PHILOSOPHY REVIEWER Chapter I – Nature of Philosophy Lesson 1 – What Philosophy Means Some Common meanings of Philo: -Philosophy as a set of beliefs -Philosophy as an activity of reasoning -Philosophy as an academic subject/course
Philosophy as an ,ctivity is 1ynamic Critical Creative • • •
Lesson " – #in$s of Philosophy % &eneral 'ypes of Philosophy #hematic " topic of of the issues being addressed% Positional - Solution that is being proposed% 2ethodological " 2ethod use to resolve issues% (egional " according to geographical location% 3istorical " !hen or the 3istorical period%
Philosophy came from the Greek word: Philosophia, which means ove of !isdom Philo " ove and Sophia - !isdom #herefore$ Philosophers are lovers of wisdom% & key Philosophers to remember: Socrates$ Pythagoras$ and Plato% Philosopher$ 'rst used by Pythagoras% Pythagoras was popularly known for his mathematical formula$ Pythagorean #heorem%
4ranches of Philosophy under #hematic type:
Lo(i -
Sophists " were a group of intellectuals that taught oratory for a fee to indiv% #hat desired a good career in Politics% Sophists believe that all truths are (elative in that all truths are determined by or based on human interests% Philosophers oppose of the sophists) belief$ and stated that truth is *niversal and are objective%
-
Episte+olo(y -
+ #raits of a !ise Person: , wise person is aware of his own ignorance , wise person has justi'ed true beliefs , wise person knows what things are valuable in life% , wise person knows what to do and does it% , wiser person has the ability to put knowledge into practice% •
-
• •
-
-
•
Philosophy as an Ati!ity udwig !ittgenstein " Philosophy is not a body of doctrine but an activity0
Greek word episteme meaning knowledge% #he #he nat natur ure eo off Sco Scope pe and and 7no 7nowl wled edge ge 6s the the stu study dy of the the nat natur ure e and and scop scope e of of knowledge and justi'ed belief% ,nal ,naly8 y8es es natu naturre of of kno knowl wled edge ge
,etaphysis
•
(odolf Carnap " distinction between internal and eternal .uestions%
5rom the Greek )lo(os* which has a variety of meanings including word$ thought$ idea$ argument$ account$ reason or principle is the study of reasoning$ or the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration% (ight way of of th thinki nking 3as 3as 5or 5orma mal$ l$ 6nf 6nfor orma mal$ l$ Sym Symbo boli lic$ c$ and and 2athematical logic% ,ris ,risto totl tle e " is is new new and and nec neces essa sary ry0 0
-
#radi raditi tion onal al bra branc nch h of phi philo loso soph phy y concerned with eplaining the fundamental nature of being and the world that encompasses it. 1eri 1erive ved d fr from the the w wor ord d 2et 2eta0 a0 " beyond$ upon$ after 5irst irst use used d as titl title e in ,ris ,risto totl tle) e)s s work work Ultimately, what is there? And what is it like?
7eep in mind: - 2etaphysical Cosmology - 9ecessity and Probability - 1eterminism and 5ree will - 4eing and ntology - (eligion and Spirituality
Ethis -
5rom the word ethos” meaning custom or habit% 4ranch of study dealing with what is the proper course of action for man. 6t is also the study of right or wrong% Study of what is right and wrong What should you do? 2oral Principle " principles of right and wrong that are accepted by an individual or group% 2oral ;udgement " Comment that is based upon a set of morals or a value%
Philosophy of Reli(ion -
-
Philosophy of ,in$ -
5rom the word Aesthetikos$ derived from Aesthenomia which means 6 perceive feel$ sense< #heory of 4eauty 4eauty is bjective and *niversal " =mmanuel 7ant
-
Soial an$ Politial Philosophy
-
Studies: 9ature of the mind 2ental events 2ental functions 2ental properties Consciousness #heir relationship to the physical body$ particularly the brain% 3ow to eplain how a NON-,A'ERIAL ,IN. can in?uence a ,A'ERIAL /O.Y 2onism and 1ualism 2onism - Position that the mind and body are not ontologically distinct kinds of entities% #3(== 2,69 296S# SC3S 5 #3*G3#: @% Physicalism - 2ind is purely physically construct% A% 6dealism - 2ind is all that eists and that the eternal world is an illusion &% 9eutral 2onism - eistence consists of one of a kind primal sustance%
-
1ualism - Position that the mind and
Aesthetis -
-
-
Social Philosophy " study about the social behaviour and social institutions in terms of ethical values% Political Philosophy " Study of gov)t and its laws and its enforcements (elationship of government with the people Political economy$ demands of justice$ rules of truth and evidence%
Philosophy of Siene - Concerned with the foundations$ methods and implications%
- ,kiomatic assumptions - established$ -
#he philosophical eamination of the central themes and concepts involved in religious traditions & considerations #he eistence of God 9ature of God 7nowledge of God ogical Positivism " developed by the >ienna Circle (ealism and 9on-realism (eligious diversity: (eligious Pluralism " diversity of religious beliefs (eligious (elativism " belief that there is no absolute truth (eligious =clusivism " belief that there is one particular religion%
accepted and self-evidence truth% Coherentism " restricts true sentences to those that cohere with some speci'ed facts ,nything Goes " nly principle that does not inhibit progress%
body are in some categorical way separate from each other$ and that mental phenomena are non-physical in nature% #3(== 2,69 1*,6S# SC3S 5 #3*G3#: @% Substance 1ualism- mind is an independently eisting substance%
A% Property 1ualism- 2ind is a group of independent properties% &% Predicate 1ualism- Psychological eperiences we go through cannot be redescribed in terms of physical predicates of natural languages%
-
Philosophy of Lan(ua(e -
-
-
-
-
-
-
5ocuses with four central problems: #he 9ature of 2eaning anguage *se anguage Condition #he relationship between language and reality Came from 6ndia @+BB 4%C #wo types of linguistic meaning according to GeoDrey eech< @% Coneptual - 6t has something to do with the de'nition of the words% A% Assoiati!e- 6t has something to do with the individual mental understanding of the speaker% 61=, #3=(6=S 5 2=,969G Claim that meanings are purely mental contents provoked by signs% #(*#3-C916#69, #3=(6=S C,2= 5(2 5(=G=< 1e'ne meaning to be the conditions under which an epression may be true or false% (=5=(=9C= #3=(6=S 5 2=,969G ( S=2,9#6C =E#=(9,6S2 >iew meaning to be e.uivalent to those things in the world that are actually connected to signs% >=(656C,#696S# #3=(6=S 5 2=,969G #he meaning of a sentence is its method of veri'cation or falsi'cation% P(,G2,#6S# #3=(F 5 2=,969G 2eaning is determined by the conse.uences of its application%
Lesson 0 – I+portane of Philosophy A reasons - 4ertrand (ussel " Philosophy as a futile activity: @% 6nde'niteness of Philosophy Philosophy does not give 'nal answers to the .uestions it deals with% A% 6mpracticality of Philosophy
Lesson – Nature of 'ruth 4earers of truth " 4eliefs and 4eliefs E+pirial 'ruth " =stablished by means of sense eperience% Posteriori #ruth% Rational 'ruth " =stablished by reason% Priori truth% Syntheti 'ruth " =tends our knowledge% Analyti 'ruth " does not etend our knowledge% Contin(ent 'ruth " #rue only in some situations% Neessary 'ruth " #rue in all possible situations% Pri!ate 'ruth " #rue to the person who has the belief or makes the statement% Pu2li 'ruth " Can be known$ in principle$ by everyone O23eti!e 'ruth " 4ased on factual judgements% pposite of subjective% Su23eti!e " 1epends on attitudes$ preference$ or interests of a person or group% >alue% 4ni!ersal 'ruth " ,cknowledged to be true by everyone% Relati!e 'ruth " ,cknowledged to be true only by some people% Certain 'ruth " ,rrived through deductive reasoning% 6n science it is like the conclusion< Pro2a2le 'ruth " ,rrived through inductive reasoning% 6n science it is like the 3ypothesis<
1isciplinal 7inds of truth: - (eligious - Scienti'c
-
Psychological 4iological =conomic
5amiliarity of the place/person 7now by propositional knowledge< " 7nowledge of Skill
Lesson % – 'he 'ruth an$ #no5le$(e
#he General methods of truth @% Correspondence " Corresponds to facts% A% Coherence " Coheres to rules of a system% &% Pragmatism " (esult in bene'cial conse.uences% #he Particular methods of truth: @% O2ser!ation " perception< method to check empirical statements: statements about an observable fact in the world% - 6nternal observation " is observation of our own thoughts and feelings% Introspection - =ternal observation " observation of things outside our mind or consciousness0$ physical objects using our + organ senses% A% Reasonin( " Process of establishing truth by means of reason% Can be done by testing the coherence of A statements: whether the A statements are contradictory or cannot be held true at the same time% - 6ncludes 6nference that can be done deductively or inductively% &% Intuition " 6t is the way by which we directly grasp the truth of something: !e immediately know that something is true without going through the process of observation and reasoning% % ,ystial E6periene " *sually Spiritual0 and religious0 such as the eperience of our union with God% 4y way of religious truths are known% +% Appeal to Authority " takes form of a testimony of a reliable eyewitness$ or info from an appropriate epert% Con$itions of #no5le$(e
7now by ac.uaintance< "
7now by proposition< " knowledge of something that could be either true or false 7nowledge is justi'ed true belief% #hree @% A% &%
conditions for knowledge to occur !e believe HH to be true% 4elief< is indeed true% truth< !e are justi'ed in believing that to be true% justi'cation< #he condition of justi'cation is what distinguishes knowledge from opinion$ and also from a guess% 6n an opinion$ a person claims to know a certain event with little or insuIcient evidence% ,nd with a guess$ a person claims to know something with no evidence at all% General Classi'cations of 1isagreements: •
-
•
-
•
1isagreement in 4elief: are disagreements about facts% (esolved by verifying the facts at issue% >eri'cation can be done through: directly observing$ eamining relevant documents$ and/or appealing to appropriate authorities% 1isagreement in ,ttitude: are disagreements over preferences% ,re resolved by persuasion$ if not compromise% Persuasion can be done either logically or illogically informal fallacy!. >erbal 1isagreements: are disagreements that arise out of misunderstanding of the meanings of our linguistic epressions% #hese are resolvable by clari'cation of the real meanings of those misunderstood linguistic epressions%
