Spread Spectrum and CDMA Principles and Applications
Valery P. Ipatov University University of Turku, Turku, Finland Finland and St. Petersburg Electrotechnical University ‘LETI’, Russia
Spread Spectrum and CDMA
Spread Spectrum and CDMA Principles and Applications
Valery P. Ipatov University University of Turku, Turku, Finland Finland and St. Petersburg Electrotechnical University ‘LETI’, Russia
Copyright
Ó
2005 2005
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Contents Preface
xi
1
Spread spectrum signals and systems 1.1 Basic definition 1.2 Historical sketch
1 1 5
2
Classical reception problems and signal design 2.1 Gaus Gaussi sia an cha channel nnel,, gene generral rece recept ptio ion n prob proble lem m and opti optima mall deci decisi sio on rule ruless 2.2 Binary data transmission (deterministic signals) 2.3 M -ary data transmission: deterministic signals 2.4 Complex envelope of a bandpass signal 2.5 M -ary data transmission: noncoherent signals 2.6 Trade-off between orthogonal-coding gain and bandwidth 2.7 Examples of orthogonal signal sets 2.7.1 2.7.1 Time-s Time-shif hiftt coding coding 2.7.2 Frequency-s Frequency-shift hift coding coding 2.7.3 Spread Spread spectru spectrum m orthog orthogonal onal coding coding 2.8 Signal parameter estimation 2.8.1 Problem Problem stateme statement nt and and estimation estimation rule 2.8.2 2.8.2 Estima Estimatio tion n accura accuracy cy 2.9 Amplitude estimation 2.10 Phase estimation 2.11 Autocorrelation function and matched filter response 2.12 Estimation of the bandpass signal time delay 2.12.1 Estimation algorithm 2.12.2 2.12.2 Estimation Estimation accuracy accuracy 2.13 Estimation of carrier frequency 2.14 Simultaneous estimation of time delay and frequency 2.15 Signal resolution 2.16 Summary Problems Matlab-based problems
7 7 11 17 23 26 28 31 31 33 33 37 37 39 41 43 43 46 46 48 53 55 58 61 62 68
3
Merits of spread spectrum 3.1 Jamming immunity 3.1.1 3.1.1 Narrow Narrowba band nd jammer jammer 3.1.2 3.1.2 Barrag Barragee jammer jammer
77 77 78 80
Contents
vi
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
Low probability of detection Signal structure secrecy Electromagnetic compatibility Propagation effects in wireless systems 3.5.1 Free-space propagation 3.5.2 Shad Shadowin owing g 3.5.3 Multipath Multipath fading fading 3.5.4 Performance analysis 3.6 Diversity 3.6.1 Combining Combining modes modes 3.6.2 Arranging Arranging diversity diversity branches 3.7 Multipath diversity and RAKE receiver Problems Matlab-based problems
82 87 88 89 90 90 91 95 98 98 100 102 106 109
4
Multiuser environment: code division multiple access 4.1 Multiuser systems and the multiple access problem 4.2 Frequency division multiple access 4.3 Time division multiple access 4.4 Synchronous code division multiple access 4.5 Asynchronous CDMA 4.6 Asynchronous CDMA in the cellular networks 4.6.1 The resource resource reuse problem problem and cellular systems 4.6.2 Number Number of users per cell in asynchro asynchronous nous CDMA Problems Matlab-based problems
115 115 117 118 119 121 124 124 125 129 130
5
Discrete spread spectrum signals 5.1 Spread spectrum modulation 5.2 General model and categorization of discrete signals 5.3 Correlation functions of APSK signals 5.4 Calculating correlation functions of code sequences 5.5 Correlation functions of FSK signals 5.6 Processing gain of discrete signals Problems Matlab-based problems
135 135 136 137 139 142 145 145 146
6
Spread Spread spectrum spectrum signals signals for for time measurem measurement, ent, synchro synchroniza nization tion and time-resolution 6.1 Demands on ACF: revisited 6.2 Signals with continuous frequency modulation 6.3 Criterion of good aperiodic ACF of APSK signals 6.4 Optimization of aperiodic PSK signals 6.5 Perfect periodic ACF: minimax binary sequences 6.6 Initial knowledge on finite fields and linear sequences 6.6.1 Definition Definition of a finite field 6.6.2 Linear Linear sequences over finite fields fields 6.6.3 m-sequences 6.7 Periodic Periodic ACF of m of m-sequences 6.8 More about finite fields
149 149 151 154 155 159 161 161 163 165 167 170
Contents
7
8
vii
6.9 Legendre sequences 6.10 Binary codes with good aperiodic ACF: revisited 6.11 Sequences with perfect periodic ACF 6.11.1 Binary non-antipodal non-antipodal sequences 6.11.2 6.11.2 Polyphase Polyphase codes 6.11.3 6.11.3 Ternary Ternary sequences sequences 6.12 Suppression of sidelobes along the delay axis 6.12.1 6.12.1 Sidelobe Sidelobe suppression suppression filter 6.12.2 6.12.2 SNR loss calculatio calculation n 6.13 FSK signals with optimal aperiodic ACF Problems Matlab-based problems
172 174 176 177 179 181 185 186 187 192 194 196
Spread spectrum signature ensembles for CDMA applications 7.1 Data transmission via spread spectrum 7.1.1 Direct sequence sequence spreadin spreading: g: BPSK BPSK data modul modulation ation and binary signatures 7.1.2 DS spreading spreading:: general general case 7.1.3 Frequency Frequency hopp hopping ing spreading spreading 7.2 De Designing signature ensembles for synchronous DS CDMA 7.2.1 7.2.1 Proble Problem m for formul mulati ation on 7.2.2 Optimizing Optimizing signature signature sets in in minimum minimum distance distance 7.2.3 Welch-boun Welch-bound d sequences sequences 7.3 Approaches Approaches to design designing ing signatur signaturee ensembles ensembles for asynchro asynchronous nous DS CDMA 7.4 Time-offset signatures for asynchronous CDMA 7.5 Examples of minimax signature ensembles 7.5.1 Frequency-o Frequency-offset ffset binary binary m-sequences 7.5. 7.5.2 2 Go Gold ld sets sets 7.5.3 7.5.3 Kas Kasami ami sets sets and and their their exten extensio sions ns 7.5.4 Kamaletdin Kamaletdinov ov ensembles ensembles Problems Matlab-based problems
203 203
DS spread spectrum signal acquisition and tracking 8.1 Acquisition and tracking procedures 8.2 Serial search 8.2.1 8.2.1 Algori Algorithm thm mod model el 8.2.2 Probabilit Probability y of correct correct acquisitio acquisition n and average average numbe numberr of steps 8.2.3 Minimizing Minimizing average average acquis acquisition ition time 8.3 Acquisition acceleration techniques 8.3.1 8.3.1 Proble Problem m sta statem tement ent 8.3.2 Sequential Sequential cell examining examining 8.3.3 Serial-par Serial-parallel allel search search 8.3.4 Rapid acquisition acquisition sequences sequences 8.4 Code tracking 8.4.1 Delay estimation estimation by tracking tracking 8.4.2 Early–late Early–late DLL discrimina discriminators tors 8.4.3 8.4.3 DLL noise noise perf perform ormanc ancee Problems Matlab-based problems
251 251 253 253 254 258 261 261 262 263 264 265 265 267 270 273 274
203 207 212 214 214 215 223 227 232 235 235 236 239 241 243 246
Contents
viii
9
Channel coding in spread spectrum systems 9.1 Preliminary notes and terminology 9.2 Error-detecting block codes 9.2.1 9.2.1 Binary Binary block codes and detection detection capability capability 9.2.2 9.2.2 Linear Linear codes and their polynomia polynomiall representa representation tion 9.2.3 9.2.3 Synd Syndrome rome calculation calculation and error detection detection 9.2.4 9.2.4 Choice Choice of generator generator polynomia polynomials ls for CRC 9.3 Convolutional codes 9.3.1 Convolutional encoder 9.3.2 9.3.2 Trellis Trellis diagram, free distance and asymptotic asymptotic coding gain 9.3.3 9.3.3 The Viterbi decoding decoding algorithm algorithm 9.3.4 9.3.4 Applicatio Applications ns 9.4 Turbo codes 9.4.1 9.4.1 Turbo encoder encoderss 9.4.2 9.4.2 Iterative Iterative decoding decoding 9.4.3 9.4.3 Performance Performance 9.4.4 9.4.4 Applicatio Applications ns 9.5 Channel interleaving Problems Matlab-based problems
277 277 279 279 281 284 285 286 286
10
Some advancements in spread spectrum systems development 10.1 Multiuser reception and suppressing MAI 10.1.1 10.1.1 Optimal Optimal (ML) multiuser multiuser rule for synchronous synchronous CDMA 10.1.2 Decorrelating algorithm 10.1.3 Minimum mean-square mean-square error detection 10.1.4 10.1.4 Blind MMSE MMSE detector 10.1.5 10.1.5 Interferenc Interferencee cancellatio cancellation n 10.1.6 Asynchronous multiuser detectors 10.2 Multicarrier modulation and OFDM 10.2.1 10.2.1 Multicarri Multicarrier er DS CDMA 10.2.2 10.2.2 Conventiona Conventionall MC transmission transmission and OFDM 10.2.3 10.2.3 Multicarri Multicarrier er CDMA 10.2.4 10.2.4 Applicatio Applications ns 10.3 Transmit diversity and space–time coding in CDMA systems 10.3.1 10.3.1 Transmit Transmit diversity and the space–time space–time coding problem problem 10.3.2 10.3.2 Efficiency Efficiency of transmit diversity diversity 10.3.3 10.3.3 Time-switche Time-switched d space–time space–time code 10.3.4 10.3.4 Alamouti Alamouti space–time space–time code 10.3.5 10.3.5 Transmit Transmit diversity diversity in spread spread spectrum spectrum applications applications Problems Matlab-based problems
307 307 307 309 311 314 315 316 316 317 318 322 325 326 326 327 329 331 333 334 336
11
Examples of operational wireless spread spectrum systems 11.1 Preliminary remarks 11.2 Global positioning system 11.2.1 11.2.1 General General system system principles principles and architecture architecture 11.2.2 11.2.2 GPS ranging ranging signals signals 11.2.3 11.2.3 Signal Signal processing processing
339 339 339 340 341 343
289 292 296 296 296 299 300 301 302 302 304
Contents
11 11.2 .2.4 .4 Accu Accura racy cy 11.2.5 11.2.5 GLONAS GLONASS S and GNSS GNSS 11.2.6 11.2.6 App Applic licati ations ons 11.3 Air interfaces cdmaOne (IS-95) and cdma2000 11.3.1 11.3.1 Int Introd roduct uctory ory remark remarkss 11.3.2 11.3.2 Spr Spread eading ing codes codes of of IS-95 IS-95 11.3.3 11.3.3 For Forwar ward d link link channe channels ls of of IS-95 IS-95 11.3.3 11.3.3.1 .1 Pilot Pilot channe channel l 11.3.3.2 11.3.3.2 Synchron Synchronizatio ization n channel channel 11.3.3.3 11.3.3.3 Paging Paging channels channels 11.3.3 11.3.3.4 .4 Traffi Trafficc channe channels ls 11.3.3.5 11.3.3.5 Forward Forward link modu modulatio lation n 11.3.3.6 11.3.3.6 MS processing processing of forwar forward d link link signal signal 11.3.4 11.3.4 Revers Reversee link link of IS-95 IS-95 11.3.4.1 11.3.4.1 Reverse Reverse link traffic traffic channel channel 11.3.4 11.3.4.2 .2 Access Access channe channel l 11.3.4.3 11.3.4.3 Reverse Reverse link modu modulatio lation n 11.3.5 11.3.5 Evolution Evolution of of air interface interface cdmaOn cdmaOnee to cdma20 cdma2000 00 11.4 Air interface UMTS 11.4.1 11.4.1 Prelim Prelimina inarie riess 11.4.2 11.4.2 Types Types of UMTS UMTS chan channel nelss 11.4.3 11.4.3 Dedicated Dedicated physical physical uplink uplink channels channels 11.4.4 11.4.4 Comm Common on phys physical ical uplink uplink chann channels els 11.4.5 11.4.5 Uplink Uplink channelizat channelization ion codes 11.4.6 11.4.6 Uplink Uplink scram scrambli bling ng 11.4.7 11.4.7 Mapp Mapping ing downlin downlink k transport transport channels channels to physic physical al channels channels 11.4.8 11.4.8 Downlink Downlink phys physical ical channels channels forma formatt 11.4.9 11.4.9 Downlink Downlink channelizat channelization ion codes 11.4.10 11.4.10 Downlink Downlink scrambling scrambling codes 11.4.11 Synchronization channel 11.4.11.1 11.4.11.1 General General structure 11.4.11.2 Primary synchronization synchronization code 11.4.11.3 Secondary synchronization code code
ix
344 344 345 345 345 346 347 347 347 348 349 351 352 353 353 355 355 356 357 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 365 366 366 366 367
References
369
Index
375
