u.s.
Special Forces
Recon Manual
COPYRIGHT
Lancer Militaria Box 886 Mt. Ida, Ark. 71957
USA 1986
TABLE OF CONTENTS I. II.
III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X.
Organization and Composition of RTs. RT Equipment .••...•..•....•.•...•.•. Premission Preparation .••...••.•..... Air Infiltration/Exfiltration Techniques .•• Patrolling Techniques ••...••.••••...•••.•••• Tracking and Use of Human Senses in Obtaining Combat Intelligence •. Intelligence ........•••. FAC/ FAG Procedures .•...• Employment of Artillery. Foreign Weapons .•.•......
1 2
8 .13
.42 ..47 .53
.77 • .92 .96
PREFACE The purpose of this manual is to provide a compendium of unclassified techniques and procedures used by reconnaisance patrols. It is no substitute for unit SOPs. Nor do any of the techniques in this manual represent the last word. The success of any recon operation depends on the ability of the unit to develop its own procedures and to adapt and exploit those which prove successful. Ultimately, of course, success depends on the motivation and training of the recon team. This manual will provide an introduction to the required training and a basis for continuance of training. While no technique represents the final answer, those described here have been proven successful in several years of combat. To the beginner, this book will serve as a summary of the techniques he must master; to the "old-timer", it will be a refresher and review. There is only one type of recon man that has stopped learning recon - the dead type. This book is directed only towards RT employment. Therefore, always keep in mind that tactics and techniques are directed towards one goal; the collection of intelligence. The patrolling tactics, insertion techniques, communications, etc. are only means to accomplish that end. (Publisher's note: This manual was developed for instruction purposes at the United States Army Institute for Military Assistance during the early 1970s. It contains information very hard to find elsewhere, much of it in the form of "lessons learned" from experiences in Southeast Asia. We felt that the information presented here deserved to be readily available to the military professional and we hope you will find it useful in all of your military endeavors.)
CHAPTER I ORGANIZATION AND COMPOSITION OF RTS 1.1 GENERAL. There are essentially two basic recon teams--the l2-man team and the six-man team. Often the team will be augmented or diminished for specific missions. It is desirable that the RT leader be given a voice in determining the size and composition of the team during the planning phase of a mission. 1.2 THE SIX-MAN TEAM. The six-man team is usually composed of two Americans and four indigenous team members. It is made up as follows:
1.3
a.
10 Team Leader (US).
b.
11 Assistant Team Leader/radio operator (US).
c.
01 Indigenous Team Leader.
d.
02 Interpreter.*
e.
03 M79 man.*
f.
04 Scou t
;»
THE l2-MAN TEAM.
A typical l2-man team may be organized as follows:
a.
10 Team Leader (US).
b.
11 Assistant Team Leader (US).
c.
12 Radio Operator (US).
d.
01 Indigenous Team Leader.
e.
02 Interpreter. ~~
f.
03 M79 man. ~~
g.
04 M79 man. 'f(
h.
05 Scout.v w
i.
06 Scout. ~~
j.
07 Scout. ,.~
k.
08 Scou t
l.
09
~'~Indigenous
c
x
Scout.~'~
Team Member. 1
CHAPTER II RT EQUIPMENT 2.1 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT. following items:
Each team member should normally carry the
a.
Sterile fatigues or tiger suit.
b.
Flop-brim hat with portion of panel sewn inside top.
c.
Jungle boots.
d.
Pistol bel t.
e.
Harness.
f.
First aid packet.
g.
Pill kit (for contents see para 12.1).
h.
Knife (heavy and sharp).
i.
Four canteens with purification tablets attached.
j.
Smoke (at least one of every color in the SOl).
k,
Compass.
1.
Small survival kit.
m.
Individual weapon.
n.
Signal mirror.
o.
Panel.
p.
Strobe light.
q.
Pen flare gun with 4-6 flares.
r. Four or six ammo pouches (canteen covers may be substituted--see para 2.4b(3) (a)). s.
Rucksack with reinforced straps.
t.
Rations.
u.
Weapon cleaning equipment.
v,
Maps.
w.
Poncho. 2
x.
Can opener (or pocket knife with can opener).
y.
Waterproofed matches.
z.
Insect and leech repellent.
aa.
Jungle sweater (optional).
bb.
RT-10 radio.
cc.
Penlight.
dd.
Six foot length of nylon cord (e.g. suspension cord).
ee.
Swiss seat.
ff.
Two snap links.
gg.
Notebook and pencil.
hh.
Two plastic bags.
ii.
Fragmentation grenades (WP or other can be substituted).
jj.
Two cravat bandages.
kk.
SOl and KAC.
11.
Gloves.
rom.
Extra socks.
nn.
Claymore.
00.
Serum albumin unit.
2.2 TEAM EQUIPMENT . One of each of the following items of equipment should normally be carried on a team: a.
Camera and film.
b.
Binoculars.
c.
AN/PRC-25 with extra battery.
d.
M79 with assorted types of ammunition .
e.
M14 mines and booby traps as required.
f.
Anti-intrusion devices as required.
3
2.3 SPECIAL EQUIPMENT. Special equipment, e.g., equipment for snatches, etc., is carried as the mission requires. 2.4
priso~er
WEARING AND INSPECTION OF EQUIPMENT
a. General. There are three general considerations in the wearing of equipment. First, equipment should be worn in the same manner throughout the team so that if it becomes necessary to retrieve a particular item from a dead or wounded team member time is not lost in searching for it. Second, to the maximum extent possible essential mission and survival gear should be carried in the pockets of the uniform so that the individual is self-sufficient even if he loses his web gear and rucksack. The third point is that equipment should be arranged so as to permit comfort and ease of access and handling. b. With the above points in mind, following is a recommended way of carrying equipment. (1)
Individual uniform.
(a) Trousers are held up by threading a triangular bandage (cravat) through the belt loops. (Another bandage can be worn around the neck for use as a sweat band, if desired.) (The two bandages can be used for emergency first aid if required.) Trousers are not tucked into the boot top. (b) The jacket is worn with sleeves rolled down and buttoned at the cuff in order to provide protection against thorns and brush and to camouflage the skin. The collar is unbuttoned. The jacket should fit loosely to facilitate ventilation. (2)
Equipment carried in individual uniform.
(a)
Lower left leg pocket.
(b)
Right leg pocket.
Insect repellent in plastic bottle.
1. One prepared meal, or an emergency ration. 2. Panel.
1-
Pen flare gun with flares.
(c)
Upper left leg pocket.
(d)
Right hip pocket.
(e)
Left breast pocket.
RT-IO radio.
Six-foot nylon cord or suspension line.
1. SOl and KAC. 1· Map.
1·
Notebook and pencil.
4
NOTE: The above three items are carried in a plastic bag or other waterproof container. ~ ..
(f)
Signal mirror attached to uniform with cord (not attached to harness). Right breast pocket.
1. Penlight.
1. Compass attached to uniform with cord (not attached to harness) . 3. Morphine syrettes in crush proof bo x. (3)
Pistol belt and harness.
Ammunition pouches are placed closest to the buckle of the pistol belt on either side. In the bottom of each pouch place one sterile field dressing or bag of prepared rice in order to elevate magazines for easy access. Also cut the top seam of the pouch away. Each magazine is e quipped with a pull tab made from waterproof tape. Four magazines are placed top down in each pouch, all facing in the same direction to minimize funbling. A good technique is to have the first three and last three rounds of each magazine tracer (see para 5.2) . (Canteen covers can be used in lieu of magazine pouches as they hold more magazines.) (a)
(b) Grenades. Carry at least four fragmentation grenades. Attach them to the innerside of ammo pouches. WP or other can be substituted for frag. Smoke grenades are attached to the outside of the pouches. Each grenade should be inspected to ensure that the cotter pin is securely in place and not corroded. Also check the fuze to see that it has not been tampered with or substituted for. Do not tape down the handles; if you have to use grenades you will have to do so quickly. (c) Canteens. Attach two canteen covers with plastic canteens as close to the ammo pouches as possible in order to allo w the we a r e r to lie on his back comfortably. Once an operation is begun the pistol belt and harness should not be removed. One bottle of water purification tablets is taped to the lid of each canteen. (d) Left harness strap . On the shoulder tape a serum albumin container. Directly beneath the serum albumin can fasten a snap link with the Swiss seat attached. The snap link is fastened to the harness wi t h the gate up so that it can be quickly snapped to the rung of a rope ladder if required. (e) Right harness strap. Tape a bayonet or knife with the scabbard point up. Tie the strobe light pouch over the scabbard so that it opens up (this way the strobe light can be turned on inside the pouch so that it shines upward and does not have to be held in the hand).
5
(4)
Indigenous rucksack.
(a) Put one full canteen with purification tablets taped to the top in each of the side pockets (NOTE: During the operation this water should be drunk first so that if the rucksack must be dropped in an emergency two full canteens remain on the belt) . (b)
Rear pocket.
(c)
Main carrying compartment.
1.
Poncho.
Extra socks in plastic bag.
1. Rations . 3. Pill kit.
!!.
Claymore.
i.
Mines and boobytraps.
6. Sweater in plastic bag.
1. Gloves. ~.
Extra team and individual equipment .
2.
Special mission equipment.
(d) Put a snap link through a loop on the rucksack so that it can be snapped to a rope ladder extraction device, e.g., McGuire Rig. (5)
Weapon.
Prepare the Ml6 or CAR-IS as follows:
(a)
Tape the muzzle to prevent foreign matter from entering the bore.
(b) Tape the handguards to break the outline of the we a po n . Tape a broken-down cleaning rod to the handguard. Use enough tape so that there is sufficient left over for other uses, e. g., taping the mouth of a prisoner. (c)
Tape the stock (M-16) to break the outline of the weapon.
(d) Tape the dust cover so that it will not make a metallic "click" if accidentally opened. (e) Remove the front sling swivel. Attach a length of suspension line or a GP strap to the front sight and the rear sling attachment (CAR-IS) or carrying handle (M-16). This improvised sling should always be on so that your hands can be free of taking pictures, climbing ladders, etc.
6
(f) Put bore brush, grease, and patches inside the hand grip. A rubber magazine cover from a carbine magazine will fit over the bottom of the hand grip to keep these items- dry. (6) The radio operator should carry only those items listed as being carried in the individual uniform and on the harness and pistol belt. Otherwise he should carry only the radio. The extra battery for the radio should be securely taped to the radio. The remainder of his rations, etc ., should be distributed among the other team members. (7) The team member who carries the camera also carries the binoculars (for long-range photograph--see para 6.3). Each other team member must know where he carries the camera and exposed film so that they can be recovered if he becomes a casualty.
7
CHAPTER III PREMISS ION PREPARATION 3.1 PATROL PLANNING. For a successful recon operation all possible contingencies must be considered. To ensure that they are considered, the RT leader must follo w the follo wing planning sequence: (1) plan the use of available time; (2) study the situation; (3) issue warning order; (4) make a thorough map study; (5) coordinate (continuous throughout planning); (6) select men, we a po n s , and e quipment; (7) make a reconnaissance; (8) complete detailed plans; (9) inspect and rehearse; (10) briefback. Sometimes the time span available to the 10 will preclude completion of one or more of these steps . For e xample, time (or we a t h e r ) may preclude a VR. However, consideration must be given to a l l of these steps within the available time. a. Plan the use of available time . In making a time schedule the RT leader should employ the backward planning method. Just as in loading aircraft, where the equipment or personnel to be last on the ground are 'loaded first, the RT leader begins the planning of his time by starting with the time of insertion and wo r k i ng back to the time of receipt of the warning order. b. Study the situation. mine the RT leader's plan.
The enemy and friendly situations wi l l deter-
c. Issue warning order. At the earliest possible time the entire team should be alerted to the prospective target date. U.S. team members should be kept informed throughout and included in planning to the extent possible. Team members should be told only what is necessary for them to keep their preparations current. As a rule they should not receive a complete briefing and should be restricted to the camp once they are alerted. d. Make a thorough map study. In the map study the team leader looks for possible LZs, routes, rally points, RON positions, E&E routes, and points of interest. The map study should be supplemented by aerial photos to the maximum e xtent possible. The team leader should also check the target folder on the area to see what map corrections and sketches other teams have turned in. e. Coordinate. Coordination with air, artillery, reaction/exploitation forces, and communication activities is the responsibility of the launch officer and/or S-3. The RT leader should keep himself informed on this coordination, however. From the earliest possible moment the team leader should contact the FAC or FAC rider and the helicopter pilots who will be flying his mission. Mutual understanding between all three elements is vital to the success of the mission, especially during the insertion. f. Select men, weapons, and equipment. Whether or not additional or special equipment is required wi l l be determined by the mission and terrain. Personnel should be removed from the team if their physical or mental condition would make them a detriment to the team. Physical conditions that would disqualify an RT member from a mission include bad colds, coughs, exhaustion, etc. Caution and good light must be exercised by the team leader
8
in eliminating personnel from a mission for such reasons . g. Make a reconnaissance. This could be the single most important element of the team leader's preparation. As many VRs as can be made without drawing the enemy's attention to the purpose of the flight should be executed. Usually this is no more than t wo. If possibl e, the helicopter mission commander should also fly the VR. For this reason the 0-2 is the desired aircraft. This enables the FAC, the helicopter mission CO, and the team leader to make the VR simultaneously. The VR should be aimed at confirming or refuting the information from the map and photo study, and determining the general .level of enemy activity. The helicopter mission commander picks flight routes, air control points, and orbit areas. Together, the team leader and helicopter mission commander choose at least two and preferably three LZs. LZs for helicopter landings should ideally have the follo wing characteristics: (1) For maximum effective use of helicopters LZs should be located to have landings and takeoffs into the wind. (2) Size. Under ideal conditions (See chapter IV) a helicopter can land on a plot of ground slightly larger than the spread of its landing gear, provided there is clearance for the roter blades. A safety factor is required for night operations, as follows: (a)
An area 50 meters in diameter cleared to the ground.
(b) An area surrounding the cleared area, 20 meters wide, cleared wi t h i n one meter of the ground. (3) The surface should be relatively level (maximum slope 15 percent) and free of obstructions. (4) A helicopter is considered to have a climb ratio of 1:5. This means, for example, that there should be no obstacles higher than 20 meters wi t h i n 100 meters of the touchdown area. There should be at least one path of approach to the LZ measuring 75 meters wide. (5) Operational considerations may necessitate relaxation of one or more of the above requirements. However, requirements should be complied with to the extent possible. The helicopter flight commander is the final authority on the sUitability of LZs. h. Complete detailed plans. This includes assigning duties to each member of the team and preparation of the briefback. Adjustments to the original plan are made based on the changing intelligence situation and on information gained during the VR. Helicopter pilots and FAC should be included in the preparation of the final plan. i. Rehearsals and inspections. Rehearsals of special phases of the mission should be on terrain similar to that in the target area, if possible. Items to be rehearsed include immediate action drills, RON procedures, hand and arms signals, helicopter unloading, rappelling and/or rope ladder if
9
applicable, and actions at danger areas . A sand table should be constructed to give a three-dimensional representation of the area to the whole team. Inspections should be conducted of individual and team equipment (conducted as in chapter II). Radios should be checked as close to their rated range as possible, e.g., 8 KM for the PRC-25. Other items with batteries, such as strobe lights, should also be checked for proper operation. Weapons should be cleaned, test fired, and then not disassembled again. j. Briefback. The briefback is the team leader's detailed plan, as explained to the commander, of the procedures and actions he will take to accomplish his mission. The format is similar to the five paragraph operations order. The briefback covers, but is not limited to, the following points: Situation. Team leader describes the enemy and friendly situation as pertains to his operation. (1)
(2) Mission. Team leader states the mission of his team as it was presented to him at the operations and intelligence briefing and as he understands it. (3)
Execution.
Concept of Operations:
(a)
Organization of team.
(b)
Planned routes.
1.
Infiltration/exfiltration LZs.
2.
Rally points .
3.
Areas of interest.
(c)
Formation of team and location of each team member.
(d)
Flight plan.
1.
Check points.
2.
Flight time.
(e)
Actions upon landing.
1.
Fired on prior to landing.
1.
Fired on after landing.
3.
If aircraft is shot down.
(f)
Types of security.
1.
During movement.
2.
Short and long halts.
3.
During radio contacts.
10
4. (g)
Overnight. Immediate action drill.
1·
Break contact.
2.
Actions after contact.
(h)
Designation of rally points.
1.
How long to wait.
2.
Subsequent action.
(i)
Methods of marking exfiltration LZ and confirming signal to aircraft.
(j)
Artillery and air support available.
1·
How to call for artillery.
2.
How to direct airstrikes.
1·
How to direct FAC.
(k)
Special mission procedures.
(POW, special equipment, etc.)
(4)
Administration and logistics.
(a)
Rations and equipment to be carried by each member.
(b)
Shortages.
(c)
Physical and mental condition of team.
(5)
Command and Signal.
(a)
Signal.
1.
Type radios and antennas carried.
1.
Type contacts and contact schedule.
1.
Air relay flight schedule.
~.
Actions if contacts are missed.
1.
Frequencies.
a.
Base.
l2..
Patrol.
£..
Artillery.
11
d.
Air.
6.
Azimuth to base station.
(b)
Command.
1.
Chain of command.
2.
Position of each American in the team.
3.2 SAMPLE PREMISSION PREPARATION. The follo wing e xample is idealized in that five days are available for planning. Obviously this will seldom be the case. The time frame is e xtended so that all of the procedures can be illustrated. a. Prior to D-5. e xpected target date.
RT leader receives warning order, then alerts team of
b. D-5. U.S. team members receive operation s and intelligence briefings. OP briefing consists of operations order. Intelligence briefing concerns latest intelligence pictures of target area. Team then conducts map and photo studies, selecting possible LZs, points of interest, routes, rendezvous points, etc. Using large scale maps, the team constructs a sand table, depicting the terrain of the area. c. D-4. RT leader makes VR to confirm or deny information gained from map and photo study. Also attempts to determine level of enemy activity. While VR is being conducted, rest of team practices SOPs such as hand and arm signals, IA drills, RON procedures, etc. Upon completion of VR, team updates information and continues planning. d. D-3 Planning Continues. Special equipment and comm gear are drawn and tested. Begin rehearsal in area similar to target area. Practice special phases of mission. e. D-2. situation.
Continue planning and rehearsal.
Stay abrease of intelligence
f. D-l. RT leader and flight leaders conduct final VR to confirm earlier information and plans, and to choose air routes to and from the target area, orbit areas. The chopper pilots should determine the suitability of the LZs (at least 2). Upon completion of the VR, the RT leader and flight leaders should discuss special signals and the method of insertion. Assistant team leaders supervise cleaning and test firing of weapons and conduct equipment checks. RT leader should then lead team through talkthrough of mission. Everyone packs. RT leader presents brief back. g. D-Day . Conduct final inspection of personnel and equipment. Conduct thorough comm checks. Move to launch site and receive final briefing. Briefing should be given to all U.S. team members as well as the FAC and helicopter pilots.
12
CHAPTER IV AIR INFILTRATION/EXFILTRATION TECHNIQUES 4.1 GENERAL. Recon teams can be infiltrated and exfiltrated by land, sea , or air, or in combinations. The most common method currently in use is by air--more specifically, by helicopter. This chapter will concentrate on the use of the helicopter in inserting and extracting RT's; however, the RT leader should not lose sight of the fact that other methods of infiltration may be more appropriate, such as walk-in, stay-behind (when the team is inserted with a larger unit) or parachute. It should also be kept in mind that the enemy is quite familiar with the helicopter tactics that have been employed over the last few years. It is therefore incumbent upon everyone concerned to use imagination and ingenuity in adopting the techniques that will be described in this chapter to their own situations . In all cases, avoid setting a pattern for the enemy to detect. 4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF HELICOPTERS. All RT leaders must be aware of the capabilities and limitations in support of RT operations. There is a balance between these capabilities. When one of three variables--fule, range, or payload--is changed within existing weather conditions, at least one of the other variables will also change. a.
General Capabilities.
(1) Under normal condition, helicopters can ascend and descend at relatively steep angles, which enables them to operate from confined and unimproved areas. (2) Teams and equipment can be unloaded from a helicopter hovering over a hundred feet off the ground by rappelling or rope ladder. The rope ladder or extraction devices can also be used to load personnel when the helicopter cannot land. -Tr oo ps may also jump from low-hovering helicopters. (3) Resupply can be transported as an external load and delivered to otherwise inaccessible areas. (4)
Normally, helicopters are capable of flight in any direction.
(5) Because of a wide speed range and high maneuverability at slow speeds, helicopters can fly safely and efficiently at a low altitude, using terrain and trees for cover and concealment. (6) Helicopters can operate under marginal weather conditions because of their ability to fly at low or high altitudes, to decelerate rapidly, their slow forward speed, and their capability for nearly vertical landing. (7)
Night landings and takeoffs can be made with a minimum of light.
(8) Helicopters flying at low levels are capable of achieving surprise, deceiving the enemy as to landing areas, and employing shock effect 13
through the use of suppressive fires. (9) Engine and motor noise may deceive the enemy as to the direction of approach and intended flight path. b. General Limitations. Helicopter support may not always be available in the kind or amount desired. The RT leader should remember that helicopters are complicated and relatively delicate machines, and that they are a scarce resource for which there is a high demand. They cannot be expected to be summoned like taxis. (1) The high fuel consumption rate of helicopters imposes limitations on range and allowable cargo load (ACL) . Helicopters may be partially defueled to permit an ACL. However, partial defueling reduces the range and flexibility.
(2) Weight and balance affect flight control. Loads must be properly distributed to keep the center of gravity within allowable limits (see paragraph 4.3a (11».
(3) Heavy rains and gusty winds (30 knots or more) will limit or preclude use of helicopters. (4)
Engine and rotor noise may compromise secrecy.
(5) Aviator fatigue requires greater consideration in the operation of helicopters than in fixed wing aircraft because of noise, vibration, etc.
(6) The load-carrying capability of helicopters decreases drastically with increases of altitude, humidity, and temperature. Engines operate more efficiently at low temperature and humidity. This limitation may be compensated for through reduction of fuel load.
(7) Wind velocities above 15 knots for utility and 10 knots for medium and heavy helicopters affect the selection of the direction of landing and takeoff. This means that otherwise suitable L2's may not be able to be used.
c.
Factors Affecting Helicopter Lift Capability.
(1) As mentioned above, temperature, altitude, and humidity are factors which affect the lift capability of helicopters. An increase in temperature, altitude, or himidity will result in a great decrease in lift capability.
(2) If a helicopter can takeoff and land into a steady wind its payload can be increased as less power is required for the same flight performance with wind than without it.
(3) For hovering flight closer than one half rotor diameter to the ground, the lifting ability of a helicopter is increased by ground effect. Stated another way, a helicopter hovered close to the ground requires less power than a helicopter at the same gross weight hovered at a height greater than one half 14
.. rotor diameter. Thus the maximum gross weight for hovering in ground effect (IGE) is greater than that for hovering out of ground effect (aGE). This is important to remember during rope extractions, rappe11ing, and rope ladder operations. d. Specific Considerations. The capabilities and limitations stated above are variable. Specific capabilities of commonly used helicopters are given below. These are samples for given weather and weight conditions and should be used as a guide only. (1)
DR-1D.
(a)
Internal fuel capacity, 220 gallons (1320 lbs)
(b)
Cargo - internal - 22 cubic feet external - 4000 1bs
(c)
Capacity (US) - 2 pilots, 2 gunners, 9 troops
Gross weight (lb)
8800
9500 (max)
Max speed (sea 1evel/4000 ')
kts
114/114
110/110
Max Range (sea level/4000')
nmi
260/274
251/259
IGE (below 24 feet)
ft
8,600
5,500
aGE (above 24 feet)
ft
500
-----
Rover ceiling -
, ,I
(2)
UR-1F.
(a)
Internal fuel capacity - 245 gallons (1470 1bs)
(b)
Cargo - internal - 140 cubic feet external - 4000 lbs
(c)
Capacity (US) - 2 pilots, 1 ww chief, 6 troops
Gross weight (lb)
7600
9000 (max)
Max speed (sea leve1/4000 ')
kts
115/115
100/100
Max range (sea 1eve1/4000')
nmi
301/330
283/306
15
Hovering ceiling IGE (below 24 feet)
ft
14,600
9,200
aGE
ft
9,800
4,000 I
(3) UH-lH. The UH-lH is the same helicopter as the UH-lD except for a larger engine. All of the characteristics are the same except for the following performance data:
Gross weight (lb)
8800
9500
Max speed (sea level! 4000')
kts
114/114
110/110
Max range (sea level/4000')
runi
267/287
260/275
IGE (below 24 ft)
ft
16,400
12,700
aGE (above 24 ft)
ft
9,800
1,000
Hovering ceiling
(4)
CH-34
(a)
Internal fuel capacity - 250 gallons (1524 1bs)
(b)
Cargo - internal - 450 cubic feet external - 5000 1bs
(c)
Capacity (US) - 2 pilots, crew chief, 12 troops
Gross weight (lb)
12,000
13,500 (max)
Max speed (sea level! 4000 I)
kts
88/76
87/93
Max range (sea 1eve1/4000')
runi
400/340
300/260
16
4.3
INSERTION BY HELICOPTER
a. General Consideration. A standardized routine of insertion procedures should be avoided. This applies to time of insertion, flight formations, VR's prior to insertion, L2 preparation, employment of gunships, etc. The general routine which has been established over the past several years is by now well-known by the enemy with the result that they have formulated effective counter tactics to be initiated whenever they sense this routine occurring: (1) Time of insertion. The weather and enemy and friendly situations will often determine the actual time of insertion, but in general two times should be avoided. These are the afternoon "pak time" and absolute last light. Pak Time should be avoided because no one moves during this period except Americans, and a team moving away from an L2 is not likely to be mistaken for anything other than what it is. Absolute last light has the advantage of providing additional cover for the insertion, but it has the disadvantage of not allowing the team sufficient daylight to move away from the L2 in case the enemy has determined the location of the L2. Also, if the L2 is so hot that the team cannot stay on the ground then there should be enough time left so that the extraction can be performed in daylight. However, consideration should be given to night insertions. These have the advantages of making the helicopters less vulnerable to enemy ground fire, and the enemy has greater difficulty in determining the location of the L2. Night insertions have disadvantages also . Air crews require a higher state of training than for daylight operations. Larger L2's must be found. Multiple ship inserts on one L2 become very difficult at night. From the standpoint of the team, assembly and orientation are more difficult, and if the enemy does succeed in pinpointing the L2 then the team may either have to run all night or attempt a difficult night extraction. (2) Helicopter resources. The composition of the helicopter insertion team is usually as follows: one to four helicopters to carry the team (depending on the size of the RT and the factors mentioned in para 4.2 above), one recovery helicopter with medic on board to be used in the event that another helicopter goes down, a command and control helicopter from which the insertion is directed (in some operations the insertion is directed from the FAC aircraft), and one or two fire teams (i.e., two or four armed helicopters, respectively). The composition of this team is often a matter of SOP of the supporting aviation unit and cannot be varied by the RT leader. That presented above is one type. Also one or two FAC aircraft will accompany in order to direct air strikes and artillery. Usually two TAC fighter aircraft fly cover for each insertion. (3) Landing zones. As noted in paragraph 3.3, at least two L2's will be chosen for each insertion, one designated the primary L2 and one the alternate. Selection will depend on mutual agreement between the RT leader and the helicopter flight leader. These L2's should be two to three kilometers apart so that it wo u l d be difficult for the enemy to place simultaneous fire on both of them. If necessary or desirable L2's can be made in the jungle by large bombs. Routine preparatory fires on an L2 by TAC air or artillery is normally not advised for recon operations, however.
17
(4) Air movement plans. Flight routes, start points, aerial control points, and release points are the responsibility of the helicopter flight leader. The RT leader should be aware of these, however, so that in the event the aircraft goes down he will have an idea of the location. (5) Deceptive measures. The RT leader should be aware of the tactics that can be used by helicopters to deceive the enemy as to the number of helicopters employed and the locations of landing zones. He should discuss the employment of one or a combination of these techniques during coordination with the flight leader and the FAC. Some of these techniques are: (a) Dummy LZ's. The flight performs what look like insertions i n the vicinity of possible LZ's (but not actually on them, in anticipation that the dummy LZ's may be under direct enemy observation). While there should be no recurring pattern, in general dummy insertions should be performed after the actual insertion so that if a helicopter is shot down during the insertion the team does not go down with it. (b) Another technique that can be used is to have the aircraft fly in formation with the lead aircraft containing the RT, followed by the recovery aircraft and the C&C (if used). Upon reaching the LZ, the lead aircraft come to low hover while the others overfly. After the RT is inserted, the aircraft carrying it rejoin the flight in the tail positions. This technique makes it difficult for anyone on the ground to tell when, where, or if any of the helicopters have landed, especially if it is used in conjunction with dummy insertions. (c) Leap frog. The helicopters play this game in pairs, one flying low and one flying high. The helicopters switch places in the air in a leap frog fashion in order to deceive the enemy as to how many helicopters are being employed and as to the exact location of LZ's. The technique can be commenced before, during, or after the actual insertion. In any event no pattern should be established. (d) High control/low level flight . At the release point the helicopters descend to tree-top level and use "nap of the earth" methods to reach the LZ. They are directed by a high aircraft, either the FAC or C&C. The aircraft should continue their low level after the insertion has been made. Dummy insertions can be made. (e) The enemy's attention can be diverted from the LZ by air strikes, artillery fire, or use of nightingale devices in other areas. This is more effective if dummy insertions are made in the area in which the diversion is created.
(f) After the actual insertion the enemy can be deceived if a large volume of dummy radio traffic is used on a dummy insertion some distance from the actual LZ.
18
.. (6) Use of alternate landing zones. Normally, if fire is received in the vicinity of the primary LZ the flight will continue to the alternate. If the alternate also cannot be used, then one of two predetermined options can be exercised. Either the mission can be aborted, or the FAC or C&C pilot can choose an LZ of opportunity into which to insert the team. No matter wha t LZ is used, the team should get a "fix" from the FAC or C&C as soon as possible after insertion. (7)
Other contingencies:
(a) In the event a helicopter is downed the RT leader should be prepared to assimilate the helicopter crewmen into his team and command them until they can be extracted. (b) A common enemy tactic is to wait until a portion of a team is on the ground before opening fire. If this happens the portion of the team already on the ground must attempt to return to the helicopter for immediate extraction. If it is impossible for the helicopter to remain on the LZ, or if it has already taken off, the portion of the team on the ground should display a panel, indicate to the FAC the direction and distance to the enemy fire and prepare for emergency extraction as soon as possible. (8) Actions on LZ's. As soon as the team hits the ground, all members move in a predetermined direction from the helicopter, assemble, and move off of the LZ As soon as the team leader sees that all members are assembled and uninjured and there is no enemy contact, he transmits a "team OK" (usually using a brevity word) to the FAC or C&C. (Since it is such a critical period the team leader should be carrying the radio during the insertion and the radio should be turned on before loading the helicopter. Regardless of the technique of insertion the team leader should be the first man on the ground) . After transmitting his team OK the team leader will find a defensible position in the immediate vicinity of the LZ and establish a perimeter. After a wait of 10 to 15 minutes, or sufficient time to determine whether or not the enemy has observed the infiltration and is attempting to locate the team. During this time, the insertion aircraft and accompanying air support remain on station at sufficient distance from the LZ so that it is not compromised by their presence. At the end of the 10- or IS-minute period the team leader transmits a situation report to the FAC or C&C. If this report indicates that the enemy is not seeking the team in the vicinity of the LZ the aircraft are normally released to return to base and the team commences its recon mission. If the enemy is pressing the team right after the insertion, however, then the team is close enough to the insertion LZ to use it for an emergency extraction. (9) Use of armed helicopters. Two to four armed helicopters usually accompany each insertion. These helicopters accompany the troop carriers to the RP, then move to an orbit area far enough from the insertion LZ that their presence does not compromise the LZ. When the troop carriers have accomplished their insertion they will marry up with the gunships to await the team's sitrep. When the helicopters are released the armed helicopters will escort the troop
19
carriers back to base. If it is necessary to utilize the armed helicopters for suppression or to support an immediate emergency extraction, their employment will be as described in chapter VII. (10) Downed aircraft procedures. If an aircraft goes down in the vicinity of the LZ the operation should normally be aborted, and all efforts made to recover survivors, bodies, and equipment from the downed craft (the function of the chase ship). The survivors should remain in the immediate vicinity of the downed helicopter for rescue, unless the enemy situation prohibits. One technique (which requires prior coordination with all aircraft commanders) is for the survivors to move to a point approximately 50 meters directly in front of the downed aircraft, taking with them bodies and equipment (including survival and first aid kits) from the helicopter (a team member should be designated before take-off to assist each door gunner in removing his machinegun and ammunition in the event that a troop carrier goes down). The survivors move this short distance away from the helicopter because it is likely to be the target for enemy ground fire. The accompanying gunships sanitize a strip on either side of the downed aircraft and parallel to its heading on the ground (see figure below).
Survivors
1
0 Gunships fire supression in shaded areas.
The chase ship follows the gunships and picks up normally in the following order: (a) Wounded (if the pickup is by extraction device an unwounded man, if available, should ride along to assist wounded in the rig). (b)
Helicopter crew.
(c)
Bodies (if situation will permit).
(d)
Team members.
(e)
U.S. Team members (10 last, carrying the radio).
The senior aircraft crew member may decide to destroy the radios in the helicopter, in which case the RT will assist as he directs. If for some reason the chase ship cannot make the rescue (weather, enemy ground fire, etc.) the team leader must be prepared to act as in (6) above. 20
--(11) Helicopter loading. Regardless of the technique used to leave the helicopter, certain general considerations apply to loading and riding. (a) The aircraft center of gravity must be maintained to ensure that flight characteristics remain constant. (b) Sudden shifts of weight will cause temporary loss of aircraft control. Passengers should be reminded to remain as still as possible during flight, particularly during landing and hover operations. (c) Team members should unload individually in order to aid the pilot in maintaining aircraft stability. (d) On UH-l type aircraft either or both doors may be used in unloading, but the pilot must be notified in advance . . (e) Hand and arm signals to be used between the pilot and the RT leader must be discussed and decided upon in advance. (f)
The 10 is always the first to unload.
(g) The 10 should position himself between the pilot and copilot in UH-l type aircraft during flight. In the H-34 he should sit in the door next to the crew chief in order to receive information from the pilot. (h) When using more than one ship for insertion and the team cannot be divided equally between the ships then the heavy part of the team should be on the first ship in, e.g., if 11 men are on the team, six should be in the first ship and five in the second. b. Helicopter Landing. Helicopter landing (touch down) is generally the most desirable method of insertion by helicopter. It is the safest from the standpoint of air safety and simplicity. The major disadvantage is that a suitable landing zone (as described in paragraph 3.4) must be found, along with at least one alternate. The scarcity of such LZ's in many areas is a severe limiting factor on the security of helicopter landing insertions, as the enemy may have possible LZ's covered by fire or mined. It, is for this reason that alternate means of insertion, e.g., rappelling, should be considered by the RT leader during his planning. It is a waste of time and resources to have a team "shot off" of an LZ. If this method is chosen, the following considerations apply: (1) Team members should move in a predetermined direction after exiting the helico~ter. With UH-l model helicopters this direction is usually 1 o'clock or 11 o'clock, depending on which door is being used (the nose of the aircraft is 12 o'clock). With the CH-34 the direction of exit should be toward 5 o'clock. These directions of exit permit the helicopter to take off in the same direction it landed and at the same time keeps team members from crossing the door gnnner's line of fire.
21
(2) Team members should be cautioned to stay clear of rotor blades and tail rotors. When landing on a slope, team members should be especially reminded not to run uphill into the rotor blade. (3) During premission coordination the pilots should be told to land close to the edge of the LZ so that the team can get into concealed positions as soon as possible. c. Rappel1ing. Rappelling as a method of insertion has the advantage that a large LZ is not required--a team can rappel at any point at which it can see the ground and the helicopter can get within rope's length of the ground. However, there is some degree of danger in the procedure and teams must be intensively trained in the technique before they can employ it tactically. With a we l l - t r a i ne d team, however, and a reasonably clear spot on the g r o u nd (such as a bomb crator) , the element of surprise can make rappe1ling the most desir able method of infiltration into an area of intense enemy activity. (1) Preparation of the individual for rappelling. The first step in preparing for rappelling is to thoroughly inspect all ropes for fraying, cuts, and burns. The i nd i v i du a l s shirt should be tightly tucked in his trousers so that the ropes do not slip up underneath and inflict burns on bare skin. The Swiss seat is prepared as follows: (a) Put the midpoint of the sling rope over your left hip (right hip for lett-handed persons). (b) Make a full turn around the waist, bringing both running ends around the front (at this point the right end of the rope is longer than the left). (c)
Pass the running ends through the legs (forming an X) .
(d) Tie the rope off over the left hip, using a square knot and two half-hitches. (e) Attach the snap link over the X at the front of the body in such a fashion that the gate closes up and out. (f) When threading the rappelling rope through the snap link, first, snap it in from the wearer's left to the right so that the rope passes around the right side of the wearer's body. Then grasp the rope in front of the snap link and make a loop, snapping the loop in from right to left. Two or three turns of the rope are made around the snap link, depending on the rappeller's weight and desired rate of descent (the more turns around the snap link, the slower the descent).
22
,
I
\
( 2) Preparation o f t h e h elicopter fo r r a ppell i ng. Usua lly f ou r rope s at a time can be employed whe n u s ing bo t h do o rs o f Uff- l typ e he Lic o p ter s. Only one rope is u sed wi t h the CH-34. The r unni ng end o f the r op2 i s no rmally stowed insid e a we a po n cont aine r (Gri swol d b a g) . The rope i s f o l d ed accordion style a nd the loop s s e cured wi t h e l a s t i c r e t ai ~ i n g b an d s , i n t he same f ashion that sus pensio n lines on a parac hute a r e fo ld e d an d secured . The running end of th e rop e is we i gh te d , usuall y with a sa ndb a g. Whe n t h e LZ is reached the s a ndbag i s d r oppe d t o t h e g rou nd a nd t h e ro pe dep loys out of the wea po ns cont ainer i n t he he l ic op te r. Whe n wea po ns con t ai ner s a r e not available, an a l te r na te method i s to s tow the a ccord i o n-fol ded ro pe inside an indigenou s ru ck s ac k . The bo t tom of the r uc k s a ck i s dro pp e d t o th e ground and th e rop e deploy s from it. Ther e ar e seve ra l methods o f t ying down the standing end insid e th e h eli co pt e r. The meth od des cr ibe d b e l ow is j u st one e xampl e, g i ve n for t he UH-lF he licop t er . Wha teve r he l icop t e r i s u s e d , the follo wing point s shou ld b e kep t i n mind:
( a)
Allowanc e should be ma d e f or max imum se pa ra t i o n o f r o pes in t he
door. (b) Each ro pe sh ou l d b e ti ed do wn t o a t l e a s t t h ree ti e- down r ing s in the helicopt e r (o r to snap l ink s fast e ned t o tie -down ri ng s ) . (c)
The re should be no rubb ing of r ope s to geth e r.
(d) The floor o f t h e he lic op te r shou ld b e pa d de d a t t h e edge s o t h at the rope do es not rub on th e met a l corner of t h e f lo or. d. Rope Ladder. Th e r o pe l add er a s a mean s o f i nfi l t r a t io n c an norm al ly be used under t he same conditions as r ap pelling, a l t ho ug h it i s mo r e time-c onsuming. Whe n de sc ending th e l a dd er it sho u ld b e s t ra dd led fr om t h e s ide ra the r th an climb ing do wn a s on a st epl adde r. Onl y a max i mum o f t h ree peop le sho u ld be on a ladd er at one time. Se curing the l add e r in si de t he h elico pt er i s qu i te simple. Pull t wo rungs to gether a nd f ast en e ach e nd wi t h s na p link s (g at e u p) to tie-do wn rings in th e h e licopt er. Four pai rs o f r un gs s hou ld be fas te ned in th is manner. 4.4
EXFILTRATION
a . Helicopter Landing. Thi s i s t h e mo st des i r ab le metho d , as i t a l l ows the team to ge t i ns i de the helicopt er wi t h a l l e qu ipme n t, c as u a l t i es a nd pr i soners in the short est time . Wh i l e terrain a nd the enemy ma y preve nt th e s el ection of a n LZ wh i ch meets a l l o f the s t a nda r d crite ri a. I f pos sibl e, ho wever, th e follo wing condition s should b e a t temp ted to be s atisfi e d. (1)
Ma ximum slo pe of th e LZ sh ou l d not e xc eed 15 pe r c e n t .
( 2) An a r e a 50 meters in di amet er shoul d b e cle ared to th e grou nd . An area surrounding the cleared area , 20 met er s wi de , i s cl e ared to wi t h i n o ne met er of th e gr ou nd .
25
(3) Helicopters are considered to have a c1imb-to-g1ide ratio of 1:5. This means, for example, that there should be no trees higher than 20 meters within 100 meters of the touchdown point. (4) The helicopter pilots should be advised of any peculiarities of the L2, e.g., isolated tree stumps. (5) Under ideal conditions (see para 4.2) a helicopter can land in an area slightly wider than its skid or wheel span if rotor clearance exists. However, if the requirements of the above subparagraphs cannot be met it is usually best to consider an alternate method of extraction, such as discussed below. b. Rope Ladder. Next to helicopter landing, the rope ladder is the most desirable method of exfi1tration, as it allows the team members to get inside the helicopter. If necessary, however, the helicopter can lift off while individuals are still on the ladder. In this case those persons still on the ladder will snap the snap link on their harnesses (para 2, 4b (3) (d)) to a rung of the ladder. No more than three people should be on the ladder at one time. Rucksacks s houl d be snapped to the bottom rung of the ladder before climbing it. As in descending, the rope ladder should be ascended by straddling it from the side. c. McGuire Rig . The McGuire rig is basically a nylon webbing saddle which is dropped on a rope from a helicopter to a team which cannot clear a touch-down L2. (1) The specific components of the rig and a method of rigging them inside the UH-IF are as follows: (a)
25-ft tie-down rope.
(b)
4 " x4 " x5' yoke.
(c)
10 snap links.
(d)
3 we a po n containers.
(e)
3 harnesses.
(f)
3 120-ft 3600-lb test nylon ropes.
(g)
Drop box.
(h)
5-ft section of nylon rope.
(i)
3-ft retainer strap.
(j)
3 16" x 3/4" bolts with nuts.
(k)
6 washers, 3" diameter 3/4" opening. 26
(2) Characteristics. The yoke is a safety device to hold ropes in case one becomes broken or untied inside the helicopter. The 16" bolts are inserted through the yoke and bent to form a ring, then welded at the end of the ring. Two snap links are fastened to each ring, one with the gate opening up and one opening down. One of each pair of snap links is snapped to a tie-down ring in the helicopter. The other is snapped to the 25-foot tie-down. The 25-foot tie-down is run through no less than four rings on the opposite side of the helicopter from the rings, and secured with a square knot and two half-hitches. The l20-foot ropes are secured to the helicopter by tying a clove hitch around the yoke, passing under the 25-foot tie-down, running each rope through three rings in triangular fashion and tying off with a bowline (the rope should be stretched prior to rigging). The harnesses are attached to the ropes with a bowline and four half-hitches. One snap link is attached to the center harness. A drop box is attached by a five foot rope to the bottom of each rig. The drop box can be anything heavy enough to deploy the rig and rope. The ropes are stowed inside the weapons containers in the same fashion as described for rappelling. The retainer strap is used to secure the bags to the helicopter floor. When mounting the McGuire rig for extraction, the rucksack is first snapped to the D-ring on the bottom of the saddle. The person being extracted then sits in the saddle and puts one wrist through the wrist loop. When all three saddles are occupied they are snapped together by the snap link attached to the middle harness. Snapping the rigs together keeps all riders at the same level, and prevents a man from falling if one rope breaks or is shot through.
27
~ •
,ok
0
H
0:::
'1 ./
~
H
~
0
()
l
.
:z
,
0 Z
H
0 0
H
0:::
~
.{
'.
d.
STABO Rig.
(1) It has been evident for some months that there a r e some serious safety hazards associated wi t h the us e of the McGuire rig as an emergency extraction device. The most serious are that unconsciou s personnel and personnel under fire are unable to snap themselves properly into the rig and thus either cannot be e xtr acted or ar e subject to falling out. The rig is also sometimes difficult to mount unless it is hovered at just the right height. (2) As a result of these deficiencies personnel from the Recondo School, 5th SFG (ABN) , designed a nd built a harness which they named by utilizing the first initial of each of the 5 men primarily associated with its development, S-T-A-B-O. The theory behind it is that if a minimum 3000 pound load bearing harness could be substituted for the standard U.S. Army Combat pack suspenders, normally worn in the field, that it could be used for emergency extraction. (3) The STABO rig consists of two shoulder straps in which loops have been built to accommodat e the standard issue pistol belt and "D" rings have been sewn for use in extraction, to this is included two crotch straps which can be snapped in pl ace or detached. During field operation the crotch straps are unsnapped and rolled up in the back. They can be taped in place or held by a rubber band. When required for extraction they are unrolled and snapped in place. For comfort it is important that the crotch straps are properly spaced. Recommended procedure is to have them box stitched into place when the proper lateral adjustment has been determined . The STABO rig is part of an individual's personal equipment and wi l l be issued one per each individual. (4) For extraction a nylon rappe11ing rope is u sed. One end is anchored to the aircraft. On the other end is tied t wo bo wlines on bights, providing two long loops into which snap links are connected. These in turn are snapped into the two "D" rings on the harness for e xtraction. (5) Additional equipment which can be used with the STABO rig are cotton shoulder pads and a safety strap. The shoulder pads are used to keep the "D" rings from rubbing on the collar bone and the safety strap, a short GP strap with "D" rings on either end, is used to attach two extractees to each other by their harness "D" ring snap links. This provides an additional safety factor.
31
Page 32
STABO RIG - FRONT VIEW
Pa ge 33
STABO RIG - REAR VI EW
Page 34
STABO RIG - READY FOR EXTRACTION
Page 35
FOLDED A7A STRAP WITH SNAP LINK - HANSON RIG
Page 36
MEAS URING THE LOOP - HANSON RIG
Page 37
DONNING HANSON RIG - STEP 1
Page 38
DONNING HANSON RIG - STEP 2
Page 39
DONNING HANSON RIG - STEP 3
Page 40
READY FOR EXTRACTION - FRONT
Page 41
READY FOR EXTRACTION - REAR
CHAPTER V PATROLLING TECHNIQUES 5.1 GENERAL. This chapter is intened to provide tips on selected patrolling subjects which are especially pertinent to RT operations. No effort has been made to cover every possible subject because of the vast scope of topics and the wide range of opinions on each topic. In the last analysis, it'is the basic military training of the team and the good judgment of the team leader, not exotic techniques or equipment, which determines the outcome of the mission. In this regard, there is no substitute for team training. The following sections contain selections of techniques which have worked for other RT's at other times. It is up to each team leader to determine their applicability to his own team and circumstances. 5.2
PATROLLING TIPS a.
Preparation Phase.
(1) Thorough map study. Know the terrain in your objective area; on short patrols, memorize your route; for long patrols, select terrain features to help keep you oriented. (2) Use of difficult terrain. Impassable terrain is very rare and you have less chance of encountering the enemy along your route. (3) "Offset" method should be employed on route of march. An offset is a planned magnetic deviation to the right or left of the straight line azimuth to an objective.
NOTE: Each degree you offset will move you about 17 meters to the right or left for each 1000 meters you travel . (4) Alternate rallying points. Select alternate rallying points in the event the enemy has occupied your primary. (5)
Consider the use of special equipment.
(a)
Grenades.
1. White phosphorous--for breaking contact or for destroying caches of equipment or food. 2. Fragmentation--for breaking contact and making booby traps to delay enemy in the event he is chasing you. 3.
Smoke--marking LZ's, airstrikes, etc.
(b) M79 Grenade Launcher--consider type of vegetation in which you will be operating . If dense, perhaps you will not want to take an M79.
42
(c) Claymore mines--Extremely useful for protecting your perimeter during long halts, booby traps for delaying the enemy in event he is chasing you, ambush, etc. (d) Gloves--If the vegetation has thorns or if you expect to have to travel in a mountainous area where you might have to rappell, you would definitely want to carry a pair of gloves. (e) Rope--Again, if you were going "i n t o a mountainous area, you might want to take along a rope to use in rappelling. Another use for this rope might be for tying prisoners. (f) Flares--Flares are useful for signalling aircraft; in addition, they are useful in starting fires in the event you wanted to destroy some type of flammable material; i.e., rice cache, fuel or ammo storage area, etc. (g) Flashlight--In the event a man is wounded or injured during the hours of darkness, a light may be necessary in order to treat his wounds. Also, with proper filters, can be used as signalling device. (h) Poncho--In addition to protecting you from the rain, the poncho can be used as an improvised litter, a raft to keep your equipment dry when crossing streams. (i) Binoculars--for observation. In addition, binoculars increase your vision at night. They also make a good telephoto lens when taking pictures of distant objects. (j) Camera with film--Like the old saying, "A picture is worth a thousand words," it is good to back up your intelligence gathering with a picture. That way there can be no doubt that what you say was there, was there. If possible, when taking pictures, try to include a common unit of measurement to show size (man, cigarette, etc.) or a prominent land mark if photographing terrain. (k) Sharp knife--the tip here is not to carry a knife, but to carry a sharp knife. There is hardly anything as useless as a dull knife. (6)
Test firing of weapons.
(a) Once you have test fired your weapon, don't take it apart to clean it again. If y~u are worried about the carbon, run a patch through the bore and let it go. Once you take it apart, you are not sure it works once you put it together again unless you fire it.
43
(b) Always carry the cleaning rod along with you. This is not so you can clean your weapon while you are on patrol, but as an immediate action tool. One of the most common malfunctions of the M16 is the extraction of the spent round. If yours fails to extract, it's for sure you are not going to pull the cartridge out with your fingernails. If you have the rod with you, it is a simple matter of running it down the bore and knocking the cartridge out. (7)
Signalling.
(a) Arm and hand signals--Practice and ensure each team member knows all arm and hand signals you plan to use on your patrol. (b)
Practice the signals you will use after dark.
(8)
Communications.
(a) Tape emergency frequencies and artillery request format to handset of radio. (b) Put up field expedient antenna each night in the event you are hit by the enemy you won't have any trouble reaching help. (c) b.
Preset artillery frequency. Execution Phase.
(1)
Change point man and compass man occasionally.
(2)
Use of terrain.
(3)
Carrying of weapons.
(a) Always have weapon pointed in the direction in which you are looking. If you don't, the split second it takes you to move it may cost you your life. (b)
Preparation of Weapon.
1.
Remove sling swivels.
1.
Tape bore to keep out dirt and debris.
3.
Tape upper hand guard to prevent rattling.
!:!.
Tape dust cover to prevent metallic "click" in the event it is accidentally opened.
1. Tape stock to break outline of weapon. Tape may also be used in emergency to gag prisoners, repair tears in uniform, etc.
44
(1) Avoid trails, streams, and roads. Due to a lack of maps, these are the most common routes of travel by the enemy. In addition, don't forget to check out trees while moving through the jungle. Trail watchers often use them. (2)
Crossing of trails, streams, and roads.
(a)
Skirmish line.
(b)
File.
(c)
A few at a time.
(3)
Avoid human habitations.
(4)
Sterilize trail.
(5)
Actions at halts.
(a)
Security.
(b)
If men have difficulty in staying awake, have them kneel rather than
(c)
Sleep close enough to touch each other.
sit.
1.
If you snore, put handkerchief around mouth.
2.
Do not remove equipment while sleeping.
c.
Lessons Learned.
(1)
Dead foliage may be old camouflage.
(2)
Tied down or cut down brush may be a firing lane.
(3) stakes.
Avoid streams and moats in an inhabited area; they may contain punji
(4)
Unoccupied houses may contain booby traps.
(5)
Be cautious of all civilians.
(6)
Do not set a pattern.
(7)
Always expect an ambush.
(8) Take advantage of inclement weather; however, be careful because you cannot call an airstrike or call for extraction. (9)
Never return over the same route. 45
(10) In sudden engagements, fire low. hit at all.
A richochet is better than no
(11)
In selection of LZs, avoid overuse or "likely" LZs.
(12)
Smoking.
(a)
Take medicine for men who cough.
(b)
Method of coughing.
(13)
Noise discipline.
(14)
Method of walking.
(a)
Hard ground - Toe to heel.
(b)
Soft ground - entire foot.
(15)
Actions at meal halts.
(a)
One man eats at a time.
(b)
One man goes for water.
(c) Keep one ration prepared at all times. the one you had prepared the previous meal.
46
Prepare one ration, then eat
CHAPTER VI TRACKING AND USE OF HUMAN SENSES IN OBTAINING COMBAT INTELLIGENCE 6.1 HUMAN SENSES. The use of the human senses in obtaining and developing combat intelligence is very important, especially in a guerrilla type environment such as exists in Vietnam. Just by smelling, touching, and/or listening, valuable information can be gained about the enemy. a.
Smell.
(1) Smell is very important in that it can be employed to detect the enemy before he sees you, and also to determine what he is doing now, or has been doing in the past. Cigarette smoke can be detected up to one quarter mile if wind conditions are right. You can also smell fish, garlic, and other foods being cooked for several hundred meters. You may even be able to detect a person who has been eating garlic, or other specific food, from a considerable distance, thus discovering a guerrilla ambush before your patrol walks into it. In Vietnam, there are many types of wood used for fuel. By being able to identify the smell of some of these types of wood, you may be able to determine the purpose of the fire and the general location of the fire, or guerrilla camp or patrol base. (2) For the man who seldom or never uses soap, after-shave lotion, and other such toilet articles, it is easy for him to detect a person using these items for a considerable distance. In some areas of the world, the best way to prevent detection is not to use these items. The British discovered this in Malaya. Once they set an ambush on a known guerrilla trail. The guerrillas avoided and bypassed the ambush. Later, one of those guerrillas was captured, and he told the British that he was in the guerrilla patrol that they were trying to ambush. He said they smelled the bath soap which had been used by the ambushing party. In other cases, the guerrillas smelled the food that had been previously eaten by ambushing parties and were alerted. Insect repellent is another item that you can smell for a distance. If the local indigenous population doesn't use it, your recon team shouldn't either. (3) Another item emitting a distinctive odor is explosives. You can tell that someone has been working with them just by the smell of his hands or clothes. b.
Touch.
(1) In the future you may find yourself having to search buildings, tunnels, or enemy dead at night with no means for lighting the area; or lights cannot be used for security reasons. When this happens, you must rely principally on touch, hearing, and smell. (2) To use the sense of touch to identify an object, you consider four factors--shape, moisture, temperature, and texture. By shape we mean the general outline of the object. Moisture refers to the moisture content of the object (wet or dry). Temperature is the heat or lack of heat of an object.
47
Texture is the smoothness or roughness of the object. By considering all these aspects, you \v i 1 1 b e able to b asically identify the object. Your a b i l i t y to determine \vha t a n object is by touch may save your life. A good e x amp l e of this is th e timely detection of trip wi r e s by using the exposed portion of your arm for f e eling. Another method of searching for trip \vi r e s is the use of a very fine branch. Hold it in front of you a nd you can feel it strike anythin g. Another method is the u se of a piece of wire with a small we i gh t on one end, holding it in front of you as you wa l k . This method has proven to be quite e ff ect ive . During the Korean Wa r , on occasion, the Turks wo u l d r emove all their clothing prior to departing on patrol. If wh i l e in "no-man's land," they came in cont act wi t h someone, they merely felt or touched them a nd if they felt clothing, they killed them. This, too, has proven effective. c.
Hearing.
(1) The sound of a safety latch being released on a rifle or machine gun could wa r n you of an ambush or a sniper. The sound of sudden fli ght of wi l d a n i ma ls or birds may indic ate enemy movement. The sounds of dogs barking could wa r n others of your approach to a village. You must be able to determine wh e t h e r you h ave been discovered or whether the do gs are barking for another reason. Sudden cessation of normal \vi l d 1 i f e noises may indicate passa ge of enemy, or the animal' s or bird's det ection of y o u . Thu s, it is important th at you become familiar \vi t h distress or wa r n i ng cries of birds and wi l d a n i ma l s of the area of operations. Th e sound of a man talking, running, or crawling a r e important s o u nd s to recogniz e. In r econnaissance wo r k , the t e am should a lwa y s move cautiously enough to he ar s o u nd s made by the enemy before the enemy hears or sees the recon team. Another very import ant sound is the striker of a hand grenade and the s o u nd of th e h andle flying off. Sound also can a s s i s t you in determining r ange to a n e xplosion or blast. If you can see the flash of the e xplosion and can d etermine the number of seconds from the flash to the time you h ear the sound you c an determine the approximate r ange. To use this method you must be able to see the fl ash of the e xplosion. Sound travels at about 1100 feet per second. For all practic al purposes, we can say sound travels at 400 meters p er s e c o nd . \-lith a little pr actice you can learn to determine range of enemy we apo n s using fl a sh/b ang method of rang e determination. It is also important th at you be a b l e to identify the typ e and calibr e of various types of wea po ns b y sound of the report of the weapons. 6. 2 TRACKI NG. Tr acking, combined wi t h the us e of the basic human s enses is anoth er important source of combat intelligence, as evidenced by the following e x ample: As the recon team moved through the jungle, it came upon a crest wh i c h had recently been evacu ated by the enemy. The crest \vas pocketed wi t h rifle pits. In the spoil a r o u nd the pits we r e blurred footprints. The holes we r e deep but not as w Lde as American GI' s di g them. It wa s concluded from these signs that the hill had recently been held by the enemy.
48
Several men prowled the jungle b e l.ow and found numerous piles of elephant dung; enough to suggest that upwards of 20 of the animals had been picketed there. The dung was still fairly fresh--about two days they figured. In one area there was a small frame house, carefully camouflaged and we Ll.vbunk e r e d in; it looked like a command post. There were a dozen or so split gourds strewn about the room. Bits of cooked rice--perhaps 15 or 20 grains in all--still clung to the sides. They were still soft to the touch. Adding all these things together, it was speculated that an enemy force of approximately battalion strength had held the same ground not more than 48 hours before. The ability to read and interpret signs left by the enemy is of course important in a conventional warfare enviornment, but this ability takes on increased importance in the guerrilla environment, because this evidence of the guerrilla--the signs left by him--is all that you may find for days, weeks, or even months, wh i.I.e involved in counter-guerrilla warfare. The following are the basic elements of human tracking: a. Displacement. The disturbance of soil, vegetation, or wildlife from its natural state. (1) Footprints. Footprints can indicate several things: The number of personnel in a party, direction of movement, sex, and in some cases the type of load being borne by the person or party making the prints. Persons traveling in a group will usually leave one set of clear footprints, these being made by the last person in the group. By studying a set of prints for worn or unworn heels, cuts in the heels, tread pattern of the soles, one may be able to recognize them again. Also note the angle of the impression from the direction of movement. Normally spaced prints with exceptionally deep toe prints indicate that the person leaving the prints was probably carrying a heavy load. If you follow the tracks you may find where the load was placed on the ground during a rest break. Then by studying these prints and the surrounding area, you may get some idea of what the load consisted. (2) Vegetation. When vegetation is stepped on, dragged out of place, or when branches are broken, the lighter colored undersides will show unnaturally. This will be easier to see by looking at the trail into the sun. Vines will be broken and dragged parallel to or toward the direction of movement. Grass, when stepped on, will usually be bent towards the direction of movement. When the bark on a log or root is scuffed, the lighter inner wood will show, leaving an easily detected sign. (3) Shreds of clothing. The jungle environment is very hard on clothing. It is not unconrrnon to find threads or bits of cloth clinging to the underbrush, particularly if movement was hurried. (4) Birds and animals. Another type of displacement may occur when wild birds and animals are suddenly flushed from their hiding places. Birds, in particular, usually emit cries of alarm when disturbed. Animals will also run away from man. You should definitely be familiar with the distress signals of the wild animals and birds of your area of operations.
49
b. Staining. location.
The deposition of liquids or soils not natural to a specific
(1) Bloodstains. Look for bloodstains on the ground and on leaves and underbrush to the average height of man. Examine stains for color and consistency. (2) Soil. Observe logs, grass, and stones for signs of soil displacement from footgear. The color and composition of the soil may indicate a previous location or route over which a party has been moving. The muddying of clear water is a sign of very recent movement which can be picked out by the most untrained eye. If the water in footprints is clear, this may indicate the trail is an hour or more old. c. Littering . Littering is a direct result of ignorance, poor discipline, or both. If the enemy should litter the trail, take full advantage of his carelessness. Some examples of littering are cigarette butts, scraps of paper and cloth, match sticks, ration cans, and abandoned equipment. Observe along the trail and to the flanks for these items. Uncovered human feces is another example of littering. d. Weathering. trail signs. (1)
The effect of rain, wind, and sun on the appearance of
Rain.
(a) On footprints. A light rain will "round out" footprints and give the appearance that they are old. A heavy rain will completely obliterate footprints in a very short time. (b) On litter. Rain will flatten paper scraps and other litter such as ammunition bandoleers and cloth scraps. By close examination you can determine whether the litter was discarded before or after the last rain. Thus, it is very important that you always remember the day of the last significant rainfall. (2)
Sunlight.
(a) On footprints. Footprints, when first made, will have a ridge of moist dirt pushed up around the sides. Sunlight and air will dry this ridge of dirt, causing a slow crumbling effect. If actual crumbling is observed by the tracker, this is an indication that the prints were made very recently and increased stealth should be employed. (b) On litter. Sunlight bleaches and discolors light colored paper and cloth. Such colored litter will first go through a yellowing stage and then eventually, turn completely white. Of most interest to us is the yellowing stage. After one night, yellow spots will begin to form; it takes about 30 days for such litter to become completely yellow. On dark colored paper or cloth, you must determine how much paper has faded. The only guideline for this is experience .
50
(3)
Wind.
(a) On footprints. Wind may blow grass, leaves, sand, and other light litter into the prints. Examine the litter to determine whether is has been crushed. If not, it will be important to remember when the wind was last blowing. (b) On litter. Litter may be blown away from the trail; therefore, it may be necessary to search back and forth along the trail to locate it. (4) Combination of above. All the elements of weather will cause metal to rust. Check recently exposed portions of metal. For example, closely examine the rim of ration cans where the opener stripped the paint. Rust will form in these places within 12 hours or less. (5) Effect of wind and air currents while tracking. Be aware that wind and air currents carry sound and odor. This knowledge can be used to your advantage when attempting to locate the enemy. Whenever you hear a noise, if you will rotate the upper body with the ears cupped with the hands until the noise is the loudest, the direction you are facing will usually be the source of the noise. When there is no wind, air currents generally flow downhill at night and uphill in daylight. These elements can also be a disadvantage; for example, if following a trail that leads into a guerrilla village, and the wind is to your back, dogs may bark warning of your approach. A good tracker constantly considers all these factors. 6.3 EVADING TRACKERS. There are three basic methods of getting trackers off of the trail of an RT. These are: (1) ambushing the trackers; (2) use of demolitions; and (3) covering trail. a. Ambushing Trackers. This is usually a relatively simple matter in itself, since trackers are normally unarmed. The danger is the possibility of an armed force following close behind. An often effective tactic is to double back on the trail at an angle of forty-five degrees and lay the ambush. This may cause some delay in a reaction force reaching the ambush site after it is triggered because of possible uncertainty as to the exact direction of travel of the team. Whatever the configuration of the ambush selected (see paragraph 5.4) it should be accomplished as quickly as possible once it is triggered, and the site immediately departed at a direction away from the direction of movement into the ambush. h. Use of Demolitions. delay or eliminate trackers.
The following procedures utilizing demolitions may See chapter X for methods of preparation.
(1) Claymore with time fuze. Set this on the back trail with the fuze cut to the approximate length of time you estimate the trackers to be behind you. (2) M14 Mines. This method is most effective if the mines are planted in a triangular pattern about two feet apart. The location of these mines must be recorded and reported as with any others.
51
(3) Grenade with Trip Wire. This has the disadvantage of taking more time to install than other methods, but unless seen first will almost always be detonated by anyone following. This method has the advantage over the M14 of larger casualty radius. Grenades employed in this fashion must be recorded and reported in the same fashion as mines. (4) Whether or not these devices actually cause casualties, their detonation or discovery by trackers may cause them to proceed more slowly. They also provide early warning to the team. c. Covering Trail. This should be done as a matter of course at all times. The "tail gunner" is the man upon whom responsibility for this lies. The team should proceed slowly enough so that he has enough time to do a proper job of rubbing out footprints. Bending back foliage, etc. Any item of discard which may give away the presence and/or direction of movement of the team, such as gum wrappers, pieces of tape, etc., should be stowed in a bag to be disposed of on completion of the mission. Rest and RON areas must be thoroughly policed and sterilized, to include replacing bent foliage into its original position, erasing footprints, etc. When it is necessary to evade trackers, it may be possible to deceive them by making an obvious trail, then doubling b ack and moving off at an angle, covering the new trail. Because of the abilities of most trackers, this method will not work unless the start of the new trail is carefully covered. In most cases, once trackers are on the general trail of a team, it is best to take some active measure against them such as in a and b above. Frequent changes of direction will make the trackers' job more difficult, however.
52
CHAPTER Vll INTELLIGENCE 7.1
REPORTING ENEMY ACTIVITY a.
General-Key Word Salute.
(1)
Size.
(2)
Activity.
(3)
Location.
(4)
Unit identifica tion.
(5)
Time.
(6)
Equipment.
b.
Gun Positions.
(1)
Type.
(2)
Strength.
(3)
Age.
(4)
Field of fire.
c.
Enemy Troops.
(1)
Number.
(2)
Uniform.
(3)
Weapons.
(4)
Foot gear.
(5)
Direction of movement.
(6 )
Language.
d.
Vehicles.
(1) Genera 1 description.
(2)
Type cargo.
(3)
Number of wheels/tracks.
(4)
Type engine.
(5)
Speed.
53
(6)
Direction.
(7)
Number of vehicles.
(8)
Interva 1.
(9)
Lights.
(10)
Markings.
(11)
Security.
(12)
Size of tracks on road-depth, width, and width between tracks.
e.
Terrain and Vegetation.
(1)
Elevation.
(2)
Slope.
(3)
Bamboo & trees - height and diameter.
(4)
Vines
(5)
Shrubs.
(6)
Type canopy.
f.
- length and
diameter.
Weather.
(1)
Cloud cover.
(2)
Temperature range.
(3)
Visibility.
(4)
Precipitation - frequency and amount.
(5)
Moon illumination.
g.
Streams and Rivers.
(1)
Width.
(2)
Depth.
(3)
Angle of banks.
(4)
Height of banks.
(5)
Composition of banks.
(6)
Direction and speed of current. 54
(7)
Water clear or cloudy.
(8)
Potable water.
h.
Trails and Roads.
(1)
Direction.
(2)
Type surface.
(3)
Canopy overhead.
(4)
Width.
(5)
Indications of use.
(6)
Vivibility from air.
(7)
Able to observe aircraft from ground.
(8)
Signs or markers.
(9)
Tracks.
(10)
Wheel vehicle.
(11)
Cart.
(12)
Track vehicle.
(13)
Bicycle.
(14)
Foot.
(15)
Draft animals.
(16)
Turn-around points.
(17)
Rest-stop areas.
(18)
Installations nearby.
(19)
Security.
(20)
Soil sample.
t.
Bridges.
(1)
Type construction.
(2)
Capacity.
(3)
Number lanes.
55
(4)
Width and length .
(5)
Type (vehicle or foot).
j . (1)
Banks.
( 2)
Depth .
(3)
Direction and speed of current.
k. 7. 2
Fords.
Reporting Friendly Casual ties .
DEBRIEFING FORMAT a.
Visual Recon.
(1)
Signific ant enemy sightings .
( 2)
Indications of enemy activity.
(3)
Primary and alternate L2 data.
b.
Organiza tion.
(1)
Composition (i.e., 3 US, 9INDIG).
( 2)
List by name.
c.
Equipment.
(1)
\veapons.
(a)
Individual small a rms •
(b)
Mines.
(c)
Grenades.
(d)
Booby traps.
(e)
Demolitions.
( f)
M-72 LAH.
(g)
Special we a po n s .
( 2)
Signal.
(a)
FM Radios .
(b)
HT -l's.
56
(c)
Smoke.
(d)
Panels.
(e)
Signal Mirrors.
(f)
Strobe Lights.
(g)
UHF URC 10.
(h)
PEN Flares.
(3)
Other.
(a)
Compasses.
(b)
Flashlights.
(c)
Individual Items.
(d)
Binoculars.
(e)
Cameras.
d.
Mission. An exact duplicate of the mission assigned to the team."
e.
Terrain.
(1)
Landform.
(2)
Vegetation.
(a)
Lowland.
(b)
Ridge and mountain sides.
(c)
High ground, ridge tops and hilltops.
(3)
Rivers and streams.
(a)
Location.
(b)
Width.
(c)
Depth.
(d)
Current (speed and direction).
(e)
Slope of bank.
(f)
Composition of soil on bottom and banks.
57
(g)
Dimensions of dry bed.
(h)
Are large streams navigable.
(4)
Trails (Identify by number as location during opn).
(a)
Direction and location.
(b)
Width.
(c) Estimate of use (man or animals, footprints (describe prints: feet, cleated soles, hard soles), direction of movement). (d)
Overhead canopy.
(e)
Undergrowth along sides of the trail.
(f)
Direction signs, symbols, signals found along the route.
bare-
(g) Surface characteristics (hard packed or soft earth, dead vegetation; light brush growth, etc). (5)
Roads.
(a)
Direction.
(b)
Width.
(c)
Surface Material .
(d)
Indications of movement on the road.
(e)
Maintenance of road (craters repaired, etc.).
(f)
Description of vehicle tracks.
(6)
Soil.
(a)
Appearance (color) .
(b)
Hardness (dry, wet, muddy, very muddy).
(c)
Standing water.
(7)
Note deviations from map of landforms, treelines, water-ways, trails,
etc. f.
Weather.
(1)
Visibility.
(2)
Cloud cover.
(3)
Rainfall. 58
r ,~
i
(4)
Ground fog.
(5)
Winds.
(6)
Temperatures.
(7)
Illumination.
(8)
Effects on personnel.
g.
Communications.
(1)
Was jamming encountered?
(2)
Problems in contacting air-relay.
(3)
Difficulties with set.
(4)
Indications of enemy RDF capability.
(5)
Was ground relay used (Army/Marines), if so problems encountered, i f
any. h.
Narrative.
The narrative is a chronological detailed statement emphasizing time, movement activities, and observations within the area of operations. (1)
Insert (Time and place) .
(2)
Movement (Direction and distances) .
(3)
Observations of human activity .
(a)
Where were people seen?
(b)
When?
(c)
Number.
(d)
Civilian or military.
(e)
Ethnic group , language, etc.
(f)
Clothing (color, condition), footgear, headgear, trousers, shirts.
(g)
Equipment (color, size, shape, condition).
(h)
Small arms (condition/type).
(i)
What were the people doing?
(j)
If military, well-disciplined or para-military.
(k)
Apparent physical condition. 59
(4)
Observations of structures.
(a)
Where located?
(b)
How many?
(c)
Shape, size, purpose.
(d)
Construction materials .
(e)
Markings.
(f)
Contents of structure.
(g)
Estimate of last use.
(h)
Indications of family occupancy.
(i)
Animals or animal pen near structures.
(j)
Crops close to structure.
(5)
Observations of emplacements.
(a)
Where (trenches, foxholes, bunkers, AW positions)?
(b)
Type.
(c)
Field or paddy size .
(d)
Care of crops.
(e)
Stage of development.
(f)
Food cached in area.
(g)
Abundance of crops compared to the number of people.
(h)
Any efforts made to hide crops from air.
(6)
Observations of animals .
(a)
What type, where, how many?
(b)
Wild or tame.
(c)
Condition.
(d)
Drayage animals.
(7)
Enemy tactics.
(a)
What was the enemy's reaction to the team?
60
--(b)
How did the enemy indicate that he was aware of the team's presence
in the area? (c)
Was the team followed - by how large a force?
(d)
Was the team attacked aggressively when discovered?
(e)
Was the team surrounded?
(f)
Did the enemy attempt to avoid contact?
(g)
What reaction did the enemy have when he was attacked?
(h) What action did the enemy take when helicopters arrived to remove the team or insert a large force? ( L)
S i g na 1 s i f any.
(j)
Discipline of enemy force.
(k)
Indications of enemy training and discipline.
i.
Air-strikes.
(1)
How many were called?
(2)
Locations.
(3)
What results?
(4)
Was the ordnance effective against the target?
(5)
Include those not called by team but observed in area.
(6)
Effects of ARC lights.
(7)
Report effects of commando lava.
j.
Mines.
(1)
Exact location.
(2)
Details of placement.
(3)
Sketch (for target folder).
(4)
Types of mines employed.
(5)
Number of mines.
(6)
Detonation of mines
k.
& results if known.
Added Information. 61
(1)
Anything not otherwise covered.
(2)
General estimate of the extent of military activity in the area.
(3)
Signals.
(a)
Was there an identifiable pattern to the signals? What was the Are different methods of signalling integrated in the system?
pattern? (b)
Were the signals related to enemy activity?
(c)
What was the apparent meaning of the signals?
(d)
Are different types of signals used in different areas?
1.
Recommendations.
(1) Items of equipment or material that can be used to improve our operational capability. (2)
Operational techniques that can be used to improve operations.
(3)
Performance bonus for indigenous personnel.
m.
7.3
Results of Enemy Encounter.
(1)
Friendly losses.
(2)
Enemy losses.
(3)
Enemy sightings.
HAND HELD AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY a.
Camera Operation.
(1)
Exposure procedures for Pentax.
(a)
Determine ASA speed of film.
(b)
Set the ASA speed in the window at the top of the shutter control.
(c)
Attach the desired lens, i.e., 200-mm or 55-rom.
(d) Set the shutter speed dial so that the desired speed is read opposite the reference mark. Try to use 1/1,000 SEC whenever possible. (e) If filters are used attach them to the camera prior to turning on the exposure meter. (f)
Turn Spotmatic Meter on by pushing the "SW" switch up.
(g)
Rotate aperature ring to obtain the correct "f-stop" or aperature Do not change the shutter speed.
setting.
62
(h) Correct exposure will be indicated when the needle on the right side of the view-finder is centered on the reverse C opening. The needle pointing to the + sign indicates overexposure while the needle pointing to the - sign indicates underexposure. When photographing objectives located in shadows caused by heavy tree canopy, you may have to overexpose the photograph. (i) Do not adjust the shutter speed unless you cannot center the e xposure needle and there are no more f-stop settings available. Then th e shutter speed dial can be moved from 1/1000 to /1500. All a e r i a l photography should be taken at either of these two shutter speeds, preferably 1/1000 sec. This Ivill reduce image motion or blur to a minimum. (2)
Focusing.
(a) Focusing should be kept at infinity 00. With the 200 - mm lens set on 00, everything from 200 feet to infinity Iv i l l be in focus and appear sharp on the photograph. (b) When using the 200 - mm lens it is suggested that masking tape be used to secure the focus a t 00 (Infinity). This wi l l ensure th at aircraft vibrations a nd accident al bumps Ivi l l not put the c amera out of focus. b. (1)
Factors of Good Photogra£hy. Cameras and eguipment.
(a) The Asahi Penta x 35-mm c amera fitted Iv i t h a 200 - mm lens has proven to be an ideal system for use in the 0-1, 0- 2, a nd UH-ID a i r c r a f t . The lens has f-stop from F/4 to F/22 and shutter speeds up to l/lOOOth of a second. (b) Taking photographs from any a e r i a l pl atform is simple, but one important factor must be understood and remembered~ The s pe ed a nd vibrations of the aircraft creates movement of the target in rel ation to the c amera. This movement creates image motion or blurring of the ima ge on the film. Thi s blur must be minimized, if not completely stopped, or the subject matte~ c n the photograph wi l l not be recognized. (c) High shutter speed is the best wa y of s t o pp i ng ima ge motion. The recommended setting is 1/1000 . Under poor li ghting conditions 1/500th of a second can be used, ho wever, this increases the ch anc es of image motion. (d) The aperature (f/stop) is determined by both the brightness of the light and the ASA speed of the film. The American Standards Association being equal 200 ASA film needs tlvice the amount of li ght to make a proper exposure as on with a speed of 400 ASA . (e) An ultraviolet (UV) filter s hou l d be used at all times as it wi l l eliminate most of haze and mist . (2)
Techniques.
(a) On most aircraft, vibration is e xtensive. The camera should NOT be braced on any portion of the aircraft. Vibrations can be absorbed by the photographer's body and arms. Hold your elbows close to your body and you will not only eliminate some of the vibrations, but steady the camera.
63
(b) If at all possible take your photographs with the sun at your back. By shooting with the sun you will minimize the effect of haze, eliminate glare and, of course, obtain much better photography. Acceptable photos may be obtained shooting into the sun, if the sun is high in the sky and you use a lens shade. However, you usually obtain much higher quality photos by shooting with the sun at your back. (c) Glass or plastic windows. Do not attempt to photograph through glass or plastic windows of an aircraft, since these windows are not optically perfect and definition will be lost. Not only will the amount of light passing through the windows be reduced, but they will reflect light rays and thus tend to throw images out of focus. Plastic windows have about the same image deteriorating effects as plate glass. (d) If at all possible it is suggested that the photographer shoot forward along the aircraft's flight path to an angle of no greater than 45 degrees to either side. The photographer observing from this position can search for approaching point targets, since the flight path is heading him toward the target. Shooting forward reduces image motion and results in better photos. This technique can be utilized when flying as low as 500 feet if the 50-rom lens is used.
(e) If, because of aircraft obstructions (wing struts, etc.), it becomes necessary to photograph your objective at an angle greater than 45 degrees from the flight path, it is best to use a panning technique. This is required to negate the blurring effect due to the relative motion of the objective. The subject is first picked-up in the viewfinder at some distance ahead of the aircraft. Swing the camera keeping the objective centered in the viewfinder as the aircraft approaches it. When the objective is closest to the aircraft take the picture and follow thru with the swing as the objective passes to the rear. This is the same technique as you wou l d use in bird or skeet shooting . (f) In cases where a series of photos of larger objectives is desired the pilot can put the aircraft into a tight turn around the objective. This would give the photographer enough time to take the pictures. In this case it should not be necessary to pan but merely snap your pictures as the relative motion of the objective is greatly reduced.
64
(3)
Daylight expo sure table f or black a nd white films.
CLOUDY BRIGHT (No Shadows)
HE AVY OVERCAST
ASA
BRIGHT SUN (Distinct Shadows)
PLUS-X ASA 125
1/ 1000 sec.F/5.6
1/500 sec.F/4
NOT RECOMMENDED
PLUS-X''( at ASA 250
1/1000 sec.F/8
1/1000 sec.F/4
1/500 sec.F/4
TRI-X ASA 400
1/1000 sec.F/ll
1/ 1000 sec.-
1/1000 sec.F/4
FILM
F/5.6
*Spec ial Development. The photo lab wou l d ne ed to know that you ex po s ed the roll at th is higher ASA than normal. Al so, you must expose the complete roll at this higher ASA rating. 7.4
REQUIRED DATA
a . To properly process the film and to obtain the maximum intelligence and operational data from the photos certain data i s required for each frame/roll. (1)
Film processing .
(a)
Type of camera/lens.
(b) camera) .
ASA rating used (Not ASA printed on film pack but ASA setting used on
(c)
Shutter speed/f-stop.
(d)
Lighting conditions, i.e. , bright sun , etc.
65
Photographer/Target
.
Camera/Lens Shutter/f-stop ASA Rating Used
.
Lighting
EXP. NO.
UTM GRID
DATE/
SUBJECT
TIME
66
r t
(2)
Intelligence.
i
(a)
Identity of photographer/team.
(b)
Date and time of photo.
,~
(c) UTM grid coordinates (Could be marked on a map with numbers corresponding to individual frames). (d)
Subject.
It is suggested that the photographer keep a log of the above information as the photographs are taken. 7.5
PHOTOGRAPHY a. (1)
General. Why take pictures?
(a) A camera is not just an extra piece of equipment to be carried along on a reconnaissance mission. It is one of the most valuable assets you will have in your intelligence collection effort. For the intelligence community to make proper use of what your eyes see, they must have a detailed and accurate description. The easiest way to bring this information back is to record it on film . Not only is photography the easiest way of recording a vast amount of information in a short period of time, but it provides a permanent record of what you saw which can then undergo detailed and extensive exploitation. (b) In addition to its value to the intelligence community, the photography you take helps you and any other RT who may be going back to the same target at a later date. It provides a visual description of what the terrain and vegetation is like. If the proper type of photos were taken they can also give indications of types and locations of enemy activity, areas to avoid, and things to look for. (2) Who uses this photography that is so difficult and expensive to get? As mentioned previously, you yourself may very well find yourself reviewing your or someone else's photography prior to a scheduled mission. Intelligence also uses them in much the same manner for mission planning. Probably the most important use of all though is the exploitation of these pictures by the intelligence community. The S-2 is the first person to review and evaluate your results. He forwards photos of value, along with your verbal description of the subject matter. b.
Subject Matter.
(1) What should you take pictures of? Traces of human activity usually are quite obvious if you are looking for them. For the most part, human activity has the most intelligence value. But information on naturally occuring phenomena (terrain, vegetation, etc.) is also of great importance for planning purposes. It will be up to you to determine what will and will not 67
be photographed. The following is a guide on the types of subject matter you should photograph. It is only a guide and not all inclusive. Generally, it might be said that if something appears to you to be unusual or suspicious, take a picture. Film is probably the least expensive item you are carrying and there is no picture taken on a mission that would be considered as a waste. (a) Installations--any type of construction, permanent or temporary. In addition to taking several close up shots of interesting items, try to get one or two pictures of the overall installation. If necessary, pan the camera--that is, take several photos in sequence starting at one end of the area of interest and move the camera a little after each exposure until the whole area has been covered. Overlap the photos somewhat to ensure that nothing is missed. Close ups should show det ails of construction and the type activity the structure wa s intended for. Installations include such things as camps, bivouac areas, fortifications, buildings, training areas, equipment mockups, trenches, foxholes, bridges, etc. If present, include accessory structures . (b) Equipment--any equipment s e e n should be photo graphed. Besides an overall picture of the item, attempt to take a close-up of any identifying markings. If the emplacement of the equipment is significant or if it is used in conjunction with something el se, attempt to take an overall picture that includes the supported elements. Equipment includes weapons, trucks, tanks, boats, construction equipment, ammunition, etc. (c) Caches--besides an overall photo showing how the cache is laid out and ho w it is hidden, photos of individual items are necessary. Include all markings or symbols on bags, crates, equipment, etc. (d) Roads, trails, and vehicle tracks--any path for movement, from the narrowest foot path to the largest highway, should be photographed. Take a picture in both directions . Take several close-ups of the road surface and the shoulder to show construction type. Vehicle tracks on a road or anywhere else should be photographed sho wing individual tracks from several angles and sho wing both tracks on one e xposure. Size comparison is important for both roads and trails and vehicle tracks. (e) Communication lines--photograph any wires or poles found. If possible, compare size of wire with a known object (e.g., cartridge). Include cross pieces on poles and close-ups of insulators holding the wires. Also include photographs of the path that has been cut for the lines. (f) Personnel--these will be rare photographs. If you should happen to be in circumstances wh i c h allow it, by all means take the picture. However, photos of a person over 100 meters away (unless a sizeable telephoto lens is used) are of little value. Also, close-ups are next to impossible since the camera shutter makes a considerable amount of noise. Rather than the person himself , what is significant is anything on him that would help to identify his function, unit, ori gin, etc.
68
Ir (g) Terrain--little needs to be said about terrain and vegetation. It is there and should be photographed. Composition of the subject is important. Try to get a picture that will clearly show typical examples of terrain and vegetation . Here is one area where you can overdo--try not to take an excessive number of pictures of the same types of terrain and vegetation. Great quantities of photos tend to overload the processing facilities and clog up the exploitation channels. (2) Focusing--a photograph that is fuzzy is usually of little value. If your camera is of the fixed focus type make sure that you get no closer to the object than recommended. If you can focus the lens, make sure you have a sharp image before exposing the film. (3) Holding the camera steady--moving the camera while making an exposure also causes fuzzy pictures. The slow shutter speeds inherent in low light level photography demand that the camera be held rock steady during exposure. This can be done by bracing the camera against a tree or some other solid object. (4) Correct exposure~-following the operating instructions for the camera you are using and operating within the design limits of the camera will give you a correct exposure every time . However, at times you may be forced to expose the film under less than desirable conditions. Over or under-exposure can be compensated for during processing . (Fuzziness caused by camera movement or incorrect focus cannot). To compensate for under or over-exposure the photo facility must have certain information. The compensation merely consists of increasing the developing time for under-exposure or decreasing the development time for over-exposure . There are limits, of course, within which faulty exposure can be compensated. It should be obvious that one strip of film that contains under-exposed, over-exposed and normal exposure frames cannot be processed to obtain the best results from all. If such is the case, a determination must be made to process for the most important frames. (5) Shadows--usually shadows are undesirable because they tend to hide detail. In certain instances shadows may be beneficial . If they show depth of interesting silhouettes, include them in your pictures. (6) Centering the subject--attempt to center the point of interest in the viewfinder because this is the area of sharpest focus. If you cannot fit all of the subject in one frame, take several pictures but be sure to overlap enough so that nothing is missed. (7) Angles of view--for certain subjects (i.e., buildings, vehicle tracks, etc .), several photos should be taken from varying angles. This technique allows for a determination to be made of an object's dimensions as well as showing additional detail.
69
d.
Camera Operation.
(1) A manual for the p articul ar camera you are going to use should be made available to you for study by the S-2 at your C & C. Study it and the camera to make sure th at you a r e thoroughly familiar with its operation before taking it on a mission. (2) There are several basic points to be covered here. Some are obvious to the experienced photograph er, but are necessary reminders for them. They are essential factors for the beginner to know. Loading the camera--load only in subdued light, never in direct sunlight. Make sure that the camera is free of dirt before opening. Load the film. Ensure that the end of the film is properly reeled in the take-up spool and that the teeth on the sprocket spool engage the perforations on both sides of the film. Advance the film slightly to make sure that it travels properly. Close the camera and advance the film a minimum of three exposures (it is safer to waste one exposure than to take your first picture on already exposed film). Turn the rewind handle slightly until it takes up the slack in the film. (a)
(b) ASA setting--for the automatic exposure meter on a camera to function properly, the ASA rating of the film you are using must be set on the camera (i.e., Kodak Tri-X is rated at 400, Kodak Plus-X is rated at 125). On the Pen EE type camera the ASA rating is set on the numbered ring around the lens. On most other cameras the ASA rating is set on an indicator which is an integral part of the shutter speed control. (c) Focusing--fixed focus cameras are simple to operate and produce relatively sharp images at all distances, however, they all have a minimum distance at which they remain in focus. Any object closer to the camera than this minimum distance will be blurred. An adjustable focus camera Ivill yield blurred images for objects closer to or further from the object focused on. Therefore, it is essential that care be taken in focusing on the point of interest. (d) Shutter release--the shutter release should be pressed down like one squeezes the trigger of a weapon. A quick or jerky movement will cause the camera to move and result in fuzzy pictures.
(e) Manual exposure--the diaphra gm in the lens has a variable size opening in it wh i c h re gulates the amount of light exposing the film. The size of the opening is indicated in terms of an f-stop reading. The smaller numbers (i.e., 2.8) allow more light to enter the camera, the larger numbers (i.e., 11) allolv less light to enter the camera. To use the manual mode of operation, one must be able to accurately determine the amount of light available. Since this is impossible to do without the aid of a light meter, it is best to operate the camera automatically unless there is insufficient light to make a normal exposurE In that case, turn the f-stop ring to the 10lvest number and make your exposure. The film wi l l very likely be under-exposed.
70
(f) Rewinding the film--care must be exercised when taking pictures in order to avoid advancing so far as to separate it from the rewind spool. Never force the film if it ceases to advance before it is all used, merely rewind it and load with fresh film. When rewinding the film again exercise care so that you don't tear the film. Rewind the film all the way back into the cannister. If the film will not rewind all the way, don't force it or open the camera. Take the camera as it is back to the photo lab facility and have it opened in the dark-room. (g) Maintenance--it is essential that the camera and film be kept clean and dry. The camera should be kept in its case except during actual use and the film should be kept in a tightly closed screw top cannister \vh e ne v e r it is out of the camera. Both should be carried in sealable plastic bags. Before you take the camera on a mission, examine it to make sure it is operating properly and is free of rust and dirt. e. (1)
Data Required for Processing and Exploitation. Processing.
(a) Type of camera--state exact make and model (i.e., Pen EE-2, TOPCON RE SUPER, ASHAI PENTAX SPOTMATIC, etc.).
(b) ASA setting--the ASA setting which was set on the camera, not necessarily that which is listed on the film although they should correspond. (c) speeds.
Shutter speed--record from cameras that have adjustable shutter
(d)
F-stop--record f-stop if a manual setting was used.
(e)
Lighting conditions--i.e., deep shado w, bright sun, etc.
(2)
Exploitation.
(a)
Target designator.
(b)
Team name and/or photographer.
(c)
Date and time of photo.
(d)
UTM grid coordinates of photo and/or photographer.
(e)
Azimuth direction on which the photo wa s taken.
(f)
Brief description of subject matter.
(3) It is suggested that you keep a log of the essential information for each exposure made. This will help immeasurably during your debriefing. It is realized that there will be times when it is extremely difficult to record this information as soon as the picture is taken; howeve r , it should be recorded as soon as possible thereafter.
71
7.6
PRISONER SNATCHES a.
General.
(1) Introduction. One of the most lucrative sources of intelligence information is the prisoner of war. Little success has been experienced in this field in the past, primarily due to one or more of the following factors: (a)
The prisoner snatch teams have been assigned additional missions.
(b) Teams have not been thoroughly trained in proper techniques and have not been trained together long enough to acquire the expertise and cohesiveness required for successful mission accomplishment. (c) There has been a lack of patience toward, and training of, indigenous team members. (d) Team organization has been poor, especially in respect to the number of personnel assigned to the Prisoner Snatch Teams. (e) Suitable special equipment required for the prisoner snatch was not utilized or was utilized incorrectly. (2) The prisoner snatch mission is one of the most difficult to successfully accomplish. The results, however, can be well worth the efforts expended. From the time of mission initiation until final disposition of the prisoner all personnel involved must be fully oriented and keenly aware of the importance of their mission. (3) Criteria for selection of personnel to man the prisoner snatch team should include aggressiveness, a strong desire to succeed, a highly professional attitude and experience. At times, the situation will not permit selection of perfectly suited team members, however, the preceding listed criteria should be as closely adhered to as possible when forming prisoner snatch teams. (4) There should be a minimum of 12 personnel on the snatch team. Experience has shown that 12 - 15 is ideal, however, under certain conditions, the mission could be accomplished utilizing as few as 9, or as many as 25 - 30. The prisoner snatch team should be formed far enough in advance of a mission to accomplish team and pre-mission training, conduct briefings and briefbacks and conduct rehearsals over terrain that resembles that in the mission area. Team members should live, work and train together continually in order to develop finesse and expertise and to learn the strong points and shortcomings of each other. Although the situation rarely permits all indigenous or all U.S., teams should be formed for prisoner snatch. This assures almost one hundred percent effectiveness of command and control during the few critical moments of the actual snatch. b.
Ambush.
(1) A successful prisoner snatch is normally the result of a well executed ambush. There are cases when a mission is planned to make a prisoner snatch, kno wing exactly where the person to be snatched is located. The raid or kidnap method is utilized during this type of snatch and is rarely programmed in this organization. 72
(2) Based on the situation to include weather, terrain, known enemy strengths and weaknesses in the target area, availability of personnel, time frame involved, etc., the size of th e ambush for the snatch will be determined. Several will be illustrated here to lend an idea of what could be utilized in a particular situation. Advantages and disadvantages will be shown. (a) Ambush "A" (See illustration) utilizes a l2-man team - 3 US and 9 indigenous personnel. Organization is as follows: security - 8; snatch - 2; connno - 1; and connnand and control - 1. Equipment listed for ambush "A" includes 1 PRC-25 radio; 3 HT-l radios; weapons, claymores and grenades as required; in addition, whatever special equipment is required for the actual snatch. (b) Ambush "B II (See illustration) utilizes a 9-man team - 3 US and 6 indigenous personnel. Organization is as follows: security - 3; snatch - 2; assault - 2; connno - 1; and connnand and control - 1. Equipment listed for ambush "B" includes 1 PRC-25 radio; 2 HT-l radios; weapons, claymores and grenades as required; in addition, whatever special equipment is required fo r the actual snatch. (c) Ambush "c" (See illustration) utilizes a 30-man team - 3 US and 27 indigenous personnel. Organization is as follows: security - 15 ; snatch - 2; assault - 11; connno - 1; and connnand and control - 1. Equipment listed for ambush "c" includes 3 PRC-25 radios; 4 HT-l radios; 2 M-60 MGs; other weapons, claymores and grenades as required. In addition, whatever special equipment is required for the actual snatch. (3) Following are advantages and disadvantages of each of the illustrated ambushes: Advantages
Ambush
"A"
Group is small, mobile and within connnand and control span capacity of U.S. members.
~.
Disadvantages Relies on area weapons (Claymore & M-79) to kill rather than aimed fire.
~.
b . Equipment specified could be excessive, depending on terrain and climatic conditions.
b. Air support would not be excessive. £. Group is large enough to fight, small enough to evade and exfiltrate quickly.
73
Advantages a. Small size of group is easy to infil/ exfil. b.
Air support is minimal.
£.
No span of control problem.
~.
Group is large enough to fight if contact is made with hostile force.
Ambush
"B"
Disadvantages Some disadvantage during firefight because lightly armed.
~.
b. Plan envisions team exfil through area previously occupied by ambush elements.
"C"
a. Group requires large air support commitment.
b. Force can engage larger force in effort to obtain prisoner.
k.
£.
c. Problem of command and control.
Difficult to maintain security due to size of force.
Expanded or added mission assignment is feasible.
Large equipment commitment.
~.
7•7
COMMENTS
a. "Indigenous team personnel must be thoroughly trained in holding their fire and to follow team leader's instructions implicitly. More successful snatches would have taken place had indigenous members, and in some cases, US members, not "gunned" prematurely." b. "Prisoner snatch team members should have an aggressive personality and be determined to make a prisoner snatch." c. "Pure prisoner snatch teams should be organized to work, train, live, operate together and develop expertise. Each mission depends on every individual functioning expertly and assisting other members. d', "Prisoner snatch teams should be assigned the exclusive mission of prisoner snatch."
e. "Use of recovery helicopters and support aircraft should be well coordinated and in position so as to make the extraction as fast as possible. The prisoner should be lifted out quickly unless the ground situation dictates movement to a recovery LZ. The snatch should utilize a harness and drop line to get the prisoner out of the immediate area."
74
f. "The situation on the ground will dictate the "method" of snatch to use. During pre-mission training (3-5 days) rehearsals should be conducted in no less than two methods." g. "A decision must be made immediately if the prisoner is wounded. Should he be hospital evacuated or returned to base? Seriousness of wounds will guide. There should be a team member knowledgeable in first aid." h. "The ideal situation would be to utilize an all U.S. team or an all indigenous team; reasoning - command and control. Reiterate here the need to form a team and train together as a team." i. "Prisoner snatch missions are difficult and dangerous to accomplish. Prisoners are sometimes bothersome (because of control) for unit leaders. Therefore, this program must have extensive command emphasis."
7.8 AMBUSH "A". Sets up on a trail where the team leader can observe approximately 75 meters. The 03 and 05 on the left and right security, will control claymores in their position. The actual snatch element will consist of the 10, 01 and 02. The 12 (RTO) is adjacent to, but not a part of the snatch element. The 10 will control detonation of claymores except those in the 03-05 positions. When the enemy moves along the trail, the 10 will decide if the group is the appropriate size to ambush (too large a force could result in a pitched battle which is not desired on this type mission). A prearranged signal will be given by the 10 to begin the ambush and simultaneously, the 12 will call air assets in order to speed the exfi1tration. After the snatch has taken place, the command and snatch parties will move through 07 and 11 security to the 08-09 position. Flank security will activate a 60-second delay fuze on the claymores and then move between the 07-11 positions to the 08-09 position. As the last man moves to the 08-09 position, the 07-11 will emplace M-14 mines. At this time the team will move toward a pre-arranged LZ, or if one has not been preselected, exfi1tration aircraft will give the team's direction of movement and an LZ of opportunity will be selected for the exfiltration. 7.9 AMBUSH "B". Ambush "B fI sets up similarly to Ambush f1A", only in a smaller zone-approximately 50 meters. This ambush utilizes less flank and rear security, concentrating directly on the kill zone. Because of the small size of the team, only a small enemy force can be ambushed, no more than 6-8 men. The 10 will select the intended prisoner and by pre-arranged signal trigger the. action. As in Ambush "A", once the action commences, the 12 will alert aircraft in order to exercise a hasty exfiltration. After the snatch has been made, and again on signal by the 10, the team will move through the ambush site to a prearranged check point for a quick evaluation by the 10. Movement will then begin toward a pre-selected LZ, which should be relatively close to the ambush site. The 10 in Ambush "B" has selected small arms fire as the primary kill means, using claYmOres only if the terrain is suitable for 100 percent control. 7.10 AMBUSH "C". Utilizing the greatest number of personnel of the three, will set up on a larger trail area-approximately 200 - 250 meters. A 5-meter no-kill zone will be adhered to. Enemy elements coming from either direction will be spotted and reported to the 10 by the trail security elements using PRC-25. Trail security will also alert M-60 security teams using a wire pull. Once the enemy has come into and passed through the no-kill zone, the 10 will signal the start of the ambush and will select person(s) to be snatched. The primary kill force (assault ~lement) will move through the kill zone and set up temporary 75
¥
RT OPERATOR
•
SNATCH ELEMENT SECURITY ELEMENT
o
i
AMBUSH "A"
CLAYMORE MINES (AMBUSH) AMBUSH AREA
CLAYMORE MINES (DELAY)
I.
~M
~
NO KILL AREA
I ~ 2-3M ~
)
••
00 03
CARolS
04
o OS
019 02 CARolS M79 10
M79
M79
~
12 PRC 2S
o
o 07 CAR olS
11 CARolS RTE OF WITHDRAWAL TO LZ
o
08
t
CARolS
0
09
M79 75A
0
\
06 CAR -lS
AMBUSH "B"
9 q
TEAM LEADER RT OPERATOR SECURnY ELEMENT • SNATCH ELEMEl'JT
o
o
I
( CU,'1MORE MINES
CHECK POINT (FINAL COORD PRIOR TO LZ PICKUP)
RTE OF wnHDRAWAL
r-~B1U;~ ~ON: TRAIL ~
,.o
0
• •
0
01
04 10t
02
~
12
o fIItJ 05
756
\.
-
TRAIL
11
0 06
0)
03
AMBUSH "C"
,
TEAM LEADER
2
RT OPERATOR
•
SNATCH ELEMENT
o o
ASSAULT ELEMENT
t
o
SECURITY ELEMENT
~
~ M60 MG (ARR IND DJR FIRE)
«
RTE OF WITHDRAWAL
g
SCTY2
CLAYMORE MINE. ELEC DETON
(
CLAYMORE MINE. TIME FUSE DETON
o
\og
SCTY 1
12
TRAIL SCTY
o
~og
o o0 V
o o 2/ SCTY 3
,-
10 M60 SCTY
QGG
~
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M60 SCTY
O~
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TRAIL SCTY
O~ TRAIL
TRAIL
j.- SM
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7SC
i== 100M
25M
~
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security on the opposite side of the trail. After a predetermined amount of time (8 - 10 seconds), trail security elements will notify M-60 security they are moving into the ambush area. Once they have passed through, the M-60 security have reached the ambush site, the assault element will move back across the area making a hasty search of dead bodies for Maps and/or other intelligence information. On signal from the 10, all elements will then move out between security teams number 1 and 3, and pass through security team Number 2, to a predesignated checkpoint and on to a pre-selected LZ.
76
CHAPTER VIII FAC/FAG PROCEDURES This chapter is intended as information of FAC/FAG techniques, and to provide ground personnel with some understanding of FAC operations during employment of close air support. 8.1 For any close air support mission to be successful, satisfactory communications and procedures are essential. Since radios are used for communications, it is important to possess some knowledge of capabilities and types of radios possessed by FAC and strike fighter aircraft. a. Radio Homing. Some aircraft have the capability to home in on a UHF or FM radio signal, thus providing the ability to locate a transmitting radio either on the ground or in the air. UHF/DF bearing information is presented to the pilot by a pointer which indicates a magnetic heading to the transmitter during the time it is sending a signal. FM homing is accomplished by the pilot switching to the home position. When the station to be homed into transmits, a code D or U signal or a steady on course tone is heard by pilots. When a D signal is received the pilot turns the A/C left to head toward the station. If a U is received a turn to the right is made until a steady tone is received. The heading at which the steady tone is received is the no wind magnetic heading to the station. For either UHF/DF or FM homing the transmitting station should transmit for at least 30 seconds to provide adequate signal. It should be noted that any voice transmission by the sending station will not be readable during DF/homing operations. b.
Types of Radios Used by FAC and Strike Aircraft.
(1)
FAC A/C; 0-1, 0-2, OV-lO have:
(a)
FM and FM homing.
(b)
VHF.
(c)
UHF.
(2)
Strike aircraft:
(a)
F-l05, F-lOO, F-4, F-5, and AT-37 have UHF/DF.
(b)
A-lIs have VHF, FM, and UHF/DF.
c. Radio Voice CRT) Procedures. Detailed discussion of conversations between ground and A/C will be discussed later; however, it is appropriate at this point to emphasize the RT brevity and the use of standard phraseology which pilots understand is vital. Radio voice transmissions are better understood when spoken soft and slow. Loud and rapid speech causes over modulation. Once the FAG has established initial contact with either the FAC or strike 77
aircraft he need no longer preface each transmission with the A/C call sign and the FAG call sign, unless other mission A/C are working the same frequency (i.e., Bear Cat II this is Lion over). The pilot already knows Lion and the sound of his voice. The important thing is for the FAG to press on with his message or target description. The time factor is vital, particularly where jet fighters are employed as time available on station is critical.
d. Radio Antennas. In addition to power output of a radio limiting transmission distance, antenna position and use are limiting factors. The PRC-25 FM radio is normally used with a flexible antenna thus producing an omni directional signal; however, if it happens to be stiff and up right its primary signal strength will be perpendicular to antenna axis thus producing a cone of silence over the end of the antenna. This cone of silence is particularly severe with the antenna of the URT-lO hand held radio. The URT-lO antenna should never be pointed at an aircraft with which contact is being attempted. Extreme care of the URT-lO antenna should be taken. If the antennl is broken or bent the set becomes useless. As a result antenna stowage should be accomplished immediately after its use. This will also increase battery life as the set is shut down when the antenna is in stowed position. Another item of importance in jungle radio operations is for the operator to attempt to be located in a clearing or on high ground; however, it is recognized that this is not practical when concealment is a must. The jungle canopy, particularly when wet, will sap a major portion of the transmitted signal. At times this is so severe that unacceptable range is obtained. One last word about reception distances is that both the FM and UHF transmission/reception distanc l are basically line of sight.
8.2 For a close air support mission to be a success, team work between the FAG, FAC and strike aircraft is essential. This is particularly important in jungle operations since the FAC more than likely will not have the enemy in sight. Thus it becomes the responsibility of the FAG to verbally lead the FAC to the target. After the FAC has positively located the target it then becomes his responsibility to direct the strike A/C into the target area and aid the fighters in locating the target. The FAC will normally mark the targel with either a smoke rocket (RX) or a Willy Pete RX. After the fighters have located the target and friendlies, they take over and effect the strike. At this point the FAC has additional responsibility of staying out of the fighter l way, adjusting ordnance and keeping the friendlies from being struck. During the entire strike operation the FAC is the Tactical Air Commander. He has the responsibility and authority to expend ordnance or not to expend. The FAC must clear each fighter for each pass and the pilot of the strike aircraft must acknowledge that he has the friendlies and target in sight. The entire operation can be broken down basically into the following phases.
a. Strike Request. The ground commander initiates the close air support request by providing the FAC with the type of target, TGT coordinates, 10catioE of friendlies, urgency of request. The FAC then contacts the Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center (ABCCC) aircraft. ABCCC coordinates with the AF Command Post and determines if airborne assets are to be diverted or ground alert assets will be used. ABCCC then informs the FAC of the strike A/C ETA. 78
b. Target Acquisition. During or before the FAC passes the air request, he is attempting to locate the target. In most cases the FAG plays an important role in the FAC locating the target. Generally, the FAC A/C will have the capability to locate the team thru FM homing. After the FAC has located the team position the target can be acquired by referencing its location in azimuth and distance from the friendly position. If for some reason the FAC cannot home in to the team location and the team is unable to mark its position for security reasons, then the FAG must verbally lead the FAC to the TGT location. This procedure is the same as that which the FAC will employ in directing the fighter to the target. This technique will be covered later. c. Rendezvous Point/Orbit Point. The strike aircraft will usually receive the target coordinates from an airborne command post, or from the DASC. The flight will normally be told that the target or orbit point is off a given TACAN station, with a DME (distance) and radial (azimuth). When submitting air requests for air strikes, the FAC or FAG should indicate an orbit point. Selection of the orbit point is extremely important to mission success. The use of an orbit point is also important even if an airborne FAC will be controlling the strike on a target located by the FAG. The orbit point selection should be one located so that the controller can see the aircraft when in orbit. The most important item in selection of orbit point; however, is that it be easily located from the air. Examples of orbit point selections, mountain peak, stream junctions, road crossings, streams and trails crossing roads. It must be kept in mind that what seems to be large distances to the ground observer, appear very short from the air. The second requirement in selection of orbit point is that identifiable features, lead from orbit to target and the leading features can be seen from airborne orbit point. If the orbit point selection satisfies stated requirements, then it becomes relatively easy to verbally lead aircraft to the target. d. Target Description. If possible, it is desirable to establish contact with the aircraft prior to arriving at the orbit point, thus saving valuable time when A/c arrives at orbit point. An additional value with this is the orbit point may have to be described. After establishing initial contact, and the pilot indicates he understands the orbit point, it should be established how much time on station the aircraft has available. By getting time available on station the FAC, or FAG will be able to determine which targets he wants struck first, if available time is short. The controller should provide strike A/c as much of the following information as possible. (1) Type of target, i.e., trucks dispersed under trees, or four 37-mm guns in camouflaged revetments. (2) Location of enemy defenses around the target area. This may be done by referencing cardinal directions and distances. Example, two 37-mm guns, 500 meters north of target, five 50 calibers, 200 meters southeast of the target. (3) Location of friendlies, or FAG's from the target by direction and distance. (4) Whether friendly positions will be marked. Where control team security is important, marking its position is impractical. When marking is done, it is important that team not identify type of marking. Let the pilot identify it. 79
Example: Teams states releasing smoke. Pilot states "Roger, I have red smoke," or, "I have two rectangular red panels 10 meters apart lining east to west." Again, above all, don't identify color of smoke or panels. (5) Target elevation and limiting terrain features. These two items are not absolutely necessary and may be omitted if time, and/or communications are difficult. (6) After the above information has been passed to the orbiting aircraft the controller then commences the procedures of leading the A/C to the target. This may be done by directing the A/C, or pilots attention from one successive terrain feature to another from orbit point to target. "I n the case of the FAC aircraft he may procede to the orbit point then have the fighters follow him in to the target and then mark it with a rocket. e. Control of Aircraft Headings. Another method of directing the aircraft to the target is by controlling the direction of flight of the aircraft and referencing the target location thru clock position to the aircraft. The clock reference system can best be described by picturing a clock face. The nose of the aircraft is at the 12 o'clock position, tail of aircraft, the 6 o'clock position. The left wing tip is the 9 o'clock position, while the right wing tip is referenced to 3 o'clock. Thus it may be seen that all clock points are referenced to the horizontal plane with the pilot being in the center axis. 1Z
3
9
6
The reference of point locations out along these horizontal lines may be done in meters; however, distance is not accurate nor meaningful to a pilot. Another method of direction may be done by stating that a location is low, or level to the referenced clock position. This referencing is based on a vertical line running through the pilot. The top of his head is called "high" while "low" is the bottom position. Level may be pictured by visualizing a horizontal line bisecting at 90 degrees angle, the vertical line running thru the pilots body and aircraft. Example: A target is located 500 meters at 9 o'clock to an aircraft. This could be described to the pilot as being 9 o'clock low. Let us assume that the pilot then goes into a left bank so that the wing tip is approximately pointed at the target. Target descriptive location now becomes 9 o'clock level. It should be remembered by ground guides, that you have to estimate target distances from the aircraft. Precise distance statements are rather meaningless. The use of terminology such as north from aircraft position is not appropriate. It is extremely difficult for a pilot to maintain his directional 80
orientation while maneuvering close to the ground, therefore, the clock reference system is preferred. It is appropriate; however, to reference a location from identified point (feature) in degrees of azimuth. f. Recommended Direction of Attack. This item is stated as being needed in AFM 3-5, Special Air Warfare Tactics. Unless the guide is a qualified fighter pilot, he does not possess the knowledge to make this recommendation. As the flight checks in and arrives at the orbit point, the FAG should keep his description in general terms. The passing of information should be done in short statement passing only one or two items at a time. When the flight arrives on station, they are primarily concerned with getting the big picture. Following the generalized target description, the flight is then ready to receive detailed description of identifying features leading into the target. If the orbit point is some distance from target, it may be necessary to have the flight proceed along, or to the first identifying feature. Just before arriving at this point, tell him what the next point looks like. The flight leader will seldom repeat your instructions. If he does not understand, he probably will state "say again" or "repeat." An additional means of helping the flight leader locate target you may have him depart the orbit point on a given heading. As you pick up the aircraft in your field of vision, give him turns as necessary to have him arrive over the target, how many degrees of turn, and direction wanted, Le., "Banjo 90 left now," or, "left turn now." If you see the A/c is over shooting your desired point, tell him to tighten it up, or conversely ease off. To have the A/c stop the turn, merely state, "rollout." g. Delivery tactics and methods employed by strike aircraft, as related to type of weapons delivered. When targets are located in tall trees, you can expect the aircraft to use steep dive angles 45 to 60 degrees. The reason for this is obvious, as the target becomes easier to see. When targets are in relatively open areas, shallower dive angles are preferred as it allows the pilot to drive in closer, so that he may be more accurate. When you see deliveries made from steep angles you can expect ordnance to be released high. The reasons for this is that it takes a considerable amount of altitude to pullout and escape weapon blast. Types of patterns flown will depend on whether ground fire is being received. Where ground fire is a factor, the attack will usually be made with the aircraft rolling into attack from several directions at the same time. Follow on passes will be continued from random directions. When ground fire is not a factor, strike patterns will be rectangular, i.e., all attack runs are made in the same direction with pull off's in same direction. This type of pattern makes it easier for flight members to keep each other in sight and allows time to look at target. This rectangular pattern also makes it easier for the FAC to keep out of the fighters way and allows him to keep them all in sight. h. Methods of making corrections. When the FAC/FAG offers corrections to bring ordnance on target, he should reference the direction and distance to target from last impact. Example, "No.2, target is 200 meters northwest." Don't say, "Lead, your bomb is 200 meters southeast of target," as it is the next man who needs the information as soon as possible, not the man pulling off target. Thus, all corrections should be addressed to the next man making a delivery. 8.3
GEMS OF GENERAL INFORMATION AND TERMS
a. It should be understood that considerable difference exists between jet and propeller driven fighter aircraft. The fighter aircraft cannot slow down
81
while heavily loaded in the target area. They are capable of slowing down; however, in so doing, they are sacrificing aircraft control. One would think that by slowing down they would be able to turn shorter. This is not the case, however. Thus, by slowing down, the pilot must divert his attention from target acquisition to maintaining aircraft control. In general, the jet aircraft turn radius will run from one and a half to 2 miles in radius. The air speed of the propeller driven aircraft is much slower and the wing loading is not as high, thus, he has the ability to turn tighter radius and thus has the ability to locate a target easier. b. Hold high and dry--term used by FAC and FAG to stop an attack and keep the aircraft at altitude. c.
Break it off--emergency call to stop ordnance delivery.
d.
Go dry--make your pass without firing or releasing ordnance.
e.
Use of clock positions to describe hits in relation to target.
(1)
6 o'clock means hit short of target.
(2)
12 o'clock means hit long in relation to target.
(3)
9 o'clock means hit is to the left of target.
(4)
3 o'clock means hit is right of target.
The above positions are based on the direction from which the delivery was made. 8.4 ARMED HELICOPTER ARMAMENT. C armed helicopters.
The following packages can be used on UH-1B and
a. XM-3. This kit consists of one 2.75 inch folding fin aerial rocket (FFAR) mounted externally on each side of the helicopter. Each launcher has a 24 rocket capacity. b. M-5. The M-5 kit is a 40-mrn antipersonnel gun contained in a nose-mounted turret. Relative to the helicopter, this gun can be positioned 60 0 to either side, 13 0 in elevation, and 60 0 depression. The capacity of the system is 150 rounds. Rate of fire is 220-240 rounds per minute. The maximum range is 1200 meters. c. M-6 . This kit consists on two M-60C machine guns mounted on each side of the helicopter. The guns can be moved 82 0 in traverse, 75 0 in elevation, and 660 in depression (relative to the helicopter). The rate of fire is 550 rounds per minute. The maximum range is 3200 meters. d. XM-14. The XM-14 utilizes one .50 caliber machine gun in a pod on each side of the helicopter. The maximum capacity of the system is 1500 rounds. The rate of fire is 1200 rounds per minute. 82
r
,[ r,.
t
,
e. XM-16. This kit is the M-6 with a 7-tube 2.75 inch FFAR launcher mounted below each set of machineguns. The total capacity of this configuration is 14 rockets and 6000 rounds of 7.62-mm.
~
f. XM-21. This is the same as the XM-16 t except that one 7.62-mm minigun is used on each side instead of the M-6. The rate of fire of this gun is 2000 Ii rounds per minute. Total capacity is the same as for the XM-16.
l
l !
8.5 THE AH-1G (HUEY COBRA). AH-1G.
The following kits are available for use on the
a. XM-28 Dual Gun Turret. This turret is mounted under the fuselage of [ the helicopter. All other systems are mounted under the wings. The turret can
f
~
mount two GAU-2B/A miniguns (8000 rds 7.62-mm)t two XM-129 grenade launchers (600 rds 40-mm)t or one GAU-2B/A and one XM-129 (4000 rds 7.62-mm and 300 rds 40-mm respectively). The turret can move 230 0 in azimuth t 15 0 - 250 in elevation t and 500 in depression.
,
b.
XM-157.
7 tube 2.75 inch FFAR pod.
c.
XM-159.
19 tube 2.75 inch FFAR pod.
d.
XM-18.
1500 rounds 7. 62-mm minigun pod.
(1) 1 XM-28 (4000 rds 7.62-mm t 300 rds 40-mm). the below.
This is included in all of
(2)
2 XM-159 (4000 rds 7. 62-mm t 300 rds 40-mm t 14 2.75 inch FFAR).
(3)
2 XM-18 (7000 rds 7.26-mm, 300 rds 40-mm).
(4)
2 XM-159 (4000 rds 7. 62-mm t 300 rds 40-mm, 38 2.75 inch FFAR).
(5)
2 XM-157 t 2 XM-18 (7000 rds 7. 62-mm, 300 rds 40-mm t 14 2.75 inch FFAR).
(6)
2 XM-159, 2 XM-18 (7000 rds 7. 62-mm t 300 rds 40-mm, 38 2.75 inch FFAR).
(7)
2 XM-157 t 2 XM-159 (400 rds 7.62-mm, 300 rds 40-mmt 52 2.75 inch FFAR).
(8)
4 XM-159 (6000 rds 7.62-mm, 76 2.75 inch FFAR).
(9) All configurations include 12 smoke grenades mounted in chutes in the rear of the fuselage. 8.6
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS
a. Radio AN/PRC-25. This radio set is a short range t man pack portable, FM t receiver/transmitter used to provide two-way voice communications. (1)
Technical Characteristics.
(a)
Frequency range--Lowband 30,000 to 52.95 MC High band 53.00 to 75.95 MC. 83
(b)
No. of channels--920.
(c)
Channel spacing--50 KC .
(d)
Voice operated.
(e)
Requency modulated (FM) .
(f)
Transmitter output 1. 5--2d watts.
(g)
Range--5 miles or 8 km.
(h) Antennas: tion whip antenna.
Short AT-892, 3 ft. steel tape; long AT-271A 10 ft. 6 sec-
(i)
Power source--BA 386.
(j)
Battery life--20 hrs. (9 to 1, receive and transmit ratio).
(2) The RT 505/PRC-25 consists of the RT, the RT case and battery box CY-2652 PRC 25. (a) Minor parts: Long and short antenna, antenna support AB-59l Harness ST-138, bag, cotton, handset H-138/U (push talk). (3)
Operating Procedure.
(a)
Set the function switch on ON.
(b)
Set the band switch at 30-52 or 53-75 depending on the channel used.
(c) Turn the MC tuning and KC controls so that the desired channels show in the channel dial. (d) H-138/U.
Set the volume control at 4:
readjust for desired sound level in the
(e) To eliminate the rushing noise when no signal is being received, set the function switch at squelch. (f)
Transmit'as follows.
1.
Press the push-to-talk on the H-138/U.
2.
Speak into the H-138/U.
(g)
To receive, release the push-to-talk switch on the H-138/U.
b. Radio AN/URC-IO. The URC-IO is a small compact emergency transmitterreceiver with a preset frequency reserved for air-sea rescue. The radio set is designed to operate under emergency conditions. It is carried by an RT for use in emergency ~tuations when all other radio communications fail. The transmitter also emits a ton-beacon signal for homing use.
84
-(1)
Characteristics.
(a)
VHF.
(b)
Ground to air.
(c)
Limited distance in a ground to ground role.
(d)
One (1) present frequency--243 MC.
(2)
Operating procedures.
(a) To place in operation, pull the antenna out completely until brass ring is visible. (b) To transmit by voice mode push transmit lever, talk normally, but close to speak/microphone. (c)
To transmit by tones mode, push tone button from top.
Push down to
stop. (d) To transmit and monitor tone, push transmit lever and hold and then push tone button down to stop. (e) mission.
Always ensure tone button is fully up (OFF) after using tone trans-
(f)
Hold radio so that antenna points up and perpendicular to the ground.
(g)
Attempt to have a clear path between radio set and the aircraft.
(h)
To take radio out of operation depress antenna into body of set.
c. Radio HT-l. The HT-l radio is a handheld transceiver that receives AM signals in the 30-40 range. Operating range is approximately 1 mile. (1) Functional description. The transceiver is designed for operation from selfcontained batteries providing 12 volts DC or an external 12 volt DC supply (such as a storage battery for extended periods of time). (2)
Physical characteristics.
(a)
Compact, light weight:
(b)
Sealed to prevent moisture.
(c)
No external connections necessary for normal field operation.
(d)
Telescoping antenna on side (74 inches).
(3)
Transmitter characteristics.
(a)
AM voice.
11 1/2 by 2 3/4 in sq--weight 4 1/2 pounds.
85
(b)
0.5 watts.
(c)
30 to 40 MC.
(d)
1 channel (crystal controlled).
(e)
Range approximately 1 mile.
(4)
Receiver characteristics.
(a)
Superheterodyne.
(b)
Frequency range 30-40 MC.
(c)
1 channel (crystal controlled).
(d)
Squelch (adjustable).
(5)
Operating procedure.
(a)
Extend the telescoping antenna to its full length.
(b)
Place the off-on/volume control in the £n position.
(c)
Adjust volume control for desired audio level.
(d)
Adjust sguelch control.
(e) To transmit, press the push-to-talk button on the side of the case and speak into the microphone/speaker. (f)
To receive, release the push-to-talk button.
(g) To receive by using the earphones, the earphone ext phone jack.
~lug
is inserted into
(h) To take the set out of operation, turn the on-off/volume switch to the off position.
86
d. Expedient antenna. Almost any conductive material can be used to construct an emergency antenna, for example, wire fences, cleaning rods, etc. One excellent material available to all recon teams is claymore wire. In constructing expedient antennas the following formulas are used for computing length of the radiating element: f
=
frequency in megacycles
answer is antenna length in feet 1/4 wave =
234 f
1/2 wave =
468 f
full wave
=
936 f
The type antenna constructed depends on the terrain, the time and materials available for construction, and the frequency of the radio. The result of research in Thailand, conducted over a four-year period, shows that a horizontally oriented antenna is best for use in dense jungle. (1) Jungle antenna. The jungle antenna is a field expedient version of the issue antenna RC-292. It is omni-directional. It is not practical for frequencies under 20 megacycles. The antenna can be pre-cut and wired together, then rolled up and carried in a rucksack until time for use. The three ground plane elements should be at 45 degrees from the vertical and must be grounded to the radio set.
87
(2) Slant-wire antenna. This antenna is for frequencies below 20 MC. It radiates both a sky wave and a ground wave. It is for long distance communications and therefore relatively static situations.
K
t
~-----~
88
(3) Vertical doublet. Total length is 1/2 wave, 1/4 wave each element. Lead-in is twisted pair (WD-l/TT) or coaxial cable. In jungle areas an advantage can be obtained by getting the antenna above trees. The additional height is very important in line of sight communications. The length makes it impractical for use with frequencies below 20 Me. It is omni-directional.
(4) Vertical 1/4 wave antenna (whip). This is the antenna in its simplest form. Transmission is omni-directional. Simple construction makes it practical for patrols. Limitations: Availability of overhead support. If support is not high enough, bend as in "B."
89
(5) Thirty meter antenna. This antenna is suitable for use with frequencies between 20 and 80 MC. It is especially practical where there is no overhead support.
~-----
30 Meters
---->I
90
A
B 91
CHAPTER IX EMPLOYMENT OF ARTILLERY 9.1 In some cases RTs will be within range of supporting artillery. Artillery is a powerful, all-weather, day and night source of fire support. It is incumbent upon every RT member to know how to request and adjust fire. 9.2 MAXIMUM RANGES. The following maximum ranges are listed only to give an idea of the capabilities of various types of artillery. To determine the exact ability of artillery to support an RT operation, the RT leader should consult with the FOB S-3. Each FOB maintains a list of fire support bases and range capability fans for each. a.
105-mm howitzer (M102) - 11,500 meters.
b.
155-mm howitzer (all) - 14,600 meters.
c.
8-inch howitzer (all) - 16,800 meters.
d.
175-mm gun - 32,700 meters.
9.3 REQUEST FOR FIRE. The following elements of the initial fire request must be committed to memory in the sequence given. There are other elements, e.g., type fuze action desired, type projectile, etc., but they are not required. The RT leader can depend on the artillery S-3 to select the proper fuze and projectile a.
Observer Identification.
This is the radio call sign of the team.
b. Warning Order. Always, "Fire Mission." to begin preparing for a mission.
This alerts the artillery unit
c. Target Location and OT Azimuth. There are three methods of target location. In all three of them, there is a common element, that being the azimuth (to the nearest 10 mils) from the observer to the target. (1) Polar Plot. In this method, the observer gives the direction and distance from his position to the target, e.g., direction 1620, distance 2000. Obviously, in this method the artillery unit must know the observer's exact location. This is a situation which is unlikely in RT work, therefore, this method is not generally recommended. (2) Shift from a known point. In this method both the artillery and the observer must know the exact location of a predetermined point in the vicinity of the target. Since this situation is also unlikely in RT operations, the method is not recommended. It is offered here for reference. The observer first gives the known point, e.g., from target MF 698, then the OT azimuth, e.g., direction 0300, the lateral shift (if any) from the known point to the target, e.g., left (right) 200, the range shift (if any), e.g., add (drop) 1000, and the vertical shift, e.g., ~ (down) 20. If there is no shift in a particular dimension, that element is omitted. Lateral and vertical shifts are computed as in para 9. 92
r
,
,
(3)
two can, location consists it. For
Grid coordinates. This method can be used any time that the first and it requires no prior plotting by the artillery of the observer's or of a known point . Therefore , it is the recommended method. It simply of sending the coordinates of the target and the direction to example, grid 439069, direction 6320.
(4) Poor visibility, unreliable maps, deceptive terrain, or rapid movement through unfamiliar terrain may make it difficult for the observer to remain continuously oriented, yet he may need fire on short notice. In this case, he may request mark center of sector in lieu of any other target location. In this case, the artillery will fire a round into the center of the target area. The observer will then give an azimuth to the target and shift the round as described in 9.3. (5) It should be remembered that time should not be wasted in trying to over-refine initial target location when the team is being pressed by the enemy; the important thing .is to get rounds on the ground quickly and then move them. However, if the team has a lucrative target which is unaware of the team's presence in the area, then as accurate an initial location as possible should be obtained (possibly by using techniques of intersection). d. Description of Target. Describe the target briefly but in sufficient detail to enable the S-3 to determine the best manner of attack. e.
Control.
There are four possible methods of control.
(1) Adjust fire. This is the most common. It means that the observer thinks he will probably have to adjust the initial round. (2) Fire for effect, means that the target is located sufficiently accurately that no adjustment will be necessary. This is preferred because of its surprise value. (3) At my command, means that the observer wishes to control the time of delivery of fire. It can be used in conjunction with (1) or (2). If it is not given, the artillery will fire when ready. At My Command remains in effect until Cancel At My Command is given. (4) Cannot observe. The observer cannot see to adjust but believes a target exists at the given location. 9.4
ADJUSTING FIRE
a. The WORM Formula. Lateral or vertical distance from one point to another can be computed by measuring the angle in mils between the two points and multiplying the angle by the distance in thousands of meters to the known point. In formula form, W=Rn. For example, if the angle between two points is 70 mils, and
93
the distance to the known point is 2000 meters, then the lateral distance is 2 X 70 = 140 meters. If angle measuring instruments are not available, angles can be measured by holding the hand at a fixed distance from the eye, as below.
b. Lateral Corrections. The common application of the mil relationship in adjusting fire is to determine the lateral correction required to move the impact of rounds to the target. For example, if the observed angle between the target and the strike of the initial rounds is 100 mils and the estimated observer - target distance is 1500 meters, then the correction sent to the artillery is right (left) 150 (i.e., 1.5 X 100 = 150). c. Range Corrections. Always try to bracket the target for range, if possible. Make the initial correction a bold one (usually 400 meters); do not be timid. For example, if your initial rounds are short, then your corrections might be add 400. If this gives you the next rounds over, then command drop 200, i.e., split the initial bracket. If your next rounds are short, command add 100; if they are still over, command drop 100. If you are employing heavy artillery (i.e., 8 inch or 175-mm). also command fire for effect when you are within 100 meters. For 155-mm and below command fire for effect when you are within 50 meters, e.g., you split a one hundred meter bracket. d. Usually artillery units in RVN will fire smoke rounds in adjustment to minimize friendly casualties in the event of an error, or if the accuracy of target location is uncertain. e. Often adjustment in the jungle will have to be by sound. In this case, tell the artillery that you must do this. The need for bold corrections is especially great here. f. Corrections can also be made for vertical errors but this is rare and will not be covered here. 9.5 EXAMPLE MISSION. The sequence of the initial fire request and of adjustments must be memorized. 94
,
j
a.
Initial Fire Reguest.
ELEMENT
EXAMPLE
Observer Identification
RAT THIS IS PIG
Warning Order
FIRE MISSION
Target Location
GRID 690148 DIRECTION 0450
Description of Target
10 TRUCKS PARKED
Control
ADJUST FIRE
b. Adjusting Fire. to be 1500 meters.
The observer estimates the distance to this target
(1) The first volley lands to the right and short of the target. The observer measures the angle to be 80 mils. The command is left 120, add 400. (2)
The next volley is on line but over the target.
The command is drop
200. (3) The next volley is left 20 mils and still over. 30 drop 100 fire for effect.
(4) required.
The command is right
The artillery fires for effect, but the observer thinks that more is He commands, repeat fire for effect.
(5) When the observer is satisfied with the results he calls end of mission and gives results, e.g., 8 trucks destroyed.
95
CRAPIER X FORE IGN WEAPONS The following pages cover weapons which an RT is likely to be issued or to encounter in the field. 10.1
CARBINE, U.S.S.R.
a. 7.62-mm Carbine (SKS). The Soviet 7.62-mm Carbine Model SKS is a limited standard infantry weapon which has been replaced in the Soviet Army by the AK-47 Assault Rifle. It is a gas-operated weapon chambered for the Model 43 intermediate cartridge. Although classified as a carbine by the Soviets, it qualified as a rifle by U.S. standards. The present production model is fitted with a permanently attached folding knife-type bayonet. The SKS is a relatively simple, well-constructed weapon, having two unusual features. First, the magazine is not detachable. When the magazine latch is moved to the rear, the magazine pivots down toward the front through an angle of approximately 30 degrees so that the cartridges can be removed without working them through the chamber. Second, the folding bayonet is permanently attached to the rifle by a large rivet . The rear sight is graduated from 100 to 1,000 meters in 100 meter increments, there is a battle sight elevation setting for 350 meters, indicated by the letter "D" on the sight leaf. This weapon is manufactured by the CHICOM as the Type 56. b. Functioning. This is a gas-operated, semi-automatic weapon. With the magazine loaded, a round is chambered by drawing the bolt handle to the rear and releasing it. When the trigger is pulled, the trigger arm is pulled forward and pulls the sear forward out of engagement with the hammer. The hammer rotates under the impulse of the hammer spring and strikes the firing pin. As the hammer rotates, the hammer heel lowers the forward end of the disconnector and the forward end of the trigger arm. The trigger arm is disengaged from the sear and the sear returns to the rear position. The firing pin strikes the primer. After the bullet passes the gas port in the barrel, the gasses, entering the gas cylinder, exert pressure on the piston and the bolt carrier is moved to the rear by the piston rod. The bolt carrier moving to the rear raises the rear of the bolt which disengages the bolt locking surface from the receiver lug, and brings the bolt to the rear. Extraction and ejection of the case takes place at this time. The rearward movement of the bolt cocks the hammer, and the sear under the action of the sear spring is positioned under the hammer cock notch. The bolt having reached its rearmost position compresses the recoil spring and the piston and piston rod return to the forward position under the action of the piston. rod spring. The bolt moves forward, the bolt carrier lowers the rear of the bolt as it approaches the breech, and the bolt locking surface is positioned in front of the receiver locking lug. The bolt, in lowering, has depresses the protruding front end of the disconnector. The hammer is thus disengaged from the disconnector and is held in the cocked position by the sear. The bolt, in completing its forward movement, strips a round from the magazine and chambers it. The trigger must be released before i t can be pulled to fire the next round. 96
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Characteristic Data. 7.62-mm (M43 ctdg) Gas Semi-auto only 30 rpm Fixed box - 10 rd cap 8.2 lbs 40.16 in 470 meters 2,411 fps
Caliber • Operation Type of fire Rate of fire Type of feed Weight, empty • Overall length Effective range Muzzle velocity d.
Field Strip Procedure.
(1) With the weapon empty and the magazine unloaded, swing the safety down to "Off." (2)
Rotate the cover retaining pin upward as far as it will go.
(3) Push in slightly on the receiver cover and pull the cover retaining pin to the right as far as it will go. Remove the cover from the receiver. (4) (5) the rear.
Remove the recoil spring assembly from the bolt carrier. Pull back on the bolt handle, sliding the bolt carrier and bolt to
(6) Lift the assembled bolt carrier and bolt from the receiver and remove the bolt from the bolt carrier. e. Assembly Procedure. Proceed in the reverse order. Assemble bolt to bolt carrier, place in receiver, engaging with bolt handle and slide forward. Assemble recoil spring assembly into rear of bolt carrier. Place receiver cover onto receiver, push forward slightly and push cover retaining pin through the receiver to the left. Turn the receiver cover pin down. f.
Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Push the safety lever up. Pull back on bolt handle; bolt and bolt carrier will be held to the rear by the bolt-hold-open device. Place one end of the 10-round charger into the charger guide which is machined into the top forward edge of the bolt carrier. Push down on the cartridges until all the cartridges are loaded into the magazine. Remove the empty charger. Pull back slightly on the bolt handle and release it. Bolt carrier will now move forward and chamber a round. (2) To fire: Push safety to "Off." Pull the trigger; weapon will fire for each pull of the trigger until the magazine is empty.
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r 10.2
RIFLE, U.S.S.R.
a. 7.62-mm AK (KALASHNIKOV). The Soviet 7. 62-mm AK Assault Rifle is a gas-operated, selective fire weapon which is chambered for the Soviet Ml943 cartridge. Classed as an assault rifle rather than a submachine gun, it fires a rifle-type intermediate round. It is much more accurate than true submachine guns such as the Sten, Uzi, U.S. M3Al, MAT-49 , etc., which fire pistol ammunition. This is an extremely well made weapon, being constructed almost completely of machined components rather than stampings and is produced in two versions, one with a wooden stock, the other with a folding metal stock. A modification of this weapon, which incorporates a longer barrel, bipod, and drum type magazine into its design, is replacing the RPD light machine gun. The barrel on all the AK models and modifications is chrome lined and locking is accomplished by a rotating bolt. The Chinese Communist production model of this weapon is designated the Type 56. b. Functioning. The AK Assault Rifle is a magazine fed weapon, which fires from a closed bolt position utilizing a rotating bolt locking system. The safety/select lever is located on the right side of the receiver above the trigger guard. With this lever in its uppermost position, the weapon is on "safe;" with the lever halfway down, the weapon is set for full-automatic fire; with the lever fully down, the weapon is set for semi-automatic fire. With a loaded magazine in place, the bolt handle is drawn to the rear drawing the bolt carrier and piston with the attached bolt to the rear, overriding and cocking the hammer and compressing the recoil spring. When the bolt handle is released, the bolt carrier and bolt move forward; the face of the bolt strips a round from the magazine and chambers it. The face of the bolt strikes the rear face of the barrel and its forward movement is stopped; the bolt carrier continues forward, and cam surfaces in the bolt carrier acting on lugs on the bolt, rotate the bolt to the right, locking lugs on the head of the bolt engage locking recesses in the receiver and the hammer is ready to be released. If the select lever is set for semi-automatic fire when the trigger is pulled, the semi-automatic sear and disconnector pivot, the hammer is released striking the firing pin, which in turn strikes the primer. Gas is tapped from the barrel into the gas cylinder to impinge against the piston. The piston and bolt carrier move to the rear; the cams in the carrier rotate the bolt to unlocked position, and the carrier and bolt continue to the rear pivoting the hammer rearward where it is engaged by the disconnector and held to the rear. The trigger must be pulled for each shot. If set for fullautomatic, a full-automatic disconnector on the bolt carrier strikes the fullautomatic sear, rotating it to release the hammer and the hammer pivots forward to strike the firing pin. The firing cycle continues until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty. There is no bolt hold-open device on this weapon; when the magazine is empty, the bolt will be in the closed position.
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Characteristic Data. Caliber • Operation Type of Fire Rate of Fire Type of Feed Weight, empty • Overall length Effective range Muzzle velocity
d.
7.62-mm (M43 ctdge) Gas Full and semi-auto 600 rpm (Practical 225) Box - 30 rd cap 10.6lbs 34.2 in 470 meters 2,342 fps
Field Strip Procedure.
(1) Push in on the recoil spring guide which protrudes from the rear of the receiver. (la) At the same time the recoil spring gUide is pushed in, raise up on the receiver cover and remove it from the receiver. (2) Push the recoil spring guide in as far as it will go and lift it up and out of the receiver with the recoil spring. (3) Slide the bolt carrier, bolt and piston rearward until they can be lifted up and out of the receiver. (4) Turn the bolt head until the lugs on the bolt align with the cam grooves in the carrier; slide the bolt rearward until it disengages, and then slide it forward and out of the bolt carrier. (5)
Pivot the handguard lock up.
(6) Disengage the handguard from the receiver and lift it up and off of the barrel. e. Assembly Procedure. Assemble in the reverse order. Slide handguard into position and pivot the handguard lock down to engage. Assemble the bolt to the bolt carrier and slide the assembled bolt and carrier into the receiver. Slide the recoil spring and recoil spring guide into the rear of the bolt carrier; push forward until the rear of the guide clears the rear of the receiver, and push down to engage the rear of the receiver. Slide the receiver cover into place; push in on the recoil spring guide, and push the receiver cover down to lock. f.
Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Insert a loaded magazine. Push safety lever on right side of receiver up to "safe." Draw the bolt handle to the rear and release it. The bolt will move forward and chamber a round.
(2) To fire: Push safety lever to type of fire desired. Pull the trigger. The weapons will fire. If the select lever is set all the way down the weapon will fire semi-automatic and the trigger must be pulled for each shot. If the select lever is set in the mid-position, the weapon will fire full-automatic fire and will continue to fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty. 101
10.3
SUBMACHINE GUN, ISRAEL
a. 9-mm UZI Submachine gun QMK2 MODA). The 9-mm UZI Submachine gun is an extremely compact weapon utilizing metal stamped parts and plastics in its construction. Designed by Major Uziel Gal, it is the standard submachine gun of the Israeli Army. The weapon embodies a number of unconventional features with more than normal emphasis being placed on safety of handling and balance. The receiver is rectangular in shape, composed of stampings with plastics being utilized in the construction of the forearm and pistol grip. There are no external moving parts when the weapon is fired. The cocking handle, located on top of the receiver, remains in the forward position after the bolt is cocked to the rear, and the knob is either manually pushed forward or moves forward with the first action of the bolt in firing. Two major design advantages of this weapon are the bolt system, hollowed out to surround the barrel for the major length of the bolt, and the location of the magazine well, which is in the pistol grip. Both of these features tend to balance the piece very well and shortens the overall receiver length considerably. While a straight blowback system, the bolt due to its length, is heavy enough to function properly with the 9-mm cartridge, and in being hollowed out, to telescope the barrel. The actual travel of the bolt is quite short. The magazine being placed in the pistol grip eliminates a major fault encountered in using the magazine as a forward hand grip, as is the case in many submachine guns, an eventual malfunction of the magazine catch or deformation of the magazine itself. The weapon has a conventional safety, a sliding button type, which blocks the trigger when pushed to the rear, but also utilizes a grip-safety in the grip, which blocks the sear if not pressed in when firing. Two more features worthy of note are the quickly removable barrel (unscrewing the barrel nut lock makes the barrel easily removable), and the telescoping metal stock which when pushed forward gives the weapon an overall length of slightly over 17 inches. b. Functioning. The 9-mm UZI Submachine gun is a straight blowback weapon. With a loaded magazine in place, the bolt is drawn to the rear by operating the cocking handle located on the top of the receiver. The bolt is held to the rear by the sear, and the cocking handle can then be pushed to its forward position. Pushing the select lever to either full-auto or semi-auto position, the piece is ready to fire. The grip safety must be pushed in when gripping the pistol grip. Pulling the trigger releases the sear, and the bolt moves forward, chambers a round, and fires it. The bolt moves to the rear, overriding the sear. If the selector is set for full-auto, the sear will not engage and the bolt will move forward for a firing cycle. If the selector is set for semi-auto, the bolt will remain held to the rear by the sear until the trigger·is pulled again.
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Characteristic Data. Caliber • Operation Type of Fire Rate of Fire Type of Feed Weight, empty • Overall length - stock extended • stock folded Effective range Muzzle velocity
d.
9-tmll
Blowback Full and semi-auto 550-600 rpm (Practical - 125) Box-25, 32, 40 rd cap 8.2 lbs 26.2 in 17.3 in 225 meters 1,325 fps
Field Strip Procedure.
(1)
Press the cover latch to the rear.
(2)
Raise the cover and remove it from the receiver.
(3) Raise the bolt, from the front, and remove it with the recoil spring, forward out of the receiver. (4)
Press in on the barrel nut lock.
(5)
Unscrew the barrel retaining nut and remove the barrel.
(6) Remove the trigger group retaining pin and disassemble the trigger group from the receiver. e. Assembly Procedure. Assemble in the reverse order. Assemble the trigger group to the receiver and put the trigger group retaining pin in place. Assemble the recoil spring and guide to the bolt and slide into the receiver. The barrel and barrel retaining nut may be assembled to the receiver either before or after the bolt is placed in the receiver. Lock the cover into place on the top of the receiver. f.
Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Draw the cocking handle, located on the top of the receiver, to the rear until the bolt is engaged by the sear and then push forward again. Push the safety button to the rear to "safe." Insert a magazine in the well in the pistol grip and push up to engage.
(2) To fire: Push the safety button forward to fire, either full or semiautomatic. Grip the pistol grip firmly to depress the grip safety, pull the trigger. The weapon will fire. If the select button is on semi-auto, the trigger must be pulled for each shot. If the select button is on auto, the weapon will fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty.
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10.4
SUBMACHINE GUN, GREAT BRITAIN
a. 9-mm MARK V (STEN). The 9-mm Mark V STEN Submachine Gun represents the final major modification to the STEN series of submachine guns. Introduced in 1944, it was first issued to British airborne units, but was later issued to all units of the British Armed Forces. Various models of the famous STEN gun were produced starting with the Mark I in June 1941. This weapon is noted for its simplicity of design, manufacture, and maintenance. Hundreds of thousands of these STEN guns were manufactured not only by the allied nations of WWII, but by Germany and Nationalist China. Of the different Marks (Models) produced, almost all had interchangeable parts so that in many instances a model will be recovered that poses an identification problem. Stocks of one model may be found assembled to receivers of quite a different model, while barrels of the various models are quite often switched between models. The piece illustrated for instance, while basically the Mark V STEN, has a barrel from the Mark II model. Early models of the Mark V had wooden foregrips and some models had a trapdoor in the butt plate. Regardless of which model of the STEN gun is encountered, it is in all respects an efficient, reliable and rugged weapon which does the job for which it was designed quite capably. The most popular model of the STEN series submachine guns was the Mark II model. In this model the magazine housing was designed so that it could be unlocked from its sidefeeding position and rotated around to the bottom of the receiver so that the magazine housing sleeve effectively covered the ejection port to keep out dust and dirt. Over two million Mark II STEN guns were manufactured between 1942 and 1944. b. Functioning. The STEN gun is a straight blowback weapon firing from an open bolt. The fire select button is a "push-through" button located above and forward of the trigger guard in the trigger group housing. The safety is a simple notch cut in the rear portion of the bolt handle retracting slot into which the bolt handle is engaged when the bolt is drawn to the rear. With a loaded magazine inserted, the bolt is drawn to the rear where it is engaged by the sear and held to the rear. Pulling the trigger releases the bolt and the bolt moves forward under impulse of the compressed recoil spring, strips a round from the magazine, chambers it, and fires it. The bolt moves to the rear and if the fire select button is pushed to the right, the sear will engage the bolt and the crigger must be pulled for each shot. If the fire select button is pushed to the left, the weapon will fire full-automatic and will continue to fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty. NOTE:
The Mark VI STEN gun is the Mark V STEN with a silencer attached. recommended that the Mark VI be fired semi-automatic only.
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Characteristic Data. Caliber . Operation Type of Fire Rate of Fire Type of Feed Weight, empty Overall length Effective range
d.
9-mm
Blowback Full and semi-auto 600 rpm (Practical 125) Box - 32 rd cap 8.7 lbs 30.2 in 150 meters
Field Strip Procedure .
(1) Press in on the recoil spring cap which protrudes from the receiver cap and slide the stock assembly down off the receiver. (2) Press in on the recoil spring cap and rotate the cap until it disengages from the receiver and remove the receiver cap, recoil spring cap and recoil spring. (3) Draw the bolt handle to the rear to the safety notch in the bolt handle slot, turn the handle to disengage it from the bolt and slide the bolt out the rear of the receiver. (4) Unscrew the barrel retaining sleeve and remove it and the barrel from the receiver. e. Assembly Procedure. Assemble in the reverse order. Slide the barrel into the front of the receiver and assemble the barrel retaining sleeve over the barrel and screw onto the receiver. Slide the bolt into the rear of the rece iver, attach the bolt handle to the bolt and slide the bolt forward. Assemble the recoil spring, recoil spring cap and receiver cap into the rear of the receiver and turn the recoil spring cap to engage the receiver. Slide the stock assembly partially onto the receiver, push in on the recoil spring cap and slide the stock assembly up the rest of the way. f.
Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Insert a loaded magazine into the magazine housing and push in until it locks into place. Push the fire select button to the type of fire desired. Draw the bolt to the rear and raise the bolt handle into the safety notch. (2) To fire: Disengage the bolt handle from the safety notch. Pull the trigger; the weapon will fire. If the select button is set for semi-automatic fire, "R" for repetition, the sear will engage the bolt and the trigger will have to be pulled for each shot. If the select button is set for full-automatic; "A" for automatic, the weapon will continue to fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty.
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10.5
SUBMACHINE GUN, SWEDEN
a. 9-mm Submachine Gun (CARL GUSTAS) (M45B). The 9-mm M45B Submachine Gun was developed in 1944 and 1945 by the Carl Gustas Geversfaktori, located in E1ki1stune, Sweden. This weapon has been in production in Sweden since 1945, and many hundreds of thousands have been manufactured, both for local consumption and for export. It is the current standard submachine gun in the Swedish Army. The original M45 submachine gun was made to utilize the 50-round SaUMI box magazine. After the early 1950's, the heavy 50-round magazine was discarded in favor of the new 36-round type, developed in the late 1940's. The M45 model, illustrated, is distinguished from the early M45 models by the magazine housing which is pinned in place and may be removed to accommodate the larger SaUMI magazine if the need arose. Later models of the M45B, produced after the 36-round magazine became available in large quantities, has a permanently attached (riveted) magazine housing and thus cannot be converted to receive the SaUMI 50-round magazine. The M45B model is sold commercially under the trade name of "Carl Gustaf", and has been adopted and produced by Egypt since the early 1950's. b. Functioning. The basic design of the M45 has not changed since its introduction in 1945. It is an extremely sturdy and durable weapon and fires from the open-bolt position in a straight blowback operation. It is made, in most part, of heavy stampings, and the folding stock is one of the strongest and best designed of all the various types used on submachine guns. The bolt can be safetied in either the forward or rearward position. With the bolt to the rear, engaged by the sear, a loaded magazine is inserted. When the trigger is pulled, the bolt moves Forward, stripping a round from the magazine, chambering it and firing it. Action is repeated until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty. The rate of fire has been purposely held low-so that the weapon can be fired single-shot by proper trigger manipulation. c.
Notes to Remember.
(1) This weapon fires a special hi-velocity 9-mm parabellum cartridge, designated the 9-mm Model 39B. It has a much heavier jacket structure and therefore ' serves as an effective armor-piercing round. Since the Model 39B develops higher 'pressure, it is forbidden to be used in other 9-mm caliber weapons. (2) Hold the receiver cap firmly when removing in disassembly. operating spring pushes very strongly against the cap.
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Characteristic Data . Caliber • Operation Type of fire Rate of fire Type of feed
9-mm parabe11urn Blowback Full-auto only 600 rpm (Practical - 100) Box M45 - 50 rds M45B - 36-50 rds M45B - late model-36 rds 6.1 1bs 31.8 in (retracted - 21.7 in) 270 meters
Weight, empty . Length, stock extended • Effective range e. (1)
Field Strip Procedure. Press the magazine release lever and remove the magazine.
(2) Press in on the plug in the center of the receiver cap, turn the cap counterclockwise, and carefully remove the cap. (3) The operating spring and bolt may now be withdrawn from the rear of the receiver. (4) With a hard object, push in on the barrel jacket nut catch and unserl the barrel jacket nut which surrounds the rear of the barrel. (5) receiver.
The barrel and barrel jacket may now be removed from the front of thl
f. Assembly Procedure. Proceed in the reverse order. Place the barrel into the front end of the receiver. Slide the barrel jacket down over the barrl and screw the barrel jacket nut onto the receiver. Slide the bolt into the real of the receiver, assemble the operating spring to the bolt. Place the receiver cap over the end of the operating spring, push until it envelopes the rear of d receiver, and turn clockwise. g.
Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Pull the bolt to the rear by the bolt handle (located on tl right side of the receiver) and engage the bolt handle in the safety notch by moving it up. Insert a loaded magazine into the magazine housing. (2)
trigger. empty.
To fire: Disengage the bolt handle from the safety notch. Pull the The weapon will fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is
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10.6
SUBMACHINE GUN, FRANCE
a. 9-mm Submachine Gun M1949 (MAT 49). The 9-mm M1949 Submachine Gun is manufactured by the Manufacture Das Armes, Tulle (MAT), and is gradually replacing the earlier 7.GS-mm MAS 38 Submachine Gun. This submachine gun has seen extensive service in Indo-China and Algeria . The weapon design makes extensive use of stampings and is, in general, very well made. Two rather unusual (for a submachine gun) features are incorporated into the design of the piece. One 18 a folding magazine housing, which swings forward and up, to engage a bracket on the bottom of the barrel jacket; this makes the weapon handy for airborne and armored troops. The other feature is a grip safety, which precludes the accidental discharge of the piece if dropped. The ejection port has a cover, which automatically opens when the bolt is moved in either direction. b. Functioning. This is a straight blowback operated submachine gun, firing from an open bolt. With the magazine housing pivoted down and locked, a magazine is inserted. The bolt handle is drawn to the rear and the bolt engages the sear. The ejection port cover is now open. Squeezing the grip safety and pulling the trigger fires the weapon. c.
Notes to Remember.
(1) This weapon can be carried with a loaded magazine in the magazine housing and the housing swung up and locked into place against the barrel jacket. When bringing the magazine housing down into vertical position, make sure that the magazine housing lock, located on the underside of the trigger housing, engages the magazine housing firmly. (2) The weapon will not fire unless the grip safety is completely depressed. (3) With the magazine housing up and locked, and the wi r e stock fully telescoped, this is an extremely compact arm. It can be effectively concealed beneath a person's clothing, being only l5 ~ inches long and less than half of that dimension wide.
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Characteristic Data. Caliber • Operation Type of Fire Rate of Fire Type of Feed Weight, empty • Overall length (stock extended) . (retracted) . Effective range
e.
9-nnn
Blowback Full-auto only 600 rpm (practical - 125) Box - 32 rd cap 8.5 lbs 28.2 in 18.3 in 225 meters
Field Strip Procedure.
(1) After removing the magazine, push forward on the magazine housing lock and rotate magazine housing forward and up slightly. (2)
Push in on trigger housing lock.
(3)
Swing the barrel and receiver up away from the trigger housing.
(4)
Remove the bolt, recoil spring and guide from the receiver.
(5)
Press the stock release catch in.
(6)
Remove the stock by pulling to the rear.
Step two and three should be performed simultaneously. Step five and six should be performed simultaneously. f. Assembly Procedure. Proceed in the reverse order except that the stock may be assembled to the trigger housing after the weapon has been assembled. Place the recoil spring and guide into the bolt and assemble to the barrel and receiver assembly. Place the rear of the barrel and receiver assembly into the guide at the rear of the trigger housing. Swing down into position firmly until trigger housing lock engages. Adjust magazine housing up or down. g.
Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: With the bolt forward and the ejection port cover down, insert a loaded magazine into the magazine housing. If the housing is in the horizontal position, swing it down to the vertical. Make sure the magazine housing lock engages. Make sure the magazine catch is engaged. (2) To fire: Pull the bolt handle (located on the left side of the receiver) to the rear. The bolt will remain to the rear, since this weapon fires from an open bolt. The ejection port cover will now be open. Push the bolt handle to its forward position. Grasp the grip firmly and ensure the grip safety is squeezed in. Pull the trigger. The weapon will fire until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty.
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10.7
MACHINE GUN, U.S.S.R.
a. 7.62-mm RP-46 (M1946). The Soviet 7.62-mm RP-46 Machine Gun is designated the Company Light Machine Gun M1946 and is the tactical equivalent to the U.S. M60 Machine Gun. This weapon is a further modification of the OP series of light machine guns which included the OP (ground), OT (tank) and the OPM and DTM (modified ground and tank). The major modification of the RP-46 wa s the inclusion of a belt feed mechanism which gave the weapon a belt as well as a pan feed capability. This makes it an extremely versatile weapon, utilized as either a squad automatic we a pon , or offensive light machine gun when pan fed or an offensive/defensive light machine gun employed at Company level when belt fed. The belt feed mechanism utilizes a vertically positioned arm which contacts the reciprocating bolt handle and transmits this horizontal movement into a lateral, side-to-side movement of the feed arm components. This weapon is produced by the Chinese Communist and is designated the Type 58.
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b. Functioning . The RP-46 is a gas-operated, belt or pan fed light 1 machine gun which fires full-automatic from an open bolt only. The bolt is locked by pivoting wi ng s carried on each side of the bolt which are cammed into locking recesses in the sides of the receiver by the camming action of the firing pin. The bolt is carried on the upper rear portion of the slide, a stud on the slide to which the firing pin is attached projects up into the bolt from the bottom. With a round positioned in the feed way, the bolt handle is drawn to the rear. The trigger is pulled, the sear disengages from the sear bent on the bottom of the slide and the bolt, slide and piston move forward under impulse of the compressed recoil spring which is housed in a tube projecting from the rear of the receiver. The bolt strips a round from the belt, chambers it and comes to a stop against the rear face of the barrel. The slide and piston continue; to move a short distance and the firing pin, carried by the slide, cams the locking wings on each side of the bolt out into the recesses in the receiver and continues ' forward to strike the primer. Gas is tapped from the barrel to impinge against . the gas piston which is a forward extension of the slide. The slide is driven rearward, drawing the striker rearward to allow the locking wi ng s to be cammed in flush wi t h the sides of the bolt. The bolt being unlocked is also carried to the rear by the slide. This weapon fires full-automatic only and the firing cycle will be repeated until the trigger is released or the magazine is empty.
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Characteristic Data. 7.62-mm (Ml930 ctdge) Gas Full-auto only 650 rpm (Practical - 350) Belt - 250 rd cap Pan - 47 rd cap 28.7 lbs 49.7 in 1,760 meters
Caliber . Operation Type of Fire Rate of Fire Type of Feed Weight, empty • Overall length Effective range d. (1)
Field Strip Procedure. Push in on tube lock and turn clockwise.
(2) Remove tube lock and recoil spring housing assembly with recoil spring from receiver. (3)
Unscrew receiver lock and remove.
(4)
Pivot stock and trigger group assembly down and remove from receiver.
(5)
Disengage gas piston lock by pushing to the rear and down.
(6) Draw feed mechanism latch to the rear, (see step 7) raise feed mecha- j nism to disengage feed arm from bolt handle, draw bolt handle to the rear slight~ lower feed mechanism. Draw bolt handle fully to the rear and remove bolt, slide ; and piston assembly from the receiver. (7) Draw feed mechanism latch to the rear, raise feed mechanism up and draw to the rear to disengage from receiver and remove. e.
Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: Draw bolt handle to the rear. Pivot safety lever forward to "safe." Raise cover, lay loaded belt into feedway, close and latch cover. The weapon may also be loaded by leaving the bolt forward, inserting the belt tab into the feedway with the cover down, pulling the tab through until it stops. Drawing the bolt to the rear will now operate the belt feed mechanism and a round will be positioned in the feedway ready for chambering. The safety lever should be placed on "safe" at this point. To load the 47-round pan magazine, the feed mechanism must be removed and the pan is positioned in the same manner as it is in loading the DP or DPM machine guns. (2) To fire: Pivot the safety lever to the rear. Pull the trigger. The weapon will fire. This piece fires full-automatic only and will continue to fire until the trigger is released or the ammunition belt or pan is empty.
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10.8
LIGHT MACHINE GUN, U.S.S.R.
a. 7.62-mm Machine Gun (RPD). The 7.62-mm Ruchnoi Pu1emet Degtyarev (RPD) was adopted in 1948 as the standard squad automatic weapon of the Soviet Army. It is chambered for the Model 43 intermediate-size cartridge as are the Assault Rifle (AK) and Carbine (SKS). The RPD is not employed for sustained fire missions. The barrel is chrome-plated and is not of the quick-change type. It is fed from a metallic belt which is contained in a drum attached to the underside of the receiver. The RPD is the lightest belt fed machine gun in use today. The amount of gas taken from the barrel to function the action can be varied by a 3-position gas regulator located at the front end of the gas cylinder in a manner similar to the British Bren Gun. Since its adoption in 1948, the RPD has been modified twice. The first modification (1953) included: (1) relocation of the rear sight windage knob from the right side to the left, (2) addition of a rear sight guard, and (3) changing the design of the piston head from female to male with respect to the gas block. A second series of modifications occurring between 1955 and 1958 included: (1) addition of feed and ejection port covers , and (2) changing the bolt handle from a reciprocating, nonfolding type to a nonreciprocating, folding type. The RPD is being replaced by the RPK. b. Functioning. This is a gas-operated, full-automatic light machine gun. It fires from an open bolt position. With the bolt to the rear, and the first round in the belt positioned against the cartridge stop in the feedway, the trigger is pulled. The sear is disengaged from the sear notch on the underside of the slide assembly. The gas piston, the slide assembly, and the attached bolt move forward under the impulse of the compressed recoil spring. A stud on the top rear of the slide engages the track of the belt feed lever located in the cover which moves the belt feed slide to index the first round in front of the moving bolt. The bolt strips the round from the belt and chambers it. Continued forward movement of the piston and slide assembly cams the locking wings mounted in each side of the bolt out to engage mating recesses in the receiver. The final forward movement of the slide assembly causes the firing pin to strike the cartridge primer. Gas enters the gas cylinder from the barrel, impinges against the gas piston and drives the piston to the rear. After a fractional movement of the piston and slide assembly, the slide caroming against the inner surfaces of the locking wings carried in the bolt, unlock the bolt and carry it to the rear. The recoil spring is compressed by this action and the slide is engaged by the sear if the trigger has been released. If the trigger is still pressed, the cycle is repeated.
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c.
Characteristic Data. Caliber • Operation Type of Fire Rate of Fire Type of Feed Weight, empty • Overall length Effective range
d. (1)
7.62-mm M-43 (short) Gas Full-auto only 650 rpm (Practical - 375) Belt - 100 rd cap 15.4 Ibs 40.8 in 1,210 meters
Field Strip Procedure. Turn the butt trap cover at right angles to the stock.
(2) Place a screwdriver in the top hole in the butt. Engage the crossslot in the recoil spring plug and turn one-quarter turn. Remove the recoil spring plug, recoil spring and recoil spring guide from the rear of the stock. (3) (4) receiver. (5)
Push out the butt retaining pin. Pull the butt and trigger group to the rear and disengage from the Raise the cover assembly by pushing forward on the cover latch.
(6) Pull the bolt handle to the rear. The piston and slide assembly and bolt can now be removed from the rear of the receiver. The bolt and assembled bolt locks can then be lifted from the slide. e. Assembly Procedure. Proceed in the reverse order. Assemble the bolt and bolt locks to the slide. Slide the piston and slide assembly with the atta· ched bolt into the receiver. Close the cover. Slide the butt and trigger grout onto the bottom of the receiver. Replace the butt retaining pin. Place the assembled recoil spring and guide and recoil spring plug in the hole in the but1 Engage the cross-slot in the recoil spring plug with a screwdriver. Push in an( turn one-quarter turn to lock in place. Turn the butt trap cover to a vertical position. f.
Loading and Firing.
(1) To load: This weapon is fed from a 100 round link belt which is carried in a drum attached to the bottom of the receiver. When the drum is loaded, the belt loading tab should be left protruding from the trap door of the drum. Assemble the drum to the receiver and lock into place. Pull the bol1 handle to the rear. Push the safety lever, located above the trigger on the right side of the trigger group, forward to "safe." Push forward on the cover latch and raise the cover. Lay the belt on the feedway so that the first round is against the cartridge stop. Close the cover. (2) To fire: Push the safety lever to the rear. Pull the trigger. weapon will fire until the trigger is released or the belt is empty. 119
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