (Williams 1978, Heidenreich 1997). Roundworm and tapeworm eggs are resistant to most disinfectants. After de-worming birds, the enclosure substrate should be replaced. There is no zoonotic potential. Salmonellosis - Salmonella spp. infections are one of the most commonly reported zoonotic diseases infecting humans that can be traced back to an avian host (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). Salmonella spp. are found in many species of birds including raptors, but was infrequently reported in our survey (Chapter One). Salmonellosis may or may not present clinical signs. Clinical signs include depression, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, shivering, diarrhea, a pasty vent, lameness, abscess formation, convulsions, and sudden death (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a). Proper cleaning and disinfecting of enclosures is essential to prevent the spread of Salmonella. Care also must be take when preparing food items. Personal hygiene is essential to preventing salmonellosis (Arent and Martell 1996). Transmission occurs from aerosolized fecal material, direct contact with feces, or contact with contaminated food (Ritchie and Dreesen 1988a, Arent and Martell 1996). 45

Sour Crop - Sour crop is often caused from a yeast infection within a bird’s crop. This problem is easily detected by an odor (a sweet smell) coming from the mouth. A bird with undigested meat in its crop will have a rancid smell. Monitor the bird’s “breath” and crop each day to determine if the previous meal has been digested. If 24 hours has passed since the last feeding and the bird still has a full crop, consult a veterinarian immediately. Always feed fresh food and remove any leftover food from the enclosure. There is no zoonotic potential. Starvation - Starvation is the lack of proper nutrition. It should not occur in captive birds if the food intake and weight of the raptor is monitored. However, starvation can occur if the raptor is given enough food, but of low nutritional value. Raptors can appear dejected, experience weight loss, and generally be in poor condition. Some birds appear to want to eat, but having taken a mouthful, flick it away (Williams 1978). It is important to monitor the bird’s weight and food intake closely. Provide food of adequate quality and quantity. There is no zoonotic potential. Stomatitis - Stomatitis is an infection of the oral cavity. It has many causes including parasitic infection (trichomoniasis), bacterial infection, vitamin A deficiency, and cuts in the mouth. Stomatitis can cause a yellow caseous substance to exude from the mouth (as in frounce), but the bird usually remains quite active and attempts to eat food. Monitor the bird’s mouth for bleeding or soreness. Do not feed sharp objects to the bird, such as broken bones. Ingesting broken bones may cause cuts, though this is difficult to prevent. There is no zoonotic potential. Toxoplasmosis - Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Hosts for this parasite includes cats, rodents, and some wild birds (Heidenreich 1997). Sexual reproduction of T. gondii occurs mainly in a cat’s intestine and the oocysts are shed in cats’ feces. The oocysts may be ingested by small rodents which can be eaten by either a cat or a bird of prey. Toxoplasma spp. reproduce in the bird’s internal organs, muscles, and nervous system. No symptoms are directly associated with toxoplasmosis, but the bird often develops latent infections (Heidenreich 1997). Toxoplasmosis is transmitted by eating cat feces and by worms, flies, and roaches that come into contact with cat feces. Keep cats away from raptor enclosures. Avoid feeding wild prey to captive raptors. There is no zoonotic potential. Trichinosis - Trichinella spp. are parasitic nematodes found in the muscle tissue of pigs, carnivores, and rodents (Heidenreich 1997). Reduced muscular activity is associated with trichinosis due to infestation in the muscle tissue (Heidenreich 1997). Trichinosis is common in pigs and species of wildlife preyed on by raptors. Heidenreich (1997) suggested that freezing food may kill the larvae in the muscle tissue of prey items. Chances of exposure can be reduced by avoiding wild prey items or food items that are commonly infected, such as pigs, carnivores, and rodents. Trichinosis can be spread to humans by eating 46

undercooked or infected meat (Fraser 1991). However, humans are rarely infected through contact with an infected animal. Trichomoniasis (Frounce) - Frounce is frequently seen in captive raptors that have been allowed to feed on infected wild pigeons. Trichomoniasis is one of the most common internal parasites of clinical significance (Redig 1993). Symptoms of trichomoniasis include a yellow caseous debris that forms in the mouth (usually at the base of the tongue), loss of appetite and lethargy (Williams 1978). There is also a foul, necrotic odor associated with this disease (Heidenreich 1997). The bird’s appetite will often be unaffected in the early stages. An esophageal lesion could grow large enough to interfere with swallowing causing the bird to lose weight quickly. Trichomoniasis is caused by a protozoan parasite in the bird’s mouth obtained from eating contaminated food. Pigeons are a common source of infection (Williams 1978, Heidenreich 1997). Either freeze the food before feeding or do not use pigeons as a food item. Monitor the mouth with routine inspections. There is no zoonotic potential. STRESS Patton and Crawford (1985) defined stress as a raptor’s response to factors that threaten its homeostasis. Threats can be perceived or real. and includes the threat of bodily injury or death, change in internal temperature balance, a stimulus forcing changes in behavior, the danger of nutrient deficiency, or any other abnormal situation that the bird experiences. Examples of stress-causing situations include beak trimming, harassment by predators, improper diet, and loud noises. Responses to stress can be behavioral, psychological, biological, or a combination of these. Stress can cause raptors to have greater susceptibility to internal parasites, to pace, to have slow recovery from an illness, or to refuse to eat. GENERAL SIGNS OF DISTRESS A fluffed bird (Fig. 5-1) usually indicates an unhealthy bird. The normal posture for a bird is to sit upright with its feathers not fluffed. The muscles in the head are contracted to maintain this posture. When the bird is not well it does not contract these muscles and therefore appears fluffed. The bird may fluff feathers other than on the head when it is cold or hot. The eyes are another health indicator. If they are almond-shaped due to a slight closing of the lids, it may be an indication that something is wrong with the bird. The heart rate of raptors can increase as much as 450% with the approach of the handler (Busch et al. 1972, Patton et al. 1985), but heart rate increase also depended upon the level of contact (Patton et al. 1985). Heart rate is lowest with noise, increases with visual contact, and heart rate is highest with actual contact by the handler. Hoods reduce actual stress only slightly, but hoods can reduce physical response to a large degree. Stress is an important factor with program birds since they will be exposed to additional stress during educa-

tional programs. Proper training and a gradual introduction to an audience will allow the raptor to become tolerant to the stress of educational programs. However, some birds may never become accustomed to programming and continued use may be detrimental to their health. BEAK AND TALON TRIMMING Talons and beaks which are overgrown need to be trimmed. Overgrown talons can puncture the bottom of the bird’s foot and can cause bumblefoot. An overgrown beak can lead to difficulties in feeding. If the bird’s beak or talons need to be trimmed, consult a veterinarian or other experienced professional regarding the proper method. You will also need a helper to assist with this procedure. Talons can be trimmed with a rotary tool and coneshaped grinding stone. Trim only a small portion (~1/16") at a time. If bleeding occurs it can be stopped with a silver

nitrate stick (available from a local veterinarian). Another method is to use short-blade podiatric nail clippers or a cat-nail trimmer to trim the tip of the nail (Perry 1994, Arent and Martell 1996). Beaks also can be trimmed using the rotary tool and cone-shaped grinding stone. Again, trim only a small portion of the beak at a time. After the bird is restrained, prop open the bird’s mouth by placing a thumb in the soft portion of the bird’s mouth. Trim both the length and the sides of the beak. The upper and lower portion of the beak should close properly. Smooth over any cracks. If the beak starts to bleed, stop immediately. Arent and Martell (1996) recommended using gauze and pressure to stop the bleeding. If that doesn’t work, apply a silver nitrate stick. However, Perry (1994) cautioned that the silver nitrate deposited at the wound site can burn the tongue or oral mucosa.

Figure 5-1: A stressed, fluffed bird (left) vs. and unstressed bird (right)

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CHAPTER 6: EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS Non-releasable raptors (NRR) are commonly used for educational programs. One of the first steps in developing a raptor education program is selecting program birds. Not all birds can be used in educational programs. A bird must be trained so that is becomes accustom to large numbers of people. Although counter to the bird’s instincts, some can adapt to the presence of humans. Opinions on how to train raptors vary. This discussion is limited to training birds for educational programs where the bird is “fisted” (held on a glove for demonstrations) or placed on display. SELECTING A PROGRAM BIRD The type of bird desired for educational programs depends on the focus of the educational program. For instance, a program that focuses on endangered species may want to possess a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) or peregrine falcon (Falcon peregrinus). Other programs may wish to focus on common or native raptors. A common source of NRR are veterinarians or rehabilitators. Some programs focus on diurnal or nocturnal raptors. The number and type of birds housed at your facility should be predetermined. This allows the caretaker to inform contacts as to what type of bird is needed. Some birds are available seasonally depending on migration and breeding. Smaller birds, such as the eastern screech owl (Otis asio), can be difficult to locate for use as program birds (personal observation). Species choice is important. However, legal consideration should be discussed first. The type of raptors that can be possessed legally depends upon the type of permits held by the center’s personnel. Some educators feel that certain species are not suited for program use. Accipiter spp. usually are difficult birds to manage in captivity (Crawford 1983, Arent and Martell 1996) and are used infrequently at raptor centers throughout the nation (Table 6-1). Arent and Martell (1996) suggested that some owls are less amenable to handling or changes in their management and are not as useful for program birds as other species. However, no published research has determined which species are most appropriate for program use. Choices usually are based on the personal experience and preferences of the handler. Individual differences among birds of the same species disallow broad generalizations. Rapp and Crawford (1982) suggested that golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) and Buteo spp. adapt well to captivity. Buteo spp. were the most commonly used birds in education programs throughout the United States (Chapter One). Flightless birds are often chosen for display or program use (Arent and Martell 1996). Their space requirement is less than that of flighted birds. However, full wing amputees are more susceptible to injury than partial amputees. As a general rule, young animals adapt faster than older animals to new or strange situations. 48

RAPTOR BEHAVIOR A handler must be aware of a bird’s body language. A hawk will often raise the feathers on its head when agitated (Arent and Martell 1996). This may happen often when the bird is first being trained. An owl might raise its feathers to try to increase the appearance of its size. It may also click its beak, stomp its feet, and move its neck from side to side. Birds may become agitated in the presence of another bird, dog, person, and even certain colors. A bird may move its head around when it is trying to focus (sight or hearing) in on a distraction. When a bird becomes too stressed or hot, it may begin open-mouth breathing or wing drooping. In a cool room, such behavior may indicate stress and use of the bird should be temporarily discontinued. Preening or tucking up one foot indicates that the bird is at ease. HANDLING When handling a bird, move slowly, but confidently around the bird (Arent and Martell 1996). Quick, jerky movements might cause the bird to bate. Be consistent when handling birds, such as using the same glove on the same hand. Typically, the non-dominant hand is the gloved hand. Get the bird into a routine of fisting, weighing, walking, and returning to the enclosure (or some other regimen). Work with the bird until it gets accustom to your hands. Perform slow, fluid movements with your hands. At times it may be necessary to physically check the bird, put jesses on, or perform some other hand movement. Expose the bird to a variety of new situations. Always be patient and never rush training. Many short sessions per day are more effective than one or two long sessions. Provide rest periods at least as long as periods of handling. When teaching a class, it is important to maintain control of both the class and the raptor. Keep students quiet and have them refrain from moving around. If the children become unsettled, the bird may need to be put away until control of the class is regained. When the bird is put away, the class usually focuses their attention on the instructor, pleads to have the bird brought back, and promises to behave properly. When arranging the students, do not allow them to form a ring around the instructor and bird. This makes it hard to communicate with all the students and it makes the bird uncomfortable. If the bird sees people on all sides, it may become unsettled (Arent and Martell 1996). EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM TRAINING Training consists of repetition, time, and patience. A bird cannot be trained in a few days. Some birds never become good program birds. A raptor that has had previous training may not accept any other caretakers as its

Table 6-1:

Relative usage of raptor species (Chapter One) and recommendations for use in educational programs (Arent and Martell 1996). NL = not listed in Arent and Martell (1996).

Raptor

Relative frequency (%)

Recommended for display bird

Recommended for education programs

Buteo spp. Otus spp. Falco sparverius Bubo virginianus Falco spp. Strix spp. Haliaeetus leucocephalus Tyto alba Aquila chrysaetos Cathartes aura Asio spp. Accipiter spp. Parabuteo spp. Coragyps atratus Aegolius spp. Pandion haliaetus Circus spp. Caracara plancus Ictina mississipiensis Athene cunicularia Nyctea scandiaca

19.6 10.5 10.1 9.6 6.8 6.8 6.5 5.8 4.0 3.3 3.0 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.6 1.2 1.2 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.2

Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No NL Yes Yes No NL NL NL Yes NL

Yes Yes Yes Yes Varies Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No NL Yes Yes No NL NL NL Yes NL

Glaucidium spp.

0.2

NL

NL

handler. The best way to learn to train a bird is to contact several others who have had success in the past. Try different techniques until a sequence is found that works for the program and the raptor. When a new bird is received, initial weighing, application of jesses, and physical check-ups should be done in a quiet, dimly lighted room (Parry-Jones 1994). Birds should be allowed several days to acclimate to the new surroundings before any attempts at training are made. The bird may not eat for a few days until it becomes accustomed to its enclosure. Offer only small amounts of food. A new bird will require time to adjust to the handler(s). Initially this involves being in the enclosure with the bird. Gauntlets should be worn while the bird becomes accustomed to the handler. As the bird becomes accustomed to the handler, move closer, touch the bird’s jesses, or gently touch the bird. As training progresses,

attempt to get the bird to stand on the gloved hand. Leave transport carriers, gauntlets, and other teaching props in the bird’s enclosure to allow the raptors to become accustomed to their presence. To fist the bird, grasp the jesses in the un-gloved hand, bring the gloved hand behind the birds legs and gently bump them. The bird should step backwards onto the gloved hand. Once the bird has stepped onto the hand, thread the jesses through the handler’s fingers and attach the leash to the jesses (Parry-Jones 1994). In general, the bird is held on the fist with the arm bent out to the side. The jesses are threaded through the fingers in a comfortable fashion with the leash tied or clipped to a belt loop or other part of the clothing. Sufficient lead on the jesses will allow the bird to pick up its feet and get comfortable, but not so much as to encourage it to bate.

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When the bird bates, use your free hand to reach around the bird, support its back, and gently set the bird back up on your glove. Do not lower the hand when the bird bates. This can make the bird think that it is gaining ground and will continue to bate. Practice carrying the bird through doorways, putting them into carriers, and having the bird stand on scales. When moving through a doorway, either back the bird through the doorway or distract it with hand movements. The bird can also be backed into a carrier. Introducing the bird to the public is the last step in the initial training. Begin with short programs, preferably with small groups. Maintain awareness of the bird’s health during the presentation. If the bird begins to show signs of stress, put it away. The bird can be used for increasingly longer times as it becomes accustomed to the audience. Each bird can have different tolerances to people. Some will readily take to being trained. Some will never perform properly. If a bird does not perform, a tough decision must be made. If your facility has display birds, it can still be of some use. If not, try to place it with another facility. The bird may perform for a different trainer, may be used as a display bird, or may be used for breeding. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS The instructor’s actions and words will make a lasting impression on what the audience learns about raptors and wild animals in general. The instructor does not want to give the impression that the bird is a “pet.” The raptor is a wild animal, treat it like one. Anthropomorphism is the application of human form or behavior to animals. Handlers often anthropomorphize raptors by naming them. Some handlers feel this is acceptable but others do not. If you have a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) that you have renamed Bobbie, then every time a child sees a red-tailed hawk he will probably think it is a “Bobbie” bird. The name red-tailed hawk helps describe the bird and it gives people something to identify the bird. “Bobbie” does not. Some instructors believe that naming birds allows their younger audience to identify with the raptor. Some caretakers name birds for record keeping or convenience, but do not allow presenters to use the bird’s name in programs. This decision should be made by the facility managers, caretakers, and curriculum specialist. Somewhere in the program, the difficulty of maintaining raptors should be discussed. Tell the audience about the laws pertaining to raptors and the permits necessary to keep them. Explain a little about raptor rehabilitation and what they should do if they encounter an injured raptor. Stress that young birds will often have parents nearby and not to bother them. The parents may fly to a safe distance as a threat approaches or it may be off hunting for food. It is up to the educator to develop his/her own teaching style and the material used. Brush up on bird information in general. If you do not know the answer, tell them you do not know. Never give false information. 50

TEACHING STRATEGIES Knowing how an audience perceives wildlife is important to developing an effective program. Kellert and Westervelt (1983), Westervelt and Llewellyn (1985), and Westervelt (1988) examined the beliefs and behaviors of fifth and sixth grade students toward wildlife. Kellert and Berry (1980) examined the knowledge, affection, and basic attitudes towards animals in American society. These references are valuable sources of information for understanding how others perceive wildlife. Groups of different ages and backgrounds should be approached differently when presenting a program. Although it is possible to present the same program to all audiences, to maximize returns the attitudes of the audience should be considered. Westervelt (1988) stated that opportunities to instill appreciation of the natural environment in children are greatest at ages 10 to 12. However, children aged 15 through 17 years have the highest appreciation for ecological relationships. Based on these results, programs can be tailored to fit the audience’s level of understanding. A program for younger children may consist of showing birds and using activities on wildlife appreciation. Older children may understand relationships between raptors and other birds or their role as predators. Different attitudes toward wildlife are important concepts to understand. Emotional affection was the most common attitude expressed toward wildlife (Westervelt and Llewellyn 1985). Of the children surveyed, 43% felt that wild animals become lonely in the wilderness. Seventynine percent disapproved of sport hunting, especially among children from urban areas, female students, and children from the Pacific Coast states. Children showed only a modest interest in wildlife. Students from urban environments showed the least interest in wildlife. Also, children from urban environments showed the most fear of animals, especially younger children. According to the study, females and children from the South were the least knowledgeable about wildlife. Animal preference was also surveyed (Westervelt and Llewellyn 1985). Among children and adults, the eagle was ranked as the most preferred and the second most preferred species of wildlife, respectively. Owl were the 3rd most preferred animal among children. Birds were the top three preferred animals among children. Skunks and rats were the least preferred animal. Using raptors as program animals has the advantage of being an animal children “like.” With other wildlife programs, such as with snakes, a good portion of the program is spent instilling the importance of snakes and why we should appreciate them. Since children and adults prefer raptors, less time has to be spent with this part of the program. However, with farmers or children from rural areas who believe that raptors eat their livestock, poultry, and game species, more time may need to be spent convincing them that raptors are important.

SAMPLE RAPTOR CURRICULUM TITLE: Raptors/Birds of prey GROUP SIZE: 10 - 30 Students LENGTH: 45 minutes to 1 ½ hours AGE: 6 and up (depending upon desired objectives and included educational material and objectives) OBJECTIVES: The student will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Recognize birds of prey List and describe the characteristics of birds of prey Show greater knowledge of the role that raptors play in the environment Demonstrate an understanding of the problems that man has created for raptors and how they can contribute to solutions Understand management of wild populations

General Bird Information Introduction - Before the instructor begins talking about raptors, there is some general information about birds that will be useful for students to know. This information can be presented before the raptor portion or interspersed throughout the raptor program. If the general bird information is given initially, intersperse the bird activities throughout the general bird information. It is the instructor’s responsibility to pick out the information that is relevant to the age of the group. The level of information in this section ranges from 3rd grade to 12th grade. Birds are in the Class Aves. Ornithology is the study of birds. Birds can be distinguished from all other animals by 2 main distinguishing features: 1) all birds have feathers and 2) birds have a horny beak. Also, all birds lay eggs. Not all birds are capable of flight. Some people believe that reptiles are the closest relatives of birds (Pough et al. 1998). Flying Adaptations - There are about 9600 species of birds (9658) with 2050 recognized genera. All birds are built around a common plan. All have feathers and all have a horny beak. However, there are significant variations in how they are built, such as the difference between a hummingbird, a penguin, and a hawk. Size is the most obvious difference between these birds, but there are other differences in their feet, beaks, and feeding strategies. There are 7 extinct orders and 29 living orders. The largest living bird is the ostrich (Struthio camelus) (>8' tall, 317 lbs) (Harrison and Loxton 1993). The smallest living bird is the Scintillent hummingbird (Selasporus scintillus) (~1 inch tall, 0.08 oz). All birds are built as flying machines, even though some are unable to fly. They all have 3 basic characteristics: 1. Relatively low body weight 2. High power 3. Aerodynamic design Weight reducing adaptations - Birds are well-suited for flight through many special characteristics. They have fewer and lighter bones than most other animals. For

example, ~4.4% of the body weight of the pigeon (Columbia livia) is skeleton. In rats, ~5.6% of the body weight is skeleton. Even penguins are well-suited for “flight” underwater. The skeleton is composed of rather elastic bones. Most of the long bones are hollow and some are even fused together to form one unit. Reducing the number of bones helps make birds lighter. For example, the finger bones are reduced from more than a dozen to one. The hipbones (ilium, ischium, and pubis) are fused to form the synsacrum. To reduce weight even further, birds do not have teeth, the densest unit in the body. Another weight reducing adaptations are light feathers. For their weight, feathers are one of the strongest materials known to man. They are flexible and act like propellor blades. Feathers are also good insulators allowing birds to live in the coldest places in the world. The skin is extremely thin and lacks glands. However, some birds have one gland, the uropygial gland, located in the rump underneath the skin. It is also called the oil or preen gland. The uropygial gland is found most commonly in waterfowl. The secretions are used to oil the feathers during preening - adjusting and oiling the feathers. Birds spend some amount of time every day preening. Waterfowl reach back and put the bill to the uropygial gland then preen the feathers to help waterproof them. Additional Adaptations for Flying - A bird’s lungs have a series of air sacs attached to them that penetrate many parts of the body cavity and bones. These air sacs are used for storing air. They are also used for dissipating the large amounts of heat generated by birds by exhaling hot air. While we can only exchange about 32% of the air in our lungs, birds exchange almost 100% of the air with every inhalation and exhalation. Another adaptation for flying is the lack of an urinary bladder. Birds have kidneys that excrete nitrogenous waste as uric acid. Birds also typically void the contents of the cloaca before flying to make themselves even lighter. The reproductive system also has adaptations for flight. Female birds possess only one functional ovary and oviduct (the left one in most birds). The right one is present, but is vestigial. In raptors, the right ovary is functional and the left one is vestigial. During the spring, the functional ovary increases in size dramatically (recurdescense). For example, the ovary in a starling increases in size and weight by 1500 times in its non-breeding season. After the breeding season, it is reduced in size. To further lighten the load of birds, the digestive system is more efficient than that of other animals. Most birds eat a specific type of food and the stomach has only a few specific enzymes to digest that particular food. This allows the digestive system to be short, efficient, and light. In the grosbeak (Pheucticus spp.), for example, foods can pass through the digestive system in 8 minutes. Many birds have a crop that is used for food storage allowing a longer periods of foraging. The bird can then return to a safe perch and digest 51

its food. This saves energy and reduces the time that it is vulnerable to predators. Power Producing Adaptations - Only birds and mammals are endothermic (have the ability to maintain a relatively high body temperature) as opposed to reptiles, amphibians, and fish which are ectothermic (their body temperature is related to the environment). Birds maintain a higher temperature than mammals of the same size. This high temperature is essential for flight because it allows them to digest and assimilate food rapidly. Birds have extensively developed breast muscles, which are essential for flight. The breast muscles make up about ½ of the total body weight. To attach these oversized muscles to the body, the sternum has an adaptation called a keel (anchor point for the large breast muscles). All carinate birds (flying birds) have a keeled sternum, including penguins that “fly” under water using a flapping motion. Some birds cannot fly and therefore do not have a keel. These birds have a flat sternum and are called ratites. A bird can have a well developed breast muscle, but not have the capability of sustained flight. This is due to two types of muscles, white and dark muscle. In white muscle there are few blood vessels and low or no mitochondria. A domestic chicken or turkey breast is a good example. In dark muscle, there is a large blood supply, lots of mitochondria and lots of glycogen. In any flying machine, weight must be balanced so the bulk of the weight and the center of gravity is located between the wings. Birds are no exception. The gizzard, the heaviest portion of the digestive system, is located to the right of the center of the wings. The liver is down and to the right, which is counter balanced on the left by the reproductive tract. The tail is used to counter balance the head. Skillful flight requires excellent eyesight and muscle coordination; therefore, the eyes and brain are not reduced in size. To compensate for relatively large eyes, only a few muscles are present to move them. Birds look around by moving their head. Birds typically have a wide field of vision and most have stereoscopic vision. Birds have relatively large brains compared to other, similar sized animals to deal with increased vision (10x greater in some cases) and muscle coordination. The two areas of the brain that deal with vision (optic lobe) and muscle coordination (cerebellum) are enlarged. The area that deals with the sense of smell is reduced, so it is assumed that most birds do not have a keen sense of smell. Another adaptation for flight is a streamlined body. There are very few projections to hinder the movement of air over the bird’s body. The legs either pull up under the body or extend behind the bird. An example of the effectiveness of this plan is the American golden plover (Pluvialis dominicus). It breeds in the arctic circle, then in the fall it migrates to Labrador (northern Canada) and feeds on bay berry, which has a high fat content. When the 52

golden plovers are ready the birds migrate non-stop to Argentina, 2400 miles. When they arrive, they weigh only 2 oz less than their initial weight. The most efficient airplane would require 120 gallons of fuel. Feathers - Some scientist believe feathers evolved from reptilian scales. Several reptiles had scales with fringes. This has lead evolutionary biologist to theorize that scales that gave rise to feathers. The germ bud that gives rise to scales on the leg of an eagle is the same germ bud that gives rise to feathers on the legs of owls. The follicle is a depression in the skin. Papillae produce cells by cell division which push up and out of the follicle. As they push up, they die and are covered with keratin. There are several types of feathers, many of which can be found on the same bird, while others are specialized to the bird’s environment. Contour feathers form the major covering of the bird’s body. All birds have contour feathers. They are located all over the body. Some are specialized. Remiges are wing feathers that help with flight (wing feathers). Rectrices are specialized contour feathers on the tail (tail feathers). Semi-plume feathers have a rachis and barbs with barbules, but have no hooks. These feathers are light and fluffy. Many birds have these between the contour feathers. They keep the feathers from hitting each other and act as a lubricant. There are two types of filoplume feathers. One has a rachis with a small vane on the very end. These are sometimes found on tropical birds, mostly in males. They are probably used as an attractant. Another type of filoplume has a vane at the bottom with a long rachis that extends far past the end of the vane. These possibly have a sensing function, but no one is sure. They simply may be decorative. Bristle feathers have a rachis with no vanes or barbs. They are usually found on the head and look like stiff hairs. Some are found around the cere or around the mouth (rictal bristles) and are used to catch insects. Some birds have bristle feathers found around the eyes for protection. Down feathers have a short rachis and extremely long barbs. They are found on birds that nest in cold areas. They are also associated with aquatic birds. Down provides insulation for birds by trapping large amounts of air. The arrangement of other feathers and their waterproof nature keep the down dry. Powder down grows from a follicle, but immediately disintegrates and coats the contour feathers with a powdery-like substance. It is well developed in heron and egrets . In most birds, feather grows from a follicle with a smaller feather growing in the same follicle directly behind it called the afterfeather. The contour feather is normally much larger than the afterfeather. In some birds, the afterfeather is as large or larger, giving the appearance of 2 feathers growing together.

Raptors Introduction - What are “birds of prey”? Birds of prey, or raptors, are birds that catch and kill their prey with their feet which have claws (also called talons). Birds of prey have a wide range of sizes, shapes, and colors. There are about 292 species of diurnal birds of prey (Newton 1990) including falcons, eagles, hawks, and vultures. There are 162 species of nocturnal birds of prey (owls). The types of birds that are grouped together as birds of prey are sometimes very different from each other. Owls, for example, are built differently from hawks and eagles. They hunt at night (nocturnal), while hawks and eagles are daytime hunters (diurnal). However, the differences seem unimportant when compared to the one great skill all birds of prey have in common - their ability to take live prey with their talons. Other birds hunt, but lack the characteristics that make raptors a unique group of birds. What are some of the characteristics that make these birds such good hunters? (flight, eyesight, beaks, hearing and talons) Flight - Birds of prey are often spectacular fliers. Birds of prey have strong flight muscles to help them fly when carrying prey. All birds have hollow bones to help make their bodies lighter. As light as the skeleton is, it is strong. The shape of the wings of raptors affect how they catch their prey. The big broad wings of eagles, vultures, and buzzards provide maximum lift. This allows larger birds to fly for long periods without moving their wings. The short and stubby wings of many hawks and some owls provide a lot of lift with some speed. They are good for maneuvering among trees in the forest. The thin wings of falcons and other small birds of prey are built for speed. Feathers not only help in the actual flight of these birds, but also help many of the birds of prey (for example, owls) keep their flight very silent. Soft feathers with fringed edges contribute to the bird’s ability to fly silently. This keeps their prey from hearing their approach. Activities: • Poster of wings and study skins • Poster board and cut-outs of falcon, eagle, hawk and owl wings • Show the feathers and wing adaptations on a live bird Eyesight - To find their food, birds of prey must have sharp eyesight. Raptors can see objects at a distance at least 8 times better than a human (Johnsgard 1990). Birds of prey usually have large bright eyes. The retinal surface of raptor eyes is more tightly packed with sensory cells than any other vertebrate, especially with color sensitive cones in the 2 retinal fovea of diurnal raptors (Newton 1990). They have three eyelids to protect their eyes. Hawks close their eyes most of the time by moving their lower lids up. Owls move their upper eyelids down adding to the human appearance of their faces. The third eyelid, called the nictitating (NICK-tit-ate-ing) membrane, closes from side to side. It moistens and cleans the eye, as

well as serving a protective function. Owls have a tapetum lucidum which increases the light gathering capability of the eye (Johnsgard 1988). It serves as an image-amplifier under low light conditions. This is the reason that owl’s eyes shine whenever a light hits it at night, similar to a cat’s eye. Activities: • Point out adaptations of raptor eye on a live bird Beaks - All birds of prey have beaks for ripping and tearing flesh. The size and shape of the beak depends on the kind of prey it commonly eats. The most common form is the curved hook on the tip of the upper mandible, which drives into flesh like a knife (Newton 1990) Small birds, like the American kestrel (Falco sparverius) have short beaks for eating insects and other small animals. The snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis) has a long and curved beak for probing inside the shells of snails. The bald eagle has a heavy and powerful beak for ripping apart large pieces of meat. Owls tend to swallow their prey whole and cough up a pellet of indigestible parts. In raptors, the beak may also serve a secondary role in display and in flight by working together with the head as an anterior airfoil (Newton 1990). Activities: • Beak poster (poster of different beak types) • Viewing of a bird • Which Beak is Best (see Activities section below) Talons - The size of talons (or “claws”) of a bird of prey generally depend on the size of the prey that the raptor carries. Harpy eagles (Harpia harpyja) have large talons that are suited for killing monkeys and other large mammals seized in trees (Newton 1990). Their talons can be as large as the claws of a grizzly bear. Barn owls (Tyto alba) take rats, mice and other small animals. Their talons are smaller and more delicate. Falcons use their feet to strike their prey while flying at high speeds to stun or kill them. Activities: • Poster of different bird feet • Feet from different raptors (road-killed specimens; note - additional permits are required to keep raptor “parts”) Raptor Food - Birds of prey eat a wide variety of foods, but all are carnivores (meat eaters). Some birds are highly specialized, such as the snail kite of south central Florida which eats only apple snails. Some raptors, such as the red-tailed hawk will eat almost anything small enough to kill (Kaufman 1996). Food selections often leads to special adaptations in raptors. Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), which mainly eat fish, have the soles of their toes covered with tiny spicules which help grasp slippery prey (Newton 1990). The snail kite has a long curve in the upper mandible to help extract snails from their shells (Kaufman 1996). 53

In many raptors, the crop (where freshly eaten food is stored) is well developed (Newton 1990). However, owls lack a crop. Raptors will regurgitate food that is not digested, usually bones, feather, and hair. Since owls lack a crop, their regurgitated pellets contain a higher proportion of bones than those of hawks (Johnsgard 1988). Pellets can be used to identify the type of prey eaten and help determine the type of raptor that is in an area. Activities: • Owl Pellets (Project WILD 1994) • Quick Frozen Critters (Project WILD 1994) Hearing - All species of raptors are sensitive to sound and are able to detect its direction, both by angle and elevation (Newton 1990). This is especially well developed in owls. Owls may have moveable ear flaps that are present in front of and behind the opening of the external ear (Johnsgard 1998). The ears are asymmetrical in either size or position. This assists the owl in determining the direction of sound. The facial disk of the barn owl probably serves as an amplifier, by focusing the sound on the opening of the external ear. Smell - All birds have a sense of smell. A few species have a dorsal chamber of the olfactory bulb that has elaborate folds that increase the surface area for detecting chemicals in the air. The chamber is well developed in some vultures that locate food by smell. In most raptors, the sense of smell has not been studied. They are likely to rely more on sight and sound to locate prey (Newton 1990). Raptors and Humans - In most developed parts of the world, birds of prey numbers are now only a fraction of what they were 100-200 years ago. Three main factors have contributed to population declines: habitat destruction, deliberate persecution, and poisoning by agricultural pesticides (Newton 1990). Habitat destruction has been occurring ever since man began farming. It has been accelerated in recent times by urbanization, draining wetlands, plowing grasslands, and other forms of disturbance. Some raptors thrive in areas that have been disturbed by humans, but many species cannot and their numbers are generally reduced with human disturbances (Newton 1990). Birds of prey, and many other predators, have been persecuted deliberately to protect domestic animals and game. Most of the early reduction in birds of prey populations in Europe and North America is due to shooting or poisoning that occurred between 1850 and 1900, before legal protection was in place. Killing birds of prey is now illegal in many countries. For example, in Alaska from 1917-1952, rewards were paid for 128,273 bald eagles (Newton 1990). Some common raptors are still trapped and killed in North America, but this activity requires a depredation permit from the US Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, 54

Wildlife Services office and cooperation with local game and fish departments. Problems created by pesticides are relatively recent. The most notable is the development of DDT and other synthetic forms of crop protection from the 1940’s onward. The peregrine falcon was seriously endangered in the mid20th century due to DDT (Kaufman 1996). These synthetic pesticides work their way through the food chain and accumulate in large concentrations in the top predators. These concentrations caused widespread failure to reproduce during the 1940’s-1970’s, and the species disappeared from much of its former breeding range. The peregrine falcon was reintroduced successfully in many temperate areas in North America. Activities: • Deadly Links (Project WILD 1994) • Habitat Lap Sit (Project WILD 1994) • Birds of Prey (Project WILD 1994) Activities The sample activities listed below are used during the program to drive home points about raptors. It is important that the students understand the purpose behind each activity. Which Beak is Best is an activity from the Staff Curriculum Training Manual. The origins of the activity are unknown to the authors. The instructions here have been adapted from what was presented in the manual. Additional activities are listed below. Which Beak Is Best? - Supplies needed include paper plates, clothes pins, plastic spoons, cards, marbles, toothpicks, and macaroni. Divide the class into four teams. Each team represents one species of non-specialist feeders and each species has a different type of beak. Team one has all clothespins for bills. Team two has toothpick bills, Teams three and four have spoons for bills. All teams utilize the same habitat (or field) containing cards, macaroni, and marbles as representative food resources. The goal for each team is to try to collect as much food as possible OF ALL TYPES in a set time limit (~1 minute). (Put the food for each team in a paper plate a short distance away from the starting line). Children should not run to prevent injury. In order for the bird group or team to survive, a minimum amount of food is required. For a team of 4 children, they need a minimum of 10-15 items depending upon how far away the items are placed, how many total items there are, how hard they are to find, etc. You may need to experiment first to determine the optimum number. Once they are done, you can then discuss what has occurred and how it relates to the lesson. If all the teams get the proper amount of food in that round, in the next round increase the minimum amount of food necessary for survival or decrease the amount of time allowed to collect the food. Birds have many types of beaks. Some birds are generalists and can eat (pick up) many types of food.

Some birds are specialists and may be only able to eat one type of food. For instance, snail kites have hooked shaped bills that allow them to eat apple snails. A red-tailed hawk has a sharp beak that allows it to eat meat by tearing off bits from relatively large animals. A spoonbill has a beak that allows it to sift through the water to catch small invertebrates. A finch has a small, stout beak that allows it to eat seeds. This list can go on. In our activity, the birds with clothes pins for bills could pick up the cards, but would have a difficult time with the marbles. The birds with the spoons for bills would have had a tough time picking up the cards. Therefore, the two species would not compete for the same food resources. However, those of the same species (or teams) would be competing with each other. Also, the only thing the toothpick team could pick up easily is the macaroni (unless they stab the cards which you should not let them do). Other teams may be able to pick up the macaroni as well as other food. Therefore, the other teams compete with the toothpick team for food However, the toothpick team is unable to use other types of food. The spoon team would generally pick up the easier food, which was probably the macaroni. Lets try the activity again, but re-divide the children into five groups. The fifth group is allowed to pick any type of food with only their fingers. Before you begin remember to replace the food items in the field. The new team in an introduced species, like European starlings or rock doves (pigeons). These birds can eat any food in the habitat more effectively than any of the other species. If they choose to concentrate their efforts on the macaroni because of proximity for instance, then the toothpick team may not collect enough food. Let’s introduce another element into the mix. Choose 2-3 children to be raptors. Their job is to swoop in and capture children and take them back to their “nest”. Once a child is captured, they have to remain captured until the end of the game. Because the toothpick and the spoon teams have the most difficulty picking up and carrying their food, they tend to be the most vulnerable. Once the clothes pin team has acquired their food, they can move fairly fast. However, since the introduced team can pick up their food and run as fast as possible without fear of dropping their food, they potentially can run the fastest and are more likely to avoid the predator. Another option is to decrease the amount of time in the round and/or increase the amount of minimum food required for survival. This can be used to demonstrate additional stressors on the animals, such as nestlings. When you put the food out, you can put a limited amount of a particular food item to simulate a hard year for a particular crop. A third option is to increase the number of raptors to 1/4 - 1/3 of the population to demonstrate what happens when predators are overabundant. There is a myriad of different options that can be used to relate different concepts of raptor and avian ecology.

An advanced activity that could be done with children that have been learning these ecological principles is to have them hypothesize about the outcome with each change. After you make the changes to the activity, have the children form a hypothesis about what will happen. As the teacher, you are the data collector. After recording the outcome for a round, you can discuss whether or not it matched their hypothesis and why. You can either end it here or take it a step further by letting them trade places amongst the teams. Run the activity 2-5 more times letting them change teams each time. Now you can discuss the outcomes. Was the outcome the same each time? Discuss why or why not. Was anyone misbehaving or bored with the activity? If so, that round might be an outlier to be excluded from the data. If all the rounds had exactly the same or similar outcomes, what does that tell you about the hypothesis? Is it more or less likely to be accurate? If you kept on playing and getting similar results, what would that tell you about the hypothesis? If you kept playing and got a different result, could you determine why? Basically, what you are doing is introducing them to the scientific principle. This could then lead to a discussion on how researchers conduct wildlife research. Project WILD Activities - Project WILD is an interdisciplinary, supplementary conservation, and environmental education program emphasizing wildlife. The list below are a few suggested activities that work well with material that can be presented as part of a raptor education program. Deadly Links Habitat Lap Sit Birds of Prey Owl Pellets Quick Frozen Critters For more information regarding Project WILD, additional activities, or to take part in a Project WILD workshop, contact the wildlife agency in your state. Additional Resources for Activities - Project Learning Tree (PLT) is considered one of the premiere environmental education programs in the world. It contains activities useful for habitat related concepts that might be explored in a raptor education program. Information regarding PLT can be acquired through your state coordinator for PLT or by contacting the American Forest Foundation at 1111 19th Street, NW, Washington, D.C. 20036. Keepers of Life (Caduto and Bruchac 1994), Keepers of the Earth (Caduto and Bruchac 1989), and Keepers of the Animals (Caduto and Bruchac1991) are a collection of books that utilize Native American stories to express ecological principles. Activities accompany many of the stories to reinforce the principles illustrated by the stories. These can be ordered through most bookstores. 55

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Weaver, J.D. 1991. Facilities. Pages 3-10. in J.D. Weaver and T. J. Cade. Falcon propagation; a manual on captive breeding. The Peregrine Fund, Inc., Boise, Idaho, U.S.A. Weaver, J.D. and T.J. Cade. 1991. Falcon propagation; a manual on captive breeding. The Peregrine Fund, Inc., Boise, Idaho, U.S.A. Westervelt, M.O. and L.G. Llewellyn. 1985. Youth and wildlife: the beliefs and behaviors of fifth and sixth grade students regarding non-domestic animals. United States Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of Interior, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Westervelt, M.O. 1988. Children’s opinion about wildlife: teaching strategies for the wildlife rehabilitator. Wildlife Rehabilitation 2:187-194. Wiemeyer, S.N. 1987. Propagation of captive eastern screech owls. Journal of Raptor Research 21: 49-56. Williams, M. H. 1978. Health and diseases. in P. Glasier. Falconry and hawking. Charles T. Branford Co., Newton Centre, Massachuset, U.S.A.

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APPENDIX 1: SPECIFICATIONS FOR HUMANE HANDLING, CARE, CONFINEMENT, AND TRANSPORTATION OF WILD ANIMALS IN GEORGIA O.C.G.A.§ 27-5-6. Specifications for humane handling, care, confinement, and transportation of wild animals. (1) Facilities in general. (A) The facility must be constructed of such material and of such strength as appropriate for the animals involved. The housing facilities shall be structurally sound and shall be maintained in good repair to protect and contain the animals. The facilities shall be designed in such a manner, including the inclusion of barriers of sufficient dimensions and conformation to safeguard both the animals and the public against injury by direct contact. (B) Reliable and adequate power, if required to comply with other provisions of this Code section, and adequate potable water shall be available on the premises. (C) Supplies of food and bedding shall be stored in facilities which adequately protect the supplies against deterioration, molding, or contamination by vermin. Refrigeration shall be provided for supplies of perishable foods. (D) Provisions shall be made for the removal and disposal of animal and food waste, bedding, dead animals, trash, and debris. Disposal facilities shall be so provided and operated so as to minimize vermin infestation, odors, and disease hazards. The disposal facilities and any disposal of animals and food wastes, bedding, dead animals, trash, and debris shall comply with applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations relating to pollution control or the protection of the environment. (2) Indoor facilities (A) Temperature in outdoor housing facilities shall be sufficiently regulated by heating or cooling to protect the animals from the extremes of temperature, to provide for their health, and to prevent their discomfort. The ambient temperature shall not be allowed to fall below nor rise above temperatures compatible with the health and comfort of the animal. (B) Indoor housing facilities shall be adequately ventilated by natural or mechanical means to provide for the health and to prevent discomfort of the animal at all times. Such facilities shall be provided with fresh air either by means of windows, doors, vents, fans, or air conditioning and shall be ventilated so as to minimize drafts, odors, and moisture conditions. (C) Indoor housing facilities shall have ample lighting, by natural or artificial means, or both, of good quality, distribution, and duration as appropriate for the species involved. Such lighting shall be uniformly distributed and of sufficient intensity to permit routine inspection and cleaning. Lighting of primary enclosures shall be designed to protect the animals from excessive illumination. (D) A suitable sanitary method shall be provided for rapid elimination of excess water from indoor housing facilities. If drains are used, they shall be properly constructed and kept in good repair to avoid foul odors and installed so as to prevent any backup of sewage. The method of drainage shall comply with applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations relating to pollution control or the protection of the environment. (3) Outdoor facilities (A) When sunlight is likely to cause overheating or discomfort of the animals, sufficiently shade by natural or artificial means shall be provided to allow all the animals kept outdoors to protect themselves from direct sunlight. (B) Natural or artificial shelter appropriate to the local climatic conditions for the species concerned shall be provided for all the animals kept outdoors to afford them protection and to prevent discomfort to such animals. Individual animals shall be acclimated before they are exposed to the extremes of the local climate. 59

(C) A suitable method shall be provided for rapid elimination of excess water. The method of drainage shall comply with applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations relating to pollution control or the protection of the environment. (4) Space requirements Enclosures shall be constructed and maintained so as to provide sufficient space to allow each animal to make normal postural and social adjustments with adequate freedom of movement. Inadequate space may be indicated by malnutrition, poor condition, debility, stress, or abnormal behavioral patterns. (5) Feeding (A) The food shall be wholesome, palatable, and free from contamination and of sufficient quality and nutritive value to maintain all animals in good health. The diet shall be prepared with consideration for the age, species, condition, size, and type of animal. Animals shall be fed at least once a day except as dictated by hibernation, veterinary treatment, normal fasting, or other professionally accepted practices. (B) Food and food receptacles, if used, shall be in quantity and located so as to be accessible to all animals in the enclosure and shall be placed as to minimize contamination. Food receptacles shall be kept clean and sanitary at all times. If self-feeders are used, adequate measures shall be taken to prevent molding, contamination, and deterioration or caking of food. (6) Watering If potable water is not accessible to the animals, it must be provided as often as necessary for the health and comfort of the animal. Frequency of watering shall take into consideration the age, species, condition, size, and type of the animal. All water receptacles should be kept clean and sanitary. (7) Sanitation (A) Excreta shall be removed from primary enclosures as often as necessary to prevent contamination of the animals contained therein and to minimize disease hazards and to reduce odors. When enclosures are cleaned by hosing or flushing, adequate measures shall be taken to protect the animals confined in such enclosures from being directly sprayed with water or wetted involuntarily. (B) Subsequent to the presence of an animal with an infectious or transmittable disease, cages, rooms, and hard-surfaced pens or runs shall be sanitation either by washing them with hot water (180oF at source) and soap or detergent, as in a mechanical washer, or by washing all soiled surfaces with a detergent cleaning solution followed by a safe and effective disinfectant or by cleaning all soiled surfaces with saturated live steam under pressure. Pens or runs using gravel, sand, or dirt shall be sanitized when necessary. (C) Premises (buildings or grounds) shall be kept clean and in good repair in order to protect the animals from injury and to facilitate the prescribed husbandry practices set forth in this Code section. Accumulations of trash shall be placed in designated areas and cleared as necessary to protect the health of the animals. (D) A safe and effective program for the control of insects, ectoparasites, and avian and mammalian pest shall be established and maintained. (8) Employees A sufficient number of adequately trained employees shall be utilized to maintain the professionally acceptable level of husbandry practices set forth in this Code section. Such employees shall be under a supervisor who has a back ground in animal care. (9) Separation Animals housed in the same primary enclosure must be compatible. Animals shall not be housed near animals that will interfere with their health or cause them discomfort. 60

(10) Veterinary care (A) Programs of disease prevention, parasite control, euthanasia, and adequate veterinary care shall be established and maintained. The pest control program shall be reviewed for the safe use of materials and methods. (B) Animals shall be observed everyday by the person in charge of the care of the animals or by someone working under his direct supervision. Sick, diseased, stressed, injured, or lame animals shall be provided with veterinary care or humanely destroyed, unless such action is inconsistent with the research purpose for which the animal was obtained and being held. (C) (i) In the case of a research facility, the program of adequate veterinary care shall include the appropriate use of anesthetic, analgesic, or tranquilizing drugs, when such use would be proper in the opinion of the attending veterinarian at the research facility. Such drugs shall be used in accordance with the currently accepted veterinary medical practices as cited in appropriate professional journals or reference guides and shall produce in the individual subject animal a high level of tranquilization, anesthesia, or analgesia consistent with the protocol or design of the experiment. (ii) It shall be incumbent upon each research facility to provide guidelines and consultation to research personnel with respect to the type and amount of tranquilizers, anesthetics, or analgesics recommended as being appropriate for each species of animal used by that institution. (iii) The use of these three classes of drugs shall effectively minimize the pain and discomfort of the animals while under experimentation. (11) Handling (A) Handling of animals shall be done expeditiously and carefully so as not to cause unnecessary discomfort, behavioral stress, or physical harm to the animal. Care should be exercised also to avoid harm to the handler. (B) Animals to which the public is afforded direct contact shall only be displayed for periods of time and under consistent with the animals health and not leading to their discomfort. (C) During public display, the animals must be handled so there is minimal risk of harm to the public with sufficient distance allowed between the animals and the viewing public to assure safety to both the public and the animals. Performing animals shall be allowed a rest period between performance equal to the time for one performance. (12) Vehicles (A) Vehicles used in transporting animals shall be mechanically sound and equipped to provide the animals adequate fresh air, both when moving and stationary, without injurious drafts or discomforts. (B) The animal cargo space shall be so constructed and maintained so as to prevent the ingress of the vehicle’s exhaust gases. (C) The interior of the animal cargo space shall be kept physically clean. (D) The ambient temperature shall be sufficiently regulated by heating or cooling to protect animals from the extremes of temperature and to provide for their health and to prevent their discomfort. The ambient temperature shall not be allowed to fall below or rise above temperatures compatible with the health and comfort of the animals. (13) Primary enclosure to transport animals (A) Primary enclosures, such as compartment used to transport animals, shall be well constructed, well ventilated, and designed to protect and assure the safety of the animals. Such enclosures shall be constructed or positioned in the vehicle in such a manner that each animal in the vehicle has access to sufficient air for normal breathing, the openings of such enclosures are easily accessible at all times for emergency removal of the animals, and the animals are afforded adequate protection from the elements. 61

(B) Animals transported in the same primary enclosure shall be compatible. Socially dependent animals (e.g. siblings, dam, and young cage mates) must be allowed to have visual and olfactory contact. (C) Primary enclosures used to transport animals shall be large enough to insure that each animal contained therein has sufficient space to turn about freely and to make normal postural adjustments; provided, however, that certain species may be restricted in their movements according to professionally acceptable standards when such freedom of movement would constitute a danger to the animals or their handlers. (D) Animals shall not be placed in primary enclosures over other animals in transit unless each floor is fitted with a floor of a material which prevents animal excreta or other waste from entering lower enclosures. (E) Primary enclosures used to transport animals shall be cleaned and sanitized before and after each shipment. All bedding in the vehicle shall be cleaned at the beginning of each trip. (14) Food and water requirements (A) Potable water shall be provided to each animal at least once in each 12 hour period except as directed by hibernation, veterinary treatment, or other professionally accepted practices. Those animals which, by common accepted practice, require watering more frequently shall be so watered. (B) Each animal shall be fed at least once in each 24 hour period except as directed by hibernation, veterinary treatment, normal fast, or other professionally accepted practices. Those animals which, by common accepted practice, require feeding more frequently shall be fed. (C) A sufficient quantity of food and water shall accompany the animal to provide food and water for the animal for a period of at least 24 hours, except as directed by hibernation, veterinary treatment, normal fast, or other professionally accepted practices. (15) Care in transit (A) It shall be the responsibility of the attendant or driver to inspect the animals frequently enough to assure the health and comfort of the animals. (B) In the event of a breakdown or delay of the vehicle, it is the responsibility of the animal caretaker or vehicle operator to assure that animals get adequate ventilation and protection from fumes, vehicle exhaust, and extremes in temperature and to assure that the animals are not subjected to undue discomfort. (C) In an emergency concerning the health and welfare of the animals, adequate veterinary care shall be provided without delay. (Code 1933, 45-1103, enacted by Ga. L. 1977, p. 396 1.) (16) Nothing in this Code section shall prevent wild animal license or permit holders from processing meat or meat products animals that are surplus to the primary purpose of their wild animal business. Such processing must be done in compliance with the provisions of Article 3 of Chapter 2 of Title 26, the ‘Georgia Meat Inspection Act.’

62

APPENDIX 2: STATE OF GEORGIA REGULATIONS FOR WILDLIFE EXHIBITION

391-4-9-.04 Wildlife Exhibition Permits. (1) Purpose. The purpose of these regulations is to protect wildlife and the citizens of Georgia by establishing minimum requirements for obtaining a wildlife exhibition permit and establishing standards for holding and exhibiting wildlife. (2) General Regulations. A wildlife exhibition permit shall not be issued unless the following conditions are met: (a) The applicant must be at least eighteen (18) years of age; (b) Facilities for holding and exhibiting wildlife must comply with O.C.G.A. 27-5-6 and must meet minimum requirements as specified by the Department; (c) Applicants proposing to exhibit mammals must first obtain an exhibitor’s license from the United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Health Inspection Service (USDA/APHIS), or provide documentation that the applicant is exempt from USDA/APHIS requirements; and (d) Applicants proposing to exhibit migratory birds regulated by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) must obtain an appropriate permit from USFWS before obtaining or exhibiting migratory birds. A copy of USFWS permits shall be sent to the Department, Special Permit Unit. (3) Fixed facilities. Wildlife exhibition permits for fixed facilities shall not be issued unless the following criteria are met: (a) A fixed facility for exhibiting wildlife shall be open to the public for a time no less than 30 hours per week for at least six (6) months each year during reasonable hours of the day. A sign specifying the days and hours the facility is open to the public shall be placed in a prominent location visible to the public and in close proximity to the facility. (b) Each cage or pen shall be signed identifying the animal(s) by common and scientific name. Additional information about each species shall be provided through interpretative signs and/or audio-visual material. (4) Mobile Educational Programs. For the purpose of this rule, mobile educational program shall mean any educational program using live wildlife and which program is conducted outside of the enclosure where the wildlife is permanently housed. Conditions for conducting mobile educational programs are as follows: (a) Residents holding wildlife for use in educational programs shall conduct a minimum of twelve (12) program hours per year. Program hours must be documented and provided at the time of renewal; (b) Animals must be handled so there is minimal risk of harm to the public and animals with sufficient distance allowed between the animals and the viewing public to assure safety to both the public and the animals as determined by the Department. Animals shall not be handled by the public, except that nonvenomous reptiles and amphibians may be handled by members of the public under close supervision of the permittee. (5) Exhibition of rabies prone species. (a) Bats, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and skunks shall not be exhibited in mobile educational programs. (b) In fixed facilities, the exhibition of bats, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and skunks will be made in a facility constructed in a manner satisfactory to the Department to ensure that the public cannot gain access to animals which may have exposure to free-living rabies vector species. 63

(c) Bats, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and skunks shall be kept in isolation from contact with other exhibit animals and free-living wildlife for a minimum of 180 days before exhibition in fixed facilities. (d) Persons with specific responsibilities related to handling, feeding, or caring for animals at facilities which exhibit bats, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons, and skunks shall receive rabies pre-exposure vaccination and must demonstrate rabies antibody levels that are recommended for adequate protection before a permit is issued and at least every five years thereafter. (6) Exemptions. (a) Educational institutions; federal, state, city, county, or municipal governments or their agencies; or transient circuses, shall receive a wildlife exhibition permit at no cost, provided that such exhibition shall comply with all laws and regulations relating to handling, care, confinement, and transporting of wildlife and rules contained herein. (b) Falconers licensed in Georgia shall not be required to purchase a wildlife exhibition permit to conduct mobile educational programs with raptors held under their Georgia State/Federal falconry license. (c) Residents exhibiting wildlife at both a fixed facility and at mobile educational programs shall meet the requirements of 391-4-9-.04 (3)(a) or (4)(a), but shall not be required to comply with both paragraphs (3)(a) and (4)(a). (d) Persons issued wildlife exhibition permits or licenses prior to passage of this rule shall have until November 1, 1998 to comply with these regulations. (e) Nothing in this rule shall be construed to limit or prohibit a licensed veterinarian or licensed veterinary technician f rom providing emergency care, vaccination or other veterinary care that otherwise falls within the scope of professional and ethical judgement. (7) Penalties (a) Wildlife exhibitors in violation of this rule shall have their license or permit revoked or suspended by the Department for a period of not less than two (2) years. Authority O.C.G.A. Title 27; O.C.G.A. §27-1-4, §27-2-13

64

APPENDIX 3: USFWS STANDARD CONDITIONS

SPECIAL PURPOSE - POSSESSION / EDUCATION (LIVE SPECIMEN)

50 CFR 21.27 1.

Permittee, and subpermittees, shall carry and display, upon reques, a copy of this permit whenever exercising its authority.

2.

Failure to comply with ANY of these conditions listed may result in the immediate suspension of this permit.

3.

Authorization granted herin shall not be exercised contrary to laws of the appropriate State, County, Municipal, Tribal, or Foreign government or any other applicable laws.

4.

Permittee shall maintain records as required in 50 CFR 13.46 and 50 CFR 21.27.

5.

All required records relating to permitted activities shall be kept at the location as indicated in writing by permittee to the issuing office.

6.

The death or escape of any birds must be reported in writing within 48 hours to the issuing office. Birds possessed under this authority may not be used for breeding purpose.

This permit DOES NOT authorize the acquisition, transfer, trade, replacement, or removal of any bird without an amended permit from the issuing office. No permit will be amended without prior written request from the Permittee. Disposition of All Migratory Birds Shall Be Directed by the Issuing Office. If the permittee is requested to acquire a bird, the request must include the following: Identify the species that you are requesting; A veterinarians’s statement as to why the bird is nonreleaseable; A brief outline of the presentation involving each additional species; A description of permanent facilities where the species will be housed; A description of your experience handling the species being requested, if different from birds currently listed on your permit; A copy of any additional state authorization if applicable; Provide information regarding the person / institution who is transferring the bird to your facility including their name, address, and permit number. If the permittee is requesting to transfer a bird, the written request must include the following: Identify the species of the bird the permittee is proposing to transfer; Provide the name of the person / institution who is requesting the bird, their address, and federal permit number; Provide a veterinarian’s transfer statement as to why the bird is nonreleasable. 7.

Migratory birds possessed or transported under authority of this permit MAY NOT be displayed in any manner which may imply personal use by the permittee nor representation, promotion, or endoresement of any product, merchandise, goods, services, or any business, company, corporation, or other organization except the permittee’s educational activities or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services.

8.

The intent of this permit is wildlife conservation education. A minimum of 12 programs per bird should be presented each year. The authority to possess migratory birds will be subject to reevaluation if this condition is not met.

9.

The birds listed on this permit remain in the stewardship of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and may be recalled at any time.

65

10. Display of any migratory birds, nests, eggs, or any parts thereof under authority of this permit shall be accompanied by a sign indicating possession and exhibition by permission of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 11. All facilities and equipment must be adequate for each species the permittee plans to possess for educational programs. Criteria used for evaluating and inspecting permittee’s facilities for housing raptors will be based on the guidelines established by The Raptor Center, University of Minnesota publication “Care and Management of Captive Raptors”. All other live birds held under this permit must be maintained under humane and healthful conditions as required in 50 CFR 13. 12. These birds must be kept under control at all times and are not allowed to come into contact with memebers of the audience unless otherwise authorized. 13. Permittee assumes responsibility for damage or injury to any person or property occasioned through the possession or handling of migratory birds and the United States Government shall be indemnified and saved harmless against claims for damage or injury in such cases. 14. Acceptance of this permit authorizes inspection in accordance with 50 CFR 13.47.

66

APPENDIX 4: SURVEY INSTRUMENT SENT TO PERSONS POSSESSING A PERMIT FOR UTILIZING NON-RELEASABLE IN GEORGIA

RAPTORS FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS

Instructions Please have the primary caretaker complete all sections of the survey. To make analysis of the data provided possible, please answer the questions as close to the format provided as possible. If there is other information that you feel will be useful, please indicate so by writing in an additional comments section on the back of the page (indicate that there are “comments on the back” by the question the comments are for). Remember to number the comments with the same number as the question. It will take between 15 to 30 minutes to fill out the survey depending upon the number of birds housed at your facility. If medical and other records of the health of the birds are available, it is a good idea to have them on hand to fill out the survey. This is the first survey of this type to determine the quality of care in educational programs. There are many different methods for housing birds. In Georgia, there are no strict guidelines to follow when keeping raptors. This can be good and bad. It is good because caretakers made have unconventional methods of housing birds that work very well. Unfortunately, these unconventional methods may be hard to explain in the event of an inspection. The methods documented by the survey will be compiled in the management recommendations and made available for educational and other facilities. The data collected from this survey will be compiled and will be compared to other facilities that have strict guidelines, such as zoos, to compare the overall health of the birds kept in both facilities. Please limit responses to birds used in educational programs. If a raptor is kept for display purpose (ie., in a zoo) please do not include it in the survey. If, however, that bird is used in programs where the educator takes the class to see it and teaches about it, that bird should be included.

IF you did not have educational birds at you facility in the year 1-1-1996 through 12-31-96, please sign below and return the survey to us. Thank you. ________________________________________________

Date _________________

67

Center Name

__________________________________________________________

General Information 1.

List the species, number, and use of each raptor housed at your facility from Jan 1 1996 - Dec 31 1996.

Species

Total Number

Red-tailed Hawk Barred owl Great-horned owl Barn owl Screech owl Kestrel Bald Eagle Golden Eagle Turkey Vulture

_______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

Number and status of each bird releasable releasable releasable releasable releasable releasable releasable releasable releasable

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

non-releasable non-releasable non-releasable non-releasable non-releasable non-releasable non-releasable non-releasable non-releasable

_____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____

Other: ________________________________

_______

releasable ____

non-releasable _____

________________________________

_______

releasable ____

non-releasable _____

________________________________

_______

releasable ____

non-releasable _____

2.

How long have raptors been housed at your facility? ____________

Facilities and equipment (cage drawings or photos will be appreciated) 3.

Please list the approximate dimensions of each raptor cage by species (length x width x height): Hawks:_____________________________________________________________________ Large Owls:_________________________________________________________________ Small Owls:_________________________________________________________________ Falcons:____________________________________________________________________ Other (please specify):_________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

4.

What type of perches do you use? (Circle all that apply) astroturf cork bark stumps or logs

5.

shaped wood blocks

lrg. stones

other: __________________________________

What type of substrate are the cage floors covered with? (Circle all that apply) grass

pine needles

round-river-rock

68

natural branches

wood shavings newspaper

crushed gravel

dirt

concrete floor w/ drain

other:____________________________________

6.

Does each raptor have a water dish large enough to bathe in? Yes

7.

What type of wire, netting, or sides do the cages have? (Please circle appropriate answer(s))

Sides - chain link fence (non-coated) wooden slats Top -

8.

chain link fence (coated)

solid wood sides

chain link fence (non-coated)

plastic mesh

chicken wire

chain link fence (coated)

wooden slats

solid wood sides

plastic mesh

chicken wire

shingles

other: _______________________________

No

galvanized hardware cloth other: _______________________ galvanized hardware cloth netting

tin roof

What precautions are taken to prevent the birds from overheating in the summer or from becoming too cool in the winter? _____________________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________________________

Educational Programs 9.

What is the average duration that birds are used during a class?_____________

10.

How long of a break (if any) do birds have between “performances” to rest?____________

Raptor Transport 11. What is the total number of transport cages at your facility? ____________ Sanitation 12. Please describe the sanitation procedures:

13.

Item

Frequency

Cleaning solution

water dishes

_______________

_______________________________

food dish

_______________

_______________________________

cages

_______________

_______________________________

substrate

_______________

_______________________________

transport cages

_______________

_______________________________

Do you have any type of insect, ectoparasites, avian, or mammal pest control program?

Yes

No

If yes please describe (chemicals, frequency, etc.)_______________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________

69

Employees and Training 14. What is the average number of employees and volunteers that work with your raptors (teaching, cleaning, training, weekend care, etc.)?________________ 15.

What is the average amount of training that you provide to these assistants?_________________________

16.

Before starting this program, what type and how much training (formal or informal) did the primary caretaker have?_________________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________

17.

Total number of years of experience, working with wildlife, of the primary caretaker:____________

Medical History 18.

Do you have a regular veterinarian? Yes

No

19.

If yes, does your veterinarian have extensive experience with raptors? Yes No Unknown

20.

How often does a veterinarian visit your facility for routine check-ups?_________________

21.

How often do you take each bird to the veterinarian for a routine check-up?_________________

22.

What how many and what types of medical problems have your birds experienced in the last year? Please include all problems from 1-1-1996 through 12-31-1996.

Species

(Please indicate if starting date if other than 1-1-1996 starting date:________________) # of problems Type and number of individual injuries or problems

Hawks

________

__________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

Large Owls

________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

Small Owls

________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

Falcons

________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

Eagles

________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

Vultures

________

_________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________

23.

Number of birds housed at your facility in the last year? _________ Of those birds how many: died:______ escaped:______ no longer own:______ still own:______

24.

What % of the birds that have died at your facility received a professional necropsy? _______

Feeding Strategy 25. List the primary food source(s), by percent, of your raptors (eg. Chicks 70%, mice 30%).

% of diet by weight______________

Species

Mice

Rats

Day-old chicks Bird of Prey Diet

Quail

Fish

Road kill

Other

Red-tailed Hawk Barn Owl Great Horned Owl Barred Owl Screech Owl American Kestrel Bald Eagle Golden Eagle Vulture

26. Do you use food supplements? Yes

No

If yes, please indicate the species that receives it, type, frequency,

and on what type of food it is placed: Raptor

Type or name of supplement

Amount

Frequency

Type of Food

Hawks

_______________________________

___________

_________

______________

Large Owls

_______________________________

___________

_________

______________

___________

_________

______________

Small Owls

_______________________________

Falcons

_______________________________

___________

_________

______________

Eagles

_______________________________

___________

_________

______________

Vultures

_______________________________

___________

_________

______________

Other

_______________________________

___________

_________

______________

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APPENDIX 5: SURVEY INSTRUMENT SENT TO PERSONS POSSESSING A PERMIT FOR

UTILIZING NON-RELEASABLE RAPTORS FOR EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS THROUGHOUT THE UNITED STATES

Instructions Please have the primary caretaker complete all sections of the survey. To make analysis of the data possible, please answer the questions as close to the format provided as possible. If there is other information that you feel will be useful, please indicate so by writing in an additional comments on a separate page. Remember to number the comments with the same number as the question. It will take between 15 to 30 minutes to fill out the survey depending upon the number of birds housed at your facility. If medical and other records of the health of the birds are available, it is a good idea to have them on hand to fill out the survey. This is the first survey of this type to determine the quality of care in educational programs. There are many different methods for housing birds. In Georgia, there are no strict guidelines to follow when keeping raptors. This can be good and bad. It is good because caretakers made have unconventional methods of housing birds that work well. Unfortunately, these unconventional methods may be hard to explain in the event of an inspection. The methods documented by the survey will be compiled in the management recommendations and made available for educational and other facilities. The results will be either published in a scientific journal or provided to centers and individuals for their participation. Please limit responses to non-releasable raptors in educational programs. If a raptor is kept for display purpose only (ie., in a zoo) please do not include it in the survey. If, however, that bird is used in programs where the educator takes the class to see it and teaches about it, that bird should be included.

72

Center or Caretaker Name 1.

_______________________________________

State ______________

List the species, number, and use of each raptor housed at your facility from Jan 1 1996 - Dec 31 1996.

Species Red-tailed Hawk Barred owl Great-horned owl Osprey _________________________ _________________________

Number _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

Species Red-shouldered Hawk Screech owl Barn owl American kestrel _________________________ _________________________

Number _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

2.

How long have raptors been housed at your facility? ____________

3.

Please list the approximate dimensions of each raptor cage by species (length x width x height):

Species Golden Eagle Bald Eagle Black Vulture Turkey Vulture ______________________ ______________________

Number _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______

Species:

Length

Width

Height

Species:

Length

Width

Height

Hawks

__________

__________

__________

Falcons

__________

__________

__________

Hawks

__________

__________

__________

Small Owls

__________

__________

__________

___________ __________

__________

__________

__________ ___________

__________

__________

4.

What type of perches do you use? (Circle all that apply)

astroturf 5.

cork bark

natural branches

shaped wood blocks

lrg. stones

stumps or logs

other:

What type of substrate are the cage floors covered with? (Circle all that apply)

grass pine needles

wood shaving

crushed gravel

dirt

concrete floor w/ drain

round-river-rock

newspaper o ther:____________________

6.

Does each raptor have a water dish large enough to bathe in? Yes

7.

What type of wire, netting, or sides do the cages have? (Please circle appropriate answer(s))

Sides -

chain link fence (non-coated)

chain link fence (coated)

plastic mesh

other: _____________________________________________________________________________________

Top -

8.

chicken wire

chain link fence (non-coated)

chain link fence (coated)

plastic mesh

netting

chicken wire

tin roof

No

galvanized hardware cloth

galvanized hardware cloth

wooden slats

wooden slats

solid wood sides

solid wood sides

shingles other: _____________________________________________________

What precautions are taken to prevent the birds from overheating in the summer or from becoming too cool in the winter? __________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

9.

What is the average number of employees and volunteers that work with your raptors (teaching, cleaning, training, weekend care, etc.)?________________ Average amount of training?___________________

10. Before starting this program, what type and how much training (formal or informal) did the primary caretaker have?________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 11.

Total number of years of experience, working with wildlife, of the primary caretaker:____________

73

Medical History 12. Do you have a regular veterinarian?

Yes No

If yes, does your veterinarian have extensive experience with raptors? Yes No Unknown

13. How often does a veterinarian visit your facility for routine check-ups?_________________ 14. How often do you take each bird to the veterinarian for a routine check-up?_________________ 15. What how many and what types of medical problems have your birds experienced in the last year? Please include all problems from 1-1-1996 through 12-31-1996. (Please indicate if starting date if other than 1-1-1996 starting date:________) Species _______________

# of problems _______________

Type and number of individual injuries or problems ________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________

_______________

________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________

_______________

________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________

_______________

________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________

_______________

________________________________________________________________________________________

_______________

_______________

________________________________________________________________________________________

Feeding Strategy 16. List the primary food source(s), by percent, of your raptors (eg. Chicks 70%, mice 30%). % of diet by weight______________ Species

Mice

Rats

Yes

No

Day-old chicks

Bird of Prey Diet

Quail

Fish

Road kill

Other

Red-tailed Hawk Barn Owl Great Horned Owl Barred Owl Screech Owl American Kestrel Bald Eagle Golden Eagle Vulture

17. Do you use food supplements?

If yes, please indicate the species that receives it, type, frequency, and on what type of food it is placed:

Raptor

Type or name of supplement

Amount

Hawks

_______________________________

___________

____________________________________________

Large Owls

_______________________________

___________

____________________________________________

Small Owls

_______________________________

___________

____________________________________________

Falcons

_______________________________

___________

____________________________________________

Eagles

_______________________________

___________

____________________________________________

Vultures

_______________________________

___________

____________________________________________

________________

_______________________________

___________

____________________________________________

________________

_______________________________

___________

____________________________________________

74

Frequency

Type of Food

75