TOPICS • Introduction to Satellite Communications • Orbital Aspects of Earth Satellites • Types of Satellites • Satellites Communication Systems • Satellite Subsystems • Earth Stations • Satellite Routing • Satellite Handover • Applications of Satellites
Introduction to Satellite Communications
1. Definition:
Satellite is a physical object that orbits or revolves around some celestial body. In general Satellite is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purposes of telecommunications, military, surveillance, etc
2. History:
The first artificial satellite was the Soviet Sputnik-1, launched on October 4, 1957, and equipped with an on-board transmitter that worked on two frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz .
The first American satellite to relay communications was Project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape recorder to store and forward voice messages.
Telstar was the first active, direct communications satellite. Belonging to AT & T.
relay
Orbital Aspects of Earth Satellites
Here we deal with the following concepts:
1. Orbi Orbitt Fund Fundam amen enta tals ls 2. Geosy osync nch hro ron nou ous s Satellites 3. Station Ke Keeping 4. Att ttit itu ude Co Cont ntro roll 5. Sa Sattell llit ite e Posi Posittio ion n 6. Sa Sate tell llit ite e La Laun unch chin ing g
1. Orbit Fundamentals:
Satellite keeps moving around the Earth in some orbital pattern . Orbit Fundamentals is based on a. Orbit Shape b. Direction of satellite’s revolution c. Satellite Speed and Period d. Satellite Angles e. Satellite Repeaters
a. Orbit Shape
Satellite keeps moving around the Earth in some orbital pattern called “Orbit Shape”.
Orbit Shape can be either a. Circular Orbit Elliptical Orbit
b.
b. Direction of satellite’s revolution 1. Posigrade Orbit i.e. satellites revolution=direction of Earth’s rotation 2. Elliptical Orbit i.e. satellites revolution=against the direction of Earth’s rotation
c. Satellite Speed and Period
The speed of the satellite is measured in miles per hour, kilometer per hour , or knots. Speed varies depending upon the distance of the satellite from Earth. Two types of Periods ----- 1. Sideral Period 2. Synodic Period
d. Satellite Angles 1. Angle of Inclination Is the angle formed between the equatorial plane and the satellite’s orbital plane as the satellite enters the northern hemisphere.
2. Angle of Elevation Is the angle that appears between the line from the Earth station’s antenna to the satellite and the line between the Earth station’s antenna and the Earth’s horizon.
3. Polar Orbit 4. Equatorial Orbit
e. Satellite Repeaters To
use a satellite for communications relay or repeater purposes ground station antenna must track or follow the satellite as it passes overhead.
Height and speed only determines how long the satellite can stay connected with the ground station.
Some time the satellite may disappear around the other side of the Earth.
To
solve this its be launched in a very long elliptical orbit.
2. Geosynchronous Satellites:
A geostationary satellite revolves around the earth at a constant speed once per day over the equator. It appears to be in a fixed position to an earth-based observer. Usually geosynchronous satellites are placed at a distance of 22,300 miles or 35,860 km above the Equator. The satellite at that distance revolves around the Earth in exact 24 hours.
Speed of the satellite=7000 miles/hour
Advantages of Geosynchronous Satellites:
Since the satellite remains apparently fixed, no special earth station tracking antennas are needed The antenna can simply be pointed at the satellite and remain fixed. Continuous communications communications are possible. Most communication satellites used today are geosynchronous satellites.
Disadvantages of Geosynchronous Satellites:
During an eclipse the Earth or moon gets between the satellite and the Sun, is causes the sunlight to be blocked from the solar panel.
So an eclipse shuts off all power to the satellite.
To
avoid this backup batteries are used.
3. Station Keeping:
Even with a very good launch the satellite can drift some-what from its orbit. This is called “Orbital Drift”.
It is caused by a variety of forces like sun’s, moon’s gravitational pull, etc.
The
process of firing the rockets under ground control to maintain or adjust the orbit is referred to as “Station Keeping”
4. Altitude Control:
Satellites have to be placed in some altitude for optimal performances. This is called as Altitude Control.
Stabilizing the satellite is also called as Altitude Control.
Two
types stabilization are there:
Spin Stabilization Three axis Stabilization
Most common is the Spin Stabilization, where the satellite spins around using the thrusters attached to it on its primary pri mary axis.
5. Satellite Positioning:
In order to use a satellite, it has to be positioned in space properly, usually it a predetermined by design of the satellite and is achieved during launch.
Once the position is known, the earth station antennas have to pointed at the satellite for optimal transmission and reception.
The
location of a satellite is generally specified in terms of latitudes and longitudes.
6. Satellite Launching:
Satellites are placed into their orbits by mounting them on top of rockets which literally shoot them into space.
Occasionally, the rocket will contain more than one Occasionally, satellite. Here the main satellite is called as “Initial Payload” and others as “Secondary payload”.
The satellite is first put into what is called a “transfer orbit”, a highly elliptical orbit that permits adjustments to the satellite to be made prior to its being placed into final position.
Types of Satellites
Satellites
Natural Satellites
E.g.: Moon
Natural Satellites
Based on Orbiting the Earth
Geostationary Satellites Medium Earth Orbiting Satellites Low Earth Orbiting Satellites Highly Elliptical Orbiting Satellites Polar
Based on Application
Remote Sensing Satellites Meteorological Satellites Communication Satellites Navigation Satellites Scientific and Military Satellites
A. Natural Satellites:
A natural satellite or moon is a celestial body that orbits a planet or smaller body, which is called the primary the primary . Technically, the term natural satellite could refer to a planet orbiting a star, or a dwarf galaxy orbiting a major galaxy. E.g.: Moon
Fig : Jupiter's Moon
B. Based on Orbiting the Earth: There
are five types.
1. Geostationary Satellites Satellites are placed above the equator at a t a distance of about 36000 km. Almost today all satellite orbiting the Earth are of this type 2. Medium Earth Orbiting Satellites Operate at a distance of about 5,000-12,000 km. Up to now there has not been many satellites in this class. -
3. Low Earth Orbiting Satellites -
Are placed at an altitude of 5,00-1,500 km. Typical duration of them are 95-120 minutes. They try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on Earth to provide high quality communication link. Uses advanced compression schemes, transfer rate of 2,400 bits/sec can be enough for voice communication.
4. Highly Elliptical Orbiting Satellites -
Comprises of all satellites with a relatively low-altitude perigee and an extremely high-altitude apogee. It has the advantage of long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee. E.g.: US’s Sirius Satellite
5. Polar Satellites -
These satellites orbit from Northern Hemisphere to Southern hemisphere. E.g.: PSLV, Polar Wind(USA) They follow highly elliptical orbit, inclined about 86 o with an orbital period of 18 hours It gathers multi-wavelength imaging of the aurora, and measures the entry of plasma into the polar magnetosphere, etc..
C. Based on Applications : There are five types. 1. Remote Sensing Satellites Are a series of Earth Observation satellites, which observes weather, landscapes, atmosphere, oceanic surface, climate changes, urban planning, etc.. Two types of remote sensing --- 1. Active 2. Passive -
2. Meteorological Satellites a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth. Satellites can be either polar orbiting, or geostationary, etc.. It sees clouds and cloud systems, City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc., are other types of environmental information information collected using weather satellites.
3. Communication Communication Satellites They aid telecommunications, as by reflecting or relaying a radio. -
have been a significant part of domestic and global communications communicatio ns since the 1970s.
-
Uses --- Telephony, Satellite TVs, Satellite Satellite Radio, Aircraft communications, etc..
Internet,
4. Navigation Satellites -
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) is the standard generic term for satellite navigation systems that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage.
-
allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few meters using time signals transmitted along a line-ofsight by radio from satellites.
-
Receivers on the ground with a fixed position can also be used to calculate the precise time as a reference for scientific experiments.
-
As of 2009, the United States NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS).) (GPS).) is the only fully operational GNSS.
A handheld GPS Receiver
5. Military and Scientific Satellites -
A military satellite is an artificial satellite used for a military purpose, often for gathering intelligence, as a communications satellite used for military purposes, or as a military weapon.
-
Many cryptographic algorithms are used to encode the signals, use special frequency ranges, advanced transmitting and receiving equipments .
-
Scientific satellites gather data for scientific analysis. This includes observations of the atmosphere of our planet, the stars, the sun and other parts of space.
Military Satellite
Satellite Communica tion Systems
Communication Satellites are originators of information.
They
instead relay stations for other sources.
Here we deal with following concepts:
the
1. Transponders 2. Sa Sate tell llit ite e Freq Fr eque uenc ncy y Allocations 3. Sa Sate tell llit ite e Ba Band ndwi widt dth h 4. In Incr cre eas asin ing g Chann Cha nne el Capacity
1. Transponders -
Satellite contains a receiver which picks up the transmitted signal, amplifies it, and translates it into another frequency. The transmitter-receiver combination in the satellite is known as “Transponder “Transponder”. ”. Uplink – Upto 6GHz Downlink – Upto 4GHz Typical transponder has a wide bandwidth. But use only a single signal to minimize interference and to improve communication reliability.
2. Satellite Frequency Allocations -
Most satellites operate in microwave frequency spectrum.
-
It is divided up into frequency frequency bands which have been allocated allocated into satellite as well as other communications services such as radar.
-
The most widely used satellite communications band is the C band.
FREQUENCY
BAND
225-390 MHz
P
350-530 MHz
J
1530-2700 MHz
L
2500-2700 MHz
S
3400-6425 MHz
C
7250-8400 MHz
X
10.95-14.5 GHz
Ku
17.7-21.2 GHz
Kc
27.5-31 GHz
K
36-46 GHz
Q
46-56 GHz
V
56-100 GHz
W
3. Increasing Channel Capacity Although the transponders are quite capable, they nevertheless rapidly become overloaded with traffic. For these reasons, numerous techniques have been developed to effectively increase the band-width and signal carrying capacity of the satellite. - Two of these techniques are: 1. Frequency Reuse 2. Spatial Isolation -
Satellite Subsystems
Regulators, protection and conditioning
DC/DC Converters, DC/AC Inverters
DC to all subsystem
DC and AC to special subsystem
Charger and Batteries
Solar Panel
Communication Subsystem Receiver
Frequency Translator
Altitude Control Subsystem
Transmitter
Transponder Other Transponders
I/Ps Antenna from onSubsystem board sensors Communications Antennas
Telemetry, Tracking, and Control Subsystem
Propulsion Subsystem
Ctrl Sgls to all
AKM
Power Sub System
Generally satellites have many subsystems which join together for the fully fully operation of the satellite. The various subsystems in a general communication satellites are: 1. Po Powe werr Su Subs bsys yste tem m 2. Co Comm mmun unic icat atio ion n Su Subsy bsyst stem em 3. 4. 5. 6.
Ant nten enna na Sub Subsy syst stem em Telemet Tel emetry, ry, Trac Trackin king, g, and and Contr Control ol Subsy Subsystem stem Prop Pr opul ulsi sion on Su Subs bsys yste tem m Alti Al titud tude e Con Contr trol ol Su Subsy bsyste stem m
Earth Stations
Down Converter
LNA
Demodula tor
BPF
BPF LO
a B e s a B
P/ O d n
Receive Subsystem GCE-Receive
Diplexe r
Carrier Oscillator
Antenna Subsystem
P/ I
UP Converter
Driver
Demodula tor
BPF HPA
LO
GCE-Transmit
Transmit Subsystem
Fig: General Block Diagram of
Power Subsystem
a B e s a B
d n
The
earth station on the ground is the terrestrial base of the system.
The
earth station communicates with the satellite to carry out designated mission.
It may be located at the end user’s facilities or may be located with ground-based intercommunication links between the earth station and the end user.
Many earth stations are now located on top of tall buildings or in other urban areas directly where the end user resides.
The
various subsystems in an earth station are:
1. An Ante tenn nna a Sub Subsy syst stem em 2. Re Rece ceiv ive e Sub Subsy syst stem em 3. Tr Tran ansm smit it Sub Subsy syst stem em 4. Ground Ground Com Commun munica ication tion Equ Equipm ipment ent (GCE (GCE)) Subsystem 1. GC GCE E Tran Transm smit it Su Subs bsys yste tem m 2. GC GCE E Re Rece ceiv ive e Su Subs bsys yste tem m
5. Po Pow wer Sub Subsy syst stem em
Satellite Routing
Satellite Routing Inter Satellite Link (ISL)
k n i L r e ) s L U U l e ( M i b o M
a y Link wa e w te Ga t (G WL)
GW L
M o b i l e ( M U U s e r L ) L i n k
Spot Beam
Base Station Or Gateway
F o o t P r i n i nt
ISDN
PSTN User Data
GSM
Satellite Handover
There
are four types of satellite handovers. They are:
1. Int Intra ra-s -sat atell ellit ite e Ha Hand ndov over er 2. Int Inter er-s -sat atel ellit lite e ha hand ndov over er 3. Ga Gattew ewa ay Ha Hand ndov over er 4. In Inte terr-sy syst stem em Han Hando dove verr
Applications Of Satellite
Various applications of satellites are: 1. Re Remo mote te Sens Sensin ing g Satell Satellit ites es 2. Me Mete teoro orolo logic gical al / Wea Weath ther er Satellites 3. Co Comm mmun unic icat atio ion n Sat Satell ellit ites es 4. Na Navig vigat atio ion n Sat Satell ellit ites es 5. Mi Mili lita tary ry Sate Satell llit ites es 6. Spa Space ce Exp Explor lorati ation on Sat Satell ellite ites s
1. Remote Sensing Satellites
Indian Remote Sensing satellite’s image
2. (a) Meteorological Satellites
2. (b) Weather Satellites
Image of a Weather Satellite Report
Various weather satellites orbiting the Earth
3. Communication Satellites
4. Navigation Satellites
5. Military Satellites
6. Space Exploration Satellites
E.g. Martian Communication
