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ALSO FROM FREE PRESS/SIMON & SCHUSTER The Elements of Style:
A Practica! Encyclopedia of Interior Architectural Details from 1485 to the Present Edited by Stephen Calloway and Elizabeth Cromley
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THE
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OF A Practical Encyclopedia of the Decorative Arts from the Renaissance to the Present
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General Editor Noel Riley Consulting Editor Patricia Bayer FREE PRESS NEW YORK
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1 3 5 7 9 lO 8 6 4 2 library 01 Congress Cataloging-in-
Set in Palatino and Helvetica Neue
Publication Data is available. ISBN 0-7432-2229-6
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Foreword 8
Introduction 10
Introduction 40
Furnilure 14
Introduction 80
Introduction 126
Furniture 44
Furniture 84
Furniture 130
Pottery 20
Ceramics 62
Ceramics 100
Ceramics 160
Glass 26
Glass 66
Glass 108
Glass 176
Silver and Metall'lork 30
Silver and Metalwork 70
Silver and Metalwork 114
Silver and Metalwork 188
Textiles 38
Textiles and Wallpaper 76
Textiles and Wallpaper 122
Textiles and Wallpaper202
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Introduetion 21 o
Introduetion 250
Introduetion 274
Introduetion 298
Introduetion 330
Furniture 214
Furniture 254
Furnilure 278
Furniture 302
Furniture 334
Ceramies 228
Ceramies 262
Ceramies 286
Ceramies 314
Ceramies 62
Glass 234
Glass 266
Glass 288
Glass 318
Glass 342
Silver and Metall'lork 242
Metall'lork 268
Silver and Metall'lork 290
Silver and Metall'lork 322
Silver and Metalwork 344
Textiles 244
Textiles and Wallpaper 270
Textiles and Wallpaper 294
Textiles and Wallpaper 326
Textiles 348
Wallpaper 248
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Introduetion 350
Introduetion 378
Introduetion 420
Furniture 354
Furniture 382
Ceramies 360
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Introduetion 450
Introduetion 482
Furniture 424
Furniture 454
Furniture 486
Ceramies 396
Ceramies 434
Ceramies 462
Ceramies 494
Glass 364
Glass 402
Glass 438
Glass 464
Glass 496
Silver and Metalwork 368
Silver and Metalwork 41 O
Silver and Metalwork 442
Metalwork 466
Silver and Metalwork 498
Textiles 372
Textiles 412
Textiles 444
Fashion and Textiles 468
Textiles and Rugs 500
Mass-Produeed Wares
Industrial Design 416
Plasties and Applianees 446
Industrial Design 474
Industrial Design 502
and Industrial Design 376
Lighting 418 APPENDICES Contributor Biographies 506 Sourees 508 •
Glossary 51 O Index 523 Aeknowledgments 541
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Foreword
he aim of this book - to present in digested form the majar styles in the decorative arts over a five hlUldred-year period - is an ambitious one. lt might appear foolhardy to attempt to cover such a huge sweep, embracing continental Europe as \VeU as Britain and Arnerica from the Renaissance to the Postmodem era, but the value of the project lies in its breadth, tracking the ebbs and flows of design and the man)' cross-currents cf influence in the main disciplines cf interior decoratian - furniturc, cera mies, glass, metalwork, and textiles. TIle book is a practical guide to design movements, with the focus on the form and decoratian - the shapes and ornamental matiEs - that distinguish one style from another. In tracing this path through changes in fashion and taste, the nurture and development of technigues, the inspiration of materials, and the influence of designers who hamessed aH the other factoes to make their impact. the text and the illustrations are of egual importance. TIle Elelllellfs o/Desigll is a sequel to Tite Elemwfs 01 ShJle which, over the twelve years of its existence, has proved itself to be an invaluable reference for period architectural style and details in Britain and The United States. Where Tite Elelllents 01 Style was concemed with the fixtures and accessories of domestic buildings, Tite Elemellts 01 Desigll looks at the furnishings and decoration inside them. Combined ,....ith the architecture, these crea te a period's visual impact.
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lo covering both earlier and later periods we are able
to show how consistently the past informs what follows in design, and yet it can still emerge with a fresh face. For example, eaTl)' 19th-cenhlry ! eoclassicism echoes the Baroque in its light-dark contrasts and grandeur of intention; the ghosts of 18th-century Rococo naturalism live on in 1890s Art Nouveau, and the clean-lined elegance of the Biedermeier style re-surfaces in 1920s Art Oeco. sometimes, in the hands of the exceptionally gifted, new design appears dazzling in its originality. Scratch the surface, however, and period influence will almost always reveal itself. The search for novell)' is constant throughout design history and, particularly since the 19th century, changing tastes ha ve been directed as much by the steering wheel of conunerce as by the impulse to keep up with the Joneses. In the 17th and 18th centuries, new ideas in the decorative arts were spread far and wide by engraved books of designs and patterns, while hom the 19th century onwards, major exhibitions have also played a significant part in the commercial dissemination of innovative designo V\'e have purposely given ernphasis to 20th-centu.ry styles - too often treated in isolation from earlier periods. rhe time-scales expand as the book progresses, so that the first few chapters deal with long stretches of a dominating style - Baroque or Neoclassicism, for example - while the 20th-century dlapters cover twentyor even ten-year periods.
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Much of the focus in earlier chapters is on royal oc aristocratic examples: th.is is inevitable since these invariably represented the cutting edge of style in their time; peopIe lovver clown the social scale generall), acquired watered-down versiolls, often somewhat latero Even in more recent periods, the style gurus have tended to appeal at first te an élite whase startlingly upto-the-minute possessions eventually become the musthaves of the masses. Thus sorne of Que illustrations mal' appear modem, even many decades later: in their time they were distinctly avant garde. While individuals may favour one style of decorative art over another, an lffiderstanding of the periods befare and after, of the materials and technical developments that made thern passible, and a knO\'vledge of the designers and their inspiration, provides the vital context far inforrned choice. In such a digest of design style as this, sorne objects wiII appear ugly, preposterously overblown, of exaggerated proportion, or irnpractical, while others will enchant ,vith their beauty, tickle v·úth their wit, or appeal for their unabashed usefulness. Williarn Morris's powerful dictum, "Have nothing in your house that you do not know to be useful or believe to be beautifLÚ" leaves sorne room for subjectivity. For every user of this book there are likely to be favourite periods or styles: "1 couId live \Nith that" or "1 would not give it houseroom" are frequently heard responses to the more
extreme manifestations of any style. And as we show how these period styles carne into being within the domestic setting, we are bound to illustrate sorne of the more striking, original, and often grand examples that inspired a particular look. While nat intended specifically as a guide to collectabIes, this book, through its analysis of period design, is an important reference tool for collectors as well as today's designers and decorators, and students of art histary. A clear lUlderstanding of the details of form and decoration is an essential broad-spectrwn frame,vork, whatever an individual's particular enthusiasm or artistic calling may be. Each chapter covers a separate design style, beginning with a general introduction and continuing in an established sequence - furniture, ceramics, glass, metalwork, al}d textiles. Within these sections the focus varies according to the impact of different countries, groups, or technologies. We have included a glossary of terms for quick reference and, for those interested in design sources, a list of the contemporary pattem books and other style guides mentioned throughout the text.
Noel Riley
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Renaissance Furnilure
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ltalian
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The European Courts
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Design in the 15th and 16th centuries was dominated by the concept of imitating the art of the ancient world. This imitation was combined with new technical discoveries in glassmaking; in ceramics, with
Pollery
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the introduction of tin-glazed earthenwares; and in textile production. Glass
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Silver and Melalwork
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Greek philosopher Aristotle, argued that a virtuous ruler should display
Textiles
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magnificence through his expenditure on works of art, which would in
Renaissance humanists, in a revival of the principies espoused by the
turn enhance his reputation.
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s the princes rapidly gained control Qver the Halian city-states and established their dynastic succession, they lIsed art as a statement cf their weaJth, their gencrosity, í'll1d their pasinan. TIley erected great Illonuments élnd buildings, cncouraged artists to come to their courts through their patronage, and set up ne\\' manufachlres of luxury goods. At first the study Df classical monUlllents led to the
copying of specific ornaments sueh as scrolling foliage, 5wags, garlands, putti, éllld particularly the candelabrum motif. This ¡ast \Vas a fonn of vertical foliage emerging fram él Vé1se or candlestand. Donatello (1386-1466) played 'with various combinations of these classical designs in his Cal/toria, or singing galJery (1433-9), for Florence Cathedral. By the end of the 15th century they were used by almost aH artists and applied in a variety of combinations for the decoration of interiors, fumitllre, ceramics, glass, and metalwork. In Ven ice, contact with the Islamic counhies encollraged another form of dccoration. Geometric or interIacc pattems, sometimes using highly stylized foliage motifs, created flat patterns of ornament partieularly suitable for book binding, metalwork, and textiles. Pattem books of these Moresque motifs appeared in Venice in the 1520s; and in 1530 Francesco Pellegrino published his highly influential book, La Fle/lr de In 5óellce de POllrtraictllre. As architects began to analyze the buildings being excavated in Rome, they understood more fully the principIes of c1assical designo The two approaches of understanding and emulation led to the concept of al1'nlltica (in the spirit of the ancient world). Bramante (I~44-1514) and Raphael (1483-1520) designed the fac;ades and the arrangement of domestic palaces in Rome follO\ving detailed analysis of Roman treatises on architecture, most importantly that by Vitruvius. TI1CY created a perfcct harmony and balance in designs for buildings such as Bramante's Palazzo Caprini, c.151O, or the Palazzo Brancone dell'Aguila by Raphael (befare 1520); bllildings werc based an c1assical proportion and the repetition of similar W1itS.
Left: l/lis slrikillg cflskct of si/¡'t'rgilt, fflpis IfI:ll/i, fllld rock crystflf plflqut'S ,¡'flS mnde for Cardillal Afl?"Ssnlldro Fflnu'Se, 15_/3--61. to hold Ilis mre mmmscriplS. TI//! pieCl' l/'flS possibly dl'5igllcd b.1/ Fmll((':;co Snllliati. wlllJ'Se debt to i\ficllelnllgeio is c1mr ill tlu.' distrilllltiOI/ mili complex armllgelllt'111 of 11", figl/res. 8aStÍilllO Sbnrri (d.1563)
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Raphael's decoration of Bramante's loggetta in the Vanean, c.1516-17, irnitated the paintings of Roman interiors, first known tú Renaissance artists through the discovery of Nero's Domus Aurea. This gave the term "grotesque" to such paintings, fram the belief that they had been created for underground grottoes. Grotesque Drnament incorporated mythological animals - fauns, and satyrs - masks, which were joined together and framed with bands and garlands. Thus it had the advantage over the candelabrum motif in that it ''''as not limited to a vertical axis but could be used over any size Dr type of surface. In 1519 Raphael praised the concept of lIlalliera (style); thirty years later the painter, architect, and biographer Giorgio Vasari (1511-74), v.,rriting in his Lives 01 fIle Artists (1550), singled it out as an essential íngredient of the art of his day. Elegance and sophistication combined with virtuosity gave 16th-century art its superiority, 50 they believed, over previous generations, even the Romans. They described Giulio Romano (c.1499-1546), Raphael's most famous pupil, as not only equalling but surpassing the ancients in his imagination and skil!. In the same way, Michelangelo (1475-1564)
broke the rules Df classical architecture and sculpture in new and varied ways. The effect on design was to emphasize the novel and the unusual, and to create complex patterns Df dense, intricate subject matter. These characteristics constitute ,,,,'hat is generally known as Mannerism. The audience for whom these works were intended understood the rules that had been broken and adrnired the sophisticated skill with which the artists had carried out their ambitions. The overwhelming acceptance of Italian Renaissance concepts throughout Europe can to sorne extent be explaíned by the need felt by princes and rulers to express the concept of personal rule through reference to the classics, which was incorporated into the medieval framework that relied sDlely on authority from God. These concepts, first stated in Italy, were developed by the humanist teachers and writers of the 15th and 16th century throughout Europe. The speed with which these ideas were taken up depended on political and economic considerations as well as the ambitions of the different rulers, but by the middle of the 16th century the revival of classical antiquity was generally accepted as part of the established repertory of
designo Printed designs disseminated these ideas; without the discovery of the printing press, designs could not have spread so quiekly. In addition, there was a nehvork of interseeting paths aeross Europe, as the result of changing political boundaries, movements neeessitated by war, or shifting allianees because of religion. Trade routes aeted as another means of spreading ideas of fasruon and taste. The homogeneity of Renaissance design was a result of the acceptanee of a classical voeabulary. lts variety stems from the fusion of those ideas with an indigenous tradition. Franee was Olle of the first countries to adopt Italian Renaissance ide¡¡s. After his triumphal progress to, and conquest of, Naples in 1495, Charles VIII brought twenty-two Italian craftsmen back to Franee. His successor Francis J, who was determined to be a true humanist prince, invited Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Benvenuto Cellini 0500-71), Francesco Primaticcio (150+-70), and Rosso Fiorentino (1495-1540) to his eaurt at Fontainebleau. He also bought numerous paintings and seulptures from the greatest artists in Italy. The deeoration of Fontainebleau (exeeuted by Primatieeio and Rasso behveen 1530 and 15-17) introdueed Halian eleganee and diversity to Franee. Moreover, in the long gallery, Galerie Fram;ois J, a new form of ornament \Vas introdueed. The frames to the paintings were conceived as three-dimcnsional bands wlth curved, metal~like scrolls which carne to be known as strapwork. Deriving from Italian cartouche borders, this nevv style of decoration was taken up by every designer in the second half of the century. In the Netherlands, designers such as Cornelis Floris (1514-75), Cornelis Bos (acti\'e
1540-54), and Cornelis Matsys (active 1531-60) developed a form of imaginative grotesque work of figures captured in metalwork bands. Hans Vredeman de Vries' highly suecessful publications, rcprintcd by his son, ensured that strapwork remained part of the decorative vocabulary of the northem eountries - lhe 1 etherlands, Gerrnany, and England - until weH into the 17th century. Flernish and French designs \Vere also very important as sources of inspirabon in England, particularly towards the end of the century. Henry VIII had introduced Italian Renaissance decoration into his interiors and \·vith the arrival of foreign artists, such as the Italian Pietro Torrigiani and the Swiss Hans Holbein, his court was the equal to that of contemporary European princes. ,England became a haven for many refugees from both The ~etherlands and France, who brought with them the knowledge of Renaissanee motifs as weH as technical expertise. Foreign silversmiths, cabinet makers, and textile workers in London, Norwich, and Canterbury transformed these industries and were protected by the eroH"n in spite of protests from the English guilds. L.LI
4 Tllt' Gn!erh' Frnl1(ois / ni FOlltnillt'b/l.'l1l1, dl.'sifitl1l.'d bIt Rosso Fiofl.'lIlillo < •
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nllrl FrmlCt'Sco Prillwticcio, 15]0-]4, l!5fnb/is1Jed tlll.' ¡¡e({litn/inl1nfe desigll ill Northem Ellrope. Tlle nllegoricnl pnilltillgs ¡¡¡ere jrnmerl i¡¡ i¡¡gel/ivlI5 sfl/cCO sCIIlplllres cnl'ynlid figures, pl/tli, al1d gal'la¡¡ds of j1o¡lvrs. T/ti'5 wns 1111.'Jir::'1 1151' oj sfrnp¡l'Ork, wllicllll'ns Iv domina/e In/e 16tJl-cellf1lr)l decornliOI/ nll OL'l'r Europe.
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Italian Furniture The Use 01 Classical Motils
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1 TlIis (h'/ail 01 lIJe fl'exo ~\'Ii1rriage af Alexander and Roxana by Sotfollltl (GioPaIll'; Bn::i), c.1517. /(lmled illllllt'droom of tllt' Villa Fnrllesi"t1 ill Rome, de/lid:; ti mtl~"ificeJlt/ollrpos/a bcd in lile all'antica styfe. 2 Tllt' sgabello (backstoofJ ¡¡'tlS "/(leed ngaillst tlu' ,mil ;11 n'Ct'ptioll room:; ill Rt'Julis$lTIICt' Il/IlnCt's. Tl,¡s l'XlIIllple ill ¡mlJIIlI. c.1551>-90, is IY/Jim/ o/ l/JI' Vl'lIetillll Jorm. 'l'itll its JliglllfluJike Il(lck amI mn'cd term jis,m'S. Ht 74CIII/29;II.
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nteriors in the 15th century \Vere still sparsely fun1ished. The main types of furniture inc1uded cns50Jli (chests) and chairs. TI1e most expensive item \Vas the bed, tichly hung with silks and embroideries, which, along with its accompanyingchest, was often given as él wedding present. Equal1y significant were highly decorated portable objccts such as writing cabinets. These were decorated in the teclmique known as itltnrsín, devcloped in Italy: coloured pieces of wood or other materials were mserted or la id into the background, The 16th century saw an merease both in the "ariety of types of furniture and in the richness of decoration, essential to the concept of magnificence. Although there was no single room set aside for dining, the credell=n (display buffet) beca me an arehitectural cupboard on whieh expensive objects were arranged. Leading arehiteets sueh as Polidoro da Caravaggio, Perino del Vaga, and Giacomo da Vignola, a11 active in Rome in the mid-16th century, used antique ornament to deyelop new, extravagant forms of decoration. Sculpted term
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figures were used as supports and decoration for tables and ehairs. Elongated figures based on Miehelangelo's work appeared in or above cartouches and contributed to the sense of elegance. Walnut was prcferred, often stained or partly gilded, beca use of the fine carving that couId be achieved. The concept of }J1IlIliem (style) also led to increasingly varied interpretations of grotesque ornamento This could be combined with arabesque decoration, popular in Ven ice and northern cities. Pope Julius V introduced the taste for porphyry (a reddish-purple stone) in the interior of the Villa Giulia (begun 1331), and it was copied by rulers such as Cosimo 1 in the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence (133.5-63). This Roman revival encouraged table tops of pietre dure (hardstones) and marble, appearing first in Rome in the mid-16th eentury, for the Farnese family, and in 1388 Franceseo de' Medici set up a ,,'orkshop in Florence, which beca me the Opificio delle Pietre Dure. The first designs were geometric and stylized, but F10rentine ornamentation became more natura lis tic towards the end of the century.
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4 !vlid-16tll cl'IIfllry cassoni ¡pen' OjtCII COJl.'l'd ill !ligll rdie! {/lId gilded.
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3 Tllis ¡Jl1il/ted cassone bel1rs fhe 0/'1115 O/ the F/onmlille Morell; l1!1d Nali jmllilies, 1472. The pnilltillgs by Biaggio di AI/tol/io nlld }acopo del Sallaío, SflO,l' SCt'I1CS ¡I"OIII ROIllI1I1 histor!!. l-lt 2. 12/11/7ft 3iu. 5 T/¡is Floren/ille ¡¡¡nil/ut creden:t:a (sidebollrd) ¡mili ¡IJe scco!ld hnlf 01 file 16th cenlur!! WI1S used fOI" display as il'cll ns slOI"oge. T!le ,:;illlpll' desigll muf Ihe nrchiteclllral frollwiI'ork are I!!pical of Florenc!!. Ht 1.13111/3/1 9ill.
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with rolll/dels depicti¡¡g ROlIllll/ t'!!lJNror:; alld ballle sct'!1es. Possiuly made in Ferram (11Ie s/alld is lale 1901 cmtllf!!). Ht 2.06111/6f/8il1. 2 I'\'a/nul are/Ii/re/uml mbilld, c. 1580, mitll tlIe arllls of Cardilll1l A/esj{1J!dro Fam61.'. by l/le Flemisll mbil1t'tmakel" F!alllinio BOH/allger. Ht 2.301!117ft 6'/,ill. 3 Tlle illlportanee of t!lis tabk probably l1Iade fOI" Cosil!lo / de' Mf'dici, wllile Cardinal ill Rome, lay jI! its gl.'o!llcfric IIInrble topo TlIe serolled CU11. 1j¡¡g Iegs ,(litl, IíOIlS' Pl/W fl.'cf I"eflecf ti/e design5 of Beml/nio SI/OHtalentÉ h531-1608). L. S.18111/17ft.
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Furniture from the European Courts France
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3 Arnloire attribllh'd fa HlIglJes Snlllbill, ll'ho worked ill Dijoll. 8l1rglllldy, 15-19-<.1580.111 ¡'is Oeuvre de la dh'crsité des termes hjp.), Snmbill called fernl figure:;, ,chic/¡ decorate litis ilYlrdrobe. file "Frellc1, arder," c1l1imillg il WflS
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4 Desigll for n meuble a deux eorps (dol/ble cubil/el) by ¡acques Al1dl'olle/ Ou CerCl'tllI, Paris, C.1580. Such e/tlborflle
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rancis 1 of Franee brought Italian artists to Fontainebleau, and it may have been their influence that eaused French furniture to imitate Italian so dosely. Sorne types oE earlier furniture continued to be used, such as the dressoir (buffet) and the nrl/loire (eupboard). The earliest oE these kept the same form, but changes arose in the decoration, from the medieval linenfold panelling to the new Renaissance motifs: oE the roundeI, based on a classical medaI portrait, and the candelabrum. After c.1550, shapes began to change to incorpora te the new all'alltica rnotifs and sculpted featl.lres into the designo The cabinet developed in France in a more individual style. Rather than being a freestanding moveable object, it was generally placed on a low cupboard with hvo doors. This l1IeIlble it deux eorps is one of the most distinctive types of French furniture. The designs 01 Jacques Androuet Du Cerceau (l515-d5~) indude a wide variety of cabinets and cupboards, whieh "'ould have been executed .in carved walnut, often inset with srnall marble rectangular paneIs.
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16
Spain had a highly important non-Italian tradition deriving from the Arahs and Moorish craftsmen working there and using arabesque or moresque designs. 80th types oE design were based on dassical antiqtúty but they had evolved into highly pattemed linear decoratian in furniture, in which small pieces of ivory were inserted into the solid carcase. The sillón de fraile was a Spanish type of chair whose fonn evolved, in the second half oE the 16th century, into the standard arrnchair used in Europe. It was a wooden structure with Ieather bands for the back and seat, which gradualIy developed into an upholstered chair ''''ith arms. Anothcr key type uf h¡rniture to develop in Spain was the pape/eh'a (writing cabinet), often known by its 19th~century name of vargllell0. Anhverp was the most important centre for design in the north. Designers such as Hans Vredeman de Vries 0526-<:.160-1) combined French and ltalian motifs ",ith large geometric patterns of octagons, squares, and rectangles. Cupboards and chests were often decorated
Spain 1 Portnb/l' papeleim (writillS cnbillet) witlllvloorish dl'Comtioll b)t Lllms Homebo/te i/l/aia ill ;por.v ollfo ,mlmlf, C-ljlj-:!.J. rile fall Iraut cOl/id be lfsed for U'Tilillg. ¡I'1Jile ti/e drn¡¡ws Jliddeu bdlimi COI/Id !/OI/Sí" 5mnll <'nlllnbl('s. Ht 1.5:l1ll/6o!ill. 2 Tf/l~ sillón de fraile (nrllldltlir)
H'ns n fl"Ol1lnl c1lnir of (l'nll1l/t witll nll elllvroidered bl1ck nlld The¡tesiSlllJecnllu' ¡IJe stnlldtlrd nrmc/Itlir fllrollgJ/Ol/t
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The Netherlands
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from/Jis Differcnts Pourtraicts de ~lcnuiserie fe,IsBa). Tflis sllOit's file ndapfl1fioll iJl tlu' l/orOI
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oI Un/in" Rl'"nis:illllCt' IIIOlif-~. Tlic
{/lIiJl/a{ ft'l'l an' takt'lI fmm Frellc/I desigJls (mil Tt:fí.'r lmek fo ulI/iqm' Ralllnll tn/l/l's mut clmi,.:;. 2 T/¡e 1¡¡lo-:o;lon'y clIJI/lOard ¡/'I/$ {/ (0111111011 t.vllt' (~f storngefllnJitlll't' ill Nort/¡cm Ellrope. TlJis Flclllisli eXlHllple;'1 oo/.:, (.1500-50, styli=es dellll?llls frolll l/u.' ({/lIdt'!llbrl/lll IIl(1lif. ¡'aSI~
0/.00<1'("::0. mili paterae (decomti,'t' rOl/lldds or Oi'(ll:;1 for il:; deCtlrtltÍlm. Ht 1.19111/-46; 'j/l.
1
with term figures while tables featured large bulbous legs. Distinctively Flemish is the use of (imported) ebony inlay into oak, reflecting Antwcrp's positian as a trading centre. In the German statcs, artists in the cities ",ith c10sest access to Italy incorporated Renaissance ideas into their hnniture first. and bv - the middlc of the 16th centurv , were using c1assical motifs and three-dimensional sculpted c1assical images.lnAugsburg, the cabinetmakers took the intarsia writing box and converted it into the two-door cabinet, which they decorated with marquet:ry \'cneers of IIU!/llelllo Illori scenes of ruins and blasted h·ees. The creation of marquetry'in the Gcrman states "'as Ol1e of their most important contributions to the development of hlrniturc techniques. The most significant types of German furniture remained the scJI1"fl11k (cupboard) and the chest. Later examples ",ere decorated with Mannerist architecturaI designs of volutes and broken pediments, as weH as the al1~perva5ive strapwork, usually taken from pattern books. Once cstablished, the forms continued ",eH into
17
The German States 1 Tllis $/yl;:('d ¡Ot'rsiolll~f tlll' Itafilm sg.:lbcllo WIIS madi' 111 Drt'~kll. c.16oo, lor ChristiaJl V of Sil xvIIY. b.ll t11,' /fll/¡mI Gion", lIi ¡\ 111 rin ."Vost'/Ji, 'J'11O ClJIIIl' lo Dr.':"l/,'II in 1 jij. TJ¡('¡"lCk j:'o ¡"faí,! ¡"ílll ST/It'll/iUt' pl1lll'lS. 2 l\'riliuS (n[¡illd fnJIII AIfSS/IIITS. C.ljijJ 600. Il/Illlt- i 11 11/'/'''11('/ n¡ tlr lit 'tJJíI'OO¡f, as/¡. mili 5.l1ClIIIWTC ¡','III'<'h',1 (}I/tOIl pille cnrOlj.{'. ¡\ la rqlld,.1I 1I'l/S 11 .i.·¡·t'!0/llllt'll f oi t!le Italinll iJlt",..,ú, li'dmit/III'. l\'. 1m/;ft .fill. 3 D'~(":II ".11 LIlr¡'II: S/~'T ill AlIgsbllrg. I .'ib¡. "f/tlcl'illS tfl.' ¡¡¡¡\'lItit,.' llse oj straptl'Ork. ~a(llllll(llif.;.. mili .~''f.llllf'frit· s'lnl~ tfml ¡e,'r,' iI/CllT/II.Irl¡f",f ill/{l mementi mori (ntillt'd ';ú'lIt';;).
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dt'sígn by tllt' N 1I rClIIbclS (lrt ísl Peta FJij/ na (c. 1490-1 546), i t ;,;I/O¡I';'; 11 i;,; JI nda;,;f(ll1dillg of Rt'lIIlÍ;,;;,;nllCt' lIIol~r.~ (lmi ordt'I'('d cOIII/l(l;,;ílitm. Ht :J..35m/7ft Si!n.
c:
18
schrank (CIIpllol1rd) rCII¡nilled nll i!!lpor/(lnt typc ~f;';fornge.tilrnítllrc ill
the next century, no doubL hclpcd by thc conscrvatism of the powerful guild system in the cities. ~Iedieval traditions continued ",eIl into the 16th century in English society. The great hall remained a centre of social activity and largc, joincd tablcs ",ere used for the huge banquets, \\"ith benches or forms hidden underneath ",hen not in use. Armchairs generally had ,,'ooden seats and carved backs, ",ilh lurned legs appearing in lhe second half of thc century, Jointed stools, also ",ilh tumed legs, ",ere a common farOl of seating. Oak remained the primal)' ",oad and musl have often been painted. Decoratian consisted of stylized geomctric patterns, jc",c1 motifs, and strap"'ork. An innovanon tOH'ards the end of the centurv ",as the use of ornaments derived from French and Flemish pattern books: heraldic beasts, term figures, and the cup and cover. Gerl1l
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..¡I/h' pos/s is lmsed
01/ tI/iC
ltalinll crmde/abrulll lIl()fif. IlIIt lIIay J¡ni.'C
3 Oak NOl/slleh che':f, C.1590, witllllrcllitectum! set'l/es ill /IIanlue/r!! de1.1eloped ¡mm il1/nrsia decoral iOIl nlld gMlIIl'I rie /)(IlIds o/ il11nid s/nil1l!d
/,',¡dll'd EIIS/Illld throllg/¡ Frt'!/c11 clIgmt 1i!lgs. HI 2.4m/8ft.
woods. TI/{' fi'e/llliqllc ¡cns pro/lnbly Gr.'r!IJnll;
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4 Onk cen/re tnble,
SI/e/I
chl!s/s IIIn!! Im,'c bcm
c. 1590, sflOwins the "Clip IJIld COiW" motif tlwt ,1'175
/nkcnfrolll F/clllish cl1grm'illgs. Ht SlCl1l/p.il1, f. 6..fOm/2If/ .
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5 (arI'en oa/.: collr! cupllOllrd, c1590-1600.
I/pllmi co¡'a sl/ppar!':. TlIe tL'fIll "col/tI" is frOIll
ti/(' FrCllcll for "1m!'''
,1/1'/ di,:fillgllis!t6 if ¡mm tlle l/orilla! t!llle ,pit/¡ doo/"s.
J-l11.85111/~ft Ú/I.
19
Pottery Hispano-Moresque Wares and Ihe Early Tin-Glaze Tradilion 1 Tflis 15tII-CL'"1rlry ¡¡'illgIUlJldled msc is all e.mmple of the
1-1 ispallQ- ¡\ Joresl]l/e IlIst r(¡eares illlported ¡lito Italy. TI/e arlllS
are tllose uf Piero de' I\-ledici (d.q.69) or 1Jis
SOIl
Lort'l/:o tlll'
MagJl~fiwlt. Ht
57CIII/22'/,ill. 2 Til/-gla:ed enrtilell;:t'are ¡t'as l/sed fo produce pll/lrlllacy ja,.~.
Tllis /iCo-/uwdled e.mll/plt' tl'nS lIIade ill Flon'Jlce or ils sl/rmlllldil/g district for tite hospital of Salita Maria NlfO,-'a. c.J.¡25-35. H/20oll/Sin. 3 AlIotlu'rforlll of plulrll/aey j{//~ (.1-170-1500. this L'.mIllJJle is 1)(/ ill tcd i Il vi111', Ol"llllg.'. g r('ell, mld pl/tple, ¡l'it/¡ a c1U1mcleristic valld of sfy/i:ed ft!f/tllers tmd Ihe hetld ofa lJ/nll. Ht 2S.5Clll/l1 XiII.
Early Islorialo Wares w
1 ProrlllCl'rl ill Fncll:n, file 11/0:'/
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frOIl/ /l ¡¡'oodCl/II'y Al/wr.:lll Diira. Diam. 19011/, 'ill. Z Tití:, C./525 11;:,11 ¡m~ Fllillll"d ;pitll tin' n rlllS (!f /~II't'11n ,1' E~/¡'. OIh' l!{ /111' gn'1I1t'';/IIrt pntnms
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Dinm.2/·51:1II/10,:ill.
e
20
eramic production in the 16th century was dominated by the de\'elopment of Italian maiolica. The word maiolica describes an earthenware bodv , coated with a glaze that has been opacified with tin·oxide to provide a smooth ",hite surface suitable for painting. It was used at first to describe the finely painted lustred pottery imported into ltaly from southem Spain in the 15th century vía the island of Majorca. These luxury items were often conunissioned by weaUhy ltalian families and helped to raise the status of pottery as a display item. Later, the word was adopted to describe aH Italian tinglazed wares, whether lustred or not, and, as the technique spread thraughout Emope, it became known by other names, which \ViII be discussed in later chapters. One of the most distinctive early designs on Italian maiolica was a pattern of heraldic creatures among stylized oak leaves, painted in a thick cobaH blue. During this period, the pigments \Vere painted directly onto the raw glaze and had to withstand the heat of the glaze firing. These were resrncted to blue fram cobalt. green
from copper, yellow from antimony, purple fram manganese, and orange from iron. Charactcristic monfs on early polychrome wares were stylized peacock feathers and portrait heads in roundels. The latter, derived fram antique coins and medals, "'as one oE the most widespread of all Renaissance motifs, appearing in almost everv , branch of the decorative arts. An overriding interest in antiquity in the 16th century and the mOre widespread él\"ailability of printed source material, coupled with increased dra\Ving skills, encouraged the maiolica painters to use the "'hole surface of their pottery for narrative painting, both biblical and mythological. This style became known as istorinto. Although capable of being used, these pictorial pieces must have been intended for display or as colJectors' items and \Vere often commissioned by wealthy patrons. Two important sources of inspiration were a series of woodcuts illustrating Ovid's Mefnlllorplioses, published in Venice in 1497, and the engravings of Marcantonio Raimondi (c.l-lSG-c.153-!) afler the \\'ork of Raphael. In
lleslgll Sources
1 The Abduction oí HeJen, mI t'lIgm¡'illg nttrilmted fa Alnmmfoll;o Rnil/lolldi fc.I-l8o-<.J 5H), is p055ibly nftl!' ¡he
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¡nI' is pnillted in blllf!, yello¡¡'. nlld gn!m, .pi/Ii n cClltml /lfmd o/ grotesqul' Omllllll!ll/. ¡IIcol'pomlillg Jautaslie I
1II00lster:; slIrrollllded b.ll
folinte scrol/work. This tYlh'
01 on/llllJt?llf, kl/o¡(tl¡ as aU'anoca, reflccts ti/(, widt'sprl'nd ¡lIferes! in (llle/eut Rome. HI3-l·jCm/13üJl.
2 TII/' blue gral/lid o/ /11;5 disll, made iJl FaclI:t/ iu 15]6, i5 kllOWIl (15 a beretlino, fllld
it ¡¡'as particular/y l/sed 111 Faell=a (lnd 1111' Vellt'to. TJ¡e
,im i5 p"illfed witll dolphills
amOllg illter/aced omame/l/. DimJl·3 1cm/ 12 /,in.
21
Other Popular Ornamental Motils 1 TI/e decora/io" 011 11lis Castl'1
Dumllte plate coll$i:;(s of military trolllli/'S armllgell sYlIIlI/ctrieal/.'I as a l'Order sl/mmnding tb.. U/ltral 't'ell. ¡¡'I,id, COlltail/'i ti/e ar/lls of 1/1(' pasol/ for 'I'/Iom /flt' }llntc ¡I'I1S cOlIIlI/issiollCd. 2 Tite i1'ork::llOp of Alal':'fro Bl'lIedetto. ill Sicl/f1, prodllccd ¡!lis plate C.1510. TJ¡e CCI/tml sCeIle depicls SI. ]t!fOIllC ill tll!'
Wildl'l"lIess, (/lid it is Sllrl"OlIl/ded by n type of illterlaced Ol"llallll'l1t kJlOWIl as nrnl'esqul'. Diam. 2.J·5 cm /91.i1l.
Lustrewares: the Revival 01 Lustre Techniques
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1 TI/(' pnilllillg 011 tl'¡~ ljl.J pinte i~ o[n ritw god ill (1 lnlldscape. TllC plnfe has /lle mfditioll
DI fl gold nl/d Teddisl1 fustre, il'1/idl ,('(fS tlJ'IJIil'li ill tite il'orkshop al Macstro Giorgio in Gl//Illio. DitllJl. 24(111/9/';'1.
22
2 Tllis C.lj40 beBe donne dis./l 15 illscrilJc>d nCasSllndra Belfa." T/,!' borda dr:sigll is ol imi'ricuted scn/es. ti widcsprend ReJluis5Illlce motif fllld
fl
Tt'ClfrrCllt c1mTacteristic
01 fIJe
H'ares made ill Oerutn. Difllll. H.jcm/13ZiIl.
sorne cases, painters took figures from several different engravings élnd reworked them inta new compositions. Another source oE inspiration \Vas tbe Roman wall paintings found in the Golden HOllse oE Nero in 1488. This "grotesque" styJe cE painting, wruch incorporated fanciful creatures and bizarre monsters among scrolling foliage, was l1sed by many artists and designers, most notably Raphael in his decoration of the Vatiean Logge (1518-19), and it spread to all branches of the decorative arts. Other nll'nllticn motifs used in the designs indude trophies of arros, laurel leaves, and putti, eombined with interlaeed arabesque ornament from Islamie arto The technique of painting with metallic lustres, which had characterized the early Hispano-Moresque wares imported from southem Spain, was introduced in the 16th century, particularly in Deruta and Gubbio. Oxides of silver or copper were applied to the twice-fired pottery and re-fired at a lower temperature in él smoky atmosphere to produce an iridescent metallic surface, \vmch varied from pale, silvery yellO\-v to ntby red. Lustre was
3 Allot/¡er di::ll of belle donne type. tllis al/e has n 10H'foot nlld is pnilltcd witll tlle portmit of n 't'Omnn wit1¡ mi nccompilll.llillg serol/. Tlle dis11 ¡ms fllstred il/ J530 iJl tlle 't'Ol"ksllOp of Alnl'$lro Giorgio. GlIbbio. Dinm. 22.5CIII/8lill.
characteristically applied to the large dishes painted with female portraits accompanied by an inscription on a scroll, known as eoppe nJllntorie, or "love dishes." They are sometimes knmvn as belle dOlllle (beautiful women) plates and were traditionally given as betrothal gifts. Tv..o developments in the middle of the cenhtry indicate a move away from the fasmon for istoriato pottery. One was the production in Faenza of wares ¡eft almost entirely in the white with slight, sketchy decora non in a limited palette of colours, known as cOlllpmdinrio. A parallel development in Urbino was a fashion for all-over, small-scale grotesques on a white ground, strongly influenced by the work of Raphael. Many of the different types of Renaissance omament used by the maiolica potters are illustrated in Cipriano Picolpasso's TlIree Books 01 tlle Potter's Art, \'vritten c.1557. He induded a design described as alln porcel/mlO, a reference to the huge impact that Chinese blue-and-white porcelain \Vas to ha ve on European design, which will be discussed more fully in the next chapter.
Later Developments in Renaissance Design 1 111 tllt' un/re of tlús pierced disk '{'!lid, is pnilllí'rl iJl MI/e, .IIe/fow, al/n oml/ge, is a s/ig/¡fly dmil'lI ftsllrt' of a J1II1I0 ngnillst n wlJite background. Tl"'~ decoratiol/ ;s f.'lPica/
of 1111" ,mres I"Ml/ced ;/1 Fae/l:a ;JI tIJe fate 1611/ ceJltllry. Diam. 2;.5cm/9üll. 2 Made ill Urbil/O ill tlle late 16tl1 cel/lrlry. tlle ;;Iory of leda and the Swan has bel!l/ pnilltt'lf in tlle celltre of l/lis disll, ,l'it1l;1/ a blOOd borda
ofgroh"Sl//fl' omalllellt ill a predominanlly .l/C1/0'1' pnleHe agaillst a ,¡'I,ile background. Dimll.25cm/9iill. 1
2""'"
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The Pattern Drawings 01 Picolpasso
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1, 2, & 3 TIJe jolfowillg motifs can be fOil/Id in pnltl'rJI drawillgs ¡mm 111(' PicoJ,msso mallllscripl, writtcn c.J557: Trofei/Rabesche (trophies al/d ambest¡m:s), Cerquate/Grotesche (onk lea.",s (mil grotesqlll'$), mui Porcellana/Tirata (porcelniJl auri strapu'Ork). SI/ell desiglls ¡¡'('re l/sen by mllll.'!
maío/ica ,millters.
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5 A dra1l'ing from Picolpnsso's book s¡'owillg a brusl1 lml/dle (lIId /iI'O bruslles. The le..t describes lile mnleriafs frO/ll wllicfl lile bruslit'S ,¡'ere /linde and tlle mm/J/er 01 pai/lt;lIg.
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4 Tite decomtiOIl 0/1 tJ¡is plate, madI' in Cnfa,,?:;:i% C.1510, depicfs n maiolicn paintel" decorntil1g /lit! rilll of a pinte, obsen'cd by fIJe eOllpte w}¡osc porlmil will, per/lap:;, appenr ill Ilre cellfre. Notice lIJe six ~(Ir1cers Witll
sepnrnte brusl/l.'s for difieren! piglllellts. Dinlll.23·5 cm /9'bll.
6 Altltol/gll tlle decoration 01/ t/¡is brOlld-riJllmed bowl, made ill Cnfaggiolo C.lSl0-1525. colIsists 01 ballds of illler/aced
•
ambesqlle Ol'llalJ/elll, lile blue al/d ¡¡¡hile cofollrs refleet tlle growillg influl'llce of C!/il,ese poree/aill. Dialll. 24,2CII1/91,ill.
23
-- -
Stylistic Developments in French Tin-Glazed Earthenware and Palissy Ware
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Frml(,¡', t1li.~ p/mrmacy jnr, C.157D,
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is similar fo
l/l/film t'.mmJ'!t'S, VIII fIJe "bllbbft'd~ gTt'e1l is J1l.'ClIlinr fa l/,is¡aclory. Ht 24CIII/91,;1I. 2 T''¡s dis/¡, daten 1582, re5emv/es file i:-,Iorinto ,mr6 prodl/cen j" Uroil/o, blll/lle
slIbject. Am'O/1 cJlflllgil1g" roo ¡lito a serJ1enl. deri¡I('S frolll 1111
¡lIustra/ed Bibll' ¡lIal il'IIS
prillh'd jl1 LyolIs. Dial1l. 41.5clII/16¡1,;I1. 3 Bemnrd Pnlissy or olle o[ IJis jollo;(lel's produced 111;5 //Jou/ded ear/J¡emurln.' dislt C.1580-1620. Tlle dOl/galed cm/mI figlll't',
symbo/i::.illg Feclllldity, is dmrncteristic oj style dt!1.'cloped al ti/e palace oj FOII/ailleblcnlf. L jDem/J 9 ~i" file FreJlcfl COl/TI
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24
During the 16th century Italian potters settled in France, Spain, and the Lo\\' Countries, where they introduced maiolica-making techniques and helped to establish a nevv tradition of pottery. Thesc v.'ares followed contemporary Italian styles and can be difficult to distinguish. Characteristic Renaissance motifs included profile heads and biblical and mythological subjects treated in the istoriato manner. Gradually, each country developed its own style, which will be discussed in the next chapter. More idiosyncratic was the \\'ork of the French potter Bemard Palissy (l51G-90), ",ha produced lead-glazed earthenwares and developed él range of translucent poIychrome glazes. He is noted for the production of display dishes, relief-moulded with rnythological subjects derived from contemporary prints, and "rustique figuJines," basins and dishes with applied frogs, lizards and crustacea, many cast from nature, surrounded by water, shells, and rockwork. These latter elements can also be seen in contemporary metalwork and represents an interest in garden grottoes, which spread from Italy to
Franee. The style of Palissy's work continued through the 17th century and was revived in the 19th century. Charaeteristie Renaissance ornament, incIuding interlaced bands of strapwork and arabesques, derived from engraved sources and eontemporary metahvork, can also he seen in a group of paJe cream-eolotued earthenwarcs with moulded, stamped, and inlaid designs, known as Saint-Porehaire wares, made in Franee c.1525--70. These refined objects, which include ewers, candlesticks, and salts, were luxury items reflecting Freneh court taste. German salt-glazed stoneware is another type of 16thcentury pottery. lts high-fired, vitrified body \Vas impervious to liquids and suitable for making wine bottles and drinking vessels. Cologne wares are eharacterized by a golden-brown wash and a distinctive pot-bellied jug with an applied mask, known as a Bartmmlllkrug. Other areas produced a pale grey body, sometimes with a glaze partially stained blue with cobalt, and uscd incised and applied ornament with strapwork, armorials, and profile heads. l1tese types continued into the 17th century.
-..--
-
Saint-Porchaire Wares
1 TlIese three únllds of ambesqut'
2 AH extreme/y e/aborate exnmple
by file GeruulI1 mgrm'cr Bnlt!1IJ;inr Sy/¡¡illS (1518-159°) "'erl! pllblislled in 155.j. Tllis type of Rmnisstlllce Omll111t'JI/ was widespn:ad t!II"OIlghollt Europe ;1/ t!le JIIid16f!¡ cm/llf!!, ami dc:;igllet"s workillg ,ui!/¡ 11 vnriety of materia/s iJlcorpom/ed tI/CI11 ¡nlo t!ldr work.
of tlle graup of Iligllly refiucd
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lIIoulded stolleWl1re jllgs of ¡/lis type, wllicll ¡VIlS l1wde ¡'l Raeren ill 1588, are c1wmcteristic of ¡lie prodllCtio115 of RaerCI/ (l1Id Westerwald. TJu:y jreqJlelltly display Rellqissallce 1/I0tifs derh'ed frol1l clIgrm,ed SOlliTes. 1 Filie/y
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25
Glass Renaissance Venice
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aggio, Bacchus (detai/J, 1 j93-~, depiclillg a VelletinJl ta::a, ti slmllo¡1' dril1killg gla;;s for ¡¡'ille. lts ha/llster stem illspin-d by t/te ba[lIslrndes of Rellaissan(e nrdlifecl1/rl'. 6 Titiall. The Andrians (detai/), C.1jI8, s/to¡{'illg a e¡1'er. TlII? c1assicnf sf¡ape is inj/llellced by Crl'l'k poffery. 1
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enice \Vas the most powerful trading nation of the late Medieval and earl)' Rcnaissance \Vorld. From the 12th century onwards it developed, on the small island of Muxano, a luxury glassmaking industry that \Vas to become the en"y of the ",orld. The industry ",as highly organized and regulated by thc Guild of Glassmakers. lts success ",as based on strong quality control. stimulation of technical developments, the protection of its trade secrets, and exccllent markct possibilities, provided by the Republic's vast trading fleet. The most important technical development in glass was the production of an almost completely colourless 50rt of glass, clearer and purer than anything seen before, \\'hich was named cristnf1o, after naturally occurring rockcrystal. Its invention around 1450 \Vas credited to the pioneer glassmaker Angelo Barovier. Cristallo became all1lost synonyrnolls with Venetian glass, combining the material's most essential characteristics of clarity and transparenc)' with dllCtility, aIlowing the material to be formed into complicated shapes.
V
26
Technical developments went hand in hand ",ith the creation of new shapcs and object typcs. 5hapes were often borrowed rrorn other materials such as rnetalwork or ceramics. Gothic lines continlled into the 16th cenhuy to be gradllal1y replaced with more c1assical and fluid shapes, which are characteristic of the Renaissance period (S<'e 4 and 6 above). For decoration, Venetian glassmakers drew from a whole arra)' of tcchniques, sorne newly invented, sorne re-invented Roman teclmiques, and sorne copied from Byzantine or Middle-Eastcm glassmaking. Most typicalIy Venetian are the "hot" decorative teclmiqlles, where the decorabon forms an integral part of the making of the object, and which are carried out by the glassmakcr while shaping the objects at the furnace. Venetian glassrnakers made frequent use of dip-moulds to crea te rib pattcms. The sllbtle fluid lines of a glass object could be further enhanccd by the glassmaker applying details in hot glass and tooling them into intricate omament.
Venetian Decorative Techniques
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Venice also specialized in decoration incorporatcd in
the glass itsclf. Calcedollia glass, for instance, has a marbled appearancc achieved through a complcx process of blending diliercnt colours of glass and heat treatments. Invented around 1'+60, it resembles semi-preciolls stones such as agatc or chakcdon}~ after whidl it is narncd. To make millefiori (thousand flowers) glass, a bubble of hot colomless glass on the blowpipe is rol1ed over a Aat surface on wI-Uch sections of prepared, multi-coloured glass canes are randomly scattered. The colourful pieces of glass stick to the surface and are raUed into the surface until it is smooth, after whidl the bubble can be further inflated and shaped. The resulting effect is one of brightly patterned coloured patches incorporated in clear colornless glass. Both mi/lefiori and calcedonia glass HIere rare precious lechniques. Filigree glass was a more widely used hot technique. It involved incorporating thin opaque-white canes into the colourless gIass. The resulting glass could have a simple striped decoration (n jiU), but more intricate variations were made ",ith twisted
3
canes (n retorli). and the effect could be further complicated by combining it ",ilh patterned moulds, which ",ould distort the ",hite lines during inflation. "Cold" techniques are those ",here a decoration is added on the finished glass. Diamond~point engnwing i.nvolvcs decorations being scratched into the gl
27
Fagon de Venise 2 CoMe! o{ _ (olOllr/e:;s e~lnss
reít/¡ ¡fimllolld-/lOilll t'lIgnu'illg, /wri:olltnllnftimo t/lrt'l1ds. flud lT1l(('"; {!{ gi/tiillg. /linde ill tllt' il'tJrksflOlI:> of Giacomo \'or:t,JjJli ¡I'¡II, t'lIgftwillg by AIl/boI/Y dt' Ll/slc, LOl/lloll, 1586.
Ht '7(11I/6/"", 3 Bdl-sJtnjlt'd so/JId al CO/OIIJ'ft,:,S gffl:55 decomlt'¡f ",illl II/QII/i1ed lIlnsks olld prEmls. IlIrquoisl' I'<'lId;;, al/ti gíMil/g. ¡l'it/¡ 11 Si/iWgill 11/01/ lit. Insl quar/('r ol 111<' 16/11 cClltllry, prolmbly AH/il'erp. Ht 19CIII/71/1I.
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4 Osías Bcat, Slill Lifl..' (deta;/), ('ur/y l¡tll alltUI"Y. dqlh-/iIlS \/('lIdim¡-sfyil' go/lk/:,filh'll ,('itll T<'lf l/lid ¡dúh' willl!. T1t¡, s"'m5 cOllsist o/llOl1ow kllol,:, ¡,'jtl, e/fI/¡orntl' 1101-¡l'Orkl!d dl'cornliolls.
With thc rise of the reputation of Venetian glass, SO grew the desire of foreign rulers to start their own production of luxury glass in thc Venetian style. Although the VenetiaIl Guild tried to keep its working methods secret. its glassmakers ,,"ere regularl)' lured \\'ith generous incentives to leave their country and settle elsewhere. By the end of the 16th century, Muranese glassmakers had set up hu·naces in several countries north of the Alps. Because they tried hard lo produce gIass aln fn,oll de Vellise (in the Venetian manner), just as thel' had made it at home, it is very hard to distinguish their produds from those made at Murano. The glasshouse in Hall-in-the-TiroL Austria, was one of the very first Venetian-style glasshouses outside Itall" Some glasses can be attributed to it beca use oE the coats of arms they bear. The Tirol glasshouse seems to have specialized in cold-painted decorations, while the shape of its products is entirely Venetian. Ant",erp beca me one of the main centres of Venctían glassmaking in northern Europe. Most of the master
5 Tazza o{ - CO/Ollrll':,:, ,~/a:'j ¡I';III a l(dlo,!' lilll, t'l/lIl11dl.-d, C.156o1600, Barú'/(lJUl. Tllt' C(llollr
:;eht'''/(' t~f pafe gn'l'I/, .lidIo.!,. ami ¡e/lil t' j;;; Iypiml 01 Bnrcl'lOl/a glas,.. Dimll. 2.2.5cm/S/ill.
glassmakers \Vorking there \Vere Venetians, \\'orking in the Venetian style. Ho",ever, some local shapes did develop, especially during the 17th century. From Ant",erp, Venetian glassmaking spread to many other places. The ltalian Giacomo Verzelini (1522-1606), for instance, went on lo London. Some extraordinarily fine glasses of the 15805 can be attributcd to his nrorkshop. Their engraving ",as almost certainly done in London by the Frenchman Anthony de lysle. Makers fmm Altare in north-west Italy, a rival glassmaking centre, introduced the Venetian style of glassmaking into france. They produced slightly diffcrent, often angular shapes, and the figurative enamelled decorations are more naively dranrJ1. In Spain, strong local traditions nrere only partially influenced by Venice. The glass used often has a strong honey colour. Whíle enamelling ",cnt out of fashion among Venetian glassmakers after the first quarter of the 16th century, the Spanish continued to practise the lechnique, developing their distinctive style
Forest Glass
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1 Pnlll/CII/,t'flka (~r I'I/k grú'lI gfa55 ¡pifIE a flnir,'d ri 11I, fmlll Gl'rIl/llll,l' or 5,pif ::altmd. Inte 13tll ur l'flrfYl.¡.til (l'/llu,!!_ HI1¡.jCIII/¡iJl.
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GI'fII/(/I/!f ¡)J" rile Nt'lllt'1"fnlld~, 1590-16;5. Tll l ' Berkemeycrs 1Ia¡'l' IlJlpl i t '1 f jri Ile.l fi.NJI-f111g~. UI (1,1[[1';:;1) 23c1II/9ill.
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incorporating leaf designs in bright green, ",ith stylized animal figures. lo the great forests of central and northern Europe, él distincti\'e style of glassmaking de\'eloped from thc late Mcdic\'al period onwards. The forest pro\'ided the fuel and the glasshollsCS mo\'ed on lo él new location when their surrOlmding area \Vas clearcd of trces. The malo fa", materials \Vere locally gathered sand and thc ashes of bccch trces and ferns. These contained high Ic\'els of ¡ron oxides which resultcd in él glass with él strong green calouf known as \Valdglas (forest gla55). The forest glassholls€s mostly produced drinking glasscs for wine and beer in a limited variety of types. Most of these are dcrivcd from the basic Medieval type of beaker, which \Vas conieal or barrel-shaped, with an applied foot-rim, often decorated with pincered points. 5ueh glass is dccorated with pnmts, or small blobs of glass applied in a regular pattcrn. These prunts are decorative as well as functional, providing extra grip whcn thc glass is held with greasy fingers.
Thc most eommon type of drinking glass in the 15th and 16th centuries was thc so-callcd Alnigl!leill, a squat barrel-shaped beaker decorated with moulded honeycomb or rib patterns. DlIfing the 16th eentury, se\'eral typcs of glasses de\"eloped fmm the prunted bcaker. The Kmllf::;/,."Jlck (cabbage stalk) was a barrel-shaped bcaker decorated \\'ith large prunts \\'hich \\'ere pulled out \\'ith pinccrs into a pointed shape. Another "iui
29
Silver and Metalwork Architectural Background ,
1 TIII' nrc/útccflfrnl mui sc/lfpfllrtlf compositioll al fJ¡i~ <;j/¡w-gi/t altar (nlldll':,tick.
comp/l'tt'ff jI! ROllli' by nlltollio CI'I/tilL' ill /581,;'; strol/g/y iJ~fllll?llcf?'d by tite ¡\laml!'ri·,;! styit' of Alic1Ie/(lIlRc'1o, iI'110 IIUlI' 1Ia.',' • • • dt'Siglll'd il. Ht 1m/3ft 3ill. 2 TJ¡I' cugrm'l'r \la/ajo Bl."!li madt' 1M" si/¡'('r-~ilt • mIli en/stal • (n",kt'1 for Papt' C/.'lIIt'Jlt VII jll I jJ.2. Tht' rlassiml SI/bji'cf,; of lile l!l1gmt'iJlgs tflld tllt' disciplillt·Ji
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3 rllllm,;o POffllill% madi' tI,;,;; 11111::::;¡'(' altar eros.;. ftlr Ffol"t'II({' Cntht'dmf ;11 1.J j ,-9. /ts cksigu i,:: trtll/sitic'IIIfl/: Golflic ill the Lmst' mIli (r(}:Os; R¡'jJ'ÚS5oflJlCl' ill lIJe ",kili. Ht J.jlJl!S{t Úll.
vI F/omlú' wl/l'cil'd lIrt'áoll:' lmrd:,ttJII¡' ¡'O';t~ fí.Jr ¡l'1lic/,/¡¡, COlllllli:,:,iolll'd :,if¡w-gilt 3
n Medie\'al Europe there ,,-as no recognized distinction bet\\"een artists and craftsmen. Artists were those who practised ars, or skil). and the art of the goldsmith was rightly regarded as the queen of crafts. The materials in which they ""orked - both gold and silver - \Vere highly \'a1uect and the objects they created \Vere not on1y utilitarian tablewares, but sumptllous and refined pieccs that testified to the status of their owners, or were made for that greatest of patrons, the church. 1l1is did not change with the advent of the Rermissance. Princes and prelates continued to offer Illcrative commissions, and many leading painters and sculptors such as Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-].1.33), Andrea del Vcrrocchio (c.].I33-88), and Antonio Pollaiuolo (c.1432-98) also trained and \\'orked as goldsmiths throughout their lives. North of the Alps, too, \\"eIl-known figures sllch as Albrecht Dürer (].I71-1328), Hans Holbein (1497/8-1343), and Nicholas Hilliard (c.15'+7-1619) \Vere either trained in the craft or came from a goldsmithing background, Partly for this reason and aIso because precious metals \Vere
I
30
4 TJ¡t' Rt'1I0i:,:,flIlú' comlOi:':'l!lIr Pit:ro dt' ¡\ /eliió
TlIt' tk::.igll
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t'f tlI6t' 1I/01l1lt::. ;$ $/il/ Gtl/J¡ic bllt
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often melted down to be re-made in the latest fashions, many significant iImO\'ations in design "'ere reflccted first in goldsmiths' work. The surviva1 of such works, espeeially from the 15th and carIy 16th centuries, has been almost negligible, especially from Italy, bllt many dra\\"ings surnve and silo\\' the application of Renaissance design principIes to vcsscls and other objects. Renaissance architccture \VélS condinoned bv a ranonal approach to propornon, expressed throllgh the language of ancient Roman architecture and through the \'ocabulary of the classical orders. Just ho\\' different the resulting stylc \\"élS fmm its ancient inspiration, howe\'er, is clear from the sUTviving buildings of architects such as Leon Battista Alberti 0-10+-72) and Filippo BruncIleschi (1377-1 +-16), for whom sllrface decoration is as important an elcment in the overall effect as rational proportion and classical detaiL A similar concern for classically inspired design and proportion is cvident in designs for silver bllt, in seeking to emulatc classicéll vessel forms, the Rcnaissance goldsmith \Vas handicapped by the fact that
-----
Golhic lo Renaissance: Northern Europe
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4 TllÍs mrc cnslil/g bottlt'.for sprillklillg sccl1/('d ¡mt{'/", ¡¡IIIS I/lnde ilI LOl/doll ill1553for t/Il' lIIiddlc I/Ulrkel. /t dOr':: 1101 slw¡!' fin' illjlllCIICt' (~r Iltc cOl/rf/y desigll:' o[ Ho/bl!ill, llllt mtller Illnl oi ¡he prillt:' 01 [-{((liS Bro::nlller. Hf q·5CI!I/5Iil1. 5 Ludwig Krug ,uns Olle o[ 111(' IIIOSt fnlllol/s cnr!.l/ Iótll-cm/ury goldslllitll:: of NUl"el!lbt'l"g n/ld O/1e ol tlle piol1¡>('/"s of flw I/I'¡I' sly/¡>. T1ús (o¡'I'red ClIp Mili !lns Gof/lic dcll1i!s. Iml t/¡¡> ilori:ollfll! clllpltnsis of it,.; fOrtl1 i:, Rl'IIlIissll/lce. Ht .J..J.CIII/1¡i')/I.
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prollwted n sop/list iwtcd cOllrtly ,'[T5;01l of ¡!le Rmllisslluce style. epitolllÍ:l'd by llis desigll Jor {I gold Clip fo (de/Jm/e H!lIry VIl!':, !!wrrillge /0 fnlu' Sel/lllour ill 15Jó, ¡('!lidl iIlCOrp0rlllr':: c/w,sicnl IIlednlJions, IllVrc:;r¡lIe fo!inge, pll tt i, nl/d ¡'nsef0rtlls. 2 Ol1e of tite fi'l!' ::11I1,ipillg pi['ct':: dcsigl1cd by Holbcill, Ihi:: \;old, l'llnllle/, nl/d rock-Cfl¡:,tnl c01xrfor nllO¡¡>1 is dmsely l'nckl'd witlt strllp¡pork, c1l1ssirn/.figurcs, IlIOI"C:'I/II[, folillge, (lIId jc¡ucls. HI16clII/6!.i11.
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AImma;,;1 sly/e ,('cre by Gilllio ROllUIIIO, il'lW1l'orked Jor file dllkes ol MtlllfUfl as I1lll1rc!ri/t'ct nlld pnil/ter as ;udl 115 n desigJJef of goldslllifhs' rt'urk. k¡¡'eller!f. fl1/d hlJlt'strit's. T{¡c:,l' .1t'sigl15 Jor n C/1I1dl6tick nnd n >'nlt n'llaf, dal ¡lIg fl"OlII nbol/t 15:25-'¡0, l/se f!U! ¡'Ocal11lIary o/ ROlllnll nrc1litectllrt.' - amllllm;; foliage. /iDUS' IIIllsks, Imd fll1h~ lml llil'Y nppt'llr ill a cOlllp/elf>ly 1ll!i:1' (lIld 1'lnyflll ,my.
¡lit' fU'o liglln's repreSelllillg rhe cart/I nl1d SI!(1,
(llIri Ibt' prl!cariollS(lf Ltnltmced COJIIllO'Sitioll. ('pifollli:e lIJe Afmllll'rist st.llfe. HI 6cm/:z bJl.
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hl/lllm! /ltllldk rllld tite filie jr/llctiol! 01¡ool muf sfclII 011 ¡he crtlldbtick are typicnJ 01 tlll' slyl/!. 3 AJos! spl'cinl COIIIIII;55;01/,:, ¡¡'efe lll1-;;ed 0/1 n dmil'ing by lIJe crnjtsmall, lJl/t occflsiollfllly ti/e d¡-:;igll ¡ens n'prescllted by 11 tI'n'l.'-dimeH"iol/n{ IIwdd. TI';:.; fermcoftn /l/odelfa for 11 ('¡per ;5 n mn.' SII1I.,ji.'fl/.
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dense/y packedfigllral eOll/posil¡O" tllat mIs key fa lli" slyll', blll also proi'idl'$ a rnridy 01 nlfl'mnlil'l' tn.'atl1lt'llts for tlu' border.
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for tlle Ga/erie FrtlJl~ois f at FOlllaillelJlea1/, c.1540. lt ,¡'as diSSI'millated by prillts Sl/c/¡ as tllis curtol/c/le desis" of 1563 by Rell¿ Boy"ill after UOllard T/liry.
2 Very /iU/e J6tll·ccntl/ry ~ih'I!T
SIITi.,i.,l'S, but tlle sop/listicnted jr.l'el-/ike tl'Orkmallsllip of tllis go/d alld mame! 1Il00/l11ed DllYX e;¡>tr, c. J 560, SilO,!,,, l/le t¡l/a/il.lffor wllidl il ¡¡'as ~O falllol/s. H t :2 ¡C//l/J D 'l.ill. Parisirl/l
3 Alldrollet DI/ CercealJ was
5
4
at that time no ancient plate had come to light. As a result the essential inspiration for most UlpS, ewers, candlesticks, and so on is the vase form, articulated with decorative details drawn from architechlre. Rationality in design is reflected in balanced compositions divided into c1early defined horizontal zones corresponding to the various component parts; omament is restricted to a limited range of motifs including flutes, dentilations, acanthus foliage, and roundels incorporating classical med.allions. Pollaiuolo's 1-157 altar cross in Florence, for example (see p.30), is almost entirely architechual and, while in basic form akin to its Gothic antecedents, the designer has checked its sense of verticality by imposing a strong series of horizontal divisions. In northem Europe, the impact of the Renaissance was Jater and different. The already fuIly developed ltalian style made a powerful impression on visiting artists such as Dürer (see p.31), which reslllted in thc carly 16th century in a hybrid, transitional style incorporating both Renaissance and Gothic features. By the end of the first
IJrobably tIJe //lost importnllt Frellc/I desigllef workillg nrolllfd '540, alld tllis salt (¡'/lar desigu iIIustTlltes ti/e discip/il1cd darity uf 111:; :;tyle. 4 011 CerCClw's desigll fol' atable JOl/lltaill litis grent dCfillitioll, but also del/se al/d colllplex ommllellt flI/d a sellse olllllll/ollr, all i/l/por· tant c/emellfs oJ MflIlllcrislll. 5 Similar ",irror bncks to tI/is sun'h'(' il/ car¡'l'd box;:¡'OOd, bllt ti/e illlricncy of t/lis desigll of 1561 by lile Paris arti~t Etielllle Oc/mme sllOws t!lat it mlfst IJare bi.'t'Il madI' for exeClltioll ,,/ preciolls meta/.
quarter of the cenhlry, Nuremberg artists like Ludwig Krug (sce p.3l) and Peter Fl6tner had marshallcd a more fully integrated form of the style. This retained certain features of Gotruc ornament, but was mainly charactcrizcd by horizontally zoned construction and a predominant ornéllnental language of flutes and gadroons (dccorativc lobed edging), frieze omament, and classic
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Antwerp Mannerism
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2 TIJis sUper-giU cOl'en:d lazza, /IIade in Allfwap illljjS, is d('corall'd ¡¡'itlt ommm'/Ils sYIII/loli=illg imfa. lis I"oporthms nre RCIliJissmlCl!, ¡'1I1 /11" symoo/isIII nI/ti
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ti/e Ij.¡.OS, iJlcOrlJQrnfillg groft'SI/IIt'
c{lmpo:;;liolls o/ //l/mml figlll'l.'s. stmpi¡'Ofk, al/d ¡m'cllfil'e n/Islmc! 1.'é'ssc! /OI"II1S. 4 Halls Vredelllflll lit' Vries wn,; nllof/zer
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3
34
a St'ri!?s ror si/iNr, s//dl as litis 1563 taZLa.
aeross lhe Contincnt. Francis 1 scored a symbolie point over Henry in securing the serviees (or, more accuratcly, the presence) of the aged Leonardo da Vino (1-152-1519) and, later, the sculptor and goldsmith Benvenuto Cellini 0300-71). A more signal event, however, was his appointment of the two Florentine artists, Rosso and Primaticcio, to whom \Ve shall rehln1 la ter. For his part, Henry VUl's most brilliant eomt artist was the Gem1an painter, Hans Holbein, who worked in London for several decades fTom the 15205 until after the king's death in 15.j.7. His cruef role was as designer, both of decorations for comt entertainments, and also for what might broadly be tenned fumishings. Almost nothing of the magnifíeent gold and silver made to his designs sun'ives, but a munber of the designs themselves do, such as the gold cup made in 1336 for Hcnry VI1I's wcdding to Jane Seymour (p.31). They show an eas)' command of Renaissance proportion and a repertoire of omament that indudes certain ne'" features, most notably moresque foliage, ,,-hieh was adapted from saracenic metalwork.
The presenee of this feature is a reminder of how wideranging Renaissance designers ,,,'ere in their efforts to expand the rcpertoire of available ornamento Ewers, dishes, and other decorative \\'ares in brass ,vere evidently imported into Emope through Vcnice in quantity during the early 16th. cenhlry, and their typical deeoration of densely engraved abstract serolls soon beeame a stoek-intrade throughout much of northern Europe. The designs for courtly objects like this, or exceptional sun'ivals such as the Cellini Salt (see p.32), are also reminders of the collaborative nature of the fínest goldsmiths' work. Objects made for royal patrons often incorporated other preciolts or exotic materials likc carvoo rack erystal or rare seashells from the tropics. Equally, enamel was used to enhance the effect of decorative plateo Often this would be restricted to simple opaque enamels or /liello (a compound of sulphur, siJvcr, lcad, and copper, used to fill incised decoration) for coats of arrns or inscriptions; occasionally panels of decorative or pietoría! enamel would be incorporated.
Jamnitzer and Nurel)lberg \
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mt'lIIbership. T/¡is d/'5(<;:1I ~r c.J600 l,y Prwl F/ilui! is o/ fhe prescri/lt'd forl/l. bul witli I/I'i!' orllfllllt'l/f dt'5iglll'd lo 5110'1' I,is "kili. 2 TI/e lIIosl ;1If/m'Jltinl Gerlllflll g01l15111il1l ol f1le Sl'COIU1/U1lfoftlu.' J6th cmlun/ il'as \\"'11:('/
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7 TI';" dlll'llnl/" t/llli ¡'irlll~l ClIp /11/ O¡ri"IIII,11 Rilkr i" a ml"in/ioll
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35
German Mannerist Design 1 Tlle well-orgnllized lorlll nnd OI"/WIIIt'1l1 o/
tllis 1551 ClIp dL'Sig" by !vlnttlúns Ziilldl o/
Nuremberg represelll lile sfmldnrd of ¡('()rk aclliet'ed by Ihe besl goldsmitlls. Ziilldt's
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At the Sélme time as Holbein \Vas perfecling the northern European expression of the RenaisS<:1.llce style, artists in Italy such as Giulio Romano, Enea Vico, and Francesco Salviati were produdng designs for goldsmiths' work that refIected the new and very different preoccu-
pations of the Mannerist style. Two of the main features
36
of this style weTe invention and virtuosity, él notion embraced by the ltalian word diffiCllltñ, But "'lhile these priorities in themselves make it difficult to define the style in terms cf specifie features, certain broad principies cf design can be recognized. One cf these, characteristic of Giulio's candlestick design (p.32), is a use cf the vocabulary of c!assical design and architecture in a way that is non-classical in its effect: the putti and lions are c1assical motifs, but the way in which they stnlggle to escape from the acanthus foliage is noto In Enea Vico's ewer (p.32), the density of omament, the top-heavy sense of imbalance created by the small foot, and the attenuated proportions of the handle are a11 feah.lres of Mannerist design that \·vould be taken to extremes as the cenh.lry progrcssed.
Mannerism migrated to northern Europe much more quiekly than had the Renaissanee style. This was partly due to Francis 1'5 great project for the decorabon of his ga11ery at Fontainebleau and to the revolutionary dcsigns produced for it by Rosso and Primabccio (see p.33). 111e elaborate sh.leeo eompositions of strapwork (a decorative motif resembling cut and curling strips of leather) and elongated figures were intended as a framework for the painted canvases, but became the dominant feature of the gallery. They ereated sueh a sensation that within a few years strapwork had become an ubiquitous decorative motif throughout northem Europe. The main reason for the rapid dissemination of design in the seeond half of the 16th eentury was the grO\'\'th in the market for sheets of printed ornament, which were used by leading goldsmiths throughout Europe. The version of strapwork decoration that travelled across Europe around the middle of the cenh.lry was not so mueh a copy of the Galerie Fran<;ois las an interpretabon of it by French artists sueh as René
Elizabelhan Mannerism
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Londoll ill 1568, tlds rock-crystal ClIp alld cover bcar ¡/le l1Iark of Olle 01 tlle royal goldsmiths (md sllOw awareJIess 01 tlle latest COJlfillellta/ pattern books. Ht 43cm!Ilill. 2 TIle desigll 01 tlJis Lolldoll-made spice plate of 1573./rom a set o/ six, is dosely based 011 the designs ofAdriaell Col/aerf. Dialll.15·5CIl1 16ill. 3 MI/eh slln'ivillg English Eli:nbet/mJl silver fai!s to equa! tiJe slmldards of tIJe best coJltinelltal work, a/ld lile emOOssed stmpwork of tlds 1581 S111t cellar is a poor ref/ectioll of conte11lporary design deve/opments, probably takell al secolld /umd mt/ler than directly fmm a pattern book. Hl 27.5Cf1I!IÚII. 4 Like lile rock-erystal Clip (1), tlJis gOl/rd Clip is of exceptiona/ qua/ity for EliU/be/1mll si/ver, and was possibly made by aforeigll-tmined si/versmit/I worki/lg in Londoll. lts maker probably knew tlle 8enlard Ztm prillt opposite, or olle similar. Ht 3ocml11'/,i1l. ÍlI
Boyvin and Androuet Du Cerceau (see p.33L Other centres of print production and goldsmiths' work in the middle and late 16th century were Antwerp, Augsburg, and uremberg. The published designs of prolific
artists and engravers like Cornelis Horís, Hans Vredeman de Vries (p.34), and Virgil Satis (see p.36) did much to define the character of high style Northem European goldsmiths' work for the Test of the century_ Prints by graphic artists were not the only source of innovation during the 16th century. The art of design \-vas an important part of the training of a goldsmith under thc German guild system, and the most outstanding and skilled goldsmiths \Vould have been largely responsible for their o",n designs. Enough of the works of the Nuremberg goIdsmiths Wenzel Jamnitzer and Hans Petzold survives to substantiate the brilliant reputation they had during thcir lifetimes. Works by }amnitzer such as the MerkeI centrepieee of c.1549 (see p.35) epitomize the virtuosity as well as the excesses of the style: arguably ill-proportioned as a whole, it is
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nevertheless a triumph of finely executed detail, eombining a wealth of densely arranged ornament with a programme of inte11ectual contento The Renaissance goldsmith, however, \Vas both a Ieader and fo11ower of trends in the complex interilclions that made up the European artistic scene. Thc background of artists such pS Pollaiuolo and Cellini ensurcd that some of the tec.hniques they used for goldsmiths' work \Vere also applied to bronze, and perhaps the mo~t virtuoso of a11 Hallan works in metal of the period élrc lhe brilliant sculptura} parade annours of damilsccncd steel made in the Negroli workshops in Milan. In nurthcrn Europe, a role in the dissemination of Manncri~t ornament was also played by \'\'orks in base mctéll, most notably the spectacular e\vers i1nd dishcs l11élde by the French pewterer, Fran\ois Briol, and his Nuremberg imitator, Caspar Endelein. The faet that these wares were made of relatively inexpensive pewter, and were cast rather than being individually raised and chased, ensured a significantly wider market and thus él greater social impact.
37
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- --- - - - - - - - - - -
Textiles Stylized Networks
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1 \'1'wm si/k, possib/y iU6tem llldin fOl" I.'xJ.lort, 14°0-1600, .oilil lile c/assic ogc!.'¡orll!, in wlIicl¡ eacJ/ dowlIll'l7rd roil' ollcar-drop s!ll1pes aentes 1111 ill/en!ll.'dinfl' dOil'llll'fird rOlI'.
2 5ilk brocade, Spa;lI, 16th cel/tu!'!!_ [-lere, tlh: ogee motij is deliwtc (md disCUlltilll101I5. YlIrougll I!le Hapsllllrg dYllllsty, Spni/l ,!'aS stylislically illf/llt'lIlinl 011 dcsigll of file periodo
3 Hallri-,llovell silk ¡'e/ve! witil meta! thread, Oltoman Tllrkcy, 1550-1600,
illustrntillg
file Jllrg('-scnle, ba/ti ogit'nl jmlllc
styli:!.ed pOIII('grmwfcs typicnl o[ IIInllY Rellnissnllce pnllems.
4
38
4 5ilk <'el,'et, /taly, 161h cell/ury. T}¡e slIIall-scnle pnttem makes fhe geomelric pla/l lIIore nppnrcll/, wlli/e ¡IIe textuml de/ni! S/IOWS ¡he close relntioJlship hl'f,l1l!l!l1 textiles nl/d lIIetn/work desiglls o/ l!Ie periodo
Si/k dall1ask, /fa/y, lale 16th cmtIlry. ElIropeml origill is I/Slllllly illdicafed by tlle il1c1I1sioll o/ a recoglliznhle object, !Iere a mse. T!Ie c1nbornle ogÍi'1l1 frmllCll'Ork wifll foliage rescmblcs arc!Jilectllml defails.
5
Leal and Flower Vines
3 3 E",broilkmf bordm'd 1"'lIeJ, Britnill, Inte
16111
border. 0/1 mi amotcl/r t'lIIbroidt'ry. fi.'n/lln's tJ¡l! IIIt'¡1l11il'r;IIg ;.'¡lIe O.'/lII/1)" T/I/S
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L'i:il/n! sfl'llclur.:.
4 Elllbroidl'l"l'd tWlepl'lldiltl1l (alfnr froll/n/), 1 5ilk ¡'d.'el c1lnSllblt' (011/(" <,eslll/I'III 'il'om by n prilSf), GeIlOI1, lnte 16t1l (el/fury.
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nlJook ofclllbroidel'Y pnfh'I'IIS 5110111 n Rt'llfIiS:4!I/(¡' gro/esquI' designo n /)(/IId of strtlJ"l'Ork. nnd n /)(lIId ¡l'itlt IlllndnptativlI ofmI nrnlx:s'1ul! pnttcm.
enaissance textile pattems contain both consen'ative and novel elements. The pace of adoption could be slow, depending on the circuJation of cJoths, or relatively rapid and extensive, as a resuJt of the publication of books and single sheets of wood-engraved designs. However, whether loom-woven c1oths, lace, or embroidery, their designs - large and small - have a robust appearance and a clearly marked-out structure. The pattems on woven textiles range from smaU geometric repeats to large designs that occupy the entire width of the cloth, then about 51cm/21in wide. The latter are the most well lenown, surviving in fair nwnbers and also depicted in numerous paintings. These cJoths, the damasks and velvets, typicalIy show highly stylized yet multi-faceted motifs, \-vhich are most commonly variations of the pomegranate oc, less usually, vases. The arrangement is often organized within a framework that is essentialIy teardrop-shaped. This so-called ogee already existed in textile designs but during the Renaissancc took more various forms: fine vines, curling
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lea ves, or broad ribbon-like bands, for example. Such stylized networks reveal their geometric basis more clearly in smaller-scaled repeats, especialIy those destined for use in retice/ln lace and embroidery on linen shirts and chemises, a resuJt of the fact that both were produced by using the base cloths' OlVn grid-like structure to count out the placement of the pattcrn. Variations of the ogee designs emphasiLc thc leaf)' and flowering vines, whim might meander in a regular fashion from left to right, or intertwine. As in the more fonnal pattems, the stems can be givcn prominence by embellishinents such as cross·wr.-.ppings and infilling with motifs, perhaps scales, coiling vines, or prominent textural marks indebted to repollssé metalwork. Simplified vines also often form the basis for strapwork pattems, at their boldest illllstrating Middlc-Eastern and Moorish inflllences. The influences of humanism and c1assicism are also appctrent, particularly in embroideries which, being a free-hand techniqlle, most readily íIlustrate the impact of the developmcnt of perspective.
39
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---------,
Baroque c.1600-1730 The word Baroque relers to the style 01 art and architecture that developed
Furniture
44
Italian
44
French
46
English
48
Dutch and Flemish
50
German and Iberian
52
in different countries. Baroque art was used at lirst as a means 01 reasserting
American
54
the attraction 01 the Roman Catholic church and as a means 01 promoting the
Techniques
56
Upholstery and Beds
60
Ceramics PoUery
62 62
Porcerain
64
Glass
66
Silver and Metalwork
70
Textiles and Wallpaper
76
in Rome during the linal years 01 the 16th century, and it is used, more loosely, to describe all art 01 the 17th century, and some later, with different expressions
Counter Relormation; but the impetus gradually moved lrom Italy to France, which had been growing in economic and artistic importance in the lirst hall 01 the 17th century, and it was used instead to underline the concept 01 absolute monarchy. atronage, both religious and secular, continued to be of prime importance in the 17th century, but it was not restricted to the ChuTeh and leading monarchs. The wealthy and powerful merchant c1asses in Holland had a150 acquired ataste for luxury goods and their patronage Calmot be ignored. In general, it can be diffieult to atta eh stylistic labels to decorative art objects, and not aH the pieces discussed in the following pages can be described as truly Baroque, but they will reflect aspects of the period also seen in architecture, painting, and sculpture. As a style, the Baroque reflects an admiration for and a familiarity with the art of c1assical antiquity, particularly the grandness and monumentality of Roman architecture, which is seen in 17th-century churches and palaces alike. State apartments were painted with vast illusionistic scenes of c1assical gods and goddesses and filled with antique sculpture, reflecting both the taste and the status of the owner. The decorative arts frequently demonstrated a similar interest in architectural and sculptural detailing that was based on a knowledge of antiquity, and there was a general enlargement in the scale of the ornamento A liking for boldness and solidity of form, rich colour contrasts, and the use of costly and exotic materials were also prevalent. The overall effect of an Italian Baroque interior was one of grandeur, opulence, and theatricality, ,,,,,hereas French interiors, while equally grand and sumptuous, tended to exhibit a greater formality and balance. Another aspect of the period, which was reflected in the decorative arts, was a fascination volith light which can be seen particularly in Dutch still-life paintings, but also in the incorporation of mirror glass into the interior and the desire for highly reflective surfaces. There was also a great interest in movement which can be seen, for example, in the taste for furniture supports in the form of hvisted columns. These twisted forms and the appreciation of ripple-carved mouldings also shoV\' a general liking for curving lines and an interest in how light moves over undulating surfaces.
P
Left: lile body of tllis silver ewer by Palll Vlll¡ Vianell, made ill Utrec/lt i111613, is decorated witll picforial scelles related to the goddess Dirl11a, but tlle foot, l1eck, alld pOllrillg SpOll! are cOlllposed of curiol/s, abstrae! fles!ly forms dlllracferistie of t!le Auricular style. Ht 34clII!l3'/,ill. Opposife: the detail of tllis tapestry after Charles Le Bnm (1619---<)0) SJIOWS tllefalllolls visit of Louis XIV to tlle Gobelills factory in Paris il1 1667. Tite Gobelins faetory elllployed skilled craftsll/ell sudt as weavers, goldslll i /!Is, cabilleilllakers, al1d sC1llptors to produce luxury goods for tlle royal palaces. Here, t!Ie killg is beillg presellfed witll some of !hese Slltllp/UOllS objecfs.
3 Tlle b/ue (Inri ,{,hite co101/I"5 of l/lis /n/l' T¡tilcel1/IIIY DI/ldl dem pal/e1 s/lOit' tll<' ¡'~f1l1ellCt.· oI Chillc$t' ('.J.por! porcdnill. blll fIJe frallll'i.l'Ork
01 nCflllfl/lls al/tÍ slrapll'Ork da;;:'t'S Iroll/ mi I'llgra<.,iIlS by Daniel ¡\farol. HI 60(1II/23,/il/.
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C. 161 j,
tllL' [asciI/alioli
oj 17t1t-c('IlIIll~1
nrtisls for tll,' .{'ay lig/tl IIIO"e::; 0<'1." differelll be 5t't'JI. Notice, ill pm'fiwlnr, the C/Jillese bluc-(IIul-;:I'/Jilc pol'CI:/nill, lIJe gmm glns'> Roemer. allrf flle/iuf', ;:I'hite slIIfnC6 C(/1I
stollt!wnre ¡IIg. 2 Tire 8rifislt nrchitect
l!ligo
¡olles sketcltcd
tlJis desigll. C.J637.for alll'xlmmgnll/ firepJace Jor /111' Quet'll':; HOllse. Gm:lltl'icJi,
vased 011 s/lfdies
11
desigll by Jelll1 Barbet. Note 1/11:
o[ pul/i.
2
42
•
An interest in light and movement can also be seen in the development of the Auricular style in early 17thcentury Dutch silver. famed because of its similarity to the human car, Auricular ornament is composed of abstract fleshy forms and the effect of rippling water, sometimes incorporating strange monsters, which reflects the interest in bizarre and fantastic ornament that was fashionable in the second half of the 16th century. The play of light over the undulating surfaces of the sil ver gives a disturbing effect of malleability, as if the metal is actualIy melting. Although it is seen almost exclusively in Dutch silver, Auricular ornament does also appear in furniture, and very occasionally on textiles and ceramics. Another key factor in the development of the decorative arts in the 17th century \vas the establishment of a flourishing trade with countries in the Far East. The various trading companies set up from the beginning of the century began to supply the European market with lacquer, porcelain, and si1ks, which helped to establish a new taste for aH things exotic. Although these goods \Vere cosUy and affordable only by the wealthy, lhe demand beca me so widespread that cheaper imitations,
particularly of lacquer and blue-and-white porcelain, began to be produced in European countries. At first, these imitations followed the oriental prototypes fairly closely, but gradualIy the designers, while retaining an exotic mood, moved further and further away from the originals, and developed the style now known as chinoiserie. Because western knowledge of the Far East was very sketch y, the designers had to use their imagination when it carne to the subject matter of the decoration. This led to greater and greater freedom of expression, which developed into a fantastic and highly inventive decorative vocabulary that had a profound effect on the development of the decorative arts in both the 17th and 18th centuries. Conversely, blue-and-white \Vares gradually began to follow more traditional European forms. Another widespread interest of the period was in flowers, and this will be reflected again and again in the decorative arts. New and exohc species were introduced into Europe, botanical gardens ,",vere established, and illustrated herbals began to proliferate. This not only established a fashion for displaying cut flowers and a demand for new forms of the flower vase, but it
(lIso provided artists (lnd designers \Vith (1 huge new voeabularv, of deeorative motifs. In the first half of the eentury the trade in tulip bulbs reaehed its height and depictions of tulips, buth accurately rcndered and highly stylized, began to be engraved on silver, "'oven into textiles, translated into m(lrquetry Eurniture, and painted onto earthenware. The other motif derived from both nature and antiquity that dominated 17th-centllry ornament was the acanthus. Although the most \Videly lIscd of all forms of foliate ornament and not particularly associated \Virh any one period, the lobed élnd serrated leaves of the acanthus seemed to appeal partieularly to Baroque designers, and it appeared in architecturéll detailing and almost every braneh of the deeorative mts, beeoming one of the Ieading deeorative eIements of the Baroque style. The Iast quarter of the eentury \Vas dominated by the more rcstrained and forma 1style of Baroque classicism, which was adopted by the French court and, in particular, the work of French designers and ornamentalists. The work oE these designers \Vas widely disseminated in the form of prints, particularly engraved paneIs of ornament, \Vhich could be translated into different materiaIs, and they became a po\\'erful SOllrce of inspiration for the decorative arts \Vell into the eady years of the 18th centllry. The spread of the French COllrt
style was fllrther assisted by the Revocation of the Edicl of Nantes (1685). This new ruling meant that Freneh Hllgllenots couId no longer freely worship or hold any position of authorit)', with the result that many thousands of Protestants fled from Franee to Protestant cOllntries sllch as Holland and England. Among these refugees were many skilled designers and craftsmen who brought with them up-to-date knowIedge of eontemparar)' French taste. An import(lnt aspect of the work of the Freneh ornamentalists at the end of the 17th century and beginning of the 18th eentury was a revival of grotesque ornament. These designs were composed of acanthus tendrils, Iambrequins, and fanciful creatures, symmetricall)' arranged within delieate bandwork borders. Althollgh derived from 16th-century examples, these designs tended to be more delicate and linear and introducec1 a new element of airy lightness and eIegance that, in man}! ways, foreshadows the Rocoeo style, which wil1 be ~iscussed in the next chapter.
T/¡c Gal/ery o/ tlh' rala::o C%lIl/a, ROl/le. ¡I,¡lid¡ ;:I'IIS I:rl'alt'd bt'lil'Ct.'I¡ 16)4 (/lid 1665, witll it:; ¡>asl nl/egorica/ cdlillg pnilltillg, exlrilmgalllllsc o/ mirror glass, (md bo/dly can'l'd gilf.¡cood side fables, is tlll' epitllllll' o/ t/¡e gmlld 8aroque illterior. 4
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43
Italian Furniture Early Developments in Florence 1 A Florelltille si/per cnsket of
eJegnllt proportiolls mnde ¡II c. J 620. ft
S/IOWS tlle
emplUlsis
0/1 nrc11itecfural t1l1d wbic ¡orll/5 tlJaI cml /Je fOlflld 111
IIllfc11
El/ropen,¡ desigll of rllis periodo 2 Tl/is table 1m:; desiglled in nrol/lld 1709 by G.B. Fogg¡II¡. /fu' If!tIdillg scu/plor fllld archilecf ill
a:
of tlll' lab/e wit11 birds alld jlowers ;/1 commesso di pietre dure. a
1-
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teclllliquf' de<>eloped in Florellce l/mi l/sed t1lill slict'S of sloll('-
a:
pictra dura /l/Cal/S "Imrd slolle" - lo create mosa;e pie/llres.
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LL.
Fforellce. 5flOWII 15 Ilfe lap
3 TI,;s carvrd, gilded frame ¡pos probabfy made iJl florencc c-16.,o. ff c/osdy rtilccts tJ¡e d('sigJls for cartOl/du's pl/blishl>d ill c-16j4 by Agostillo MileJli, 't'110 Cl'orked at tJ¡e Pi/ti Paface. Sucll alfriCIIlar dClI/ellts were l/sed for FforellfiJle frnllll'S f1lrol/gllOlIt file celltllry. Ht 96CIJI/J7Y.i1l.
1
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3
he reaction to the more exaggerated and fancihtl forros of late 16th-century Mannerism first appeared in ltaIy. Under the influence of artists such as Giambattista Bemini (l59l>-1680) and AJessandro AJgardi (159l>-16S-1), the design of fumiture in Italy began to feature foliage and carved human figures. Rome was the centre of the new style, where the interiors of the Roman palaces with their vast reception halls demanded an appropriate flamboyant style of furniture, partiruIarly for tables and eabinets. Families such as the Barberini, Borghese, Chigi, Ludovisi, and Pamphili conunissioned opulent hlrniture of a grandeur that could not be matched elsewhere in Europe. Cario Fontana (1638-1714) and Johann Paul Schor (1615-74) designed sculpted fonns, J Forme, particularly for tables, in whidl human figures and trophies taken from antiqlle and architectural motifs were combined to create symbols of power and strength. This flllly Baroque style was developed in the second half of the 17th eentury throughout Italy. ~1 Genoa, Domenico Parodi (1672~1742) created rkh,
T
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organic masterpieces of sculpture. Giambattista Foggini (1652-1725), the leading scuJptor in Florenee of rus day, was responsible for the great architectural cabinets produced in Florence at the end of the century, in which ebony, ivory, gilt bronzes, precious stones, and canred wood were combined in sumptuolls magnificence. In its use of architectural forms, however, Florentine work was often more restrained than in other parts of ltaly. The most famous Venetian carver and furniture maker, Andrea Brustolon (1662-1732), is famous for rus detailed carving in boxwood of stands and chairs, in which gracefu1 figures combine \vith naturalistic carving of trees or stems of plants. !talian fuminue exploited the used of rare materials such as precious stones. The Opificio del/e Pielre Dure in F10rence made tables and cabinets both for the Medici rulers, as gifts to other princes, and for those, SUdl as Jolm Evelyn, who travelled to Italy. Florentine design featured vases \vith flowers, bird, and plant forms combined with the traditional arabesque forms.
-------~-
-
Royal Collections
LU
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2 1 A cnbilIcl of simple c!n:5sicnl
5 Jlltmded for grent gnllerie;:;, pice('s S1Ie/1 as t!lis
dcsigu /linde CI 630 wifh pietre dure plaques made iJl ¡ile gnJlld numl ,¡'orksJlOps ill Florcllcc. Flofl'l/lil1c Il'ork dcpe/oped tlle
cnri't.:'d gilt pia glnss frOll1 GCI/on by DOlllellico Paradi (madI' (.1690 lo 1710) H'ere desiglled to impress. Thc desigll fentl/res ricltly CtlI7.'ed scrolli!lg folinge rmd ¡mili. HI 5.25111/1 7ft 21,ill.
« CQ
repertor!! of birds m/n flOiI'l'I"S, w!lams Rall/an clllplInsi::cn gcollletric lIIot{(j. L 68.5(1/1/27ill. 2 A desigll of c.166o-go jl'OI1l /lle eircle of !o!Imll1 Pnlll SdlOl~ 11 pilpil uf Bcmhú,¡or n lable <1';tll slIpportillg fuI/-sea/e figures. 11 SllOW5 ¡he sfro¡¡g Bnroqllc /rl'lld
in /~OIlIlJ!l JI/milllrt'.
3 Renr "¡¡'¡l' of 0111.' of ¡ilr{'c concl1e:; !linde ill RVI/u.' in 1716fOl' ¡he Porlllg1/e5c I1Il1bnssndor, ¡he
lvlnrqlli:; de FOllir'>. Conches. n pm1'1'I111/ :5fn/1I5 sI/muo! of fhe 17th ~
~
celltury, U'e1'<' afien dcsigllcd by " nrti:;!:; sudl as 8cmilli 01' Pietro dn t~ . Corfolln. TJ¡cy ,POlIld h(lile /)1'('11 madI.' l/y
tlle Sll/lIe mrt't.'J"5
nlld
¡corked 011 fab/6 aJld e/mirs. NI ¡-28111/23ft ni/!. 4 TI/{' e/abarate sfmpe of tlás SCIIlplllJ"l', c.168.J~6, festool1ed witll tl"t'es,jloll'el"S, al1d otila motifs. is takel1 from/mlllrt'. 11 ,(las /IIade by tite VeI1etitlll_nmlit1lrc lIIaker al1d sCIIlptor, Alldn.:'a Brustolou, ,('llO wns kll(J(Ul1 for IJi;:; ddailcd cnr'.Iillg, gel/eral/y iu box1t'ood. Ht 21Jl/6ft 6il1.
sCII/plor:' ¡I'/IO
5
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- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ . . _----- -------- - - - - -
French Furniture Cubic Symmetry
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1 1 AII cllgrfH'illg by Abra/mili Bosse (1601-76) fill interior c.16.¡o S/IOWS file mlll/lllw" ¡Dril/S, mbie ;;ltnpe:;, nI/d geolJletric desigll ¡¡,!lic!1 ¡pcn.' ¡ypical of Jlortilem El/ropean //OI/Ie:; frOIll 16.20
3 Tlle cabinet ,,/nluf developed /11 Frailee as
lo 1650. Thc cJ/Ilirs {{,Duld Imue /lCCl! riclI11{
<'Clleerillg 111 eboll}!, o/" fo Piare Goll'. T/ll'
IIpho/stered in si/k:> 01' ¡'¡'[¡Ic!S. 2 Tllis mbiud offloralll1nrquctry 1.'cneercd 11/
rllsticlltcd (OIII11I11S of 111/: stllnd C!lllllntc tilosc 011 ti/(' fm;lld¡' of fhe Plllllis L/I.n'11/boH/X, dcsigl1al c.16I 5 for t!le QUCt'11 Rt'gl'l1t, MI/ric dc' Medici. Ht 2.L!.IIl/6ft 9'/,il1.
01
i1.'ory, cbon!!, nl/d cohmred woods ¡uns mnde fVI" Philippe, dlle d'Or/ealls, ¡he brolh('/" 01 LOllis XIV, il! nrOlllld 1660 blf Piare
cadyas 16:20. Tltís exnlllple, c.1645-jO, !m:.; /Ice¡¡ nllribuled fo
}CIlII
Macé (1602-72), W/IO
ilICllt fa Flnl/ders lo fcnm file fecJmiqI1l' ol
GaJe. H'ho ulnrie
flomllllarquctry !ns/¡iOlwble aeras;; ElIrope. HI ] .26m/4ft ] 'l:il/.
n the first half of the 17th century, furnihue design in France showed a new sense of balance and regularity of proportion which was in keeping with the emphasis on c1assicism espollsed by architects sueh as Franc;ois Mansard C1S98-1666). Trophy motils and garlands 01 naturalistic fruits and flo\·vers were carved onto cupboards, while the column beeame a popular form for the legs of tables and chairs. As emly as the 1630s, hmüngs appeared on ehair legs and stretchers and sometimes on the stands for eabinets. The ebony cabinet beeame the symbol of status and wealth and was coneeived on a grander seale than before. Although of a plain rectangular form, it was riehly decorated with carved scenes and was eombined with a matclüng stand. With the rcturn of Simon Vouet (1390-1649) and Charles Le Bnm (1619-90) from their travels in Italy, French design beca me more sumptuous, rich, and grandiose. 111e Italian Domenieo Cueci (11.1660-98) ",,ras brought to the Gobelins workshops for his skill in hard stones (pietre dure) and was responsible for some of the
I
46
architechlral cabinets made for Louis XIV. Pierre Gole 062G-84), ",ho was born and trained in the Nethcrlands, developed deeoration in floral and metal marquetry. New forms of funüture sueh as the bureml lI/azari1J appeared in both techniques. These experiments culminated in the designs of André Charles Boulle 0642-1732), who worked for the king, the dauphin and leading members of the Freneh eourt. Bis development of tortoiseshell and brass marquetry still bears his name - bOllllework. His published designs shmv new fonns of furnihlfc appearing by arow1d 1700, in partirular the bJlreal1 plat and the eommode. By the end of the 17th cenhiry, design had moved from the robust forms of Le Bl1.m to more restrained, linear outlines. 111ese trends towards c1assic designs led. to closer imitation of forms sueh as the sarcophagus-shaped commode. Jean Bérain (1640-1711), the court designer, created ne\\, forms of strap",ork deeoranon derived from classical and Renaissance grotesque designs in which bands of strap",ork ",ere combined \vith acanthus leaf foliage, masks, shells, and C-scrolls.
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--
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Baroque Classicism
1 T/lis slIite al table nlld stmuis Il'Duld llave beell p/nced IIl1da n mirrar nexl fo file ,¡mil
;5 prolmb/y l/In! 51lpplied fo fhe Frellc/I ero,!'1l ¡JI 1671 by
bct¡l'cCII ¡!le ¡¡Jilldo¡I':'. TlJis e.mll/ple
Picrl"l.' Cok, who mnde the mctn/-ill/l1id lop. Mnlhieu Lespngl1(1l/(iclle, 11'/10 car¡tcd ¡IJe
1 ;"'_cL
¡mI/u':>, ¡¡lid On¡,id Dllpré,
,PilO gilded
Ilu: pica.
2 Ocs(<;:Jl JOI" n side In/J/e /ly Bérnill C.1690 lISillg Imlllslas Iilld fl1pcring C011l1l1l1; froll1 c/11':;5icnl nrc/¡ilec!ure. Tn/lle,:; ~f fhis type ¡:I'l're plnced in fhe Gnlerie des Glac6, VersllÍlles. C.1690 to replace
.sifI'crfumillll't: tl¡nl IInd bCt'/! IIIdtcd dOIl'!l. 3 A °700 Frellc/¡ cfi/1'Cd ami gilded 5fool oj elegmll proporfiolls, wllose ji l/e defniled car¡lil/g is bascd OlllllOf~fs
pub/isllCd des(,?l/s.
l/sed ill lean Béraill's
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Boulle Marquetry
1
TJ¡e ollly sur¡>h'jng picú' l/m! call be finllly
2 Alldn! Charle;; Boulle (Inri !lis con/clllpomry
COIIIlIIO,11' (Ollt'
Bcmnrd mil Risl'lIburgll 1s]!ecinli:cd in dock cl1ses 511Cl1 as tllis, IlInde l/y BOlllle, c1695,
011 n
I'cl/('cl"I.'d in !lmss ,¡,ill¡ I1n exquisite lIU1rque/ry designo H/2.23!11/7ft 4ill, iI'. 37.5clI1!l4'bn.
nttributed fa André CllIlrlC:;; BOl//k, thi:;;
of n raír) 11'IlS ddiFefed fo tllí' Gnllld TrinJlOll ;11 1708. Tilt' s!wpe is lmsed ROII/flll
snrcopflngllS. HI 87CIII/341;1I.
2
47
-
English Furniture Carved Decoration 2 Tllis cnnled onk c/wir o/
Imditiollnl/orll1 can be dnted fa c.161o-jD becnllSt.' 01 tite /lse of m/ll/llllnr ¡onlls for
lhe legs nnd
arms, t}¡e Cl/bic proportiolls. alld
tlu' dt'Sigll o/ n spray o/flowers carl.'ed 0// fa tite lmck.
Ht 73CIII/28Y,ill.
3 A ¡ni/l/lit dli7iroj c.1680, bolrlly cnrved witll floral sirle pnllels nlld sfretcller nlld spirnJ lllrllerl sllpporls. Tlle mllillg 0/1 fhe bnck alld seaf ¡/'aS illlport('li
W ::::l
frolll IlIdia, buf by
es e ce
tflt'
e/ld oj fIJe
17th cellll/ry l/l/trI'
Ht 1.15111/3ft 9ill.
ca
1
1 Sgabello cJu'lirs (1625) made á/her by (111 Itafiall or (1/1 ElIglisllllltlll for lhe Earl o/ Pembroke. [lIi?:o fOlles h573-1671) rl!t1iIled l/lis 16tll-cell/lIry Italiall desigll. t!fpical oi ti/e eDurl sty/e o/ Charles l. ¡.Jt 1.10m/3fl 6;11.
n contrast to the traditional oak fumiture produced in England throughout the century in parallel with furniture made in the Netherlands, the court style of Charles 1 (c.1625-40) follO\ved Italian and French models. TIlis is most noticeable in the revival of the 16th-cenrury sgnbelJo. lhe introduction of upholstered armchairs,
I
48
either with X-&ame legs or with box-like stretchers, was in keeping with Inigo lones' emphasis on the cube, and was similar to French design at the court of Louis XIII. Charles 1 also owned foreign cabinets in exotic materials such as ivory and amber. Fumiture in the second half of the century assimilated contemporary Baroque features from Dutch and French designs. Canred cherubs in naturalistic foliage on tables, stands and chairs \Vere inspired by Dutch carving, and turned legs of both spiral and baluster shapes were very popular. Chairs combined these motifs and introduced caning for the backs and seats, a technique taken from the East. Walnut was the preferred timber for fashionable furniture, with beech or pine used as a base for gilded
pieces. Also from the East carne the taste for lacquered furniture, irnitated in Europe by japanning or painting. Carease fumih¡re was decorated in walnut, kingwood and other exotic \Voods in oyster veneers. Floral marquetry appeared by the 16705. Typical of English taste and manufacture is the way the marquetry is applied in separate panels, to facilitate the number that were marle. The influence of Daniel Marot (1663-1752) and French Protestant émigré craftsmen such as the Pelletier family brought French taste to England, as seen in the canred and gilded furniture made for Hampton Court, c.1700. Furniture shapes were derived. from the French c1assical style, and strapwork and grotesque motifs were taken from Jean Bérain. A different taste emerged with new plain forms, perhaps as a result of the inflllence of Chinese funuhire. Chairs with curved backs, known as "lndiabacked" chairs, also used the new cabriole leg and goat's foot. 111e bureau cabinet was a straight-sided fall-front desk with cabinct above, decorated with plain walnut qllartered. veneers, or embellished \vith colourful japanning.
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Floral Marquetry This wa/l1ut table witll IUrIled legs al/d all X-sJmped slre/cller was made C.1670 to 1680. The top is decora/ed ill floml nmrqlletry and /ias oysler vel1eers, i,¡ whid¡ the wood is cut illto ovnls tlmt are in tllm placed in a decomtive fashioll O1'er fhe swface. Ht 73CIII/28Y.ill. 2 Long-case docks SUdl as this were hig/lly prestigiolls and were Imuglll by rid¡ lIIerc/ianis as well as by arislocm/ic patrolls. /1 is decora/ed wil/¡ floralmarque/ry based 011 Frellc!l desiglls, Witll birds, vnscs offlowas, al/ri scrol/ing foliage. J-lt 2111/6jf 6ill.
1
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French Influences
•
,
:;;:: 2 Tltis walnu/ dmir wit!1 iis Cllr
UJ
"/lIdia-backed" clmir. T/ie slmpe was taken frol/1 C/linese dmirs, w/Iile l/ie legs wae CIIrved il1 t/ie cabrio/e fOl"lIl, CIIding il1 goa!'s fee/. T/¡e enrlie.sf reference to t!lese cJmir:; was for t/le dining roolll of George 1 a/ Hamptoll COllrl il1 1717; they werc supplied by TJIOllms Roberts.
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2
1
This bllle-alld-while paillted tablc (1692) after dcsiglls by Daniel Marot ,l't1S probably made for Quem Mary':; water gallery al Halllptoll COJlrt. Here s[¡e also Imd "er dairy decomted in b/uemrd-white De~f/ tiles and, l1ext to it, a bal/iillg room fumislIed with an angc/ bed tlmt Imd b/lIealld-il'/Iile si/k Jmllgillgs alld Jl/atclIillg cJrairs. Ht 80CI1lI;1't~ill. 1
3 A Crlll.'ed and gilded, gessoed
tablc made c.1690-1700 by RCllé Pelleliafor RalplI, DlIke of - ¡vlolltagll ,pito, as Master of tJll' Killg's i'Vardro/1l', l/'as mI illlportalll figl/re ill tite illtrodllCliol1 of Fr('lIc/r desigll al/d FrellcJl cmf/slI/ell al tlIe courl o/ ¡'Villial/l al/d Mary. Nt 81(111/;:,.ill: l. 1.1.7111/4ft 1.Í1I.
49
Dutch and Flemish Furniture Antwerp and Amsterdam Tlie illterior 01 n F/e",i:,h maclltlllt's I/{II/x', c.16zo, 1
pail/klt II.I( Frnll:, fmllch'lIl1 fJjSl~16.p). /1 5110,1'5 ti/{,
,.ieh/y C%llrl'd tt'xlik:;; 011 file
'('II11s olld tlle mrpl'ts 01/ tll/!
tab/(' tlwl ,pcn' hig/¡/y n:gnrded ill ¡!le 17th (('I1/III'!!. Tlle 1011' ClIpbonrd asa/liS! ¡lIe wllll is
dcsi,í;1/5 by HaJ/s Vrenelllllll de Vrit'S f1j26-16o.¡)
based nl/d
011
,ms 0111' o/ Ilu.' 11I05/ popular
types al tI,is timf'.
W
2 Cllbillcf::i willl
¡mili/en interior;;
=::l
Sl/ell as t/1is 1:1'('''' {/ specilllitll
o
01 A'I1'l'crp cabilldmakcrs,
es
a: c:e r:::c
¡mlicalillg n close nssocilltioll wit/¡ tlle Iminler::;' gllild. Tlzis c.1620
example ¡¡¡ould /u/t'c lUId
(/ Sei.'cre exterior in blnck ebollY witll ripple-colí.'cd mOl/ldillg.
he northern provinces of the Netherlands \Von indcpendence fram Spain in 1648 after thc Treaty cf \lVestphalia. In both southern and northern Dutch provinces traditional forms of furniture throughout the 17th century included tables, cupboards, and chests made in oak. These \Vere decorated with carved foliage patterns and geometric forms, which were sometimes picked out in stained oak or ebony. Features such as bulbous supports for chairs and tables, carved term figures, and large \'olute shapes continued to be used during this periodo In the southern Netherlands, exotic materiaIs such as ebon)', ivor)', tortoiseshell, and metal mounts were used from an early date to decora te eabinets, a practice that reflected the importance of Antwerp as a centre of international trade in these commodities. Cabinets were also painted in the manner of Rubens. Ripplecarved moulding in small gcometric patterns deeorated the exterior, while the interiors opened to show more elabora te, riehly colollrful scenes.
T
50
The Auricular style, so-called beca use of its similarity to the human ear, was one of the most inflllential forms of decoration to appear in the north. It \'\'as eombined with extraordinary realism in carved fruits and flowcrs, particularly in Amsterdam. Floral marquetry \Vas equally naturalistie in its designo The northern provinces made use of rosewood and ebony for eabinets, whieh gave a rieh sombre flavour to the interior. Herman Doomer (c.1595-1650) in Amsterdam specialized in ebony veneers inlaid with mother-of-pearl f1onrers. By the end of the 17th eentury, floral marquetr)' "'as in fashion, as shown in the highly naturalistic work of Jan \·an Mekeren (c.1690-<.1735). In 168S the Freneh Huguenot Daniel Marot (16631752) carne to the eourt of William and Mar)', bringing the French design of Versailles fiest to Holland and later to England. In Holland more rectilinear forms were often combined with realistically carved figures. Both ehaie backs and mirrors rose to ne'" heights and appeared with erested tops at the end of the century.
, •
•
3 Tllis magllificí?l1t tnbh' by Piell'/' riL' l...oili nlld 1\ ¡ielid Vt'l'bi,'SI, 1It/f.'.! 1689. '1'/lS Vllt' o/ t/II! /lIt>:>/ 1'11l/'Omlt' l/milI/ero iJl A 1l1r1'{·rp. TI/e /cdm ¡qm' JOI' l/u.' tortoiSt"S1Jcf/ tlild Illetal-illfny fop ,m:, dI:.Y.>/Ollt'tf frolll FllmcJ, bOIlI/tr.I'Ork.
typiml o/ordillnryfllmil"re ¡JI Flrmi"l, IIII.'rc/mllfs· Dislillg'¡jsllt,d from mrlier ¡Dril/S by tllt' ¡Iee/I, IUlturalislic Ctlr.:ed
4 TI,i:; vnk ClIplXxml 1I01l$('S.
,ITIS
decornlioll. t1'L'Sl.' "'t'n' COIlSt'n'fllh't' pit'Cf'S 01JI/TlIiII/TI'. Ht 1.'¡'2111/4ft 6il/.
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5 TI,is taMe sflO;:!'s t/¡e bulbolls kgs alld Sfroug n/'stmct desi~1I t.llpicn/ of DlItdl jlll"llitllTl'. T/u' Tl'clollgllfnr I//JI¡ds of bog ook imilote 16111(¡'III{1/V Fn.'lIc/¡fnshiol/s. HI Slcm/Júll.
6 A fligllly cnl"i.'cd (I(Ik wpllO
--
8 7 Pnilltillg IIY Pit'fadc Hll(ld, (}629 -S-I) o/l/JI É¡¡ferior ill lile 5CCOJld Im/f
o/ lile '701 n"ltlll~/lfcJ,idiIlS a /111'$<' i'lI(JIIY ami mSt't''lJOd Utrecllt tl'llrdrollt,. S/leI,fl/milun'
il'(lS t~l}'icllf
(JI ridlllll"n"I/1lllts'/ItlIl."<'S jI! AII/:>terdmu.
8 TlIt~ Al/riC/llar s(l/h' cml 1", dt'arl~, :;.{'t'/l QH IMs laMr. 11 cms l/sed for fllmi/lln' lIIade ;1/ AlI/stl'r.ll1l11, oft¡'I¡ ill mll/billnlioll it'ilf¡ dt'l'p/y cnl"i't'd, renlislic Sil'llgS liffmils {/lid floil'ers. HI S,¡clII/33il1.
51
German and Iberian Furniture Opulent German Furniture
T!lis ddnil vfn dol1s' ¡lVI/se from Nllremberg, 1639. s/lOws parl 01 ti/(' jllferior o/ a ll'ca/t/¡y I/Iere/m /1/ 's hOIl:;e, ill ,l'//ic!1
TIJe elnborntely r1ecomted Cnbind oj Afirrors, (,1714-18, ¡rol/l Sclllo5S POlIIlIIl'fsjl.'1dell ,l'Il5 by Ferdilllllld Plit:ller. rile floor is o/ e/aborate plll'qlletry
1
2
lile cabinel in liJe {¡all ,(1(15 1111
impar/allt pieee ojJumilllre cOlltnillillg I!le family lillí'll.
table (/lId lIIil"l"OI"5 are bnsed DIl ¡eml Le Pnllfrl!'S I!lIgnnoillgs
o/
lab/es 511ppol'Ied by /el'lll figures.
3 T!lis .tYIrdrobe, c.1630.from 1k:':'l' ill Gel'lllllll!" is ,'¡'lIcal?d in H/lI/Xl/rin/1 as/¡ (l1Id syefllllOfl?
il'i¡h ,('rl/'III/ mn'illg. lt retnills lile (Olll/I/¡'X IlrdJilcclurnl frmlmen!
o/
('¡Ir!i¡'/" piel!'s. nlld is il1j1l1enced by
52
/111' d¡,~i,o,:l1~ /~r Ilmls \lredelllml de \lril'~. 1/1
:.2.¡III/¡ft 31ill.
4 By tIJe 1690:0 tIJe /JlIren/l mbillt'f U'nS "~'IYfn;,:/¡iollnbk. T/Jis l'xnmp/c, C.1690. il! tI/(' Boul/e tec/llliqllc, IIn:; IIInrqlll.'fry Imsed 011 Bémill ':, el/"rn,'il/~s. -' Tlu.' 1II00lUlllelltn/ nlld l'xnggl'mled fOI"III, hoU'l''I.'Cr, is t¡uillfl'SSelllinlly Gt'fIIlnl1. HI 2.°5111/6/1 8'1il1.
---------------------------------------, Spain, Portugal, and Exolic Malerials 1 CM alld Ilu.' Ea;;.t IIIdl6 I'.\'<'r/"ll a ;;./rollg il/fllllmce: 01/ Portlls'u·....· jllrJIilllre 05' SJIOU'II ill trl/:' contador (cabil/e/)
a ;;'/0111/. oj tmk. ebcmy, ii'Ory. olld Il/diml ;;tImlo1
pottems, lIJe l/se oj sclIlJlled 511pports reflects 1//1.' BorolJlIe i/lterest ill the h¡mml1 jonll. Ht 1.16111/4ft lill. 2 Ebony Ji!",;! appeal'ed ill Portllgllcse flll"llitllre il/ file 16th cel1tllnj. o/ld it collle to domillate El/TOpean taste. TlJis 101t' 17t1,celltl/ry cobille/ is decora/ed WitJl ripple Il/ouldillg alld illcised diagol/als. Tll/! blllll()lls sl/pports oj tite rosell'OOtt bn5t? are from OutcJI fumill/re, rej1ecfillg tite importal/ce of frade comlecfiollS al/ltis da/e. H/ 1.jll//.ift. •
3 Portllgllese c1wirs ,{'ere strollgly illflllt'I/cl.'d by ElIg/ish de:;iglls, 0111.11 flley ¡l't'rl' typicnlly /linde ,l'illl I!mvosserl len/fu!r
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bncks. Tlús lnle lJlh-cCIIIIIIY eXn1uple ill cnrved ,trn/ml/fln:; n
es <:) c:
crested bnck tll1d n !lig" slre/cher.
c:z: ce
Ht 1.2111/311 l1ÍlI. 4 FrO/ll tlu: 16tll CCl/tw'Y omunl'ds, ¡he Spmlish l/sed n pnl'tiClllll1'
type of¡vldillg table, slIppol'ted by me/al roas joiJled lo l/u! It-gs. TlIis extlmple o[ (.1680 is pniJltel1 ¡¡'if/, slyfi::ed floral lIIotifs taken
from lndian c/lillf=.t:S in imitaliou of oriental [acquer.
fter the end of the Thirty Years War in 1648, ¡avish Baroque pieces ' . . . ere ordered by the rid1 burghers of the principal German towns or by aristocratic rulers \'vishing to demonstrate their \vealth and patronage. Pieces were made in the Baroque style, featuring marquetry in ¡vory, ebony, or pe\·vter set in vvalnut veneers. Forms often had a boldness and excessive movement not found elsewhere in Europe. Augsburg specialized in marquetry cabinets of ivory and ebony of great sumptuousness and court cabinetmakers throughout Germany specialized in high quality marquetry in many techniques. The northem German states generally remained more conservati\'e and foUowed Dutch and English taste, as seen in the use of turned legs or walnut veneers, or in the emphasis on carved floral decoration. Cabinehnakers in city-states such as Frankfurt and Mainz specjalized in the large wardrobe, sometimes in rose\·vood and ebony. Design in the southern German sta tes followed the more elaborately decorated furniture style found in
A
France - Jean Bérain's designs were an important decorative source. Court cabinetmakers such élS Ferdinand Plitzner (1678-1724) in Pommersfeldel1, or Joham) Matusch (ji. 1701-31) in Ansbach developed ¡¡ personal style of increasingly vigorous forms, t
53
American Furniture The William & Mary and Queen Anne Styles 1 TlII' arcllnf loark al/d !urIll'd 1t'gs 011 tllÍs
"1l'lOfstemf dayllt.'d, "m/k ill PIIi/addp1/ia c. J i2o-Jj, an' {'/l/Memafir t!f A/IIcriaJl/ baroqlll' [umi/un'. Tllc bnrk 511pports, Mrdrllcrs, alld lcS~ ¡PI'/"¡' /linde o[ mnplt', lI'/¡ilc tllC rails [orlllillg tln' sent ¡mil/e wen' /IIade o[ ouk. Daylot'ds ¡¡t¡,n' o/ll'll IIIndt' ¡pit/¡ arco/llpullyillg cJmirs, l'I'JlOls/l'rl'd ill riel, i11lported [nlorics. Ht 9iWI/3Slill, 11.75111/69ill. 2 Tllis o.'a/-l0IJpt'd gntl'-leg faMt', mnlle iJl NC'iI' York Gty. 1 ¡.¡.l}-63. r¡'pn'scllts tltt' ilion.' il/formal dillillS 1mM:; o/ tbc lnte 1;111 f1lld lStll ccl//lfr.'!. 3 O.'al il'flflllft drop-lcn/ tnMt' 'f'itlI cabrioll'
/t·gs. ;\/("" York '73o-jo. Adaptnl'lc tabh~ likl' tbis cOllld l't' 1Iltrc.,t'd abOllt I//¡!' rOOIl/ no; IIt'('dcd. HI 6S.jcm./:!;in, J. l.:!.jllt/'lft.
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s is often the case with American decorative arts, the primary design influence carne fraro Europe. Baroque design trends rcached the Anglo-American calomes from the royal courts of England and Holland during and after the reign of Williaro & Mary (1688-1702), signalling a discernible growth in pcosperity and elegance in furnishings, especiaUy in urban centres such as Boston, ew York, Newport, and Philadelphia. By the beginning of the 18th century, design was moving a\Vay from the simple beginnings of the Puritans, when onl)' the plainest necessities such as beds, tables, and chests furnished the colonists' houses. While much American furruture continued to be made in ycmacular st},ies, often reflecting distinctive regional characteristics from British oc other northern European furniture, a dilllted version of Baroque courtly styles can be seen in the high arched chair bades and trumpet-tumed legs of fllrniture made in New York and Ne\v England beh,\'een 1700 and 1730. Furniture with a strong verticality, together with ClITving pattemed ornament and a profll-
A
54
sien of elabora te carving and tllrrung suggests thc Baroque, often referred to as the \Nilliam & Mary style, even into the eady decades of the 18th century. Foliage and scrolls set in a syrnmetrical conlext \Vere favollred motifs, and the Iater, so-caBed QlIeen Anne, period (c.1720-50) saw the introduction of cabriole curves for the legs of tables and chairs. The rcstrained use of sculptural forms and architectural elements sllch as shells, pllffi1es, vase shapes, scrolls, and volutes were part of a new classical vocabuJary, while the claw-and-ball foot was a favourite terminal. These forms, inspired from Europe, were often interpreted with notable exuberance in America. \t\'alnut \Vas the fashionable \Vood, but maple, cherry, and, later, mahogany were used far high-style pieces, many of them veneered. Painting or staining of furnJture, a distinctively American form of embellishment, continued, but the showiest cabinets, mainly emanating from Boston, were decorated \'I'ith japanning, sometimes elaborately, in imitatian of orientallacquer.
4 T/1Í5 beee/¡ nr/llc!uúr witll (n/'l'ed top mil nnri slrefcIJer, fllrJIerl slIpports, (Inri len/iler IIpllO/stery íl'flS /l/nde
in
BOS/OII, C.1700-15·
It WIlS ¡IIfi"cllced by l¡tI/-cm/M.'! Dlltc/,
modds. Ht 2.09/11/6ft 11111. 5 Tite gracefl/l CUTt'iIlS ((lbriofe legs, ba/Ilsfer splnt (lnd rol/llderl St'fll o/ tllis mnllOgtlllY sirle e/Jai/' from N~l' l'Ork. 175tH>j. afl typify tlle lafe Bnroque. HI JIII/;ft 3ill.
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6 TIJis armc1mil' ¡rolll Nortll Carolillo, C.17-l5-65. 51/0<1'5 enrfy sigw; o/ tlle Rococo lI'ilh ils cabriole legs. cnn'Cd opellit'ork splnl,
nnrl CIIr..'ed nrm5. HI 99.jCm/39/'i" 7 AIl illterestillg smoking e/mil'. mnde ofb/nck ¡1'flJ¡/l/t,frolll TideitVfter, Virigillia, T7-1-o-jo. TI/f.' c1mir ml'S dcsiglled fo ftl jllto tlle comer DI n room. fts t'nse·s/lflped splnts are distillctir.'C o/ tlle lnft' Bnroque. Ht 8.¡.jcm/n'bll.
8 TJ¡is ¡lig/l C!u!sl 01 drml'l'TS WflS /l/ade o/ IIl11p/r: alld pille by /01111 Pillllll il! Bostoll ill 1740-50, alld ia1ml/lled by 1111 IlllkllOíL'11 dL'Corntor. Tlle dl'Sigll illcorpomtes tJu' sllc/1 motif. cabrio/e fegs l/Int elld il! cJaiL'/f!t!t, alld a brokm JNdilllellt witll i'ase-sllllped fillia/s. HI 2.43m/7/t 11l.ill. 9 TIJe deep aproll alld comp/ex tl/rIlillgs o/Ihe /egs o/ IJ¡is dressillg lab/e Jrom PJ¡iladelpllia, (.1715-25, are simplified cJlflrllctcristics o/ enroque desigll /rolll tIJe cOlirIo/ Wil1iam nlld Ma'Y. HI75·5cIII/29Y.,ill. 10 TI,e bo/d Sllllpillg o/Ibe palie/s nlld dL'ep profile of lile mouldillgs Oll IIJis ;¡'a/lllll wardrobe or Kas jrolll SOl/tll castcm PCl/llsylI'm,;a, C.1745-60, rcflccl bot/¡ DlItc11 alld Ilort/I Gel'/lIm¡ vemacrdar traditiolls. Ht2.13 111 /7jt.
55
Furniture Techniques Veneering with Marquetry 1 Tlús cabilll!l, (.1700, aftribufcd
lo /011
t'llll
AlekereJl of Amstentnm,
is r.'elleered il/ jlomllllflrq/fetry Of mriOIlS
it'oods S<'t ;lIto killg'il'ood
ami il'a/lI11t. DI/fe/¡ Jloral
IIIflrqw:try il'flS ¡!Oled Jor
if:; flig1l/.'I reali:;tic de:;igll.
Ht 2.05111/6ft ¡;I/. 2 TlIis de/ni! from ti table by AI/rire Clmrh's Bol/lIe sllOWS ¡IO,t' 1Ie combillt'd floral I/larqlletry ol tite flÍglu'Sf q/la/ily WitJI pett'ter, forfoi~'S/II!ff. (lllri bros:> in a lIIore
c1nssicnl style. 3 Made> m Wiir:blfrg by Incoo Areud tllld lo/mili/es IVitta/i1l in 1716, tllis ¡m/l/lIf blln.'t1l1 cubil/el is l1l'com/t'd wil1ll11l1rqlletry lmlle/s of ei'OIlY (l/Id <'arioll:> w00i1s, witli pt'il'ler (llld hom pallels in Ifle /0/) wpbonrds.
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H/I.8olll/sft 9;"· 4 Qlle of lile l'ar/iest e.mll/p/es o/ e{(llJomte IIInrqlletnj, flli:; enbine!,
c.1590, is n/l,.ibllled fa Jacopo Fimumil/go, ti Flelllil/g workil/g il! Nnples. lt is uelleered il1eool1Y wifh ioo,.y pmu!ls eI1grnved by Jncopo el/r!is. B/nck nlld wIJile decorafiol! wns ndlllirro ill Nap/es. HI87·9CIl1/3-lV,i1l· 5 TIJe II1nrquefry of 111is w,.¡lillg desk (694) /1/adl! fO,. fhe Ellglish bllg l\'illial/1 lfJ is of killgtl'Ood bnckgrolll1d will, amlJt'Sql1e dl'Sigl1s pickt>d 0111 il! n figl1ter ¡¡'OOli. Tlle tcc/miqlle i5 lllO/lg1ll fo 1/(1¡>e l'Cell dl."f.>eloped by /fu' COllrl cnbillelmnkcr. Cerril JI'I/$('/I.
A
56
the 17th century progrcssed, patrons demanded .L-\.increasingly more luxurious pieces of fumihtre, which was commonIy carved and giJded. Sculptors, for example, carved elaborate bases for tables and stands for cabinets. SpiraJ legs beca me very popular and were turned on a lathe. Louis XIV ordered silver furniture for Versailles, which was imitated in other countries by covering the woad carcase with sheets of silver repolfssé. As well as the new manipulation of fumiture forms, the century saw the importing of exotic materials into Europe from Africa, the East, and the West lndies. Ebony from Asia and Africa appearcd first in Portugal and the Spanish territories - the Netherlands, Sicily, and Naples. Cabinehnakers in France, southern Germany, and Antwerp learned to vencer not onIy in ebony, but in West Indian turtleshell (common!y caBed tortoiseshell), metals, ¡vory, and co(oured v/oods. In northern Europe it v..'as more comman to use marquetry of different woods, especial1y \\'alnut, oJivcwood, or kingwood (a form of rose\·vood). S
Veneering with Stones
Painted Surfaces 1 Takcl1
Ellglish
¡mm lhe sitie of /JI! lIIirrOl~
el7oo, fllis de/ni!
mane 1I5ing n Frenc/I lechniqllc called verre églomisé, nepe/oped by jeall Baptiste Glol1l!! (d.1786). Tlle back of tlu: mirror ({'as cOFl.'red witl1 go/ti len! whicl¡ i/'flS tllen scmlchen away alln pain/en witll n colau!" SUell as red, black, of n /;érnil1csquc desigll
bIrle, 01" greclI. 2 FlIrIlifIlre WfiS
often
il'1l5
pnilltcd
find gi/den in ¡ile 17th cen/ury,
e/aborate SCCI/CS as in t!JÍs detail ¡mili fhe late l7fllan/u,.!! Swedish royal (ooc!I.
some/illles wit/¡
, 1
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1 A mlleetor's envillet, c.1680, in ivOlY witll si/n?r-gilt 1I1OII/Its nlld Inpis
ln:::.u/i, prolmb/y by lhe Augs/mrg envil1etlllaker, Me/ciliar Bnlll11gartller al1d demrated ¡¡¡il/¡ Fforel1lille pietre dure prme/s (Jlnrd 510111'5). Ht SO.jCI11!31Y.ill. 2 Scagliola, ,ill ¡('/úc/¡ groHlld marb/cs al1d glue Il'ell! l/sed lo fiU in IIU' lIollowed base or as n coverillgfor Ihe ¡¡¡IIO/e surfnce, wns rlt?l.'e1oped as all nitemnlive to pielre dure. This palIe/ is attribllted fa SilllOlle Setli ofempi (fb6jD-1700). W. 1.37111/.ift 6ill. 3 Tl1is e1nborale pietre dure fOp for a labJe ill Ihe GalCl'ic d'ApolloJl, c.1660, /l/ay have hccll desigllcd by Charles Le Bnlll (161')-90),
2
One technique used was oyster veneer: small branches of timber were cut into oval shapes and assembled into geometric pattems. Floral marquetry was another; it ,..vas made by assembling individual pieces of contrasting naturally co]oured aI stained woods, \-\'hich couId be shadowed by dipping the edges into hot sand or engraved in order to create still-life compositions. In France, marquehy \vith metal veneers or hutleshell and brass in contrasting patterns \vas occasionally combined with materials such as hom or mother-of-pearL In Florence and Rome, tables and cabinets were decorated with pietre dure (hard stones such as jaspers, agates, and marbles). Florentine craftsmen developed the 16th-century technique of cutting the stones and assembling them on the surface of the piece to produce an effect somewhat similar to marquetry; this technique "".'as known as COlIJlIIesso work. Scaglioln \Vas another technique developed in Italy \vhereby a coloured paste of ground marbIe and selenite (a form of gypsum) was applied, almost like paint, on to the base. Dutch,
3
-57
Carved and Gilded Furniture
2
Bnroqllc craftsmeu decomted
fl/mitl/re ¡1'itll gold leilJ. TIJe ¡¡'OOd ims co¡wed ¡(litll gesso fllld 111m l'ililltl'd il'itl, mi c1ny. or Il(Ik. 0/1 fa .pl,iel, file gold It?sif 1m,; flJ'l'fied. TIIl' delail ¡¡'a,; ClIf
jlllo Iltl' gt'S~ ami/lit' go/d kllf 'I'ITS lllmlislu!d fa
at'nte tt'xtllrt'S
(lnd lo
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1 Fllmilllri? mfljf(, olsih.'l.'r ,¡'liS ti/e /l/osI lU.ntriol/s pass/bit'. Lvllis XIV liad n ::el /IInrle for l/u' Gnh'rh' de G/nc6 al VerSllilll.'S j" fIIvlII,d 1670, ,('/lid,
Flemish, and English eraftsmen all used this method of imtitating inlaid marble. lmported ]apanese laequer chests, eabinets, and screens had a profound effect on European fuffiihlre. In their use of black, these pieces ",ere parlicularly suitable for the Baroque interior, and their laequer with its highly polished sheen was mueh admired. ]apanese laequer was made by applying layers of a syrupy substanee derived from the sap of the laequer tree or ,-hus 'oemicifllln. Export wares ofien depicted landseapes with mountains and temples and were deeorated with l1laki-e (gold flakes or dust). Original ]apanese laequer cabinets \Vere genera))y displayed on European stands, while ]apanese laequer panels \Vere often cut up and mounted on the most luxurious European furniture. The natural sap of the lacquer tree \Vas unobtainable in the "'''est and the imitation of orientallaequer, known as japanning, was taken up throughout Europc in thc second half of the 17th eentury. As weH as ]apanese examples, European prints such as those by Jan Nieuhoff
(1655) were popular sources of design inspiration. In England John Stalker and George rarker published their Treatise 01 ]apmll1illg ami Vamisllillg in 1688; this was one of several technieal manuals on the subject. Ihe japaJUling recipes varied, but included ingredients such as shellac, gum-lac, or seed lac. Numerous coats \Vere applied, sometimes on the wood directly, and sometimes on to a gesso base. Relief effects could be achie\'ed by applying extra layers of gesso, sometimes \Vith gilded highlights. Mother-of-pearI \Vas occasionaUy included in imitation of Japanese abalone shell. ]apanning \Vas mostly earried out in black, but red \vas also popular and Gerhard Dagly (c.1687-17P) in Berlin specialized in \Vhite laequer with scenes painted in green, red, and other colours. Pierre Gole may have been one of the earliest to crea te simulations of laequer, although he did not use oriental motifs. Cerrit Jensen (jl.1668-1714) in England made many pieces of japanned fumihlre for the crown, especially for Queen Mary, whose passion for ]apanese lacquer equalled her love of oriental ceramics.
Lacquer and Japanning 1 Cn/li1¡l'ts o/ Japanes/' /ncq//('" are
c1675. of Louis XIV';; lIliMress. rile Inste for lile exalie,jor tlle lIJore ¡¡r¡¡'nte ilIl1stmfed ¡lIthis pie/I/n.',
spaCf!5. ill grl!ITt flOlI,;eS, h'lllo l/le
importalioll %rielltal fl/ui lo fIJó, display.
ilYlrl'S
2 TIJis japdlllll'd c11t1ir jrvlJl /I/(' Quet'''';; fIIllerOOIJl a/ Hall! Hall;;/'. EI/g/al1d, benrs file al'M 01 Elisabdll Dysnrt, 1672. TIJe
e/mirs
(I/"t' 1I1111$/wl
111 IJlt'ir
nttempf ro el//l/llIte II CJII'lIe~l'
/l/ot{ffor t/IC llfU:k, nJt1/Ol/gh I/IC 01."'rfIllllPP"lIrfllICl.' is Ellropl!lIlI.
Ht ,1.23111I..¡ft.
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slmpes tl5 ill tllis I!xmllp/e by Cerril ¡el/sell, c. J 690. Ellropeml
TIJe 1/','\5 (Inri sum:lllJlds (1ft' in/mlll/cd fo IItnlc!l. Ht 74(111129;11.
4 Tflis (tlbilld 0/1 tl stmllj dafes fa amI/mi 1,00;5 nttriblltcd fo lile f('tldil/g mnker of japtllllled JI/milI/re iu Camal/Y. Gerl/flrd D(I~flf. 11'110 ,l'Orkcd ¡JI Ber/ill. e • Cabil1c1ltI6oCIII/23 1i1l .
5 TIIi;; IIIII/SIIII/ filM,' /11/ Pierre GoJe. C. 1 673, is pni"'t',f ,l'ith cofollrt,,f mrnis/u'S. T/¡l' plIllf'/s fin' 01<'11 st'f il//o II eOIllJlositioll of mot/ll'r-oJ-
pcnrl
/0
imitntc /apanese aba/ol/c she/l.
59
Upholstery and Beds The Upholstered Chair and Settee
1
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es
1 The d1l1it ill lile ji!"s! hnlf 01 ¡/¡e
17th (el/tul"Y wns oftm upJlOlstacd jI! /cntiu:r as i/1 t/IÍ,; c:mlllplc, C.I630, whicll has tite ciphcr 01
O
c:::
c::e CQ
Peta Prw! RlIlleJ1s. T/¡I' Il1rge
sluds ,pcte par! 01 ¡he decoral ;011. 2 TI/e c1ulir of sta/e, 01' X~fmll/{' e/mir, deriv{'d ¡rvlII 1tnliml
TlJis e.mll/ple o/ Ellglis/l ro!!a! fumifl/re /l/ay Jur..'/? bccII made jor ReIlU;S5f1l1CI' prototypes.
James 1(ll/ri is lIplwlsferclf il'ill,
GellQ('sc si/k, (lit flIld stitclted 01/ lo tI/(' "ilk lmek::''Tolllld. lt j,; decomfed "'itl, sil¡'er spnllg/es
nnd red Jrillgillg.
4
5
n,is selt«, madi' c.17°o blf l/le
HlIgul'1I01 lfpJ¡olslerer PIIÉ/;"
Guiberl Jor TJ¡oll/ns Osoome, J 5/ DI/ke 01 Lud;;, /5 l/pllOlstered 111 imported GtIlOO t'e!<'et o/ (ri/llsoll al/ri gret'll. lt 1/(J'; mntcllÍllg fril/ges. tI,J¡ic/, afiell cosl as IIIlIell as tlle materia/ itse{f L. 2o.8m/6ft 8ill.
60
3 A tnl'l.' sUl"vivn/ of origillal IIp!lOlstery, tMs c1mil" ¡¡ins pnrt uf (/ st'/ bUl/gllt il1 Pllri~ by COIIII! Ni/s Bil.'lkl' (164_1-1716) frolll ]acqut' Heref ami Al1l1e dll FOllr (pro/m/¡ly ¡he llpltolslerer) in 1680. 4 A design for a Frellc11 royal dmlued, C.1690, 01' Grand Canapé, IIpl10lstered ¡dtIE pallds, ('ac11 uordered it'itl1 11 cOlltrnstillg Jrillgt', possiu/y of si/¡w 01' go/d tllrmd.
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Lavish Expenditure TI/e nllgeJ hed, 1672, desiglled by /cml 8émill for 1111.' Trinlloll de Porcelaillt' iJl ti/e gral/llds al Ví'rsnifh.'S, 1I10d" l/se of elaborate f1yillg CIIrlnills, tlJul ,{'as illtellded 0111.11 for 1
pri¡'ofe spaces. DmJiel Marol dtr.:e/oped fIJe
c/allOrtlle cnosted top for {,is fllg/ish stale llt'ds. 2 TlIe Frt!llcJl statl.' bed lUId {/ simple, grometric pTofile wllich ¡¡'as combilled i:1';tI, file ridles! .{abrir,;. rlJis bed il'tlS madI' ill FTilllce .fa, Jnllli'S II 0/1 f¡is lIInrringe lo Mnry ol Afodel1fl ¡JI 1673.
J
3 TI';:: dl'fnil o[ file strlfl' bed madI'Jor Grorgl.'. 1st Earl Alt'/¡·j/le. in e. 1700 11.11 tlle HlIgllf'l/ot l/pllO/ster!'" Fmllá:; wlJierre. sllOtl'S file ¡m!/ in ,d,iel, ¡nl'Tic ¡:ms gllled 011 fa tlle cnlí.'ed
•
headlmrd lo cmlte elaborate slmpes, ;:('hile
¡¡-ere stl~ffed lo create (/ grenter sel/se of.'O/I/IIII', (lud it't'rt' ricMy frillged alld t'mbroidt,rt,,{ file
'UlIl~illgS
s
1
4 As well as beds. coaches ,¡'ere
illlportant stalelllcn! 01 powcr. filld I/lI!ir illtcriofs ,l'l're crnfted by tllt' royal upllolstt'rl!fs. Tile 1'IIIbroidery of /lIe s/ate coac" for C/lndes Xl of Swede!1 (C.1696-9) was IIIflde lo desiglls mi
¡'1/ }I'fIIl Béraill.
n the 16th and 17th centuries, the greatest sums of mone)' spent on fumishing the interiors of hOllses and palaces "'ere for textiles and fringing. Rooms "'ere hlU1g ",ith luxllrious panels of silk and velvet, bordered with embroidery or fringes of gold and 5iker threads, and beds and chairs "'ere upholstered in 5umptuOllS fabries. Inventories sho", that in the second half of the 16th century in Rome, fumiture ",as supplied en suite complete with the hangings. This practiee was introduced into France in the 16205 as contemporaries emulated the famous blue rooms of Madame de RambolliJIet (1588-1665) who, Iike the Frend1 queen, was Italian. The square form of the state bed remained fashionable until1800. In France, more elahorate shapes were created for the private rooms or garden pavilions such as the Trianon de Porcelain. Daniel Marot in tllrn lIsed these for inspirabon when he de5igned elaborate state beds in the English royal palaces e.1700. The crested headboards and carved testers were covered with sumptuous fabries, in designs closel)' based on those of Jean Bérain.
I
Based on the Roman campaign chair, the X-frame chair had always been the chair associated with rank and was therefore sought after for palaces and aristocratic houses. A second popular type of chair was an armchair, often called sil/ol! de fraile, as the square frontal form probably originated in Spain. During the 16th century, the frame was covered with fabric, and the seat cllshion and arms were lIpholstered in hessian and horsehair, with large nailheads acting both as decoration and for fastening the material. Silk and gold fringes hung from the sides and across the centre of the back. This shape lasted more or less tmchanged tUltil the middle of the 17th centllry. During the second half of the 17th century, as the backs of chairs grew taller and the frames were more elaborately can·ed, the role of llpholstery became more important in providing the silhollette of the Baroque chair. The backs were stllffed with horsehair and were giyen a three-dimensional shape. The armchair also developed a more architectllral form with wings on the sides and scrolling lower sections.
61
•
Upholstery and The Upholslerecl Cll,lil ¡1I1(1
Bed~
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3 Tllis inscribed LO/uf 011 delft lallkllrd is daled
1638. TI/e celllmll1lolifderiuesfrol1l a Il1fe ¡vlillg desigll ImdiliOlUllly kllOll'11 as Bird an Rack alld is O/le af lile enrliest exalllples al 1111' i¡~f1l1C11ce al CI/illese blue-alld-w!lite pOl"celaill 011 ElIg/isll cemlllics. HI Ll-CI1l/slill.
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ct c:c
10 B1BFPJ S-\L\U •
1 Tilis hellllct-sJmped fnii'Jlce e¡l'eI~ bll5l'd 01111I1
enrlier ¡lIefnli:l'Ork /01"11I, ;5 paiuled ill blue al/d
red,
Ht 28.2C111/11ill.
2 Glle 01 a paír Di DH/e/I de/fl floil'er pyrnlllids, mnde C.169<>-9S, ¡pitil noz:les designcd fo display clIl t1l1ips mili oflJa no/ie blool/1s.
TI/(! decora/ioll iucorpomt1'5 styli:ed foliage {Inri emblellla/ ie figures, possibly re/n/illS; lo lhe reigl1 of\il/i/!inlll {Inri ¡"'Iary. Ht 5-1-.3CI1I/21/ill.
2
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62
urin g the 16th cenhlry Italian potters took their skills tú France, the Low COlUltries, and England, where the material became knm.vn variously as falence, Delit, and English delfhvare. The production of tin-glazed earthenware continued to domina te European ceramics in the 17th century, but it began to move m'\'ay fram the Italian Renaissance style and develop distinctive new characteristics. In the 1640s potters working in Nevers, France, continued to produce display platcs in the istoriato tradition, but now followed the work of contemporary French artists; later French decorators favoured small-scale, repetitive pattenls derived from engraved SOllrces. These formal, lace-like designs, including stiff lea ves and lambrequins, are characteristic of French design in the late 17th century. Imported Chinese bllle-and-white porcelain also inspired the 17th-cenhlry tin-glazed earthenware potter, and most of them strove to imitate both the material and the colour scheme, \-vhile modifying the forms al' subject matter to suit European taste. Characteristic of later
DlItch pieces are the great flower pyramids created for VVilliam and Mary, which combine the 17th-century love of blue-and-white with the fashion for exotic flowers. The tulip became a widespread 17th-century motif, appearing on English delftware and slipware. Particular to English earthenware were royal portrait dishes. Stoneware, both lInglazed red stoneware made in imitation of Chinese Yixing ware and salt-glazed stoneware, also dominated 17th-century pottery. A particular type of salt-glazed ware made in Westerwald, Germany, had an all-over pattem of stamped motifs and a glaze stained blue with cobalto However, Cologne continued to make the brown stoneware bottles discussed in the last chapter. TIlese had been imported into England in the 16th cenhlry but were only copied there "vhen Jolm Dwight of London (c.1635-1703) was granted a patent in 1672. Dwight also made red stoneware élnd, in an attempt to discover the secret of parcelain, created a renned \-vhite stoneware, which, as well as being used for table wares, \Vas used to make busts and figures in the Baroque style.
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Tulip Mania 2 T!II: tu/ip as n fas/úo/1ablf' de¡¡ice spread to
e¡¡ay brane/I of lIJe deeoralil'e arts, and it appenrs as the d0ll1i!1a!11 1I10tif on l/lis Engfish slipwarf posset-pol 01" /ovillg-cllp, daled 1709. 11 is ;l1scribed "tlle besl is 1101 loo good for YOl/." Oinlll. 11.5clll/S/,in. 3 Pailltillgs SUe/1 as this stil//ife of a rose, tllfip:;, nlld oml/ge b/OSSOIll by Dalliel Seghers of Alllwerp (1590-1661) were n ridl SOllree of inspiratio/1 for desigllers 'l'orkillg in n val"iely of lIIalerinls.
1 TlIe centra/motif 01 tu/irs ill
vase 0/1 t/¡is Ellglish delft disll, or cJmrgcr, /lUId.: ill 1661, is Europenll ill style, bu! the divisioH of ¡he borda ¡lila pal/.:!:; i;; illspir,'d by mrlier {I
Clúm:se exporl wares. Dinlll. 48.5C111/!9ill.
3
2
Stoneware 1 Jolm Dwigllt's pottcry in LOl/doll /linde
IlIis grcyisIJ-white busl o[ Prillce RlIperl 01 tlIe Rhillc (1619-1682) (.1673-5- HI 75011/29/';11. 2 Tlle red /lm/erin! o[ t!lis ElIg/is/t red S/OIlCWllre
fcapar, made c.169D with n loop
halldle Iwil Ilcom knop, H'ns l/sed fa imitate (1
type of ClIillcse tcapo!
COlllllIOllly
i1llportcd nI
tite tillle, {Inri 1I1lrierlillcs ¡IIe impacl ¡}¡nl trade
wi!/¡ ¡/¡e Far Eas! ¡1I1d 0/1 Ellropenll decora/h'c arts ill fhe 17th (millry. Ht 12.5CIIl/5il1. 3 A Inter style of JlVesterwl1ld stollcwaJ"c with 11
rc;?rllnr dinper of stalllped 1I10tifs picked 0111 in /¡fue can be seell ;11 this pnilltil1g by Nicho/as lvlaes of a fittle gir! roekillg a erad/e, C.1654-94 A slrollg Gerlllal1 inflllellce call be seell in fllis ElIglis/¡ salt-g/a::ed stolleware bottle made in Londoll Cl675. Ht 11.5clII/8'¡;¡n.
Slipware
••
TlIis ElIglish slipiunre di:5/¡, ¡¡¡ade by Tllol/las Tofl c.1660-1675, depict:5 I/Iefl/ture C/¡ar/esl1 llidillg ;11 a!1 oak tree lo escape file ROlllldllcad:5. Bot/¡ t/¡e sllbjecl I/Iatler (lIId tlIe robll:5t :5fy/c are typica/ of lile paiod. Din11l. jOCI/I!l9'1:ill. 1
3
63
Porcelain •
Red Stoneware and Early Porcelain
'F
1 TIle earliest Meissell ceramÍ( malerial il'tlS l/sed for l/lis BOttger
~~
•
••
red SIOIlt"iI'l1re tea caddV, e.llJO-15. The simple forlll folfOiI'S Chillese cemlllies alld cOlllempomnj si/ver.
Ht 1O.4clII/4"'l. 2 TIJis ({'/Jite BOIIger porce/aill vase and copero e.17t5. desiglled by JO/WIlII jakob l"l/Iillgel~ !Jas mi architeetllral slwIJe, WiIJl Baroque gadroollillg. Ht '1.5clII/20'l.ill. 3 A dl/ Paquier {'(Ise, c1725-30. TI/e hall/ster slmpe wit1/mlill/al ma4: /lnlldles ed/OE'S lIJe Bnroqlle slyle. as do U/e motifs, il/dudillg tlle tassels. HI 29.,cm/lll,ill.
2
Chinoiserie and Harbour Scenes
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es es
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a:l
1 TIie body of this Mrissell teapot is based 0/1 Genllnll Bnroqlll' sih>er. lt is pailltl.'d w;111 coJal/mI I'llnme/s, ;:;JuJil'ing n c1lilloiserie SUIIt: wi/hilJ a Bnroqlle Laub und Bandelwcrk borda. Ht l1.jcm/-llill.
dl'Siglls. dl.'rit'ed from tI,e c.Il2a Schulz Codcx (El/rapean
of ClJiJlt'51' sum.'s). cml be sel'/l 01/ /11;5 e172j tmns/afiOIl:;
Me;:;:;ell fenbowl fllld SlIlIcer.
n artificial porcelain \Vas first made in the late 16th century in the Medici factory near Florence. Later, at the start Df the 18th century, following years of experiment at Meissen in Saxony - by the a1chemist )ohalUl Friedrich Bottger 0682-1719) and rus mentor Ehrenfried Walter von Tschirnhaus (1651-1708) under the auspices of Augustus the 5trong, king of Poland and elector of Saxony - él fine red stoneware was produced. Pieces were decorated w1th baroque motifs from the designs of lean Bérain 0637-1711). Others were based on contemporary gold or silver examples, and applied w1th masks inspired by Balthasar Pemloser 0651-1732), COUTt seulptor at the Zwinger, Dresden. Benjarnin Thomae, al10ther sculptor, modelled small busts and bas-reliefs b;¡sed on i"ories and C011l1lledia dell'Arte figures. After htrther experiments, the first hard-paste, or true, porcclail1 was made at the Meissen porcelain factory in january 1710. Meissen's wrute, translucent porcelain was introduced in 1713. It was made with a white-buming china day from Colditz, mixed with feldspathic stone
A
64
2 Tlle qllnlity of]. G. Horoldt's
3 Tllis MeiSSl'Il cOl't'rcd 1Jeaker, cI730, is pailltl.'d il'itll Ilnrbollr SUlles. A /igllter Jlote is
begilllJillg lo emerge, whidl ;s seen iJl fIJe /acy gilt border f1l1d lile figl/ral kllop. HI 18. ,cm/¡l.ill.
similar to Chinese petlflltse, [ired, then covered ",ith a thin feldspathic glaze. It was used to make tea and coffee wares and small, grotesque figures inspired by the engravings of jacqlles Callot (1592-1635) or by imported Crunese blallc-de-Cllilll!. johann Gregor Horoldt (1695--1775) developed bright enamel colours derived from metallic oxides in the 17205. They "'ere used to depict chinoiseries on tablewares and vases, orientally inspired exotic Aowers and harbour scenes, and KakielllOIl designs copied from Japanese originals. Many of these were enhanced by coloured grounds. In 1727 Augustus asked johann Gottlob Kirchner (b.1706) to modellifesize figures 01 birds and animals. He "'as assisted by a young sculptor, Johann Joachim Kaendler (1706-75), who joined the factory in 1731. Two Meissen workmen absconded to Vienna in 1719, and Claudius Innocentius du Paquier established a rival porcelain factory there. The wares were of near~Eastem metal shape, while others \Vere architectural in style, with painted Earoque decoration.
Other Popular Ornamental Motifs
•
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3 •
1 Made as {/ diplollwfic gift for Pie/ro Grilllrmi
2 TlIe s!wpe oll!lis C.I740 MeissCII fllree¡¡ ;:¡:ns inspired by eDil/emparar!! Gernlllll si/ver. The. stiffflOWCl's, kUOijl11 as Hoizschnittblumen,
C.172], l/lis MÓS5CIlllOf /l/i/k jllg IW5 fin
arlllarial 0/1 a sYl/Il/lelricnl, yd flnlllboYilll1 Bnroque enrloue/le. Ht 17.3clII/6Y;¡n.
WI'I"C copied 11"01/1 /Jotallien! il'OodCllf
3 TJ¡e ho/ti rellderillg of a lmtt/e semc 01/ l/lis Ou Pnquier (Vielllw) tmse io. I!lpicnl of Bnroque decomliOIl of a historicnl sl/vjee! il1 schwartzlot decomtiol1 (block).
I'llgravzllgs.
Sculptural Forms •
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•
1
1 The sOlllcw}1IJ1 nai"l1c sl!!!c of enrly figures, nlld t!le pajl/ted decorntiOJl l/sed 011 Ihelll, Cnll be SCCIl 0/1
fllis enr!!! Meisscll
chiJloiserie gral/p, ,u/úcil ¡-¡ras lIIodelled by Georg Fritzsehe, c.1725. The il1f/lIenee is Cllil1f'se, as seen thro1lgh tlle eyes of a Gel"llUI11 artist. 2 Tllis Meissen figure of Har/eqllill 'with a beer tallkard, from tile Commedia dell'Arte, ¡uas 1IIoncl/ed by J. }. Knelld/er C.1733. /1 c1early re¡.lea!s ilis tmilling as a seu/ptor in I/¡e Bayoque tmdiliol1, (¡Iil/I ils dy"mllislll alld e/oq1lellf strength. The vibrant pri11lary Iones of the e/lame/s are a/so typicnl 01 t}¡e Saroque. Ht 16.1em/6V,ill.
3 T/¡e
b~/d
COIOIll"illg 011 tlle ¡¡ult1lre is
f,l/pim! SI/roque fel/ture. Tfle /arge si:c IIIld('rlil1c~ tlll' seareh ill early poree/aillfor 1111 idmlily. 1/
•
65
-
Glass Venice and Fagon de Venise • r'-
2
LLI
~
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1 Three "serpwt" gablefs in colollrlc55 g/nss witl¡ illcorpornfed
coloured glns5 threads, Cerll1a11Y
c:
ce
01'
¡!Ie Netl1crltlllds,
17t/¡
celltury.
Ht (/lighest) 3j.jCIII/14ill. 2. StefmlO de/la Bella, desigll for tl falllasy ~lesseI, FloreJlcc, c.16jo-75. TI/e eiep/ulIlt tnlllks serve as spou/s filrougll ¡vl1ic/¡ ti/e cOI/ten/s cOl/Id be pOl/red 01" dnlllk. 3 Gabriele Sald, Still Life with Parrot (deta;!), Ha/y, doled 1716. Tile fal! goble! is similar fa survj"illg e:mlllples il1 RosmbOlg Castle, Copellfwgell. 4 Cablet oI CO/Ollrless glns> ¡¡>it}¡ wheef ('!lgm"llIg, SOl/ti/cm Nl'fhcrlllJufs 01' Bo!u?IIlia, c. J 680. H t '¡''¡.3cm!17!,il1.
4
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66
uring the 17th century glass became generally more \Videly available. Colourles5 glas5 \vas made in ever greater quantities, using cheaper materials and simpler desigrls. But at the same time, the luxury market was served with ever more complicated shapes and intricate decorations. Venetian-style glass was no\\' successfully made in most northern and central European countries. In the Netherlands, talJ "serpent goblets," '·'lith elaborately tooled sterns in the shape of sea serpents, appealed to the Baroque taste for grandeur and display. Doubtless these were used only for special occasions and for presentation and, as a result, quite a few of them have survived. Similarly cornplicated pieces were wrought in Germany and Bohemia. As Venetian glass was successfully copied i.n many northern countries, the local industrv in Murano " responded with increasingly complicated shapes and effects. Traditional calcedollia glass, for instance, \vas sparked up by adding a random pattern of gold-coloured
aventurine speckles, created with copper powder. At the Florentine glasshouse owned by the Medici family, which was entirely staffed with Venetians, court artists designed fantasy goblets and centrepieces in tended for ostentatious displays at parties. The swan-song of Venetian glassmaking came in arOlmd 1700, when the style, with its use of ultra-thin glass worked in elegant and often complicated shapes, was abandoned throughout Europe in favour of more robust styles. During that period the Muranese glassmakers produced sorne of their most fantastically elaborate designs. Display goblets combined blown filigree glass with reticel10 or fine network patterns with a profusion of hotworked detail, incorporating whole bouquets of flowers. King Frederik IV of Denmark received a gift of a large number of such glasses when he visited Ven ice in 1708-9. Most of these can still be seen in a special room, designed to house this col1ection, at Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen.
.. 1 Olri"topll ¡"('igel (attrilU, The Glass Engr a
gobld llc!III'al1l a cOl'llt'r '1'1't't" 11jJ¡1't'r('d bl( a ffl'tldh'. ¡l'lIic1, tlle arti:>t o( t/Jis prillt lIas omitt¡'d. 011 tllt, tab!c an' SI.'<'I'm/ otila it'lIel'1s alld llO¡l'1s 01 a/,ras;''!' pasft'.
2 Caspar Le/¡mmlll, pI/lid ¡t,itI, nJl aflegoricn/ dt'pictioll 01 n li{lJI (delni/), cO/Ollr1t'"s g/a"" ¡l'it{¡
w/¡ed l'lIgm¡'il1g, siSllt'd nlld doled 16:!O. HI 23clII/9I.il1.
1
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gltlss witl/
U'1It'l'I t'/Isrn¡>illg, Nllrl'lllb,.'rg, c.1660-70. Ht 31.8cm/T lli/I. 4 Fri..dric11 IVillft'r, c%llrb" g/as" goNt'f mili m,'t'r ,pit/¡ Hochschnill
't'II..í'/ ellgn1t'illg,/mtllril/S tllt' 5dll!ff.~ubc/¡ c(l(lf-t~f-arms, Pl'Iastltlrf. Sih'sil/, u 700. Ht 3Scm/ljill. 5 RllbY-lnt gla"j teapot ¡"il" 'I'h('t" t'/Igm,'ing lllld sih'a-gi!t IIltll/llf", ;;Qulllall C..rmauy, (.1700. A S//IalJ IIIllIIbt'f vI g/ass It'apots ¡¡'l'rt.' madI' arolllld tJ¡i" tillle, but ,n'n' ob.'iolls/y iml'raetica/. Ht 210ll/81.;1I.
3
4
Glass engraving with the aid of fast-rotating small copper wheels, fed with an abrasi\'e, was first practised at the imperial court in Prague. Caspar Lehmann (1565-1622), ",ho worked there as an engraver cf gems and rock-crystal, is credited with first using the technique on glass around 1600. The decoration is cut into the glass, creating a negative relief which stands out matt against the undecorated parts cf the surface. Through Georg Schwanhardt, a pllpil of Lehmann, the art cf \\"heel-engraving passed to Nuremberg, ",here it blossomed throughout the 17th century. Tall standing lidded goblets in Venetian style \Vere decorated with fincly detailed land- and seascapes, somctimcs incorporating allegorical scenes. The full potential cf the teclmique ,,"as adlie\'ed onl)' towards the end of the century, when a new glass material had been developed which couId be blown much more thickly, allowing a deeper, more three-dimensional relief decoration. At Potsdarn, near Bcrlin, a glasshouse operated under the protection of the elector of Brandenburg from 1674. It
\Vas here that the famolls glassmaker JOharul Kunckel condllcted experiments. He de\'eloped a dark rllby-red glass by adding gold po",der to the raw materials. The elector also employed two of the most rcnowned engravers of the time, Martin V\'inter (d.1702) éll1d Gottfried Spiller (c.1663-1728). They engraved ll1assively thick Iidded beakers and standing ClIpS with distinctive reliefs of putti and grape vines. Other centres of engraving emerged during the last quarter of the 17th century under courtly patronage, such as those at Kassel in Hessen and in Silesi¡l. ~lartin \lVinter's btother Friedrich had a water-p0H"ered cutting mili at Herrnsdorf, Silesia, where he created so me remarkable pieces of Baroquc glass. 111e)' were blown very thickly, and their \Vhole surface was cut, lcaving the main decoranon standing out higher than the deeply cut background. This type 01' cutting, known as Hoc1tsc1l11itt, often used bold asymmetrical floral decorations. Designs gradual]y became lighter, but asymmetry and deep cutting remained popular in Silesia until about 1750. •>
67
-
----- - - - - -
Lead Glass in Britain 1 Basiu mul e[{ler ill ca/Dlldes5 [cad g/ass by George Rnr-'eIlscroft's gII1Ss!lOlIse, LOl/dou, C.1676-7_ T/¡e basÉIl is II1nrked with n mI'l'I1'Sliead sen/o Alt/lOlIgh RlweI1scroft added Jlis senl Oll/Y fa pieces he tllOlIght free of "cri=?lillg ", 01' glnss disense, fhese objects /¡m.'C deteriornfcd ove/' file cenfllries: tllis is fhe CIlse 'lere. Jug lit 27.6clII/101.il1. 2 PlJilip ¡\Itereia. Sir Thomas Samwell and Friends, c. 1733. TI//' IIeni"! bnlllSffr-sfellllll/'d glnsses ill t!Je pietlll"e lIIight p/'ednfe t!Je pniJltillg by 0111.' al' fU'o decndes. T!Ie I1InIl in t!Je lIliddle is lIoldillg n s/ightly Ialger glnss ¡¡ohieh ¡pns probnbly IIsed for eOIllIll//1/{// tonstillg nnd drillkil1g.
/" / 1
3 ColO/Ir/es;; [cad-glass goblet nlld coper witll dinl11Dlld-poíllf l'l1grtlved iuscriptiol1:
"5i 5imoll BoosillgtOIl," Ellglnlld, e1700. Ht 37.4clII/14,/;ill. 4 Bn/lIsfa-sfellll1led goblet il1 colvl/des" /cad g/ass ¡l'itl111 feal" in t!le base knop, Ellg/and, enrly 1St!! century. HI 24'¡CIl1!9~/jIl. 5 EI/gli,,/¡ ba/lIster g/ass 01 (olvllr!e"s ¡cad glnss, c. 1740. DI/ríl/g lile (ourse 01 ¡he 181/1
W
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ceulllry, "fcms becnml' less heaIlY. Bn/lIs/raid
glnsses, like !!lis, llave a tnll stelll cOlIsistillg of
ce
s('[wn/ salid balllsfers (Inri or kllo!'s.
Ht 25CII1/97:il1.
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68
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4
5
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8
The Netherlands 1 l\"ilit'III/\loolc!l"5í.'f, gobld af IjJ/llll"¡t'~;; gl/l$5 ;{,j/JI dinlllOlld-
1'11i/11 ('IIgrni'ill~. Rotterdllm, ~ISI/('d
"!VA'" illlllOI/Ogrtllll /Inri .11It.-d 168j. HI 16..¡cm/6IiJl. 2 I\'i1f1'1II ¡'mI Hl'elllskerk, II,y,1I/fa
bottle 01 grct'Il isl,-blllc
XIII;;;; ¡ej//¡ .finmolld-poillf .'"sra¡'lug. Lt'idell. il'l"sh'rJ/ Xt'lfll'rfrmds. sigm'd (lllri dafed
lb;;. Ht 13.)CIII/9bll.
3 Aerl ScJ¡oUmtlll, gobJet CO/OIlr/65
{cad glns:;
al
il'itll
diamolld-poillf stipple I?llgrn¡'illg. bt'tlrillg a portmil o/ Sfadtllo1dl'r PriJlce l\'i/liollJ IV, ¡\h'tIJer/mlds, signcd Ilmlllnled 17jo. TIJe
g/ti:>:; is probnbly Ellg/iS/I. Ht 2jcm/9Y.i1l. 4 Bellker fllld COi:W wit1¡ coa/s-
oj-arms 01 lile gOi'l.'r/lors oll//I! CUy TIJl'tltre. Amsterdllm, 01 colollr/l"ss Imd gtas:; wit/¡ wlleel
t'llgraping, :Vdllcrlrlllds, 1731. TIl/? glass
is probably EIIgUs/I.
Hf 39.IClIl/J5/;ill.
• 1
5 5i1l101/ Jaeob 5allg, gobJer, 01
eolOllrh-ss /end-g/nss with whee/ ellgrnr>illg, sJw¡¡oi1/g fllt' (mllS o/ fa'o All/sferdnm Inmilies, possibly fo eommemorat(' n IIInrriage ill 17.;.8. Made ill Amstcrdalll, Netlwrlnnds, siglled al/d dllfed 1752. Hf 224CIII/6'1.;'r.
3
........ Venetian-style glassmaking was well established in London from the late 16th century, but Venetian imports continued during the 17th centmy. from the 16705, it geems there \Vas a demand all across Europe for thicker, sh.trdier glasses. The most successful attempt to make "a perticuler sort of Christaline Glasse resembling Rock CristaU" \Vas made by George Ravenscroft. Around 1677 he overcame rus initial problems with the instability of his glass by adding lead oxide to the ra'" materials. This resulted in a hea,,)' colourless glass, clearer and purer than e\"er seen before. Ravenscroft's glass \Vas seon copied by other glasshouses in Britain, but the style of their products "'as still Venetian. lllis ne\V glass had different properties when it was blown and shapcd. It stayed hot for longer, making it unsuitable for thi-nly blown glass ",ith detailed decorations. A qll.intessential English style was bom arolffid 1700, of simple shapes that focused attention on the refractive quality of the finest clear leadwglass. Goblets had heavy baluster stems of solid glass.
5
In 17th-century Holland, glass engraving beca me a
favoured art form, practised mostly by \Vell-to~do rli/etf(lIlti. ""ith a diamond point they scratched line decoration standing out matt against the shiny glass surface. Apart from heraldic and allegorical subjects, jolly scenes of dancing and drinki.ng \Vere especially popular. Calligraphic decorations proved particularly suitable for the cUlTed su.rfaces of drinking glasses and decanter bottles. Willem \'an Heemskerk, a Leidcn c10th merchant, engraved hlffidredS of such objects in his sparc time. When English lead glass carne into fashion in the 18th cenhuy, diarnond-point engraving "'as adapted to suit the new medium. The soft and shiny glass surface allo",ed decorations to be stippled on, each picture being built up from thousands of dots. The centre of stipple engraving \Vas Oordrecht, where a group of dilettnllti included the painter Aert 5chouman. \Vheel engraving continued to be practised, mostly by professional engravers who had come from Bohemia al' Germany to the Netherlands, where the demand for engravcd glasses seemed insatiable.
69
1 Silver and Metalwork The Van Vianens and the Auricular Style 1 Adam .'1111 Vil1m'l/ of Utreclll
"
,
¡ens (lile o.f tlle most original alld "irtuoso goldsmitlls of all fime. Hi'" ¡'cn'nfric AllriCll/ar slyh' rC:clclll'd a it'ide al/dimee ,t']¡ell /¡is 11t':.'igllS for t'ica" alld other "t'Sst'l" ¡¡Wt' puNislred by Izis SOIl, Clirisliall, ill 1650 IlIlder lIle tille ~Iodelli Artificiosi. 2 TJlis dl'Sigll by Dalliel Rnl'l'/ frolll Carlouchcs de différenles invenlions (('1625J, retaills n f1es/¡y AllriClllnr nspt'cl to tlle mask al the IOi/'t'T n'nlre, /llIt has illcorpornled il 11110 alllore sl (l/C I11n'd Bttrof/I/e COlll/lOSi IiOIl .
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3 TIJis dish l'y Pmd PilII Vial/I'II ¡nlS made ¡JI 1613 for Emperor Rudol! II (/lid combine:; fluid AllriClllaT omalllt'lIt ,l'iffl tllI (/ccomplishet/ IIIasten) o[
pictorial embossillg.
T
70
he period of art history known as the Baroque does
not denote a single style so mueh as a phase, embracing a cluster of more or less similar stylistic types. The emergence of the Baroque fram Mannerism during the first quarter of the 17th century, and its eventual displacement by the Rocoeo in the earIy 18th, weTe less emphatic or clear-cut events than the great stylistic revolutions whieh carne earlier and la ter. The earliest movement of the 17th-century goldsmiths to constitute a radical break with the past, the Dutch Auricular style of the second decade of the century, is in sorne senses a continuation of the Mannerist principies of invention and virtuosity. Other aspects of the Baroque had very different and not always mutually compatible priorities, such as the strongly sculptural approach that was favoured in ltaly and later in northern Germany, the botanically studied decoration that beca me fashionable in France, Holland, and Britain during the third quarter of the eentury, and the formal, architecturalIy in5pired
4 RII/JeIlS'S desigll, c.163D, Jor a siker-gilt di"li /linde for C]¡nrlcs J is
eompnmble ¡1'it1l Adam .'ml Vial/el/'s, bllt has 110 abstmel omamCllf. T1Ic llig/¡ relief of tlie desigll alld its strollg fi"~/lml empllOsi" are Baroqlle.
ornament popularized by Huguenot artists around the turn of the centurv. The Auricular style is, more than almost any other, associated \Vith a single family of goldsmiths and specifically two individuals, the brothers Paul (c.1568-1613) and Adam (c.1665-1627) van Vianen of Utrecht. Paul tra"elled aeross Europe and worked in the court workshops at Munieh, as \\Iell as the court of the Emperor Rudolf Il in Prague, lIntil the latter's death in 1613. His rnajestic dish (see 3 above) and ewer ha ve the proportions and the mythological subject matter typical of Mannerism, but are quite ne\\l and indeed revolutionary in the fleshy and abstraet modelling of the borders, foot, and handle. These abstract qualities of modelling and their implied teehnieal virtuosity were taken fllrther still in the extraordinary e\·ver (see the design, 1, above) made by Paul's brother Adam in 1614, but the dissemination of the style \.."a5 due in part to Charles I's patronage of Adam's son Christian during the 16305, and to the latter's publication of a series of
-
Sculptural Baroque
2
1
Cm'yntid figures wel'c ti ftlt'Ourite Baroquc drr.,icc for cfllldlesticks nlld torc/¡ercs. This 1642 desigll by ¡he Neapolifan goldsmifll Ondo Scoppn nc!JiI'I't'S exlm height IJlld drnl/ltl by il1corparntillg /'1'0 stl"l/gg/illg figures, recal/il/g fhe swlptllre 1
oj Gimllbologlltl. 2 Tn¡'¡e /01ll1/niI15
wen! mllollg fhe mas! spectnc-
3 T/¡is si/¡'er ((lIIdelll/wlIlII ,l'IlS mllde i¡¡ Britllill (.1680, II/mosl cerlllillly ndnplillg fhe desigl!s of ¡enl/ Le Pnufre. Hf Jicm!J4'1ill. 4 leal! le Plllltre's series of desiglls for carYllfid {orc/leres ;VIlS publislted il1 Paris c.1660 al1d re-issued il1 8rilail1 il1 1674, Tlwir for111nl sculptuml slyle ¡¡las !1igllly illf/umtial 01/ silversl1litlls. ~
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IIlar products oj /m/"oqJlc goldsllJiths nl/d, ill Itn/y, H'l.'rl! aften n:duccd l'crsiolls o/lllrge pl/blic IOIIII/nins. This desigl1 is typicn//y BOfoque;1/ ii"
seu/plural nlld nrchitectllrn! elclI/eJI/s.
4
Seventeenth-century Floral Style 2 Allost 17t/¡·celltllry Frellc!1 siJi.'Cr ¡rns melted dOil'lI; tbis toitet :"t'r..'ice
oI
1670, by Pierre Préi.'Ost, il'ns Slli'ed by its eXllor1 fo Britllil1. tt bears tlle arms of \Vilfilllll mili AJary alld is t'lIIllOssed 't'itll floral orna1llt'1lf.
1 1 A mnjor flla/llre o/ Bnroq//f' desigu ,vas t}¡e ¡Ul/l/m/islic .florn/ styfe t/mf del.'eloped ¡Il FrmlCt? (lJId HOI/(llld, nJld is folllli1 QIl fllmitl/re
nl1d cernlllics as IIl11ell as 011 si/¡w. Tllis pr¡IIt
o/floral omtlllll'Jlt l!!pifies ¡he sciellfijim/ly sflldic¡i c1Ulrtlcter o/ tlle onwmclIt.
2
71
¡ Baroque Engraving Del/a Bella's prillts o/ fricI! omamellf, p"blis¡'cd il! Paris iJl 16-1-8. 'i/we Ilst'd for elllbossed aJld ellgra"l'd dl'foratiOIl al/d for castillg paltems. 2 A ricJlly decorale1l dis/l by file LOl/doll goIdsmitlt Bl'lljamill PYlle. 1698. Tlle embossed bor.ler is based Oll a Della Bella prillt o/ 50 ycars eClrlicr. buf Ibe elaborate cellfral carfOl/cIJe .('as probnbly exewfed fo bis O¡('I/ desigll by tIIC FrCllch ellgrm.'er 5i1ll011 Gribelill. W. 2J.5 cm/81.i1l. 1 SltimlO
1
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- . ....."':':;c •
~~.,.,
.
, . -f
3 GriIwlill wns proJ¡ably a/so respollsiblc for lIlc slIperb cl/gra¡>illg 0// t/lis sihw-gilt tea cnddy of 1 ¡o6 by tlle LOl/llolI maker Isaac Liger. Ht 1l.5clll/-I-/'iJl. 4 Afca/ure of Baroque cllgnwil/g is its del/siry. TlJis disll.frOIll a Sllllll'llIOIlS toikl sen'ice by tlle HlIgllclIol goIdslllilll Pirrre Harache. il'as made ill Lolldoll iJl 1695. IV. -I-0.5CIII/16ill.
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5 A s/lel!l frolll Grib<'1ill',; New Book of Ornaments (Ijo,¡), pllb/i::;f/l·d ill LOlldoll. TI/I'!:5e d6;gll;;, il/corporalillg /¡<,e/y figures nl/d scrollillg fOliage, ¡('l.'n' ndnptcd tllld plnginri=ed by eJlgra¡'er,:; o/ si/r't'!r al/ti dock caS(';.
72
prints in 1650 after his father's designs. The sheer technical demands of the fuIly developed Auricular style, and its strangely deviant taste, placed it outside the purview of mast patrons and goldsmiths, but in a more diluted form the style continued to exert great influence throughout Europe until as late as the third quarter of the 17th century. Te\\' and forward-looking too is the pietaríal treatment of the surface of Paul van Vianen's dish. "\fhereas the approach of a Mannerist goldsmith "'as to orientate the design around the centre of the dish and to chase the scenes with jewel-like precision, van Vianen has treated the dish as a single plane, with the subject orientated around the vertical axis Iike a picture, and has executed it in a more painterly manner, \Vith high relief and a more subtle suggestion of aerial perspective than would have been the case in the 16th century. In both these respects the dish is prototypical of much mainstream Baroque design and \Vas taken up, fer example, in Peter Paul Rubens's eil
5
sketch for a silver dish for Charles J, executed in about 1630 (see p.70). In Rome, the powerhouse of Baroque art, the most important commissions "'ere for grandiose schemes of church decoration, Iike the ]esu and Santa Maria Maggiore. \ Vorks in precious metal and gilt bronze played an important part in these schemes, and many of the leading artists of the da)', such as Gianlorenzo Bernini and Giovanni Giardini, \Vere involved. Their focus \Vas architectural and sculptural and, beca use of their different purpose, their character is quite distinct from contemporary northern \Vorks. But there was nevertheless significant exchange between artists and craftsmen in Aanders and Italy and, although almost nothing of Italian secular Baroque sil ver survives, a good idea of its character can be formed from surviving plaster casts of a lost series of silver dishes, made for presentation to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, preservcd in the Pitti Palace in Florence. These bear a likeness in approach to a number of ewers and dishes
Random Variables
, 1
2
'L.iI.,. ..
-
French Architectural Style 1 Tite Nt'OClnssicnl cJlflnlcla of
l¡lIJ-co¡tllry Fl't'lIcI¡ Bnr0-llll' si/Fe'" nlld its illtt're'sl iJl nllfil'/lIities is iflllstnlted by tJlÍs si/l'er-gilt t'il'er I/Ifldt' ill Paris by Niclto/as De/mll/nll in 1697. 11 is a rnl"e $1I11'i¡'n/: Delmlllny IIInde a glmt tnble sen'¡ce jOl" LOllis XI V, wlticJ¡ wns mclted dO¡/lll ¡,I 1707. lit 33CIll113ill. 1.1{(
\\
1,2 Proper Ornaments to be Engraved on Plate wns pll/J/i~/¡ed by C. de MorMer 111 LOl/dol! jl1 1694 {Inri provided Britisll go/dsmitlls
•
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witit n ,(·ide mllge of dccornti<.'c lIIotifs, IIO! ollly for cl1grm'illg bul for enstillg. 3 TII(' so-mUed lIIou/át/1 0011'1 nppenred in lile 16805 nl/d wn:; l/sed for coolillg ere popular iJl 8rilis1t sif.'er for a 5//Or/ ¡{'/lile. Dinlll. 19cm/n '/,iJl.
Daniel Marot
1
3
2 1,2 Til'O ritos/glls by Dauiel Maro!, ¡Villinm llrs courl aTcllilect, ¡l/lIslmll' ¡lIe disciplil1t'd
3 Tite mn't'r 01 l/le HlIglI('//ot go/dslllitll,
OfIOl"1II Iwd onulmcllf, n rigin fonllnlity 01 desigll, (lllri a repertoire 01 motif,;, tilat wae dmil'lIlal'gel!lfrO/ll clnssienl areilitccture. TII!! ,;,ilel'f 011 tll!! rigllt i,;, tlle tit/e page to }¡is illfllll!l1tinl book Nouveaux Livre d'Orfevrerie, published ill 1712.
Palll de
sly/e 11m! lIe illlrodllc('d arOl/lld 17°0:
(1
e/ose ill/egrnfioll
spallm'd abollt ';'0 Ilen,.,;,. T1Iis sihw-gilt seollce (olle of n ¡mir) ¡¡'ns I/lade ill (.1717; it il'rlS pl'obn/1/y bnsed 011 n desi~1I by ¡\-farot. Ht 55.5cII1/:211.ill. LnIlIl.'rÍt',
73
British Huguenot Silver wp alld co.'a 01 1717 by Pal// de Lnlller;e 1 T/Jis t¡co-Jutlldled
(I68S~175J)
epitollli:t~
HlIgl/t'Ilof
design, displaY/lIg digll!(it'd prol/orfiol/s. a mre!lIlllfllnllcc belil't'ell plaill alld dt'Ctlrnfl',i 51/~fnCIS,
awi a .;ki~fl/II/~t' o/
casi omallll'lIf.
Ht 19C//I/I1'/ill.
2 TlIc so-ml/ed pilSdlll [Jotlle
¡"as Olll' 01 ¡/¡e gmlldc:5f fypcs o/ display si/n'I' ;'I/nte 17t/I-Cf'lltrlry Frtlllú'.
T/¡is e.mll/ple runs lIIade
ill Lowfoll by lile HlIgUI.'1I0t gold:5/11il/t Piare Hnrnc/l(' in 1699. 11l1d colllbiJk'S ¡!(lId sw/ptllrnf ¡l'ítl, IYI,;cnl HlIglll!lIot ft'¡lllfres SI/e/I as "cut cnrd" filllt'S Orlll1lllt'llf
arollluf file
l"'lse. lit 5:lClIf/10'üIl.
French Regent Style
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1
1 T/¡e Frellell nrtist lean Bera;1/ ,l'aS lnrge/y rt'Sp
Baroqlll' 5ty/l.'. TI,ii; dl'Si~1I Ior n bl~ffet oI pInte :>1'0'1'5 IIInny oI file Iorms in ¡'Ogl/e nt tlle btgimJillg oI t11f~ 1 SOl CeJI /11 r.l{. 2 T]1i:> si/¡w turl't'll, madI.' in Paris iJl 1714 by C/alldt' Ballill, rej1ects tllt' lig1ltt'lIiJlg %mmllt'llt illtrodl/cf'd r/llda Béraill's illflllt'IlCt'. Ht 2ocm/¡1.i1l
74
made in Genoa during the second and third decades of the century, which \Vere in turn probably made by a silversmith from Antwerp. Whilst sharing the same basie seulptural and chiaroseuro charaeter as the Italian Baroque, the style in mueh of northern Eurape developed along distinctly regional lines, refleeting polineal and eeonomic bloeks of Ínfluenee. In northern Germany and the Hanseatic states, a strongly sculptural style developed, especially for large tankards and other vessels made for display, which is derived more fram the German tradinon of ivor)' carving than from bronze or stone sculpture, and takes on a distinet character accordingly. Tbis style found its \Vay to Britain too, through immigrant goldsmiths, notably the German, Jacob Bodendick. In Franee, Holland, and Britain, distinct features emerged which set them aparto The centralizing of Freneh royal patronage in the Gobelins workshop, established in 1663 by Louis XIV, led to a strong homogeneity in the decorative arts. The floral style,
refleeting contemporary interest in botany and wel! suited to polyehrome furniture marquetry, was adopted also for embossed ornament in high relief on sil ver, whieh by the third quarter of the century was widespread throughout mueh oE northern Europe. The inspiration being observable nature, it \Vas perhaps less dependent than otller styles on the availability oE prints, although a version of the style ineorporating putti and animals amidst serolling foliage was disseminated through the engravings of Stefano DelIa Bella and bis imitators (see p.72). One oE the high points of this style was the polychrome painted enamel decoration that was taken to unprecedented levels of achievement in Blois and also in other centres during the third quarter of the 17th century. The principal applieation of this specialized art form tended to be far wateh cases but, as the technology of watehmaking changed in the 18th eentury, these cases ",ere to become redundant. Such was their acknowledged artistic merit, however, that
,
German Regent Style
2 Silpa-gi/t ft.'apol l/y Esaias
m 8115[11, A.lIgs1'lIIg. 1719. Tl't' com/IÍlmtioJl o( panel:: o{
lIat·cased slrap¡mrk aun applieli c/f1s,..¡ml Jlorlrnil 1I/l't1nIfiCIIIS
is typicnf uf rile AlIgslmrg I'xpn'Ssioll of l/lt' Régl'llct: styfl'.
1 1 ¡'vlnssin' :
of royal sihw ;lIto rile 18111 cmfllry {Iud, in this lí07 ¡fesigll
túr Killg Frederick f of Pmssin's lll/ffd l¡y E05fmder ¡'Oll Caer},t'r, ¡he design of !he indil'iffunl picecs is secondary lo lIJe o,'emll nrC/lilectuml display. 3 Tlle AIlgsb1llS goldswilIJ joJUl/1l1 Er/umi Heigleill pu/JIisIJed a sl'ril'S of dt'SigJls
for pmctiml decomtet1 dOll/í's/ie sih-er ¡l/lin. w/¡icl, did ml/e/I lo pjln/llis}¡ tfu: SQlltflem GerJII(l1l
Rt'gwf st~,Je.
3
many survived by "irtue of being converted into gold snuffboxes in the middle of the 18th century. By the last quarter of the 17th century, a new sense of c1assicism was established in France, Jarge]y through the influence of Charles Le Brun, who was appointed head of the Gobelins workshops. The little surviving French royal sil ver from this period is perhaps epitomized by the austere precision of a ewer of 1697 by Nicolas Delaunay (see p.73), in which ornament is restricted to the repertoire of classical architecture and carehilly controlled two-dimensional geometric motifs. The dissemination of this style abroad was Jargel)' due to the French Protestant Daniel Marot (see p.73), \\"ho worked in both Holland and Britain as court architect to William of Orange. But his task was made easier by the simultaneous arrival in Britain of thousands of Huguenot refugees from France \vith the skills and background to promote radicalIy new styles and designs.
Partly because of the wealth of ornament prints associated with this phase of the Baroque, the architecturally inspired style also faund expression in other areas of metal\·vork. Marot's designs \vere taken up not only by silversmiths, but by c10ckmakers and bronze workers, and dosely parallel design solutions to those fOWld on British and French siJver aJso occur in sueh disparate areas as bracket clocks, ormolu lighting appliances, and cast-iron garden furniture. Equally, the flo\\' of ideas \Vas not aH in one direction; goldsmiths and other craftsmen readily borro\\'ed designs and monfs devised originally for quite different contexts. One of the rnost influentiaJ ornament publications of the late 17th century was a series of designs for wrought-iron gates by the Huguenot artist Jean lijou (11.1689--1712). His most famous work was the gates at Hampton Court, but details from his designs were widely plagiarized during the first two decades of the 18th century, translated into both two- and three-dimensionaJ contexts.
75
------------------------------------------------- _ . _ - - - - - - - -
Textiles and Wallpaper Energy 1 Si/k ¡'e/pet. Ita/y. (.1600. Earfy
Baroqul:' pntterlls lIIo¡.'ed mmy ¡rom file clarity
of stl"llC//lre
dmmelaislic 01 RellilisSilllU dl'sigllS. T//{, sl/rfnCl! pntkm 0/1 t/Jis ...t'I.'ei rdaills
il gt'O/IIdric
palfem, l/lIt illlrChfllú'5 n lIl.'
rl/ ytfllllic arra I/.~el/lelll.
2
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ce
LiIlCll
punto in aria, /taly. c.1635. TllI' opeJlil'ol'k o/ sucll lleedk-lI1ildl'
Inú' L'/I/plms;:.',; file IIInrkt'd cOlltrast bet¡l'eell backgroulld tlnri ¡Illuem.
¡ms il'iddy ;mitaled (lS far alm!! as Britain, Fhmdt'l"s, flJld Selll/dil/tIt,ja. 3 "lris/," clllbroidt'ry by Eli:nwtiJ Parkcr. Pellllsyh>mlifl, 1763. Tflis.flml1t'slile/, bag 51/011':> ti/(, Baroque tasle for [in'/y al/-Oi.'t.'r pnltem. \\'. 15clII/6;1I. 4 TraJe carel jor Abra/mili Price's imllpnper comptlllY. lf, l ' B/I/l' Papt·,.
(l1/l!
IVardlol/$e in Afrlt'rlllallbllnf, 8ritaill, c.1715_ Flf11/u'-jtitd¡ fllld atlll'J" fllf· Ol'er ptltterllj flre depictl'lf flt the tl'f/rt'J¡Olfse¡roll/flgt·.
aroque surface pattems on textiles fall into foue broad categories: liYel)~ energetic designs, those showing exotic influenccs, \-ine-based arrangements developed from the preúous period, and those with bold outlines. Despite these di\'isions, they share in being highly rhythmic in character and, in general. the results gi\-e an all-o\'er impression. The most energetic of Baroque pattems appear in those that are relatively small in scale. Most typical in the earlier 17th century are contrapuntal arrangements of spike-edged leaves, flowers, and seed pods plus, in embroider)', insects and animals. A dynamic quality is also apparent in elaborate embroidered variations of stepped pattems, kno\Vn since the l-lth centLlf)' and by various names, but becoming a standard during tlle 17th cenh.try and remaining popular virtually e\'er since, such as the flame-stitch pattenl. Lace edgings - having no\\' cmergcd as ;:l frce-standing technique as opposed to a c1oth~based Dne - echoed these tendencies up to about 1640, having distinctive jagged shapes along one side (the
B
76
ather edgc, far attachment, being straight). By the mid16005 broader laces were being made and these, like loom-wO\-en cloths and embroideries befare them, displayed s\\'irling floral úne motifs. Such patterns achieved long use on wallpaper, \Vhich \Vas in limited use in Eurape from around 1500 but \Vas not commonly a\·ailable LmW the later 17th century. Contrapuntal all~o\·er designs continued to be dcveloped after 1650, but were modified under the impact of lndian and oriental influences. Exotic blooms, rendered from imported textiles (most notably chintzes), porcelain, lacqllerware, or actual botanical specimens, were combined c10se together or attached along wandering stems or tnmks. Their scale \Vas often giant in comparison to the figures ar birds which wcre scattered amid them, lending an incongrllous air to such patterns. lntertwined with these trends \Vas the impact of the copperplate engraving of design sources for silks and waUpapers. Its exh·eme delicacy of shading f¿wollred half-tone effects, which were adapted to good use by
--
Exoticism 1 Pail/telí si/k. Frailee. c.16S0.
By tite 1660s. IlIdial/ nnd Far [nstem-illiópired pattems ellu·rgt'd. 501111: looked Iike nsst'lIIblagt"S of sketdll~s ;11 n Irnt.'el1er·s Jlotel'OOk, cOl'eril,t'{ /lit? eutire sl/rfnce ;1'ifll n set'lIIillgly rnl/dolll arrnllgellleut alflornl or pictorinl ;mngery, alld cOI/Id tI( 1/{IlId-paillted, ns here. IIs;ng plnill C1lillese silk as t/u' callms. 2 Copperplale prillted ;ml/paper, Brilaill. Inte lit" celltl/ry. IV/leH prillted 011 c/Otll or ¡ml/paper. tlll' 1II0tifs ofte1l relnted lo booksellers' blocks or l'IIgrn¡'elll'la/t"S.
1
3 Gros 1'oill/ lace, prohlNy SJ1,7iJl,
c.1670.
fll COI1Ml"llcteti
texli/c
palll'1"II5 sudl (lS Illee. mllt n/so [OOI/HI'OPCII
elotllS, pictorial
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II/otifs H'l'n.' rare. 1"Mead, illfol'lI1a/ bu! croil'dcrl
::l C1
nrrrJlIgemcllts iJrcol'pomted pnllemillg il'itllilllllolif~. 4 Fl'ellcll brocntird si/k, c.1690-5,
ill wllich
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pnltcm o/floral
lIIolifs is dellse/y nl'mllgcd, as
3
in 3 abo1.'e. 5 Cllr/ail1 ¡rolll n sl'l
oI
bl'fillal/gil/g> ¡'mbroidtwd ill '{lOO!> 01/
n (OUOII nl/d ¡il/eH
gral/lid (de/ni/). Possib/y ¡mili
Walli:jield Hall. I/enr B"r~1 SI Edil/l/litiS, Briff1ill, liDO-lO, its internal pattcmillg i'l'/lS typiml
oj sudl crt'
llldian kl"lifE.'s. 6 \\'ooJ pll/sl/lamp"s (eDmpol/lId .cem....). frailee. c.1680-17oo. SI/e/I forma/ farge desiglls for illterior> afiell ¡/le/I/ded exotic jaggcd·edgcd. /ea¡.fike paltemillg in and arOlllld the motifs.
5
6
77
Meandering Vines 1 CI/Ilin
bnck-"fitchcd clllbroidcred COi'Cr/ct , llldoPor/llgal, 1650-1J00. Ogees (md menlldcrs ¡¡ocre still tlle basis for fhe dcsig!l5 l/sed in ¡l/XII!"!! Icxli!6, like carpe/s ami ,mllIJlld
/wngi!/gs, bu! t'IIcrgetic coilillg .,iIl6 n/so proi'ided a ¡¡<'el!! contms!, l/S lIae.
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ce a::l 2 Brocnded <'eh'l.'/ !ul!lgi¡¡g, Vellice, c. 1 66o-IJoo. ¡1/f1l/ellccd by ¡ylnlllll!l"islII (!lId tlle rc!ntcd det,e/0pll1e11t 01 s/ate apal"tlllellts. /exti/e desigm grCtl' 'ollga, /ypically ¡pi/Ji /11t' ai/di/ Ílm ({ 11 secllIld desigll clt'll/cllt plnced
3 5ilk ¡'el,'!'!, !ta/I/, lIIid-!o late I7tll cl'lI/UI".II. TlIc large senil' 11I:~!IIiSllls Iflt'fom:fllf impae! (~( ('xol ic
bloolI/s ¡¡lid illtenllll /1(1 ft tTlli liS, set (~(f by sI roug (0/11111' COIltrnsts.
/1('til'(·t'IIIlIIU'\('('-fmllll'llllloli(. '.
78
"'eavers and lacemakers in particular, to cxtend lhe perceived tonal range of single- or two-colourcd d
.
SOllrces, The first is lac~, now so fasruonable that lace-like designs
lnfills and Outlines 1 E111broidered nftnrjrolltnf, Jtnfy. c.1735. silk
chellifle with sih'er Ilnend. By the elld oj tlll' periodo Inrgl'-scnh' de>igll:; plnad complete emplmsis 011 illlernal pnttems flJll/mnjl'Stimlfy coi/illg ¡,illt'S. L. 1.1111113ft 8/'. 2 5ilk Ilnllltlsk iu Ince style. Lyoll:;. (.1700. SllOil'illg tlie iuf/l/mee oj bobbill Ince 011 cOlllelllpornry F1'I.'uc11 tnstes.
2
3 Bobbil1 Ince, Bru::::;;ef:;, 170o-J j. ArOlll1d J 700, lilas began fo display delica/e gnu=-y il~fill pntlcl"/Is. !c5tooI15 IlIrd alfil!!" llspects
of
sin/e arar/liten/ in/crior>.
4 \"'/al/pnper, red flock in n Inrge de:;igll of
c01wel1fiol/nl folinge in t((lO slmdcs of red, Brifnill, tlle Queell's Dmwillg RoolII, Hmllpto/l COllr/ Pnlnce, e.I735. AIl extl'ell1efy dO/lgnfed ogee is /lI1rdy nppnl'CIlt ;11 tlle desigll. 5 Utrecllt sfalllped1l'ool/e!1 ,le/vd, /lOrtll-east Fl'mlCC, C.1700. Mercnll/ilc wenltll bl'ondClled dell/nl/d jvr jnsl1io/lflbh' textiles. reflected ill dnbomtdy pntt<'rlwdllllll/bkl' jnbrics.
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6 Desigll5 by DflIJil'f Maro/. ArO/lIld 1700, Xorthem EI/rop.-nll pnllcms censen lo be l!'i.'idcJltly or¡tcwf arO/llld /he ogee principie.
jllstend de1.'e/opillg n i'OCflbulnry of robl/st arell. 'arlonche. callapy. ami Slra¡lil'Ork lIlot~fs, seell n/so in tl,(' Spitnlfit'ld,; silk "eln:1 (/10.7). 7 Cut (llld IIIICl/f silk ,..l.'1i'd nttribllted lo lo/m LCIlIfI/l, Spitll~fields, LOlldoll. 1708-14. whicl¡
fen/llres cnrlOl/chr nI/ti CflllOPY 1/10/ ifs. 8 Nccdlctl'ork /JedlulIlgillg plllle/, Frflllce, 17til-enrly 18t1r ccl/fu,.!f. T/lis ¡"corporales ¡magel)1 tI/I1/ bol/¡ depie/s (lIId is il1debted fo c()/1Iclll}J01'IlI'Y 111'c!ritl'ctlll'C.
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79
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Rococo Furnilure
84
French
84
German
88
North East Europe and Spain
91
Italian and Iberian
92
British
94
American
98
Rococo design, which originated in France in the lirst hall 01 the 18th century, is characterized by its organic nature and the curving, serpentine movement 01 its composition. The motils used are based on shell and rockwork, or rocail/e. In addition, there are suggestions 01 wave or llame motils that often create a sense 01 f1ickering movement and asymmetry. Essentially a style associated with interior decoration rather than with
Ceramics 100 German Porcelain 100 French and Italian Porcelain 102
architectural theory, Rococo patterns were open to a high degree 01 personal interpretation on the par! 01 designers and craftsmen.
English 104
Pottel)' 106
Glass 108 Silver and Metalwork 114 Textiles and Wallpaper 122
orne c1aim that the Rococo style began befare the end of the reign oE Louis XIV in 1715. The second generation of architects working at the Freneh court after the death in 1690 DE Charles Le Brun developed their ideas from those implicit in the late style al Versailles. The Saloll d'Oeil de Boellf(Bull's Eye Room) by Pierre Le Pautre cE c.1703 is oEten considered to be ane oE the first examples oE the new laste. rt \Vas decorated in white-andgold painted woodwork with curved profiles far the window5, doar frames, and chirnneypieces. A fllrther source of inspiration for Rococo can be fOlmd in the gratesque designs of Jean Bérain (lErlG-1711). The C- or SscroB designs llsed by Bérain provided the necessary frame for the floral tendrils and wave motifs of eadv , designers sueh as Claude Audran m (165&-1734) oc JeanAntoine Watteau (168+-1721). A third source can be fOlmd in the plasterwork of northem Ital)' at the end of the 17th eentllry where asymmetr)' or irregular cartouches formed part of the designo The goldsmith Thomas Germain (1673-17-18) and Gilles-Marie Oppenord (designer to the dlle d'Orléans, the Freneh rcgcnt fmm 171510 1723) brollght the implicit sclllptllral, naluralistic qualities within Itahan Baroque design baek to Franee and adapted il. The fully den~loped forms of the Rococo, known as the gel/re pittoresqlft', bcgan lo emerge in French design at abaut the same time as Louis XV began bis rule in 1723. During the regenc)', society had returned to Paris, prm-iding an apportunity lo ereate ne\v aparbnents in the oId hóte/s, or palaees, that had been abandoned under Louis XIV. }uste-Aurele Meissonnier (1695-1750) crea too sorne of the most drama tic fonns of Rococo design, wruch are featured in rus published engravings (1723-35). TIlese sho\\' the possibilities of complete asymmetry and sculptural movement based on naturalistic omamenl. Nicolas Pineau (1684-1754) created interiors of a lighter nature, drawing designs for woodwork panels of elegant proportions, with floral tendrils, wave motifs, and rockwork elements that flow lightly over the space. Nature, children, nymphs, and shepherdesses populate
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uft: lile nSYlIllJlctry t1l1d rocJ... .
are lile esse1/ce o/ RecaeD decoratiOIl. T/le figure 01 Fatller Time il'itllllis scytl/l" lies /laken aeros:; tl11.' fro"t, wllile tl .l/Ollllg Col io.+i.
CI/pid, n>pTl'SellliJlg LOi'i'. fooks doit'lI frOIll aOO¡,f'.
HI 1.35/11/4.11
jill.
Opposite: t/u" Salan de la Princesse, jn tlle Hótel 50,,/lise, Paris. ,1'115 desiglll'd by Germnill Bof!rmul C.1737--+0. 1" file spflJldre/s (lrt' pailltillgs by 80llcher, Nnffier, t1l1d otllers 01 sceues taken frOIll c/nssicnl mytllOlogy. TlIe Jllsian of
ni
decorntioll ceilillg rmd W(l115 is Dile file mos! adeltlnced
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s/n/tlllellt:; o[ rocaille !1n/llmlisJII.
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1 The Nurse!)' of Apes, flltriblltcd lo Clol/de lJI Alldrml, c.1709, iI¡ rl'd cJmlkmld penci/, TI/e mOllkeys are placcd IIlIdel' a fre/lis decorated ¡¡oirh f101IWS ami e-serolls, I'lIIplmsi=:illg tite ¡"forll/nl twd tI//! IUI/lfral. Ht 69-7CIII/27'1;II.
•
2 Tl,(' trndc ((11'(( JOI' TlIolltas Cardlll'/', {/ LOl/dou gold5l11i111, 511OW5 fIJe impact 01 Frclldl Rococo dcsigll ill Ellg/awi. 1f lists file typl.' oI goods 1/1-' couid proi'ide. SlIe/¡ cnrds it'ere aften clIgrul't'd by ll.'ndillg Ifrsigl1crs ill Lolldoll.
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3 The I3reakfast by Frmu;ois BOl/cllef depict:; nI! ¡uferio/' oi c. 1740. Tite sro"p gntJU'P5 nrOlflui (/ fob'" wit/¡ (1 coffi'l' 01" c1lfxolntc Sl'IL,jCl'. T1I,' dock is typiCll1 oi file lIiglt/y sw/ptcd (/1111 n"'YlllllldriC/71
stylcojClmrh>s Cr(~Sl'1I1 h6Sj-I¡j8)
3
the paintings of Fran\ois Boucher (1703-70), many of which \Vere in tended to form part of a Rococo interior. Eastem exoticism introduced elements of fantas\' deemed suitable for priva te rooms - to Rococo designo Christophe Huet (1/00-1/59) created the cabinet rooms at Chantilly decorated with painted panels depicting monkeys acting out human acti\'ities (siJlgerie). Another form of exoticism was chinoiserie. Bérain depicted oriental figures basecl on engra\'ings of the Chincse court, adapted to European taste. In the doset of the duchesse de Berr)', \'\fatteau expanded the repertoire, using figures of Chinese goddesses. Boucher·s designs for tapestry took the Rocoeo genre from incidental decoration to the scale of paintings. As early as 1737 Jaeques-Fran,ois Blondel (l705-7~) published his treatise, De In disfribllfioll des I1Inisolls de plnisnllce el de la décornlioll des érliftces ell géJlérnl, in which he criticized the excesses of Rococo and argued for a more restrained style. This led to designs in ..."hich form kept its naturalistic curving movement, but in wmch omament became more controlled and was less freguently used. In the second 01" third decades of the 18th century Rococo design began to impinge on the indigenous Baroque traditions of different parts of Ew·ope. Frend1
-
82
maJrners and customs dominated the courts of Eurape with a resulting inerease in smaller, more intimate rooms. Porcelain rooms, tea pa\'ilions, and other exotic creations were to be found in the la\'ishly decorated palaces created by the princes and nobility of Europe, whose \\'ealth \Vas expressed in an unprecedented scale of building, Architectural concepts for extcriors rcmained clearly influenced by 17th-eentury fashions. TI1e interior spaces, too, remained strongly Baroque, especially in the retaining of staircases, reception rooms, and great halls surmounted. by illusionistie eeiling paintings. The decorati\'e motifs in these rooms, though, were increasingly influenced. by French rocnille design and \Vere often e\'en more expressi\'e and indi\'idual than their French eounterparts. Italian design of this period is sometimes called Bnroqlletto to emphasize the continued influenee of Roman Baroque designers such as Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598--1680) and Pietro da Cortona. Italian design, e\-en \\'hen adopting French forms, retai.ned its sculptural ridmess. The royal hunting lodge outside Turin, the StupinighC is onc of thc mast impressive of the \Vorks by the Sicilian arehitect Filippo Juvarra (1678-1736). Its towering central hall exemplifies Juvarra's combination
of Baroque space and French Rocaco omament, lavishly applied over the surface. At Caserta ÍJl Naples (built in 1751-56 for Charles V), Luigi Vanvitel1i arguably moved from Baroque strength to c1assical harmony. The decoration, hmvever, inc1udes a profusion of nahlralistic and exotic decoration. TIus was repeated at the Royal Palace in .Madrid (c.1761--66),. where the reoms were· decorated by fellow Italians, such as Mattia GasparÍJli (f7.1765-1780) and Giambattista and Giandomenico Tiepolo, who painted the ceilings. The end of the War of 5panish 5uccession in 1713 brought a sluge of building activity in the Holy Roman Empire. In VielUla, Lukas von Hildebrandt (1668-1745) was one of the first to incorpora te elements of Rococo in rus decoration of the Upper Belvedere, Vienna, built for Eugene of 5avoy. Later, Empress Maria TIlcresa created fully fledged Rococa ÍJlteriors at her palace of Schbnbnum (1745-49). Many reoms were decorated in oriental lacquer beca use of her passion for this exotic material. One of the first German princes to take up French design was Max Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, who had been exiled in Paris. Both his court arcrutects, Joseph Effner (1687-1745) and, more famously, Fran<;ois Cuvilliés (1695-1768), had studied ÍJl Paris. Cuvilliés' designs fOl" interiors and fllnuhue \Vere closely based on French sources, but \-vere combined with more direct expressions from nahu·e. The Amalienburg hunting lodge (173+-39) i.n the grounds of the Nymphenburg Palaee is perhaps one of the most perfect Rocaeo interiors. Cuvilliés also worked further afield at Schloss Brühl (1728-40) and Schloss \!Vilhelmstahl (17..13--19). At Würzburg, Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753) created a magnificent residence.
TIle series of state apartments were decorated with energetie and deseriptive stucco ,·vork by Antonio Bossi while the paintings on the staircase and in the Kaisersaal (1752) are among the Tiepolos' grandcst works. The latest examples of the Rococo occurred in Prussia, in the work of the arclutect Georg von Knobelsdorff (1699-1753) and designer johalm August Nahl (171D-S5), who worked for Frederick the Great until 17.+6 at Schloss Charlottenburg in Berlin and Sans Souci and the Neues Palais in Potsdam. TIle interiors are characterized by their sparse, light, and highly nahrralistic motifs. However, the ncw sensc of structure and order underlying the dcsigns of their successors, jOhalU1 Michael (b.1709) and johmm Christian Hoppenhaupt (1719-<:.1780), reflects the mo\'e towards more c1assical theories. Tn England, the Rococo \Vas one of several styles. Rocoeo design "'as more likely to be fÜlUld in the decorative arts than in arcrutecture, but interiors might be decorated with rocnifle plastenvork. However, classicism ÍJl the form of revived ltalian Renaissance style \Vas paramount in architechtral design and Palladianism dominated taste until at least 17-10. At that time, pattern books appeared showing the French style, which "'as rapidl)' taken up by silversmiths and car\'ers, ",Iule the newly established porcelain faetories offered irnitations of continental scrvices or figures. There ",as also an interest in reviving Gothic and oriental styles, which "'ere altemative expressions to French naturalismo 4 rile mirror 1"001/1 al \Viír=bllrg rm:;: designen by the arc!litect Baltlznsar NClIIlltlllll, C.I740. Tllc CO/OIII" nlld IIlnterial reflecllJu' GcmwlI passioll fOl" hig/lIy e!abomh,', gl"lJlldly co!lCóped il/kriors.
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83
French Furniture The Role 01 the Oesigner 2 Tlli5 pair of /JIlle pnin/ed (/lid paree/-gil! Iripon cand/estallds (guéridons) c1730, tnken fl'OlII dl':'ign5 by]ncqlles-Frl1lu;ois Blomfel (l70j-N) shows lile fOrlllnlily slilllo be ¡olllld ill enrly Rocoeo rieees.
TIi,' desigll 01 l/le I ripod feet
O,l'es 1I1/1e/1
lo t'xllmplesfrolllllIc Inte 17th cm/lIry. Ht 106111/5ft 3in. 3 TI/{' cOlIIl/lOde for ¡/¡¡> kill;{s bedroOI/1 nI Versail/es (rlelh'l'red 1739). 11 ¡ms desiglled by fhe royal sClIlplor, Al1loil/c-Sébns/it'lI Slodt= (0695-175.;J. nlld cxcwtcd bl¡ Alltainc Rabert Gaudreall (c.168o-1751) in killgwood parquetry, 'wlli/c tllc 1!101ll1tS I1'.:rc pro,-,idcd by t]¡.: !.:adillg scu/ptor Jacqllcs Cafft{>ri h673-1755)· Ht 8gcm/35in.
2
o c..:l o c..:l o
c:
,1 Tllis desigll for
'il'nl/ in tite Gm!1d Cnbincl a/ ¡lIe Hótel de Rorlille, ¡mm Jenl! Marictl,,'s .,1,rchitecture franqlise pllblisiled iu 1727,
S}lOiI'S
11
¡IJe plncell/clIl 01 n CO!l50/e ¡ab!e Hllder
the lI1inm; alrti ¡lIe tl'nl¡ in wl1icJ¡ tite sfll1pe ,UIIS illlegrated filio lhe desigll of fhe ¡mil decora/ion.
he first years of the 18th cenhlry saw the development of several new types of fllrnitllre, published among the engravings of André Charles Boulle (1642-1732) between 1697 and 1730. These included the flat vvriting desk (bureall plat), the chest of drawers (cornmode), and the low bookcase or cabinet (bas arlJloírc). In 1737 the critic Blondel described three sets of rooms: apartelJlel1ts de parade, or state roams, entertaining ar social rooms, and private rooms. Each required furnittu'e that reflected their status and purpase. Sociallife required tea and side tables, garning tables and chairs, and dlairs far lhe salo¡¡ or for small-scale private functions. This gave rise to a profusion of new forms, such as the small toilette ;llld H'riting table, the bO¡¡/¡cllr dll jOllr, or specific types of chairs including the bergere and dllc/lesse. r
T
84
architectural fonns used in the 17th century to curving serpentine shapes. At the corners rnight appear dragons or female heads, which were replaced by more abstract forms of foliage and sheU motifs as the style developed. By the 17605, designs developed a new rigidity while the Rococo motifs were combined 'ivith classical decoration. There were h,\'o main types of chairs, those for display against waUs, "vhich had to fit in with the design of the panelling, and thosc for shifting around for use. Cornfort was a key issue, with a resulting interest in upholstery. 111e daybed evolved into a cornfortable settee, often with a detachable footstool (dl/chesse brisé). The Rococo chair was characterized by the use of the cabriole leg, introduced eady in the century, and by decorative shell motifs and e-scrol1s. By the 1740s the arms emerged from the frame in one continuous movement. Chairs were made by joiners who created the outline shapes. The decoration was carved by specialists, many of whom were sculptors, or men who had been h'ained in design as wel1 as carving. Once joined together chairs
I
Two Console Tables it Itas fIJe naturalistic /I/otifs alld C1/med fonu:> 01 fIJe IIe¡L' styk tIJis tab/e of (.1720 retaillS tdelllt!ll/s from late 1 ¡fll-eelllllry desigJl SlleI, as tht' s/miglll lap alld frice alld 'he frmale mflsk in ,lIe centre. Ht 80. jeml; Zi/l. 2 AltllOlIgll
"< •
1 Tlw fleai'Y can.,iJlg (md I/Ilifielt design o/ l/lis c17,5 tab1c are typical oIlllter RocoeoJI/milllre. TIJe 111llltillg lIIotifs are takell frOIll pnilltillgs /1.11 ¡rol/-Bap!isl/' Olldry (¡68~17j5). Ht 88C11l!J4'!ill.
"
• "
Chairs
o (.) O
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(.)
I
O
a:
2 I
•
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1
1 A pnttem for ti d,air en cabriolet {mm L' Art du Menuisier by Alldré-Jacob ROl/bo, 1772. Eaeh sectioll wns C1/t I/sillg 911111ljY.il1thick ¡coodell sllcet:> (ca libres) as pattems fOl"
¡he VllriOllS sfUlped par/s 01 file cluIÍr.
2 This c/utir 01 CI720 WflS made for tite riell collector Pierre Cro::at (1661-174-°).115 cnn'ed frame alld cabriole legs are nlready Rococo, w/¡ill.' tlle straight fines of the back illdiente its ear1y date. lf has ils origilla/ leatlu?r coverillg.
3 AII armc1mir of (.1730 01 cari'ed and gilded beec/w'OOd. T/¡e cnrtouc1/e-s/mped baek is typicn/ ol Frellell ellairs. T!le clmir is a la reine (¡¡~ill/ n strnig!lt rntller IImll n cl/r¡;ed bnck) nlld il hns n
drop·ill sent so t!le
lIpho[sfe/~1
cOI/Id be ehnllged.
85
-
•
Gilt-Bronze Mounts A libmn/ . MlkL'll~l' C.l ;:!O ¡'1/ . Omr1t''; Cr¡'';:'t'III. ¡'.l'l'ntl.',f iJl r~t'¡¡'{l(ld l/lid (mllll'¡' 111 Ill1rplt71'(lI.Jcf. 6.11 1/¡o"'igllillS J"'~ 1
alt'/l mOl/llh. (n''''''II' n'uld c';/Il/lli... l¡ /¡j...
tlil'lI
"'/1/1.' 11' ¡¡ ...JI
lb úm/rtl11l/1' 11111/11 111.11"'(":'1
allll
('rl'(I/I/I'II. IIlt'
.;ollplt'd
Icnnf1SI/1"l'" rln' Illlli(o/ (l{/ti...
"Iy/¡-: I/I'-Y rq"-""'JI/lIll'j¡llI1" (·(llItill'·III .... 1/1 1.{¡.¡1It!3ft .¡i!1,
,1'. .1.,.2111/8/1
110/11.
o
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a::
3
86
L-.
...J:::::::j
2 Thi.,; rt'ritiJlS ¡f¡'sk. or bureau plat, ill bois S
3 TlJis 'I'rifillS tflNe ¡'Y la:::l'pIJ 8nlfml1flller s!Jo,cs file cOlltilllllllfS, l/Il{fi('d
/t'rlll figllrt~ rt'fllill~ Ihe forll/aJi!y
,;tmigflllop t~f /lIC dl':,k. Ht ¡SCIIl/]O..iIl.
de:;igll of ¡!JI! '7jOS. 511c1l fllmiturl', decomtl!d ¡l'it1l }flJ'flllese fflcqller '1m/e/s, ¡TflS 1'.\': r"11Id~,fas/¡j(lllfl/lll' i 11 Frm Jel!. H: S3CIII/P" 'Í//.
were either coloured to match the panelling or gilded. The specialist natme of French furníture can be c1early seen in the division within the guild of joiners between those ",ho nrorked in solid ",ood (lIIellllisiers) and those who ",orked ",ith \'eneers (ébéllistes). TIle commode, wruch developed into one of the most important pieces for the 18th-century interior, began as a chest of drawers with three or four drawers down to the grOlmd (colJllJlode ell tOlllbeall). Boulle and 8érain dcsigned a c1assically based form of a sarcophagus shape, wruch de\'eloped into the h\"o-drawcr commode (collllllode ñ la l~éReIlce). Bv , - the 17305 this had become the standard hvodran'er bombé formo At the beginning of the 18th century, cabinetmakers tllrncd to new exotie \\"oods fram the ealonies for their \L'llccrs. Kingwood (a forrn of rosewood), bois satillé, and purplchcilrt \Vere frequently used in the earl)' stages of tlll' I{nenen, with hllipwood coming into fashion in the 17l0:-. ,md ¡7-l0s. The earliest deeoration consisted of ,l',l'(lllll'lric p,lllcrns of parquetry which acted as a foil to
the gilt-bronze mounts. DlIring the l7·lOs, floral marqueh-y reappeared. The sprays of flowers cO\'ered the sllrfaee emphasizing the Iight and deeorati\'e qLlality of tile piece. Mounts of gilt or lacquered brass - and less frequently of bronze - were applied to the surf(lce, usually in an open, scrolling cartouche shape. One cabinehnaker to de\'elop the new fonns was Charles Cressent (1685-1758). Trained as a sculptor, he made rus own mOlU1ts for furniture and c1ockeases, and specialized in scuJptural fittings. Another, Gaudreau, worked on key royal pieces. His forros were often quite restrained, but the deeoration of the mounts was generally extremely rich. Se\"eral cabinetmakers \\"orked primarily for marcJulIIds lIlerciers sueh as Poiricr or Granchet. They H"cre responsible for many fasruonable pieces of funuhue sueh as the bollllelIl" du jOlIr, and also for new types of decoration using Japanese ¡aequer or senes poreelain plaques. Many leading Parisian eabinetmakcrs, sueh as Bernard '-an Risenburgh II (B.V.R.B., c.1696-1766) and Joseph Bamnhauer (d.1772) worked for them.
of lf¡',;igll C.l ;20. n,; ¡Jldieoh'.! llY tI't'
Types al Decoratian 1 TlIis COllllllOde ,¡-as <'xt'ClIted by
Mnthie// Crinad (] 689-1/76) for tJI(' ¡\ In ifJ!1 (lpMt 1IJ('1l t al LOl/ is XI\f's mis/nos:, anti ¡:ms de/in'red ill 1;38. It imita',,:, lIJe lacqu<"r oI lIJe Oriell! ;:/litIE pnillfed surlaces. TI/{' Cl?n/rol cnrlOllche is Iypica/ COJ/lIIIOiil'S
01 tll.. IJigfl
ol
Romeo.
2 A lfrop:frOllt secr<'tl1irt' OfC.l¡60 !JI' - B.VR.B. il! mnnjlll.'try o/bois de bout fl'l1dgrnill rOSl'it'OOfO se! j/lto (('lIlml
pom'1:' of Il/lil""OOI.t. ami l'Ordered ¡¡titJ, amaran/k L. l.p_m/.:ft .Jiu. •
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3 T1Ii.~ f1ol'llllllarqllt'!r!1 COlllllllldt' nI t 11/ip¡C()(I¡l rnl~ IIlfldc: c. Ii 5¡ Jor tlll' C/¡flllllw dI! In DI1I//,lIil/(' 111 t//<, CJmfl'fl1l lit' C1lOisl/-1t'-Roi tmd is nltribllh'd lo ¡.'nIl-Pit·/T<' Lnt:: (C.1691-1i5'¡') OT /t'¡lll FrllIIfOis Od.lt'1l (C.1;21-63). HI 9ocm/3jÚIl. 4 A COIII/IIOlil'
a la Régence. C.l¡2D,
,di/¡ dn!
87
German Furniture High Rococo Design
2
LL
a:
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2 Dt"Sign by Jo/mllll MicltneJ Hoppell/lfllf1lf 11 for a cOl/so/e tabfe C.1760 S/¡Oil,illg ti/e
Z
strollgly clIn.'t"d lil/es (lIIti de,,!/¡ of nntural;stic
a:
orJ/(lIl/l'IIf
LL
¡cicle II/otifs l/sed 011 fIJe base are aften ¡Olll/d
Z
in j¡is drail.'illgs.
:::l
-
'YI,im/ o/ Gerll/ffl/ Jl/milllre. T/¡e
c::(
3 A cm1'ed nI/ti gi/tfed COII:;o!e IrMe maJe bl/ \Vw:I..':i/nlls Miroffsh, h733-4). Desiglled
a:
by
Frflll~oi5
Cllvi/liés for file Residl'lI: in
MllJlich, il refnills ils swlplured Qntnlll/!llf
(llId strollg ClII1Ji!S. L. 11]111/511 Sill.
o c..:l o c..:l
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1 Tllis /'00111 in Scllloss $a/15 SOJlci, Potsdnlll, COllfnil1S elmir:; desiglled by]ohmm
Míe/lile! Hoppel1Ju11lpt JI ilI arolllld 1760 IlI1d
(l
comlllode in
floml I/1nrqllclry by fIJe Spilldler
liroiJ/e,.s,
W/IO
were ja1ll0115 for
¡lid,. ,-'elleerillg ski/Is.
3 ....._
¡th its many sta tes, Gerrnan fumiture presents an extremely wide range of styles generally using French Rococo omament and shapes. At the beginning of the 18th century, André Charles Boulle remained highly influentia1. johann Puchweiser (d.17-!-l) in Bavaria, and ¡ohaTUl Matusch (/1.1701-1731) and rus pupil Martin Schumacher (1695-1781) from Ansbach, specialized in metal (brass and pewter) and tortoiseshell marquetry; the latter to create an espec:ially exotic look. A key piece of German fumitu.re was the bureau cabinet, with an upper cabinet of drawers and a lo\Ver slant-top desk above drawers. Its design was often controlled by the guilds, leading to conservative, dated iorrns, although decoration \vas often elabora te. Furnitme from Munich can often be dishnguishcd by h\'ing carved, painted, and gilded rather than veneered. h.l1l,nis ClIvilliés was one of the first in Munich to lk... ign illrnitllre in the French Rococo stylc. The fllrruture 1ll.1dt, hy COllrt cabinetmakers sllch as johann Adam l'id,lt,!" \V,lS richly carved w¡th nature motifs.
W
88
Abraham Roentgen (1711-93) \Vas undoubtedly the most famous German cabinetmaker. A Moravian, he settled in Neu\Vied c.175O. Having spent time in London, he often used English techniqlles combined \"ith typical dynamic German forms. He is recognized for the qualit)' of his work and for the complicated mechanisms he developed for tables and writing cabinets. In Dresden, the use of japalU1ed decoration stemmed from the electors' passion for japanese art. At fust man)' shapes \Vere taken from English models; la ter, French taste dominated. The court cabinetmaker, Martin KÜInmel (1715-9~), looked to Parisian models, imitating their giltbronze mounts and llSing tulipwood and kingwood. Berlin and Postdam, the centres of late Rococo, and where the linear elegance of the Hoppenhaupt brothers Uohann Christian and johann Michael) emerged. In 176-:1, the Spindler brothers Uohann Fricdrich and Heinrich Wilhelm) arrived. In addition to AOréll marqllctry, the)' worked in tortoiseshell and sil ver with the scuJptor Melchior Kambli (1718-83), \Vho supplied the mOlmts.
Cabinets
o
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1 TJ¡e japmmillg ill bllle (Il1ri gold 011 tlris C.1730 /lIIrel1l1 (nvillet is il! the fllg!í:>11 stylc. lt caH be atlribllted á/ha lo Marfill 5c1l1lcll (fl.1703-40) o/' lo Cl1ristirm Reil10w (z68j-1749), both actil'c in Drcsdm nI ¡!lis lime.
3 Tlle 1\1aill: area was fa/ll01ls for its bureafl cnbincls. TllÍs wn/llul e:I:tI!I1ple mns IIlnde in 1738 wítll IIlnrqllcfry of ivory {lIId e.lOtic woods alId cnrved decomlioll. TlIe 5trollg fines dlóvdop enr/ier Bnroque forlll5.
2 This collector's ((Ibillcl il1 wahlHl WlIS made • in 1(25-30 for tl1e Dl/ke 01 Bnlllswick's cnst/e al Sa/:dahlrwl. lts rCl1Inrkable gilt-brollZt'
fretwork doors were vased
011
desiglls by
lean Bérail1.
Chairs
•
•
1 This ellair ¡¡¡as desiglled by Fral1(:ois ClIvilliés,
C.173o'¡or ¡lte pl'illcipl1! apnrtll1ellts in ¡he MUllidl Reside/IZ. 1t reténs {/ Frellc/l sClIse of proporfiol1 nIId balance. Ht 84CIII/33;II.
2 A chair probnbly carved fa desiglls by ol/e of file Hoppcll}wupl uro/hers, C1760. TIJe IIIll1Slla1 nrllls, ;Vitll {!lór cmplmsis 011 /la/llmlistic motifs, (I/"e typicnl of ¡IIe de:,igl1ers' work. 3 T/le orgmlic, n:iYll1l11etrica/ decomtíoll of IllÍs e/mil" tnkes ít:i IlIltllm/istic SOlll"ce fa 1111 extreme. /f mas l1Iadefor Se/I/OSS Fas{werie ill Fulda. 3
89
ingenious Craftsmanship
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1 Tllis efl'snJl/ CIlI"i'cd nud gildcd In/lit' /J,I/IVilllcllll G(I/tlieb
IIlltllmlistic CII"'l'_~ (!lid f1llraf
2 A s!W({'pÍt'ce {~f illgt'l1iolls ¡¡¡cdl/mica!
dt'(orntiol/
for tile elector ofTria.
/1 ¡Ci1S mnde b.l/ CA/. ,\In/km m.l ;'.'3-;0)..(.111/(1/15 .riJr !lis IISt' (~f
Ht 1.-l9111/~S/iIl.
IIId'IJlIcfrll.
Alar/il: c. T 769 cOIIMJI('s IIWI!f:, froll111lltiqllit;f wil/I tlu'
or tllt' Rococo.
4 TJ¡i;; mM-J8th-cm!"r.!' Dl'l'sd¡'1I (lrll/o/I/lIIolllll,'d tÜ'sk display:, fIJe tWlf (!{ m'm:, tilld 1I1OIIOsrnlll {~f tI/(' elector of 5t1.\"cm.lf 011 tlle topo /1 is !'{,//{,t'I"t'd ill I'icllly fisured i:mllluf. Ht 81.5(1II/]2.ill.
90
3 Altllo¡¡c,:lr filmJ• of • ¡he /las;c • Illis c/(ll-k is EnSlislI. C.l;.p. ils tllllJllh'x (¡¡¡-¡'cd fllld gildcd dIYtlrltli¡l)l i~
['l1lirl'1y Gt'I"lIIlln.
NI 3.111I/10//2;11.
1
North East Europe and Spain Different Techniques
1 TI/.' n)bll~t frmll of Ihj" el ¡50 ~ilt,t'(l(ltl (md ~ik•.,..d Spt1l/i::lt cOII;;(l/t' la/>/c (""':'1'.91) Sl't'lIlj IJI od..t" ¡l'ith tll,'fmgm,"lit'd 11II/llwokl?1l cor¡yd decomtiolJ, 1111/1 moy r.:flt'cf •tht' il~f/l/"IlC" (~f X,'{Ill(.l/ ifoll d":'igll. HI 78clII/30 lin. 2 A R IIj"jOIl úl~lcll fnlJJl "'~' i/l/p.'ria/ ml/ecf ÍtIlJ~, C. I ¡6o, n:(ltyt j /lo": tll,' :,-cll!pluml RO((l~-O/,lTllb of ti/(, rtJ!/o/ arcIJilccl RI1~tn'l1i (J ;-00-1 ¡;JJ.
3 r/lis AlIIs/adl1l11
ClllI/ll/lld
,m/'lllt
dlóf /11/11 úliljllá. <':.1,00, <'.\<'IlIjlli(i<::<
ti/;'
Dulc/I fllten'i-I 111 i'V!lIplllOI/S,
Tlu'fil1c cnn.'Íllg is Ils:;.ocinll'd H'itll ¡hL' il'Ork {~f ,\I//"ClII!I Grill. 1/1 ;!·'¡'5111/~ft. 4 A Ollllísl1 1l/IIWlU mb¡ud l/y c.F. UhJl/t1I1IL (.1755. /1 js Imsl'd VII
o
Gerllllll1 fOI"/1/:./'rtl ís lI/IIdc ['pell
O
(llSímic 1110,'('/1/('111.
/hrollSh j/s IISt' oI e.mlje ,('(Jods, I¡<,d!/ silt~llI"im:e 111O/Y s/llIIpllftlllS
II/()WII:;;,
Illld
c.:l O c.:l
a:
{loral J!tlllI'iS ill
ir'o!"!!_ flIld lIIolf1l!rt~f-I'¡'I1r1. Ht 2.ó5111/Sjt Slifl. 5 TI/js Dl1Ilis/¡ ¡('¡l/JIU! (OII1I1W¡f,·, c. J ¡50, i,: /'¡1s¡'d tlll ¡:n'IIc!¡ R¡;gl'IlCt' ~11(lJ1L';;, ¡¡'itll sJiS/¡tly e.mggcmlt'd ~idc;; (lIId (011','.1 OrlllllJlt'llf 01/ tlh' /l(Ix'. S¡l'l'¡tisl, (Oll/molle,: IIm'l' 11m?,'
d((fi'I't'l/llIIl.'tn/s,
dm¡c('r;; (llIlt silllilar :'l1t/p.,S, ofh'l/ ¡{¡'((mlll'll ¡¡'illE 1I ,,,=01d ~'(ldl
b,IJIlI/It,ttlYt'1I dmil't'r. HI J.:!5J11/{f1 Jiu.
lItch fumiture combined designs from France and England with a residual sense of Baroqlle mm'ement, characterized by its pronollnced cur.-es and strong car\'ing. One of the most important pieces was the kast or cllpboard, Olltch chairs are close to English, but often mix featllres from earlier periods in their designo By 1730 the French fauteuil appeared, although made in walnut or mahogany. Very typical was floral marqlletry for cupboards, chests of drawers, and after 1730, conunodes in the French manner. In Scandina\'ia, Baroque forms continucd lUltil the 17305, lnfluences from England, Holland, and Gennany \\'ere important, especialiy in long-case c1ocks, fall-front desks, and chairs. Danish cabinetmakers such as i\lath.ias OrtmalUl and C.E Lelunann made pieces with Germanic featllres. ln Sweden, the COllrt taste was French and designers such as thc architect Carl Harleman (1700-1733) trained in Paris. As late as 1770, the Swedish cabinetmaker, Nils Dahlin (j7.1761-87) made a filing cabinct for Qucen Louisa Ulrika, adapting French secrétaires.
D
91
,
•
Italian and Iberian Furniture Venetian Decoration
1 I1lis collsofe tab/e oj e.li50 has /l/Jita 01 giallo antico IIltlrble 011 lile !iJp ,md is p,1ÍIII,:¡f ,d¡J¡ ,11 iJloJij('li" :ulJIl i;¡g ';'¡;CII(;:> 0/1 ,¡ polle g rtt;'1/ lllll/lla grOlllld. TI/e fec1miqllt <1'115 exfr<:'IlI.>f1/ popular in Vellicf. HI 8]cm/p.'I.ill.
o (.)
2 TIJe .tesigll 01 tJ¡is Velletiall part1.ll gi/ded, .('n/l/lIf e/miro C.l ¡50. sllDa,,; r::dc'di, iJl¡7l1o?11có. Till' Ol'!'mli :'o/111/1e" oí lile Ot/f;; i;¡. illkt?J1 jrom Frfllch exampleo. bul ti/e cell/ml Mek sp/nl ;5 clearly deri,'ed from ElIgl;5/1 elmi,s.
Baroquetto
O
(.)
1 T1Iis e1abomtl'ly can'ed Illld
O
gilded coI/so/e iab/e
a:
Tl'I1S
IJl"obllbly
exeCllfed ;1/ Ill'orl1ld 1725 fa 1750 il/ Rome. wlrere l/le il/teres! iI,
5C11lpled forms cOlltilllled wel/ Éllto lIJe 1801 cm/llry. The grl't'lI
porpllyry lap il'itll gilt edge is Iypical ROllltlll ¡cm/lln.'.
Il
2 COJJlbi"iJ/.~ rocaille ¡/ecom/iOIl
(11 e -scrof1s, flO
/"I1II1/t' 1II11~k..~ u'ifll trl/ditiaual jClIlpft'd figlfrt'S. I!lis Horel/tille
mirror t'xprt'S5eS tllI! rl!fi'1elllellt oj It,¡!itlll (tlr"ÍlIg by tlle II/iddle oj tht' lSth cellfllry.
talian furniture continued to use bold Baroqul' sculptural decoration and flowing Illovement well into the 18th eentury. Sculptors such as Antonio Corradini (1668--1752) in Venice made highJy elabarate, figllred pieces and eabinetmakers such as Pietro Piffetti (c.170077) in Turin kept the boldness of Baroque forms as late as 1760. Carved, gilded console tables also retained the sculptured forms of the previous century. Ne\\' types of fumiture beca me popular in the 18th century, including many delicately car\'ed, small pieces for the fashionable mezzanine apartments, the bureau bookease (caBed trlllllenll in Venice) based on the English type, and the eornmodc, developed from French designs. Chairs copied both the carved frames of English chairs and the upholstered jnllteuil ITom france. \>\'alnut \Vas preferred for veneered furniture, but in Genoa cabinehnakers used imported tulip and rosewood, while in Tmin, Piffetti created. elaborate marquetr}' in exotic woods, ivory, and mother-of-pearl. One of the most distinctive forms of Italian deeoration was painted
I
92
furniltlre. [n Venice a ne'" technique, lncen popera involved clllling clnd pasting prints an to the surface of fumiture
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- - ---------
------------------------------------------
Regional Variations
1 A ,"'lil{l!1ese COllllllOdc il! ,m/lllll, ¡'cllccn:d
fl/c scclles are l)f1scd 01 the Siege oí Troy.
(.1760,
011
ellgrm'illgs
3 Tf¡is trumcau (l!JIreall bookmseJ, (.1730, is
decomft'd Il'itll IllIlItillg scelle:- tfwl !w¡'e bee!l pasled Ollto tlle painted backgrollnd and i'amislll:d ill a tec/lI1iqllc mUed lacea pO\'era. 4 GmOl!se ftmlitllre rms OftCIl uasf'd 011 Frcllcfl -(orll/s, as in tllC Imuer part of - tlIÍs UllrCf1JI book Cflse, (.1750. TI/e cmtm/ I/Iotif ollOl/r le{liles is Iypical/y GeJlOl'Sc. Ht 2..gIll/Sft.
4
o
C-:l
O
C-:l
O
ce
93
British Furniture Carvers' Work and Seat Furniture , ,
-
2
2 lila & Alm,ht'íl' crt'tllt'd 111l' c1<':,i~1/ • •fo,. rht'St' ccmdlcsttmd:;, rl'llicJlU'lI:' plI/JIis!Jcd iJl The Cniwrsal S,·slem of Houschold rurnilure, 1762. •
IIICfca"illg ddieney l/lid lIatrrrn/is/ic dl'tail "hall' n cOllfidl'llf Rococo st!lfl!.
3 T/¡is piel' I(¡/¡fe, made af cnrl'l'd (/lId gildc'd pim', i.~ pllrl o/ n suilt, of tI/bitS, ;;/l1Ild::. alld 5COIIC6 ((I1<'I'd /1.1/ }111116 Pascnl1 for tllL' gn/h',-y ol T('l1Iplc N¡'il'::mll HUIIS(', Y(Jrh/¡in', 1/.J.5.
oc.,)
oc.,) o c:::
1
1 ¡\ dl':'(I.:" flll' 1I pit'" Sll/';s frl/ll/(, b~/ 1\ Illllflitb ulek. 1'"/1/ ¡sf,el! 111 Si" Sconces. 174';. SimlOlIs {¡"I''; /lI/e/un/ur,,{¡,;/;, dt'l,lil'4lt-d tI,., i" trod l/elúm (~f f 11(' Rllú'úJ "(llk i 11 EI/,\/ ;,;1/ ¡-.m...',; ¡,,'r1.: fn 111' 1:-4e1,
ntemanona' Rococo design began lo intlul'IlCt..' 13riti...h fumiture significantly fram c.17..J5 and continucd unlil the late l760s. The first penetrating and mQst pcrmclncnt use of Rococo decoration was in can'ing, espccially fm pieture and mirror frames, pier tables, candlestands, i1lld chairs. Among the first British car,-ers and gilders to use the style \Vas rvlatthias Lock (c.1I1D-65), who publishcd designs for such pieces in 17.J-l and 17-16. ln the 17505 designers and can:ers de,·eloped the style into a Iighter, more sinuous form, employing delicate flo\Vers, leaves, branches, rockwork, animals, birds, and human forms. The m'eran effect "'as one of Iightness and grace, giving a sense of fantas), and delight. Smaller-scale elements were introduced and sorne of the most delicate \Vork \Vas executed in gesso. Pieces designed for rooms used in the e"cning and lit by eandlelight \Vere often gilded or finished in \Vhite paint with partial gilding. Afler 1750 Ihe British Rococo style developcd more distinctively by including Chinese and Gothic motifs and the French-inspircd gellre pittoresqlle eharacteristics of
I
94
3
-
a"'''IllI1lL'tr\' . . clnd naturcllism. The Gothic stvle is seen at its lllo~1 sophislic.1led in Horace \Valpole's fantas)' ,·ilIa, Str.l\\'bl'rn- Hill at T\\·ickenham. Thc dissclllination of the stvle owed mudl to the influ, cncL' of Thomas Chippendale's inno'"ati'"e pattem book TlIc Gt'lIf/t'/IlllJl n/Id Cabillcf-Mnker's Director (175-:1:, rurther eds 1755 and 1762), which induded designs for pieces in Ihe Chinese and Gothic laste as well as the "modern" or "French" style. Subsequent paltern books include Inee & i\layhe\V's Ul1ipersnl Systelll of HOllsehold Fl/mifl/re (1762) and the Society of Upholsterers' Gellfeel Holtsehold Fllmifllre (1 160-2). Highly distineti\'e \Vere the designs of Thomas Jolmson beh"een 1755 and 1761, an exaggerated and spiky \'ersion of Ihe highly naturalistic French style. Fully upholstered armchairs, settees, and side chairs made of beedl or pine and painted or gilded \Vere knO\vn as French chairs. Their upholstery \Vas sinuously shaped with shallow, tufted stuffing and fixed to the frame with small gilt brass nails. Fabrics for" upholstery included Italian silk damasks with formal patterns, embroideries,
4 This dl!Sigll [01' n frnllli' llY 1\-lnttl1inj Dady
i('1l:;
pl/bli:4Il'd
ill A New Book of (hines\!
Designs. 175ol. Chilloiser;e ¡'{¡.'lIIell/s 01jigl/r¡?5 Ilnri decomtirt' details deTived /roll1 Chillese certllJlics, laeq//er. filld
illspirl'd by desigus by TfIOIJIIlS ]OllllWII pllbli5/I(~d ill One Hundred and Fift\" Xew Designs. LomloJl, 175S. Ht 2.67m/Sft 9il/. 6 Tllt' Ctlm~d fr{lll1t' 01 t/Jis gildcd wt.'CJ¡ {Irme/mir
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Jolm BladH't'11 mld t!le t{lpcstry
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Al.'50p'S Fables were madI.' by
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7 8 TllOlIltlS Chippclldnh' lIIade tll6t' fil'sigllS jor par/ouT c/ufir:: c. 1 ,60. ,{'hic/, ,ceTe ;'lIgrIH'i'd ti lid 11l1M;s!lcd il! The Gentleman
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and Cabinet·\laker's Director, ]rd ftfitioll. 1,62. Enc/loftlle dt'sigl/:; offi~rs IIItlIl~/ optíOJ/S for sJmpt' nnd ¡it'lIIil ill t1U? /met,;. kgs. nlld :'l'llt mils, 11110¡l'ill.'\ tlll' dh'/II 01' Cilri\'r /0 sl'lcd his
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Shapes and Details T/Ji,. di'fnil of cnn'illg 01/ 11 1I111/lOgallY sdlee. C.1760. is 1
afta n 175.;. desigll by TflOlllns ClJippl'lIda/e. TJ¡e delicate acnllt//lIS
lea,'es,
c(lrtollcl/(~.
(lIld 5croll fool 011 t/Jis cabriole ft'g 17ft? typical Rococo de/ai/s. 2 fA'Sigll" Jor pnrlollr dlflir bnck..~ (/lid spnl/drds by Rol1l?rt Alnllll'ill"illg weft' ¡m/llislIed ¡JI The Chair-~Iaker's Cuide. 1166. TIlt' sillll'lifted styJe im,;; for modest (ollmlissiollS - detlli/ed . . cnr"JIlg ¡ms expl'lIslt'e.
2
3 Tl1e Rococo SI!!/¡' 011 t//is C. J 760-5 eOll/mode, Ollt' 01 (l ¡mir. is llltdl'rstnfe.1. bul il t!xisls ¡,l tlll'
sI/Mued serpel1tilll' sJwpe ami 1
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by ;...toril/aH & IV}¡jttle ¡ms madI' for Lord Egrt'IIIDJlt ni Pcl7l'Ortll HOIl5C. SlISseX, aftel' n d6ig/l by TlIomns Cllippt'lIdn/e. TIIl.' IIpllOlsft.'I~1 is l(lrgely IIIMem.
4 TJlÍs CIlI1'.'d nlld silded pillf' stn/e lwi.
96
C.l 760.
and tapestry-",oven panels, 1\lost distinCbye "'ere chairs ",ith open backs carved ",ith interlace pattems, offering the craftsman endJess opporhmities for variety and \"irtuosity of omanlent dtrring the 1750s and 17605. The British tradition for free-standing fOlu-posted beds continued. Bedstead frames were can'ed. with sorne of the most expressive Rococo omament, including trees, branches, lea\"es, flowers, anirnals, and birds in the gellte piftoresqlfe, while others used Chinese or Gothic inspiration, Accompanying chairs, stools, and settees eontinued the stylistic Iook to provide a theme for each room, In general British Rocaco cabinehvork "'as more restrained than SOIne of its continental counterparts. The
~
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a Frendl serpentine shape for the sides as welJ as the front and ",ere omamented with highly decorati\'e gilt brass or bronze motults, but these rarely obscured the \Vood\Vork to the same extent as French versions. Commodes created by the French-trained eabinetmaker Pierre Langlois bore the closest similarity to French types, but those made by Thomas Chippendale and John Cobb in lhe 17605 were restrained, relying on detailed carüng, fineIy figmed mahogany, and high-quality gilt mow1ts for their effeet. Other large pieces of cabinehvork remained subtle in their general outline, but much Rocoeo omament "'as inc1uded in carved detail. Smaller items such as tea tables, pembrake tables, china sheh'es, night tables, and dressi.ng tables were more expressively decorated with delicate Chinese lattice ",ork or small Gothic erockets, and cusped tracery for glazing baTs. Ho\Ve\'el~ by about 1765 the most asyrnrnetrie or contorted carving styles of the Rocoeo style \Vere receding and a more controlled style of decoration had de\'eloped, appearing in most fashionable British fumiture.
5 Tliese desigl15 for n Indy's secretaire by luce & Alnyhew i./'ere pllblislled
ill The Unincsai S\'stem al Household Fumiture, 1762. Got/Jic tlJld •
chilloiserie decora/h'!? e1el1/(.'l1ts il'ere oftell npplied lo sil/al/el' pieces of cnbilletwork tl'it/¡ sl(lIIdard s}mpes. •
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6 KnQil'1I as ¡lIe Vio/in Bookcn::e. tllis maJlOgal/Y ,,>itJ¡ ellOn.'! iJl/ay
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desk (lIId bookcnse ,I'IlS dl'sigJl(!¡1 c.1¡60 by TlJomas C/tippcJldale for Wiltoll HOl/se. TlIe cel//ml can'l!d pallel in tite l/ppa Sl'clioJl iI'flS illsJ1il'cd by Rocoeo desiglls
for ¡mil/es. 7 A fretrt'ork cnge beueatJl lile
top of l/lis IIwhoga/lY pel1l/Jroh' fttble. made C.176j. is gi,'en a chilloiserie clmracter tll/"ollgll
ti/e 1151' of lalfice desiglls. 8 TJ¡is tripod tea table ,I'as madI' of IIw/¡ogaIlY, C.1760-5· The ¡:¡'ac:'y erige o/ l/u' top reJ1ects s!mpes ill cOllfelllporary porceInill pfntes il1 file Rococo styfe. Ht 71.5clll1281.ill. 9 A C.1765 CfJiIll.'se fncC/l/a
cnbillet is mOIllJfl'd 011 n /l/allogal/!! stal/d mit/¡ delicate Intl ice fretll'Ork.
8
97
American Furniture Pre-Revolulionary Slyle in lhe Colonies 1 T1¡j~ 1/1II111';o:./11I/I/",¡,. "",d., /'1( Ikllj'IIIJiIl UIIII'/olll" ¡JI' 1/11111/,,... .. \ IIli'd•. m Pllifl1ddJ,/!in, '7ll(l-i~. j, ",, .>,''¡
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IIl/d-/m/l fect h, fllr! 1~1'1 (I( jI '/.1111'. 11/" 'Isoml/~ll/ ddaile/1 ((Irt'illg ,11/.1 tI/.' ~J¡,'IIIII." "ll/lld /1/1' ~'1I1 are Iypim/ w/ll'ip/,'
I
oll'III/"ddl'/t", 1 ,(/¡t';III'III~¡jJ' al its bt'M. 1/1 "1'111/;;'111 2 I '/,/k .\ \ '/ /1, "11 TI/{llllll~ Cflipp..'ldlllt.'s Thc ( ., 'Illll'l1l,lrl & Clbine!-i'\ la ker's Director
,
( I 7",' J. Sudl dl'siglls ,(11'/"(' directly illjllll'lltin/ 0/1 1'/¡i/orld/l/lio !liS/I-s/y/e fUn/ilu!'", 3 lil""t'i-l'"ck, 01' t(lssd-nlld-n~ff1e. dEnir:;. 111,,01.. OH/!/ in \'cw York. TJ¡t',lf follo,,' ElIglish 1111.1 lrisll m(ldd~ ami ,{'al' nmollg f/u' mos! Ilo/'It!ar pnllems. TlIe bllsy cl1n.'illg alld il'ágllty ca/Ir/ole legs 'I·ifll /flelr pTOIIO/lllad (/111 1'5 an! l/oled c!wrnelerislic5 of J\IIICl'icau (I/mi/lIre. HI 97(11I/38/ill. 1
4 1\,(11/ bmckcts suc!, as f!lis
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pille eXl1l11pl1.' by ¡miles R('y"olds of Plliflldl'1plli(l, /IIade 1765-7j, rnrdy sl/l<'il'ed dI/e lo lile fmgility 01 ¡lte clllbornte cal1,ilrg. T/¡is e.mmpl/' ¡/le/r/dcs serol/s,
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nlld stnlncfitl'S (ll1o,'f file
bird's 1//'lId. Hf 41.jc/ll/l6Xill.
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n American furniture the Rococo stylc is most apparent in the art of the carver, the signature of the style being the realistic portrayal of elements from namre such as shells and rock\·vork, scrolling leaves, and flowers and fruit, all combined with e -and S-scrolls. Sometimes trefoil or quatrefoil shapes suggest the Gothic style, and piercing or blind fretvvork the Crunese taste. The predominant influence was Chippendale's Tite GeJ1tlelllall & Cabil1etMake,s Director (1754, further eds 1755 and 1762), which inspired large numbers of exuberantly canred chairs with cabriole legs, shaped top rails, and pierced splats. In the major cities of the pre-Revolutionary American calonies, cabinetmakers created distinctive local styles, sometimes guided by irnmigrant craftsmen. One of these wos Thomos Affleck (1740-95) who came lo Philodelphia fmm I3ritain in 1763. He and other cabinetmakers, mast 1l0lilbly Benjamin Randolph, produced case furniture illld chnirs in what they called the "Nev..' French 5tyle," .111d l'11:.urcd Philadelphia's leading position in the production of fine furniture during America's Rococo
I
98
-
.........
period; this began U1 the 17605 and continued at least until the 1780s. Most of this fumiture was made of mahogany, with carved panels, frequently inc1uding shells, placed centrally on chests of drawers or on the mees of cabriole legs. Looking glasses, sconces, and other carvers' showpieces were usually gilded, or partially gilded, like their European counterpart5. The high che5t of drawers, or highboy, was quintessentially American, with its deep curving broken pediment embellished with scrolled terminals and finials above, shaped apron below, and vigorously carved cabriole legs supporting the piece. Emanating from Nev.'port Rhode Island, was the block-fronted secretary. Whether taking the form of a simple kneehole desk or a tall bureau cabinet, it was characteristicalIy carved with shell headings to the panels and set on ogee braeket feet. Boston's version is plainer, with fluted side pilasters and sometimes a Dutchinfluenced bombé lower section supported on short cabriole legs and c1a\·\'-and-ball feet.
oI ¡Irail't'r,,:. oI lIle l.l/pl' klWi!'11
5 \ ~lIh/lllllhlllll,¡/ll':o:flll.l' li¡'mryllOOkca:'t',
6 A lligh c/h,:,1
m Id,' ill C1'I'rk~It'II. 50,,'b Cllrl1/illn. 1;-55<'). /1, ll1~l'inllicl/I il',/:, p/lllt' XC111;1I T/lomn5 ('IIII'I"'lId"/¡'j Tlw Gentleman & Cabinet\1 .• J..I.·r·... Dirl.'Ctor (l/j.P. HI 1.0jlll!]ft jiJl.
eb a higllllO}f ill Alllerim. It hn5 n SC'rt,lh-d
l'rokell pedilllt'llf, jltnfh'd IIproll, mui cdbriole kg,,:., alld i"" a1frillll/t'd lo Elipllnlt'1 C1111pill of COIIJli'cliCl/I. 1-11 2.22/11/711 lbn.
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7 Bri/islt illflllellce is parmllOllllt 01/ fhis cllilln tnúlt: of J 765-7j, nllri/JlIti'd to Iltt' E/lglislJ cnbillelll/nker, Ro/J¡:rt Hnrto/d, who worked ill Porls/l/outll, Nc'W HmllpslJirc, cenl re oll!le ¡\J1'1/' ElIg/alld li",ber lrade. HI 72.5clII/28'/,i".
8 Tltís rol/lid ten fabie 011 a tri¡1Od bnse e.tpr6ses tite IIftilllnfe IIrúnllily ill Rowco desigll. ¡.vllen 1/01 ill IIse it cal/Id /JI' lilted illlo n patien! posiliol1 nlld pllslled illto n COrtlt'r. HI 72.jCIII/281ill, dinlll. 76clII13oil/.
9
9 A llnck leg swillgs Ollt fo slIpporl fIle ¡oldillS 10p cif litis filie/y cnrved 5t'rpellfillc Ctlrd tavle, nlfriblllcd lo lIJe worksllo¡J ofTlJo/l/as Affleck ill jllti/ndell'hin, J 770-71. T/lc jCl'OlIillg decomfiOIl nlollg thc npl'OlI is Rococo. HI 71CIII/28ill.
99
German Porcelain Early Rococo
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1 TJ¡is MeisscII tcapol, tIIodelled by J.J.
2 f.J. Knclldler's Meisscll grollp ofHariequin
Kaclldler, C.I740' exemplifies fhe Rocoeo fashiollfor trompe J'oeiJ. lt blur:; Ihe ¡il/e betweclI falltasy nl1d renlity, na/llre tll1d I1rt ;/1 {/ jrivoiollS, colltelllpomry way. Ht 14cm!5Y,ill.
and Columbine ¡mm fhe Cornmedia dell' Arte, made C.I74I, still SJIOWS lhe strollg CO/OIlTS 01 tlIe Soroque slyle, bu! lhe lIIodellillg o[ lhe pair jrOIll {!le cOl1telllpornry I/Ientre S/IOWS fhe
IIg!lf lllood oj fhe penod. Ht. 15cm/6il1.
Developments in Rococo
o c.:l o
senJice I/Iade for Count BriiJ¡l. His lIallle /l/eant "marsh," tl11ls tlle aquatíc theme,
1 Tlús C1745 MeisseI1fígllre of a Map Scllcr is parl oj a series oj the Cris de Paris, Inkel1
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y the end of the 17305, the grandiosc Baroque style had ron its (ourse. It \·vas replaced by the playful, feminine Rococo stylc, vvhich generated él ne\\' fccling of frivolity, energy, and movement. It was a style suited to porcelain, vvith its brittle, yet plastic qualities, and its ability to take brilliant, glossy colours. In J.J. Kaendler's hands small models reflecting scenes at court, Italian COl1ll1ledia dell'Arte eharaeters (from a type of improvised folk drama), peasants, craftsmen, miners, beggars, street vendors, Turks, Persians, and Chinese ,vere fashioned from \'1r ax or clay. Frem these, plaster-of-Paris moulds were made, from which carne press-moulded porcelain figures, used to replace figures for table deeoration made of wax, marzipan, or sugar paste. No longer did porcelain seek to compete with hardstones, metal, or marble sculpture - it had found an identity all of its O\vn. EarIy figures stood on flat mound bases applied with f10wers to disguise firing faults. Gradually, bases becarne more Rocoeo in style, with flamboyant giIt scrollwork. By the 17605, they were raised on high scrolled feet with
B
100
3 A Meissell colfee ClIp and sal/cer frolll Ihe SlI'all Sen1ice, 1II0de/led by JI J(¡¡cJIdler alld ].F. Eberleill C.1737-40; IlIey are fmm tlle
fromellgrnvíngs by the eOll/te de Cayllls, after drawíngs by Edmé BOflc!rardoll, {/lId 1II0delled by].}. Kaelldler. Tlley were jOl"lIIed from IIIlIltiple smal/ press-/l/ol/lded compol/eIIls alld joilled witll liquid slip. Ht 16.5clII/67oill. 2 Tire exoticism of lIJe Rococo sly!e cml be seell ill tlris C.1750 paÍ1" of Meíssell figures of Malabar Musicians, by F.E. JVleyer. By tlle middle of the 18th aut ury, figures could be made ,pitll lIlore e/aborntioll and detail, SUdl as lile sellse of 11I0vement beÍllg suggested by the sillirlillg robes. T/¡e aSYlIlmefrical feat/lery C-scroi/s 011 lile bases elllp/zasí::e the Roeoeo style. \<\Iolllml111 17.5em/7ill.
piereed deceratioll te give an illusion of fragility. The enamels changed from the strong Baroque eolours te a paler palette of pinks, lilacs, primrose, and turquoise, and clothing 011 the figures was painted with oriental flowers. Between 1737 and 1741, Kaendler and Johann F,iedrich Eberlein (b.1696) designed for Count Briihl, ehief minister of Augustus m, an armorial service of over 1,000 pieces, each decorated in low reliefs with swans. By the 17505, tablewares were pierced 'with trellis or basketwork and painted with flowers, birds, htmting scenes, and amatory subjects after Watteau and Teniers. Sma11 galanteriewaren (toys), sueh as seent bottles, ét/lis, and snuffboxes, previously the province of the goldsmith and enameller, \.. .'ere no\v made in porcelain. Before long, Meissen's closely guarded secret had spread a11 over Germany, and rival faetories opened up under royal patronage. However, all were surpassed by the brilliance uf Franz Anton Bustelli (c.172G-1763). at Nymphenburg, whose series of figures from the C01llllledia dell'Arte epitomized the spirit of the Roeoco.
-------------------------------1 The Height 01 Rococo The seJlse of lIen'DIIS, asymmetrical ellergy elllergillS from Jlatural forms is evidellt ill lIJe lIig!1 scrolliJlg cresl of lIJe clock. wllicll is surll/OImtro by ti/e figure of a water "Ylllp!l. ¡¡;hi/e C-scrolls composed ofwater reeds flallk tIJe sides, alld l/u' Jligh S·scroll feet sllggest fishes' tails. TIJe pniJltillg of lot>ers afler Watteall alld tlle gildillg add lo tllf! effecl. Ht 40.5cIII/16ill. 2 T}¡e sJmpe of tllis Meis5f'1I seellt boffle, made C.1750. is typicall.lf Rococo ill ils asymmetry, as is tlle object itself. Watteau, Paler. aJld Telliers prol'ided illspiration for tlle <:(('11('<; 011 MPissPII l/>arrs_ HI J4.5CIII/51.ill. 3 COlllemporary si/ver illspirl'd fIEl' desigll of flEis c. J 750 ¡mir of MciSSf'n vases. Tllet¡ displm¡ mI illveJltive l/se of C- alld $-scro/ls. olltfilled in 1I/01l0cJlToml' al/d gildillg fo create mI eleganl, rl'strailled effect. HI 12C111/41,ill. 1
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6 PI/U, or pillk, was a
'l'fe;s5e1l ...ases for pot-poIlTri, mnde c.175j, ",as modefled by
c/mracteristic C010llT for pailltlllg en camaieu (i" IIIOJ/ochrome
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sillllllatillg a cnlllro) dllr;IIg file
KIlelldler ill t}¡e fllll-blowlI
Rococo style, Witll jlnmboyallt
Rococo periodo
scrollrt'ork nlld pierced
5 TlU! Rococo lave of mllllral ¡Dril/S can be seell in tllis
the jemillillily of lhis pair of Meissell chocolale CIIp5 0/1 a tray, made c1750, as do tlle clln>ed olll/ille of tlle tray, tl,e pierced lTembleuses galleries (fo IlOld tile CIIpS sleady w!lell Ilnlldled by tremblillg JWllds), mld lIJe VI/alteall <,iglleltes.
AJeis5e1l schneeballen
\V.28·5 clII/ l1 V,ill.
dt'comtiOIl.
111 compnrisoll to
tll(' t'nSl.'$ a/Jovr, tlley are /leítheT
restmined llar clegant. TI/e uases represen! Earth anri Air from a se! 01 e/elllen/s. Ht .p.cm/l6V,ill.
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ir ellhollCt!s
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made c.1745, wi/IJ the Dl/ter
slIIface of bol" pieces bcillg ellcrl/sfed willl mnyflowers.
101
French and Italian Porcelain Early Developments in Vincennes
TlEe bombt' form of tllis VillUlIIll'S Pase alld the scrolJillg nCillll1l1lS /eni't'S tiJa! flow rOlmd fi,e body are typicnl of a,e Rococo loi.'C of Silll/OlIS tllld /lntuml/orllls. Tlu: use of gildillg teas restrich'd fo ti/e ViIlC('///ll'5 nlld Sel.'res factories. 1
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2 These ViIlCel/lleS jlowerllends, 1Il01lllted 011 pnil/led tóleware stems al1d leaves, display the Rococo lope of imitatillg naturl.'. Prodllced from c. 1745, lile jlowerlu:llds were III/IOI/S 1111.' 11105/ sllccessflll of lile enrly
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orcelain \Vas first made in France at Rouen, Sto Cloud,
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Chantilly, Mennecy, and at Vi..ncennes. French porcelain \Vas different to the hard-paste porcelain of Gemlany
102
2 L:....A
and the Oriento Kaolin \Vas not discovered until1768 atSt. Yrieux, near Limoges, but the Freneh created a 50ft-paste, ar artificial, porcelain ITom a glassy frit mixed wi.th whi.teburning c1ays. It \Vas prone to cracks and blemishes. TIle Vi..nceIUles (la ter 5evres) factory \Vas taken over by royal adm.inistration in 1759. It took six years to master the firing of biscuit (unglazed porcelain) and the lead glaze, and in 1748 a kiln was invented to fue enamels. TIle factory hired enamellers to develop COIOUTS to be mixed \,'ith shadedJoJldalIts (pastes) and fused with the glaze. In 1748 gilding \\"as also discovered. Among the earliest "'ilrcs "'ere lifelike porcelain flowers that were mounted llll lole",are stems. From 1751 small pieces \Vere decorated wilh .111 lInderglaze-bllle (blell-Iapis) ground, and birds and llo\\'crs \\'crc painted in reserved panels with gilt scrolll'dgL'd Rococo borders. Other colours - turquoise (blel/· lal'~I('), pink (rose POlllplldollr), and green (verd) - followed.
Madame de Pompadour, Louis XV's mistress, \Vas responsible for moving the Vincennes factory to Sevres in 1756. She took an interest in its develapment and helped to employ tap French designers and craftsmen, including juste-Aun?le MeissOlUlier (1675-]750) and lhe sculptor EtielU1e-Maurice Falconet (1716-9]), whose influence "'as seen in the swirling use of natural forms in h.1reens and vases, and biscuit figures used as table decorations, sorne adapted fram the paintings of Fram;ois Boucher (1703-70). Scenes frorn Boucher's work ",ere translated onto wares and vases by the 5evres painters and expressed in the spirit of the Rococo, with putti, shepherdesses, and nyrnphs. These costly wares reflected the opulence of aristocratic life in pre-Revolutionary france. Of the other French factories, SI. Cloud excelled in bérainesque decoration in underglaze-blue, ,,-hile Chantilly specialized in Kakiemon-inspired motifs painted on a white tin glaze. Mennecy's softly coloured flowers ",ere highlighted by rims painted in yellow, blue, and puce, since only Sevres \Vas allmved to use gilding.
The Opulence al French Rococo 1
Tlle l/se of fI/e Jl/SC/OII:;
gral/llds 0'1
COrOIlT
tllis erl'l!T Iwd basin
¡ras a particular¡enture of Sei.'res dllrillg t1le 1750S (llld 1760s. T/le patlem projects a sense
of lIlovcmenf typical of lhe Rococo styfe.
2 TI,;s 5fi'res rosei.mfer e'"""u't'T (lnd basill. /linde C1755, emplmsi:es /1le ClInVJCOOllS /la/llre of Rococo desigll ill porce/aill. T}¡e tllrqlloise (bleu--<:éleste) gral/lid
was illt'ented il! 1753. It U'as t'ery expellsive fo l/se,
C010llT
partly beCflU5e ils !ligll copper COLltenl cOllld damage other pieces in lile kiln.
4 The tllick base (md sOlllcwlwf
il/distinclmodelling of l1/is Mellllecy grOl/p sl/ow SOllle of lhe problems associaled Wit11 softpaste porce/aill, wllic1/ was fragife alld oflm co/lapsed ill ti/e h/ll. Ht qcm/jiill. 5 A Cnporiimollte (Carla lJI) figure of a ¡l'OlIlall dallcing. model1ed by Gitlseppe Gricó c.lijo. Tlle object s/loil's dislillct/y tlle soft. meftillg qunlity of soft-p"ste porcelaitl mld its disadl.'allfages for tlle lIIodeUer. Ht 14.jCIll/5/,ill.
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3 TI/e IIl1derg/n=e gros·bleu i{'nS fhe jirst grolllld colol/r lo be ilm!llfed ill 1752 nI VillCl.'mn'S, (llId il comp/elllel1ts fiell gi/dillg. As IIlt1lly as lltree !fl.'lers il'ere oftclIllpp/iL'li. TI/e lorlll copies tfle oral/ge free t/lb of tlle time.
4
Ht 14cm/Sill.
AGerman Comparison 1 Tltís olltstmldillg e:mmp/e of a c1Jilloiserie grollp .('as made ill
Hdcllst. Gen/mI/Y. ill 1765. Tire pnrliCII/nr/y sharp/y detniled lIIode/fillg nlld piercillg {('IlS possible beClll/se file grollp tl'as mllde of Irard-pasle porcelllill. /11 comparisoll. figures made of 50ft-paste porce1ain (see -l & j llOOt'C) Sf'f'm blllrr5:d.
3 1
103
• •
English Porcelain Early 80ft-Paste Porcelain
-- -
1 A si1<'c!r 1}T()/lIt.'llh' by NiellOlns SprimoJlt, l/U! fOlllldt'r t1111t' C/¡ds'n fnctory, illspired the
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lIIaking oflllis g(l(/t and llt't' jl/g e.ln5. As ill tlll' t'nrlit'st -¡¡t,m's ofnll factories, it facies tlle tec/miCII/ rt'JiIII'IIII,,,t (1 colollr nlld gilding alld n'/h-s IU/ 1111' (rt'lIIIIY soft paste for ifs aesOldie impad. Ht 11.9Cm/o1l..iJ/. 2 TIJis SIIIIII/ Clu!/sen figure symbo/i=es V~'inter fmm 11 St't of I1lc Four Seasons, made e.1755· Tllt' l~l$t' lIas bt'eJl applied Wil/I flotl'ers ill tlle styit' of ¡\ leiSSCIl, but n/so senlf!s to disgllise smafl illlpafectiol/s ll/tlt cO/lllI/ollly OCC/lr IllIril/g lite firil/g of 50ft-paste parce/aill. As U'ilIll/1allY early El/glisll figures, it is solllt'iL'/ltll crude nl/d slalie. Ht 13.jCm/iill.
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Ornamentallnfluences
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These C/Ie/sea dis/les, made e.1755, are paill/ed e of I/atl/ral fonl/s. L. 2. 501l/lOill. 3 MOl/lded aU Oi.'!!r U'jtll i.'illt! feai.'t5, tllis umgtoll Hall Icnpol, c.17jj, ;s a Rocoeo falltasy. n,e crabslock lumd/e alld spollt are fal/lld 011 parce/aill alld eartIJelliL'tlre5 of lile mid-18t11 celltllry. Based 011 a cmb applt! brandl, lile IItlJldlt' is flimsy for lllt! 'L'eight ofa¡ull pat, bul it .ms t""Yfaslliollllb/e. HI 13.501l/jl.ill. 1
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Triumphs and Failures 01 Later Developments 1 Dile of ElIg/nl/d':; greafest cOl/tributiolls fa ¡he ceralllic
world was ¡IJe fecJlI1iqlle 01 trnllsfer prillfillg. ","idl ellabh-d copper~plate
e"grm.'illgs lo bt
trausferred lo poralaiJl alld pottery. This speedelt up lile
decora/i.-'e process, fllld madt'
porcelain, witl, decoratioll prhlfed /l/Ider 01" over (he g/n:e, II/ore ¡rcely nvailable fa ¡he
lIIiddle e/asse:>. ni;; Worcestl.'r IIII/g,
c.1757. is pril/fed
Witllll
por/mil of lIJe kiJlg of Prussin. HI10·2(1II/4;1I· 2 Tlús ¡mi' of Bowfiglfres of
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Harlequin and Columbme [rvlII fIJe Commedia dell' Arte, mnde C.1765, stand 011 lIigh scrolled Rocoeo bases, ¡¡¡I¡¡eh
<¡'ere popll/m' dl/r¡ux file late 17605. A/tIlOlIgl/ ti/ese are bnsl.'d 01/ Akisscll mode/s. t/leyare cTllde (lIId doll-like in
comparison with tlle origillals.
•
f continental porcelain was elegant, its English counterpart was pedestrian. This was partly due to the softpaste porcelain and an English conservatism in the arts, but also because the factories had no royal patrons paying for experiments. Li.k.e the Freneh, the English 50ft-paste poreelain was made by mixing white-burning day \vith a glassy frit. lnstability in the kiln produced warping and firing cracks. The glaze was thick and difficult to control. England's first porcelain factory was at Chelsea in London. Nicholas Sprimont 0716-71), a Huguenot silversmith from Liége, designed early pieces influenced by Huguenot Rococo silver. On tablewares of the 17505, fiov./ers, landscapes, and harbour scenes were adopted from Meissen, and Japanese Kakiemon patterns \Vere also eopied. Aesop's fables \Vere painted. on tea and coffee wares by Jeffreyes Hanunet O' ieale (d.1801), and a series of botanical wares named afier Sir Hans Sloane were remarkable for their uninhibited flamboyance. Moulded. borders became popular, and the Rocaea taste fer natural forms \Vas seen in leaf and flower-shaped
1
3 Tllis \Voreester ehilloiserie
teapot, /IIade C.17jj-60, sflOws tlle l1ea! pottillg nlld sfrellg!h of body flmt beenllle ¡Jossible nt \Vorees!a nftt'r fIJe illt"odl/elioll of SO.1pstom' !o tlrt J'115tt. TI!!" steafitic body pro1.'ed ideal for l/sefllf il'ares, and this praclicnl desigll is lypim/. Hl I2em/4ill. 4 TIIt! body of t/lis Bow coffee poi, /linde C.1760, is cOioered ¡vitf, I/lolllded Rococo C- nlld S-sero!!s. TJ¡e c/III11SY serpellt SpOl/t ¡vil" overlarge lip, tlle II/nsk beIow tlle lIeck, lile kl/op, nlld !lIe splnyed seTOIf feel alf mnke for /ll/ object 11m! /lspires lo soplJisticalioll, bltt fai/s disll/afly, nltllOlIgJI witJl n cerlni" c//(/rlll. Ht 30.jC/ll/IÚll.
dishes, as well as boxes and tureens madelled as fruits, vegetables, birds, and animals. Figures were influenced by Meissen, and many were model1ed by Joseph Willems (1715-<56). By the mid-1760s, large figures \Vere supported by sturdy, flower-encrusted back supports, or bocages. In the 17605 luscious eolour grounds with exotic birds and flowers in frames of heavy Roeaeo tooled. gilding \Vere popular. 5?me of these efforts at sophistication were clurnsy and beset by technical problems. In 1769 the Chelsea factory dosed after only t\·venty-four years. The Bow factory was founded in 1744 and eatered far a middle-class clientele. Kakiemon-style decoration and blue-and-\vhite chinoiseries \vere cheap and popular, as were white wares copied from Chinese b/nllc-de-Cllhu!. Bane ash \Vas added. tú the Baw paste ta give stability. This allowed for rugh Rocaeo bases on large figures. Other faetones made 50ft-paste porcelain, but it \Vas at Worcester that a new formula was discovered. Dr \l\7all's porcelain body inc1uded soapraek (steartite) and rus wares beeame more functional, with neat, heat-resistant shapes.
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Pottery The Continuing Fashion lor Blue-and-White I/Jis palie! of OnllTlllflll by /crlll Bérnill, c.169O-JpD, tlledesigll is rcm/u;san! of 2 IJI
1 A de/iea/e lim'ilr pnltem incorporalillg PI/U; (Inri saol1s cmllle seell 0/1 a¡js frellcll
16111-centllry grotesqlle omnment, bul il has
faii!llce sttllld pninled ¡" cobalt bluf', c1120. T1Ie desigll clost'1y /0110"'5 lile style of
alig/ltlles5 t1ml c/mrllcteri:es lile Rococo sty1e. 3 TIIis Por/I/gl/ese tile pallel, made 17 20-]0, l/ses bllle-tllld-.t'11ite CO/Ollrs bul depicts EllropenJl figures wit/¡ill ti jrallle of CIIn'tS.
COlltempornry FrencJ¡ prilltS.
Diam.21(1II/81ill.
2
Changing Tastes in European Earthenware 1 Tlle scnttered bllllciles of
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/ln/ Ilmlistie f10wers nm/I/ged nSYl1ll1lctricnlly
011
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f/¡e sur/aee
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of this pinte, maje ill Stmsbollrg e.1755, Ilml ¡lIe domiutlllt rose pil1k ill'l! clmrncteristic of Frcl1c1, jaicl1ce ill lile middle of tlle 18t/1 CCl//JI,!!_ rlley feJ1eet tlle illjlllellCe o/ Germ(m porce/aill. Dil1l1l. 2.¡.,cm/9Y.ill. 2 rile desigll elemellts o/ t/lÍs cartel dock, l/1ade in Stmsbollrg C.li,Q-l¡60, illcorpomte brokeJl cun'l'S mI/1/it'c!/Y. "I'isted feml1le bl/s/s. il'!licl' n'call el1r/ier Frene/I fl/mill/re mOl/lIts and l/le tt'Ork of tll(' desigl1er ]l/ste-Allri:le ¡\leisscmllier_ HI 1.loml3ft ¡i/l.
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3 Tllis U,'el!! and rea/istic tllreel! mld co.'a. /IIade il! A1arseilles Cliio. i:i illll1eform of a tl/rkey. 1t is a late example of tlle widespread illtert."'St in lIalllm/islic forllls, ,¡o/licl, ((1/1 be see/! in ei.wy bnmcll of tJ¡e d('comtit't!l1rts. Ht 3S.,cm/1jill.
106
English Stoneware 1 Tlle shape of l/lis Stnfford:#Jirc
red SIOlll?Wflrt' coffee poI, iJlscri/k'd JosepIJ Erige (111.1 dflled
1760, rleripcs frOI1l si/ver, bu! fIJe IIntllralistic ¡rcafmenl
o/
lIJe Jlal1dle fll1d Spollt (11I.1 the nSYlllllletrically plnad sprays
offlOi¡'et"S are typicnl 01 Ellglislt poI/ay. Ht 21.3CIII/8'1;II_ 2 Tltis t/¡illly potted. snft-gln:ed stonl!H'an: $(llIceboaf, /linde ;11 Sflljfordsllire c. t 755. Itas saollillg liBes (Inri I/alllra/istic
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•
floilWS pniJlted ill
ellfllllef
ca/ours
sud, as rose pillk. L. 16clII/6'1ill. 3 Tltis l(lrge, SIl1t-.'~/a=ed
;
po!. made ;11 Stnffordshire C.1755. combines a
stOlletmre plmell
IUI/llm/1stic crnustock spolll nlld
/¡nl/dle wifJl CJlillese figures pickcli Ollt 11/ all ill/el/se Tose pillk. Ht lS.jemI7bu.
The Emergence 01 Cream-Coloured Earthenware 1 lVedgwood made filio:; crelllll-coJoured elll't/tCllware tellpot C.176] in tite forlll al a rca/istic call1~f1otl'er, il'ifll tlle Jotl'el' parl ill a ricJ¡ green g/a:e. Ofller pieas il'ere made as me/oliO:; aJld pillt'npples. Hr 12CIII/41.ill. 2 Appfit'd Rococo-o:;/yle decorafioJl, illcllldil/g 5/Il~ff5 aJld ribooll-tied brnllc/I /lIllldles. CIlII be fOil/Id 01/ t!lis cn!!l/II-c%ured enrllleJliI'llre tureell, COi:W, !l/Id stm1fl, IIIndt' in Let'ds 01' Sfnffordshire c.1770. L. .pcmh6'1ill .
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n awareness of tile emerging RocaeD style can be seen in the development of Freneh fai'enee in the 18th eenrury. Early wares eontinued to be painted directly onto the llnfired glaze, llsing high-temperature colours, particularly eobalt bllle, and to favollr symmetrieal designs derived from engraved sourees but developed into a lighter, more delicate style. TIus was sllperseded in the middle of the centwy by the deveJopment of Im,\'temperature colours, whieh \\Tere applied onto an already fired glaze and given a third firing in a muffle kiffi. This technique allowed for a wider and more delicate range of eolours, in particular, a rose pink enamel derived from ehloride of gold. This softer, more delicate colour scheme was eombined with the random placing of naturalistic ornament and a pronounced liking for asymmctry of fonn, reflecting current fashions in porcelain. Ataste for utilitarian objects modeUed in the shape of animaJs and birds reflected an interest in naturalistic forms. In England, Rococo fom'ls and motUs deriving from continental silver and porcelain can be seen in the stone-
A
•
wares and earthenwares produeed in Staffordshire in the second half of the century. These often appeared ten or more years after they had gone out of fashion for items rnade in other materiaJs. The use of 5- and C-shaped curves, a liking for asyrnrnetry, and 'In interest in forros derived from nature, which had already been used by the English porcelain factories, can be seen in both the revived red stonewares of the 17.505 and 17605 and in the thinJy potted, white saltglazed stone\vares developed from the early experiments of John Dwight, which were discussed in the last chapter. Although often relying entirely on moulded decoration, these white wares were occasionally painted in enamel colours, once again looking to European and oriental porcelain for the eolour scherne and subjeet matter. The material that dominated English pottery in the second half of the 18th century was a refined ereamcoloured earthenware, which will be discussed more fully in the next chapter, but which continued to exhibit Rocaeo tendencies "'en into the 17605.
107
Glass Eastern Europe and Holland
dl~J¡ ;1'iIIl
Sch\\'artzlot (blnc/.:Il'iIrO 1'lWllldlt-d drillkillS SC,'Hes by Iglln: Prássla. c. I ; J (J. l'n'i~~It'r'~ 11101 ifs, Offl'/! drCli¡l1l fmlll CVlIll.'UI/,orl/l'Y ('Ilsm¡,illgs. wer,' frl'qlll'lIt/y ('1111",11 i:;fl,'d ,l'itll ;nJl/-r,'d, gilt, 3 5;1'.'.'/111"'1/
(/lId scmtc/I<'¡f }Jighligllls, 1// 12cm/4f,il1.
en oc:(
o
u o u o a:: 2 1 Bollemiml Zwischengoldglas (go/d lIIlder g/n;;;;) Iidded gablet. decorated in ellnmel nlld si/ver nud golri lea! s(lIldwiclll!d betll'eell
layers ofglns;;, ¡¡¡W, fI JllmtSlI/flH
QIl
t¡1'O
llOrsebnck.
C.J740. Ht 21CIll/8~ill.
2 Scalloped "f1l11bro,;ia" sll't.'efmenf di':;!I,
tJ¡i!ordically illfemfeli for SI/ppillg lile I/eelar ol lhe gods; tlle nrcllety}m! Rococo ¡res5ef. Silesifll/, c.l750. Ellgral'ed ¡¡'it/¡ scrafls (lIld jfllllily armorial cr¡'ji jlflllked by lio/15. Ht 15CIII/6;1I.
1
lass proved a perfect vehicle for Rocoeo decoration, typified by intimate, colourfu}. elegant, and often dream-like images executed in enamels, gold, and
G
108
engraving. lts principal themes were courtIy leve, the countryside, ships, ruins, and exotic, supposedly Chinese, Indian, and Turkish scenes. Vessel glass could not be formed into Baroque and Rococo's curves and lattices, Indeed, the shape of its standard vessels, beakers, goblets, decanters, and Pokalell (covered goblets) remained constant throughout most of the 18th century, However, the scalloped "ambrosia" sweetrneat dish, descended from medieval rock crystal, preved the archetypal vessel of Rococo glassware. Many Rococo trademarks, induding scrolls, strap\vork, élnd grids, ,,>'ere culled from pattem books, notably those of the Parisian architect draughtsman, Jean Bérain. His \\'ork \\'as plagiarized and published in 1759 in England by Péwlus Decker whose O/jI/ese Architectllre, Civil alld OI"llI1JJIl'llfn/ and Gothic Arc1litectllre Decorated became, logclher, the Rococo decorator's style bible.
Sponsored by noble patronage, the small reglOn encompassing Bohemia and Silesia became Europe's most int1uentia1 and leading producer of fine!y decorated glassware. The taste of the Hapsburg Empire's aristocrats ensured a gradual shift from ponderous Baroque to Rocaca's lighter, more frivolous themes, Backed by centuries of experience, Bohemian glass decorators proved masters at the tluee main forms of Rococa embellishment: enamelling, gilding, and engraving (see p,llO), Their work ultimately eclipsed previous centres of excellence, inc1uding Berlin, Nuremberg, Thuringia, and Dresden. Bohemian Rocaco glass decoration proved 50 alluring that, by the mid-18th century, tlle fafOlJ de Bo}¡cJllr? had become ubiquitous across most of Europe. The glass industries of se\'eral cOLmtries, including Italy, Spain, Portugal, Russia, Halland, and France, became virtual fiefdorns of Bohemia, with its migrants supen'izing local production and decoration. By c.1750, Bohemians operated 50 fore¡gn glassworks across Europe and North America and had effectively captured the \vorld market.
-
4
4 FllIle-ClIt Bohemian IItaka decornfed
10itJl ti' WOI/1Ii1/
drl?S5t'd
a:; ti' shepllerdess, fl /l/flll /15 11 IlllllfslIUlII wi/f¡ his dogo (lIld un obelisk fralllf'd b-" Rocaeo si/el/s jn polychrome el/ame/s, (.1760. Ht 9.5cm/3Y.in. 5 Tllret' gobld:> ltecorntrd iri,!, typical BohcllIiall RocO(o polycllrome l'1Itl'lIll.'flillg, of a e/OiVlI. (l t/'Dnlnll in a pi1/k gO
5 ......
_
:ud a 'IJ!lU ¡II n tllrl'tHl.lJroll(1/1l11
6 Bohemiflll Zwischengoldglas
8 \lel1etitllI IlImbla decora/eri
/idded gablel decora/eii fur
:/: r('!ye./¡rf"IU· f'IUlIIJe/S ill tlll.'
decorntor),1735-ol0.
file Dulc/I lIIarkt·/ Witll
BohemülIl slylc il'itJ, tite (lr",s al
Ht 14cm/5!il1.
(olltÍ/mol/s seme of ti' hOllse,
¡lIe da POllte fami/y. lIJe Rin/to
sJlip. (Inri lmrbollr, fllld ti' (OIllIJl('lIIornfipc illScriptioll. (.1730. Ht 27cm/IO'/,iJl. 7 At'o:rnge '1/1flJity Bof'cminll cylilldl'r decallta ¡piO, a hall
'''irige,
stopjJer f1l1d Rocac!, gi1diJlg of
by Bohemia" misrmlt crnftsml'n, it'itll Rococoflornf gildillg (lIId
exccufed
by il Hausmaler
(110m/?
(1
(Jlld
a caTOllel. attribllted
lo Os,-'a/do Bm5Stl, C.1770. Hf ll.jcm/.¡Y:ill. 9 Til'O Bo¡'eme-sfyle decall/as. made flllri/or dl'comlerl ill 51"';11
lila" ¡mlkillg !lis dog.jmlllt'd by free:> (lIld serol/s. (.1770-80.
ltoJ1ow KlIge/ "scoop" cuUillS
Ht 25(111/91.;11.
(/lOllo
if mnde by
nftllgemnil), Left:
/¡f
ti'
2ocm/7 ;1,/11.
Rigltl: /It 23cm/9ill.
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109
Boheme Engraving 3 Cflill(Ji~ait'~, l'ird~ . .f!ll¡C.',.",. i¡ISl.'(I~. (Il/d milis ,j','n' mllollg t/¡oll::/lIlds of ideas i l/II::'/ ni fed ¡JI f lit' Fdl fa 11 ['(l( lk 111/ bli:,lt,'d Iluda I/R' t.pi 11 tillt-s, n'e Ladies' AmUSC'llll'llt
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Tho.! Whole Art of Japilnning (1;62).
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3 4 5ifcsirlll pok,t/. C.l¡';5. l'IIgm¡'I'lt ,{'ítl, Hope jl/ ti/{, fisure ol a
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:,/ti!':' al :'('(1, and ti/e ill:'CI'ipfioll, "j\!Oi/' f:; Hopt' 50011 To Be FlIlftl/ed," fl"lllllcd by ¡.Jmilll,,:,qlll· :'tmpil'ork (lud
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1 AIililnnJ lleTOL'S U'f're frwolll1'd g/lIssU'a/1' moti/s. n,is PotSlÍnlJ/
engTtwed tlJld gilt pokal, c.q.¡.oJentllres il vicloriOH5 cOI/lII¡nlldl!l" Ílr polislted TIefschnitt (deep cari.'illg) engmvillg J¡eigllteJIed wifh gold. Ht )OCm/II 1,;11. 2 Typica[ pnttern book desigll by Jea" BéraiJl. His drnil'ings pro1.'Cd olle of ti/e stro/lgest illj/IIf?llCes oveT file Bnroqlle {I/ld Romeo styles (md were
widely applied across t/le decomtive arts.
ococo glas5 engraving was inspired by techniques and themes pioneered by Caspar Lehmann in Prague from c.1600. Cheaper and more stable than the previous medium, mineral rack crystaJ, glass preved perfectly suited. to Rococo's light, superficial airs. Drawing on a range of sorne 40 differing wheels applied \vith abrasive paste, the engraver gradually 5cored images, ofien drawn from Bérain and other pattern books, in straight and curving lines. TI1e effect was heightened by selective potishing, gilding, and cutting, and in differing profiles ranging rrom light scratches to deep grooves. The rnain characteristic of Baroque and ¡{()Coco engraving was the proliferation of scrolls and Lnllb IfIld Balldelwerk, literally, "leaf and strapwork." Thc central Eurepean nobility adopted decorated g1.1sswnre as relatively cheap wealth statements, 1ll,ldvt'rtcntly sponsoring the development of sumptuous 1'llgr.lVing in the rock-erystal style, notably on lidded. );Ilhkh.
R
110
4
WarmbruIU1, for example, rose from six to over -lO in the decade to 1743. The proliferation of capable craftsmen encouraged many to seek fame and fortune in Derunark, Norway, SV'leden, Poland, Spain, Russia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Britain. TIUs migration contributed to a general stylistic unifonnity in European glassware, c.1700-70. The exceptions were British and Dutch engraving: the former for its mediocrity; the latter for its quality and individuality. Continuing the 17th-eentury Dutch tradition for di amond point calligraphy, Frans Greenwood (1680-1761), David Wolff (1732-98), and others produced an outstanding series of unique stippled portraits and figurative work. However, the most notable Dutch-based wheel-engravers were the Bohemians Simon and ]acob Sang (d.1783), members of a dynastic family of glass decorators, who worked in Amsterdam from c.1753. Their Rococo wheel engraving on lead-based Angleterrestyle Dutch-made baluster goblets, indude sorne signed. commemorative and ornamental pieces.
5 Ametllyst-tillted $ile:;inll clIgra•.'ed, cut, tllld gi/f l1okill. ,.1;60. TIIl' llOit,¡ is (111 witll Chei'1"01I5 (llId pdals, nI/á (,lIgrmxd Wil/l figur6 G/IIid
Ro((lCO servil:; nlld foliag<'. Ht 2ocm!¡l.ill.
5
7
cllilloiserie f'lIgrai'ed Brit¡sil fllcet -5 tClIIl1Icd d ri I/kí IIgglassQ, /llore attmclit't: for fI//!;r mút'l' cI/arm tlum qlln/ity 01 eXl!cutiol1. Ht 15.3CII1/6;1I.
8 AH EIIgJisll-slyle [mll/sfa glass
6 TiPo
wil" a stipp/e-el/gm¡1ed portmit afler Frt/lls Ha/s, sigm'd and daled Frall:; GreW¡l'Ood. 1745. 11/ stipp/e-engm<,ing fhe ¡mage is created by repeafedly tnppillg nt ti/(' glass ¡vil" a poillled tool. Ht 2jcm/9Y,ill. 9 Filie, large TII/lril/giall copered goblel el/graved lVi//¡ a cOlltiul/ol/s scelle ofa rider ill wood/nlld by Alldreas Sallg, faffler or brollJer of ¡acob, siglled alld da/ed 1727. Ht 18cm/7ill.
7 Dlltc/llidded goblfl eugra¡>ed
«Ji//¡ fl s/lip iJl Juil sail, l//e stCIII (lila lo1l'l'r
bowf CI/I .pit/¡
AlIgletcrre (Ellglis/l-styleJ (lit
motifs. 0765_ Ht 35.6CI1I/14;11.
8
o
c..:l O c..:l O
a:
9 10 Allgleterre-sty/e facet-stclIlllled drillkillg-g/flSS, file !Jowl stipp/e-C1/graved willl afrielldsltip Scell/?, Col 775. Ht 16cIII/61.;1I. 11 Light balllsfer dril/killg-glass eIIgrnved willl a DI/ldl illscriptioll allri Rococo scrolled car/al/clle, signed 01/ Ihe ¡ool "Jacob 5rlllg ¡JIU el Fec,
Amsterdal1lq60." Ht 18.lcm/7Y.ifl.
10
"
111
British Glass
1 Pnir of talJ calldlesficks, C.176j,
2 Cobn/t-b/lle ClI'er, C.176S,
ti/e epítome of 8ritisll Rococo C1/ttillg. Tlie stems wt iJl/,OI/Oil'dinlllolld lacels, fI/e fet'l nlld nozzles ill slUlllow sl;ees, crenlillg
fypicaf of Britisl¡ ClIffillg durillg fJ¡e Rococo periodo Britis}¡ craftslllclI liad yef to dt:ve!op clll11ed CIII molifs muf remailled sl~llisficalfy n'Stricted lo straigllt filies, 51/(1110<1' slices, alld large sfars. Ht 2j.SCIII/91.ill.
n series o/flnt nlld diamondslzaped motifs. Ht 36.Scm/q
,f.,
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.
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5
I'lIflme/s
by trIe Bci/bys. A pastoral
,,;celle is 54'f withill a ((Ir/allche
-==
01 semlls. Ht 8.1(11I/31.;11. 4 5l/gnrlonf drenllla ;pítJ, tl Rocoeo ((Ir/Ol/clle for BEER nlld decora/eri ¡t,it/l JlOps, llflrley, nl/d a butterfly ;/1 opaq/le-wllite alld fHrqlloise ClU/Ille/S by file Beilb.IIS, c.liJo. Ht 2Scm/llil/.
•
7
112
7 SI/Sllr 1""l'1 decornted ¡,/ opaqlle-¡L'1Jite el/mlu:!s by ti/e Beí/by ¡ami/y, ¡pítl, a ::ln'pllCrd gllardillg llis flock ¡{l/lile shelterillg IlIIda n Ir!'/', C.176j. HI 1OCIII/.;ill.
_.d
6
3 Cable! il'itI¡ mI nir-/wisf stelll, lile bOil'¡ decornted in POIIIc1lfOIIU'
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5 Ciant 1m/lIsler gla::5, probttbfy Dutch, ill polycllromc el/ame/s, tl'ifll I Vil/iam of Oral/ge's arlllS ¡dtJJiII Rococo llOrder::, :::iglled "Beilblf Nf"iccnsf1e," C. 1766. Hf 36cm!J4ÜII. 6 OpafJlle-¡I'/Jite stemllled Britisfl drillkillg g/ass, tlle boa,1 decoraled by IJ¡e BeilbY5 il,il1¡ fruitillg "illes. HI 1S.2CII1/6ill.
Britain, which mistrl.lsted both France and Catholicism, initia]]y resisted the Rocoeo style that was associated with both. Besides, Baroque had been superseded in Britain by the sober Queen Anne style, c.1710, and its Protestant peopIe preferred plain or shallow-eut glassware to Boheme glass decoration, regarding it as ostentatiol1s, effeminate, and foreign. E\'en at the height of Rococo's popuJarity in Britain, c.175S, the critic Robert Morris lampooned its whimsical airs \vith a Trentise 011. ..elegnllt Pig~Styes, benl//ifl// HeIlllOllSeS alld de/ig/Ifjlfl Cow Cribs ... nccordillg fo lile TURK/SH al1d PERSlAN I1lflllller. Sorne British silverware \Vas embellished with asynunetrical scrolls as early as 1730, at least a decade before Rococo's earliest manifestations on the nation's glassware. E\'en then, cut faeets and sliees, and enamel and air-twisted drinking-glass stems paid it only minor allegiance, the former being more Angleterre than Boheme, and the latter harking back to the Veruse. The finest British Rocoeo glass decoration \Vas exeeuted in enamels and gold. The leading British
8 Tllt: BciJby;;
¡¡'t'/'¡' Iwf Hriltllll'~
Oll/Y Rococo ~IUlllh'III'r". 11".; cordial glass, (.177°, ¡1'11111'ilil'dy pOlye/I1'01I11' t'lInllll'lIl11g ¡'!l1I/1 IIl1ideu1ifi¡'¡i 5col/i';/llul/ld, [¡,'lIrs 111(' l/mm' mIli ill.;i~"ill o( lit.. • 8eggar',; 8('lIi';0I/, mi Edillbllrgfl· basl'd g('/1tll'/IIrIll';; drillkillg e/lIb, •
HI I)CIII/jill, 9 Britisli VJIl111l1l'-il'1lill'
cm/lih-:::lick (md ff'(l c(mister decvmll'd ill po/ycIJroll/e elUlII/e/s prolmb/y ill SOlltll S/nffol'ds/Jire, u7OO. Tite poP"larily olopnqlle¡{'/tite ¡mued Jrom 1777 wllell c/J(JlIges ill fi,e tnx /mt' rnised ils priee. Cnlldlesfiek 111 22.Scm/9iJl. Cnddl/ III J2.7clII/5ill.
•• ,• •• •• .. • , •• • • • •• ,• •
8
•
9
10 C%l/red nl1d (lIt-gTass slllellillg botl/es, decorn/l'd ill t/le ¡¡'orksIJop 011flll/t.''S GiMs, C.176o-j. DlIeks, blo,;sol/l, illlngillnry /nlldsm/1es,
C/¡jlloiseries, fllld gallle~birds
¡¡'erl?
stalldnrd 1II01iJ:; o/ tlle Britisli Rococo
<'ocn/11//ary. HI (npprox.) 8elll/)v'ill. 11 Elllt'mld-greell ¡'ase, s/J(Jped ill tlle 1I/(//lIIer 01 Chillese porce/nill,
o
t.:I
O
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O
c:
decornted il/ golJi ,('il1l YOllIIg lo,'ers ns ImYl//nkers, by Jnllles Gi/es, C.]760-j. HI 4ocm/tj1.ill. 12 A Imllsitiollal piece; Neodnssically slmped
decnl/ler decomted ¡('it/¡ Rocoeo serolls nlld lalfices ill goTd by Jall/es Giles, Cl76j-70. 11m
Ht :u.¡cm/S:r.ill.
enamellers were Williarn and Mary Beilby of Newcastle, aetive between c.1760 and 1778. Working in a polychrome and bluish opaque-white palette, mostly on drinking \Vares, they applied Rococo motifs induding heraldie crests, ships, shepherds, ruins, and so on, in a quality that at least matehed the finest in Europe. Opaque-\vhite glass, itself typical of British Rocoeo, was painted with polychrome vitreous enamels in several centres, including Bristol and Staffordshire, and was \Videly advertised behveen 1743 and 1767. Favoured subject matter included pattem-book flo\Vers and insects, applied to "ases and tea canisters. Britain's most versatile glass decorator, James Giles of London (1718-80), was also among its leading porcelain painters. Working belween c.1755 and 1776, Giles applied a distinctive range of Rococo and, later, Neodassical monfs on to aH manner of glassware in gold and polychrome enamels. Giles's repertoire ranged from unique geometric mosaic patterns to typically British Rococo floral sprays, scrolls, chinoiseries, and the exotic.
113
•
Silver and Metalwork Meissonnier and Early French Rococo
1
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3 1 ¡usfe-AlIre/e MeissoJlllier's desigll for a 'WiJle coo/er madI' il! 1723 for
tite dllc de BOllrooll is trallsitiOlla/ betweell the Régence mld Rococo sty/es. Some onlfllllental fonlls, like tlle basketwork behilld the coat of aTIIIS, are cOlliJellfiollal, bllt file cartollche mld tlle l¡alldles nre 1II0re ellergefic. 2 T/le neL or slJip model, trnditiollnlly IIInrked fIJe place of tire killg or great lIoble at tableo Tllis CIIn'aCOOIlS nlld sCl/Jptllmlnef ¡uns by MeiSSOllllier for LOllis XV, C.1725. 3 Meissomlier's 1728 cmldlestick comprises two pl¡fIi amid rising serol/s. Us compositioll is so compJex tlml he drew it from tlITre differmt flngJes.
2
n france, Britain, and much of northern Europe around 1720, design was dominated by the ornamental style no\\' known as Régence, after the duc d'Orléans ' . . .ha served as regent dwing the minority of Louis XV. Effectivelya lightening of the architectural Baroque style of Daniel Marot and others, this was led by artists such as Jean Bérain, whose widely circulated ornament prints influenced design in all areas of the decorative arts. Into this relatively stable environment, the new Rocaco style empted as one of the most sudden and startling developments in the history of designo lts application to the decorative arts is largely identified ' ....ith Juste-Aurele Meissonnier (1695-1750), the son of a prominent Turin goldsmith, ",ha carne to Paris in about 1715 and ",ha \Vas appointed Dessilwtellr de la Chambre dll Roi in 1726. This appointment and his conunissions from patrons Iike the dllC de Bourbon ensured a high profile for his original and astonishingly inventive designs. Largely a French phenomenan, the Rocaco style derives its na me from rocaille, meaning rockwork, but its
I
114
,
roots were in Italy. H emerged in part from late Baroque architecture, especially the \vork of Cario Borromini and Filippo Juvarra and in part from the irregular forms found in nature and long used to decorate fountains and grottoes. Its essence, as illustrated by the title page of Meissonnier's Oeuvre (1748), or by rus 1728 design for a candlestick, is a radical re~working of the familiar building blocks of ornament - scrolls, cartouches, classical architectural motifs, and shells - combined with naturalist motifs, and used in such a way that synunetry is abandoned, ,vhile the whole composition conveys a Iively sense of movement and energy. Although apparently random and free, the style in fact demanded considerable intellectual dexterity, if the balance between the appearance of freedom and the necessary tension to hold it together was to be retained. Very few of Meissonnier's works in gold and silver survive, and it is difficult to assess the full extent of his influence, but he was not alone among the Parisian artistic cornmunity in having been exposed to the late
I
4 T/lis se/'h!;> of desiglls ¡(Jr "1//1 ceflnr;; 5//0<1'5 Akissomti,"" t1stollis1lillg ilU'I.'llli"l'IIt's:::. Tl/",I( 11!ake pnrt¡ellln r lI5e olseasl1el1. rock, tllld coml mol!rs. 11l11.'IIdt'd
prilllflr;ly for gll/d5milflS. tht'Y H't'I'(' nfso takl.'ll /lp ill porcdaill.
\11 \¡ •
5 Tlle lit/c page o/ Meissoll/lier's
Oeuvre o/ l¡'¡S is
itse~f all
extmordil/nry Romeo desigll. ff ;5 com'¡ llci IIgly t /¡ree-d ;11/(.'1/5;011(11, yd al ¡lit' SIl/II/! time ¡'irlllal/y
!1
illlpGSsiúle ill tite fca/ i:l'Orfd.
.,
5
4 6,7 TI/I." slIit/' o/ sihw ceJltrepieCt' Ill1d two saJlp /lIreellS desig/led for l/U! :!.IId dl/ke 01 Killgstol/ in 1735 f1l1d
•
•
partly eXf'Cl/led ot>er
~
/le..! set'eml !lear:> is 0111' of ¡he ¡ew mnjor lvkis50lIIlÍer COllllllissiollS fo SlIn'ir..oe. TII/.' IlIreens /lfe complete/y t/U?
lJ
aSY!llll1etricnl (lI1d bear uo trace
01 trnditiollal c1nssicn/ ornamenl. depel/{iillg sole1y 011 a combinatiOIl of abstraet scro/ls alld slte//s mld cnreflllly sllldied i'egetaMe alld animal forl1ls. Tire celltn'l-mxl! ,('as probably lleI,cr lIIadl'. Trlrem lIt 37cllI/14'!ill. 8 T/¡ree-lighf CQndefabrlllll desiglled by McisSOllllier for tlle dI/k!? of KillgStOIl allti madI' in Paris in 1734-j by e/al/de DlIi'ii'ier. Like lIJe tllreclIs. tlli' desigll has replaced l/U? Imlguage of c1nssicn/ vmnl/lellt witll nll clll!rgdie bllf Co/l<'sire cOlllpositioll of illtcrtlelillg scrolls rllld s/¡ell motifs. Ht ;S.jem/ljY,ill.
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7
115
Thomas and Franºois-Thomas Germain 1 TflOlllflS Cerllla/u'5 desigll jor (1
go/d
etmdefnbrlflll ,m:; cOllllllissiolled for lile killg
in 1739 {Inri ;5 composed 01 PI/ti; slIpportillg floral brallcJllS. 1t is hig1l1y Rocoeo bul /llore sYlllmdricnl alld colli'f'llliollnUy strucllITl'd tlm/l ,\JcissoJlllier's desiglls. 2 Cerlllai,,'s carJier
1
3
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4 Part
al fhe Porfllglll'${' royal scr"ict: by
Frm/(ois-TJlOl/Ins Gt'l'Il11lill, I/lÍs kell/c of 1757 combilles Romeo Omnllll'll/ with cililloiscrit: e/CllIcn/s likt' fhe dmSllII s¡Jolll. Ht 4-7.5clII/181.;II, 5 TlJis tlll"l'I'/Ill1l1f ca¡'a o{ 1733-';' bll Tholllas
-
-
Cerllla;1l is Iypicallif ¡ús cOIJII';,ml iOIl
o/
cla,;siml, "C11lplllrtll. alld Romeo omnmCJlt
¡l'il1¡ a ¡n:U·jwlgl,¡f S
ti/e Portlfglfe5e royal St'TPiCf probnbly copies a desigll by lIÉs fafller Y/lOmas GermaiJl from
(lllri 'TUI/s/nles file sly/e 01 the great tl/1l!l'JIS lo a sil/al/el' sen/e.
116
Ht
6
5.5cm/2~ill.
Italian Baroque. The great goldsmith Thomas Germain (]67J-1748) had trained in Rome ;md was also back in París by about 1715. He had \-vorked under Giovanni Giardini on the church of the )esu and his earlier works in silver, such as a wille cooler of 1727, are conceived ín a radical sculphlral Rococo malmer. The success of any style, however, depends as much on its acccptability to patrons as the creativity of artists, and the evidence is that in general the vigorous organic style of the most fully developed Rococo did not appeal to all. The stylc of Gerrnain's earlier works, for exampIe, was not maintained throughout rus career, and his later works - and those of rus son Fram;ois-lllOmas (]726--91) - are generally of a rather more accessibIe nature. In one form or another the Rococo enjoyed a vogue across IllOSt of Europe, although in some areas, especially in eastern Europe and Russia, its adoption was Iater than in Fri"lI1ce and Britain. Meissonnier's Oellvre of 1734 was one of the first of many Rococo pattern books for the use of goldsmiths, cabinetrnakers, and other craftsmen
published all over Europe. Although a styIe identified in large measure with France, there were nonetheless strong regional characterístics. In southem Gemlany, a form cf the style \'\'as developed under architects sllch as Fran<;ois Cuvilliés and Balthasar Neumann, while its application to the needs of goldsmiths \vas typified by the prints of Caspar Gottlieb Eissler (tl.c.1750). The most ambítious designs in silver, sllch as the grand service of tureens and centrepieces made by Bernhard Heinrich Weyhe (1701-82) in Augsburg for lhe Prinee Bishop of Hildesheirn, have a more staccato and less organic character than the styles of Meissonnier and Germain. The aesthetic of fluid scrolls and shell forrns that largely defined the Rococo style was equally ",eU suited to other metalwork, and was particularIy exploited by workers in onnolu. Inhicate works in gilt bronze "'ere difficult to cast and costly to work up and gild. As a result they were considered almost the equal of silver in terms of luxwy but, si..nce they ,",'ere not made of precious metal, they have tended to survive in larger and more
-----------------------------------------Claude Ballin 11
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1 Elaborafe si!r.'C'r (<'!I/repieces, or surtouts de table, bCCIlII/l.' jas/liol/able i 11 F mI/ce i 11 fIJe ear/y JSt/l celltury. Tllis drsigll by Clllude Bllllilll/ h661-1754) combim'S calldle brnllc/¡f'j, Cl1sters. (rile!:;, Illld salt ce/far::; /l
cel/lral SCllfptllrnf CflIIOJ1Y
ill
witlt
trnllsitiollllJ
Régt'llCt' style der;¡'ed from le"" Bérnill. 2 DraU'illg of tl surtout de table by Bnllill 11 ;l! file Hermitage. Jt is similar lo tJ¡e adjllcmt dt"';óigll bllt has SlIbstitlltt:d the central CaJlOPY fuI' ,i !¡¡'ú'jj-sl¡,¡púf boJ.,l. 3 Tites!? ¡"iJl/.' coolers o/ J7+; by Blll1illll or;gillafJy forllll'd par! o/ same ;;en'ice as tlle Gerlllllill boar's-I/Ct1d frm'i'IIS (se/.' p.116),
2
"'1'
o
alld combine cOIlSi!n'atit'l! Régel/ce Orlltlllll.'ll/
(pm/e/s o/ bllskct,l'ork nlld reed-mu1-tie IIlDlIldillgS) Wil/I hlt'l:Htive hlllldles ill fIJe forl/l of ¡lOod/es nbo<.pt' npplicd spray:' of bulmshes.
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---'
Later French Designs
2 This des;gll by ¡acques de Lnjol/I'
(1686-1761) was pllblisl1ed;1I Pnrís in 'iJ'¡. AItllOllglt ill fIJe [01"11I of n ship, if .('11:' ¡lI"IJ/ll1/t1y memlf to be l/sed ns n cnrlollellc.
1
, DL'Sigll for n SOllp tllm.'1l from Elemenls d'Orfevrerie by Pierre Germnill (1¡.¡8). T/¡is pnttem book did /IIuel, fo dissellliunte n slighl/y di/uff'd 1:.'ers;oll of tlle Pl1risirm ¡tigll Rococo sl!!le. Pierre Gerlllnill wns 110f re/ntcd fo file fnmol/s goldslllifhs of I/Inl IInme.
2
117
Soulh German Rococo 1
Desiglls Jor <'nS!'S nI a large
cOlllltry ltOIl5e, mlO/I., n,ftl'r
}.B. Fischer ¡'(lJl E1Irfacll.
2 TI,;s s/¡eet 01flnlil'llre desiglls, from a series b.1I Jollf/llJl Bal/T fJ 681-1 760),
repr~lIts fIJe SlIIJ1f'
f.llpical(1f Germtlll illterpretatioll
of tlle Rocoeo as ti/e larger pieces 0/1
fhis page.
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3 alle 01 the centrepi/'Ct's from
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file great dillller ser..'ice mUlfe bIt Bem/lard He;"ric1, Wt'Y/II' for flte priJlce bisJlOp 01 Hildeshóm, c. J 759-61. Tlie tightly I'llfil'illed scrolls (lIld opelltl'Ork o/ file desigu
~
•
are tv!ry diffm'lll in c1Ulmcter from
~.
Frellc/l Rococo. Ht j.lcm/:nY.ill.
4 Tllis e<1'er desigll 101'1115 file title
{!J.~
,
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\
118
4
page 01 a pnttem book pllblislled
by tlle AlIgsbllrg ar/ist ChristiulI Friedrich Rudo/1'/¡ (1692-1754),
'"
~~
C.1750. 1ts dellsefy packed /II/d
5
spiky l/lIality islypica/ oflhe Germml response lo fIJe Roeoeo. S Cnspnr Gottlieb Eissle,:, ncer desigll WI1S pl/blisl/ed in NlIremberg nrOlllld lIJe :;nme time ns RI/dolpll's pnlten¡ book, nlld is superficinlly similar but n/together more fnl/tnsticnl. 1fs exceptionnlly lligh reNef has echoes of fhe Al/riel/lnr desiglls of Adalll van Vial/ell (see p,¡o), whi/e fhe hal/dle is remilliscellt of ti1/! Mml1lel'ist sty/e.
--------------------------------------_.~
Paul de Lamerie and the English Rococo
1
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1 TI,;s 1731 sih.w bnsket is (lIIIOlIg Palll de wmcrie's {'(/rlil!5f
z
flirtntiolls ,,,illE Rococo. Tite bnskt'f imitnt~
simple baskettl'Ork, bul tllL'
l'lIgrn¡'illg flTOlllld file eOil!
o/ (1m/s
i"c/lld~ slI/n//
palie/S o/slighfly nSYlllmetrica/ scrolfs. IV. 33clII/13;11. 2 A high/y illvClllh'C 1,l'o-/Jalld/ed CI/p, 1737. blf de wmerie dmw$ 011
o
c..:l O c..:l
01 Frel1c/1
Rococo alld (in I/It' grotesqllt' mtlsk 01/ tire fool) of
e/elllellts
O
17t1I-ccllfllry Al/riel/lar desiSlls.
a:
HI36clII!I4'1;i11·
3 This l/Illl1nrked 'remll jI/s o/ n/lOul 1735 is probnb/y by de Lnmerie (/lid jl/e/I/des sollle o/1Jis IIIOs/lypiml lIIo1ifs - scale7.t'()rk /lnri (l scrofl Ilnlld/e (ermil/nf/lIg ¡n tl grim';lIg
mask. Ht l1cm!.¡l,i". 4 n,¡s 114-2 etl'er 11I1d dis}¡ by de Lnmcrie is deJlSl'ly drxornfed wit11 fIJe (lr1ll5
o/ lbe palrO/l nlld
omamen! symboli:illg ti/{' riches of tlle enrth nlld sea. Dish ditfJJl. 75 ·5cm/29'!.iIl.
4 L..
_
representative quantities than silver. Other than pure seulpture, gilt bronze \Vas most often employed as mounts to furniture and oriental poreelain, but it \Vas aJso used for entire objeets such as vases, candlesticks, and ehandeliers. Because bronzes ,,,,ere not general1y signed, the names of its practitioners are not as weU known as those of silversmiths, but one of the most outstanding artists \Vorking in the medium was Jacques Caffiéri, whose 1751 ehandelier in the WalJace Col1ection is one of the greatest works of the Rococo style. In Britain, the style was also distinet frem that of Franee, although the French origins oE London's large Huguenot community are betrayed in a style that Í5 more French-orientated than that of Germany_ Leading goldsmiths sueh as Paul de Lamerie (16Sl>-175]) and Paul Crespin were clearly aware of current trends in Paris and evidently made use of French pattem books. But they were eclectic and wide ranging in their sources. Not all goldsmiths of foreign extraction in London were French, and others, sueh as Nieholas Sprimont (1716-70), Charles
Kandler, and James Shruder introdueed the influence of other countries, namely Belgium and Germany. Equally, native artists such as William Hogarth aspired to crea te él British Rocoeo of their own, and bis St Martin's Lane Academy served as a catalyst and forum for their ideas. Many of the most original eontributions to British Rococo silver, hO\",ever, are anonymous, beca use they were the ,vork. of modellers who left neither drawings nor signatures. The artistic character of many of Paul de Lamerie's most ambitious works during the late 17305 and early 17405, for example, is due principally to the anonymous modeller who was responsible for the relief ornament that enlivens what \\'ould otherwise be relatively standard forms. Another important element of British Rocoeo silver is the engraved decoration that was general1y in the hands of specialists, most of \Vhom are aIso unknown to uso Books of cartouche designs and other t\Vo-dimensional ornament were published aH over furope during the seeond quarter of the 18th eentury, and most engravers
119
"
Silver Engraving 1 T]¡e Rococo cJlflmela t~f mlld, Brilisl¡ si/n'r d"/J<'IIII:, cl/l lb
I.'lIgrm'ill:':.
¡\ lo:,! '~f lJ¡i~ i~
flIIOIII/J1lOlI';, •
l/lIt
1111' I'/I,>:nll'ill'>: ••
of 1111' CClltre uf '/¡i~ /ill'gc r7:lS 5nh't'I" IIY 1'11111 d,' 1.l1l1l,'I'Íl' I/IIS II{"'JI rlllrillult'd 111//¡"l1rti5t IVillirllll/-/(ls"rt11. 1\1.., S. ',t 11I/I 9i /l.
Sprimont and Moser
o
c:.:l
O U O
a: , ti ,'J T"c COlllribllliOIl of lhe F1elllish goldsmith NidIO/as 51'rilll0llt lo 8rifisl! Rocoeo sih'l'l' ami J10rcdnill H'ns t'ery dislillcfi'1'c, nJld l!lis I/lIsiglli'd dt'sigll for n snll cellnr is 'ypicnl of !lis SClllp/lIl'tlll1ppI'OIlc/llo fOI'III. 1
2
2,3 Allolher imporlnllf figure was tlle illllJligrnllt arlisl, dmser, ami {'l/mllcl/er George MicJmel Moser. TIJis sihoer Ctllld/eslick, togetller 1:l'ilI, Mo$t'r's desigll for ils pI/ir, n'pr..;;t'lI! t/U! myll¡ of Daphne and Apalla, ill w/lid, Dnp/me is Il'tl/lsforllll.'d illlo n 1m', n 1I101I/('lIt tfmt Aloser brillirmtly l'epl'esl.'lIts by lIIergillg tll(' figl/re ¡¡titll nlllol'pllollS scroll-likl' OI'll(/lIIl!lIt. CI/lldlestick lit 37clII/14',1.ill.
made extensive use of these $ources. Some original artists, however, engraved sil ver. \Villiam Hogarth (1697-1764), for example, began his career as an armoria! engraver - though he found it too limiting - and occasionally signed works are Cound by engravers such
as Joseph 5ympson. A particular field in whieh the British Rocaeo style
120
3
flourished was that Df gold and silver chasing, especially in the medium oC luxury watch cases. These were often w1signed and their makers anonymous, but among the most prominent exceptions was the inmligrant artist George i'vlichael Moser (1706-83), who is known to have made both watch C
and a Ilumber of centres in Germany. 1l1eir trade was c10sely al1ied to thc demand for gold snuffboxes, and decorative as wcll as pictorial enamels were made in both opaque paintcd and translucent enamel. The Rococo, hOlVever, \Vas not to evcryone's taste. In France the Goút Cree began to appear as early as the 17505, and in Britain it fell to William Kent (c.1685-1748), Hogarth's nemesis, under the patronage of Lord Burlington, tú promote a form of Palladianism that amollntcd in many ,vays to a precursor of the Neoc1assicism of the 17705. Illl.lstrated by Chiswick HOllse and by his designs for plate which were published in the 17405, these eschew both the decorative vocabulary and the compositional principies oC Rococo in favour oC a more sober kind oC grandeur. In other countries, notably Russia, the Rococo was so far removed fram traditional forms oC omament that it never filtered mudl below the restricted circle oC court patronage. The empress Elizabeth's enthusiasm for the Rocaeo was very soon supplanted by that oC Catherine for Neoclassicism.
William Kenl and lhe Palladian Reaclion 1,2 Dt'Sigll5 by tll/! t'rdllfcd lVi/tinm KeJlf Jor
ti
gold ClII'IIll,1
Kellt's desigll:' ¡,,, sihw (Inri fimritllre
discip/il/cd dassicislII t/tnf in
ronys is 'lEe nl/tidote lo tllt' Rocaca, {l/Id ¡1'lIjell ¡ms prefl!rrl'd by SDme 8ritis/¡ palrol1s.
SOl/lt'
1
2 •
Laler Brilish Rococo 1 Tlle sili'ff ct'llfrt'piece, or
"""r"",, -.. ~~ o.. '1"• , -r-',) " ....,. tI_, ,,( "') •
sptclnculnrJorllls
111"'" ~.
o[ Rococo
sif¡'t'r. TIJis exmllJ1fe. by TJ¡omas Pitts. 1763. is bnsed 011 11 series o[ disfu?S fmd bl1skels slIspellded frOI/J SCTol/ bmllc/les fllld cfl/sfert'd arO/llld n cell/m/ pagoda
ot.)
sfmctllre. H/ 66c1II/26ill.
t.)
2 T/Jis Clip anti co¡'er by u:U'is Heme flJld Frnncis 811ft!! (active /1"0111 C.1757) represell/s a distillctive Jol"/11 0/8ritislllafe
O
O
a:
Rococo decorofioll, c1mrflcferi:ed
by SCToll/ll1l1dles remillisct'1I1 o/ Genlll1ll paftem books. al/d U'el/defill.:d n:presmtl1fioll111 onmllle"llt illl1PJ1/ied re/itj. Ht 33.5cm/1j'bll.
1
3 Y/U! caree' of file royal goldsmitll Thollltl5
4 TI/(."
Hemillg (C.I 726-<.1 795) sJNlIlIII:d lhe trallsitioll
511ruder (lre /lo!
from file Romeo lo Neoc/assical style, and l/lis loilel semice, /IInde;1I 1768, COlllnills eleml!lIts
Cerlllall. The spiky JlIlIldle of Ibis 7152'1011m/er IInI /5 denrly illfillellccd by cOlltempormy
of bol/¡ slyle:>. MiTro,.!,! 71cm/28ill.
Germtlll palterl/ books. Ht 56clII/22/II_
3L..
origills of lhe Londo" goldslllitll ]nllll:5 kIlOtt'Il,
bul 111.' il'tlS possibly
---I
121
Textiles and Wallpaper Chinoiserie and Japonaiserie
LU
c...
.....1
1
2
1 5ilk drmUlsk, Lyon:;;, l'llrly J BUI
el c..:l el c..:l
o c:
cenf/m;. T/¡l' pomegnmnle motif. tramiforlll/'d ;lIto all oriental pod, ,ms a ketJ feallm: 01 "bi=arre" desigll, C-17oa-lO. Wif/¡ I1lese cmlle a Rococo ¡('atllre of pnffems arrallged nlollg parnl/e1mcnl1ders. 2 5ilk desigl/, Drmid NInro!, ('arly 18th ceJlfllry. tI!
nrdJitectllmlly illspired pntterns. oriellta/ e1emel/ts were jlle/uded, 11IId here, too, lmral/e/ IIU'(lIIriers
nppeared wl1elllllese sillgle-tl,idtJ, pattems were joilled. 3 Bobbill face ¡appet (pnr' o[
Jemale l¡cad-riress), BTlIssels, Cl7:!j. Cl/ri'L"S
As sta/e/y Baroqlle
As S(('1I6 gmdllally ¡'t'cmll!' /IIor,' st'pl1rnll'd, illa:msistclIClI
grew fnrga.
in sO/h' r.'l1Inil1t',f n I<'n/llre.
5 Bromdt'll si/k Slllill 1I'il1l lile/n/ f/¡rmd. LYIlIIS, c.l/3j.
dei.'eloperl Rococo
C-s/mpes, nrmngemellls beca",c II/ore asymmetricn/.
3
ecause of their significantly higher sun'ival rate, the
B development of Rocaeo textile designs is more
122
4 Design for a Spjlta~/ields brocaded si/k. London. by /a1ll6 Lemall, C.171j-25. From c.li:!), oriental scellic pattems
accurately charted than those of earlier periods. The intertvvined developments of production and a wider consumer base also means that a greater range of tastes was catered for than hitherto was possible. Out of the vast range of surviving designs, it is possible to understand the general trends of the period by focusing on the use of oriental elements and their scale; naturalistic motifs; and Indiennes features and their pattem arrangement. Chinoiserie can be found in designs throughout the 18th century and is an important element of the Rococo. The flowing asymmetrical curves typical of all true Rococo pattems are deliberately anti-elassical and thus compatible with large parts of the Eastem design \'oc
fantastic shapes and llnllSllal features, such as elongated pods, parasol farms, and insects. More recognizabIe orientalist elements sllch as figures or buildings are aIso present fram thc beginning of the century, when they arc incorporated as visually contul110US designs. By the 17305 such motifs are often the sole component, arranged as floating islands. Ln scale and distribution over the backgrowld of the design, the trend was to move away from the dense, allover patterns that characterize the early 18th century. By the 1730s much more background is unadorned. Simultaneously, entire blossoming chinoiserie trees or their branches become popular designs, the former especially sought alter in wallpapers. Such patterns continue to become more widely spaced and, by midcentury, slim vines ar decorated ribbons aIso provide the continuous motion, typically with mixed floral sprays falling away from these at an opposing angle. The appearance of these sprays was most widely in.fluenced by the last \vell-knovm painter, decoratOl~ and designer of
ALighter Touch
1
o 1 Gold alld si!<.,t!f brocndl'd
l/lid textil/' rmd wallpllpel" dl'siglls
2 Pnilltrd si/k, Cllillcse, 1740-50, I'ml¡n{¡fy for a Ellropcrlll lIU1rkcl, jcafurillg n similar/y opelll1!1d ligill pnt!t'mJo t!le brocaded
gellt'l"{llly -/'I'((lIIIt' /llore !lJ.Jl'1l
dalJlnsk (I/'o.'c.
dalJlask. L!folls. c.17:35. From (.1725-85 orien/ali:,! }lI1ttCI'l/::'-
and deliea/e. 2
3 TI/e \VollolI Room, Bel"k('/cl/ H01l51', C.l 740, I VOttOIl-lII uf!!r- Erige,
Gloll(('sfl.'l'sllhv. Tilis pallelled roo/ll of I'inl!wood is fUl"Ilíshed ,{litll U50 o"¡~¡lIal oríl'lllaiísl {{'al/papel", whicli ríses fl"OIll dado mil lo (ei/illg witllollt I'epeatíllg.
t.:l
O t.:l O
c::
Lighter Floral Designs 1 8rocnried sifk, LYOJl5. 1750-60.
••
ElIgrn¡>;llgs 01 desiglls cirw/ated il'iddy, illfllll!lIciJlg t"i'l'/1 fllt,
-¿
. ::
mirror-repentillg pattl'ms. 110,1' usual/y for IISt' in cflllrcfles.
~
2 Pnm$O/·slmped floral de-;;igll 01/
--."-
a pInte i5511t'd /1.11 /t'l/ll+Baplis/e Piflemeut. C.1755--60. SI/dI
as tllis "lid lile ad;act'llt l'lIgnH.'illg ¡{'¡',.' importan! for cottOll al/el cottoll/lilll'/1 prillters,
:'iJllrcto:;
¡he ll(l(lm illdllstry dllr¡IIS tllI:
l/60s alld 17705 in Brit/liJl (Inri frailee.
2
123
Towards Naturalism 1 Ullen
~{//IIIJ/,'r '"II¡f!nJidnnl
in silk. NI/n'mlll'/X,
GI'I"1II1//11/_
('1/1"1.1/ 181/1 U'JlIIUI/. 111"11111*'1111
Jo,.
r"IIIi~1II 111/1''/''111 111 IIIP,~I
I,'x/i/"/"I 111/11/11,'" II'JI." Sn,dHIIII.I/ hrOIlS'II/o/lII'/i1r,· i/l tJlI~ ¡¡,oriol!. l'n'Plolhll/. 1'l'¡/It .. /11 II'lh a....(I' 101<',1 11,/111 1I/I'II/O.ls il/ wllich 1/11 /11111,'\,' ,1'1/-' 'ltor~,'d
"/nwr/. III
rI .. 111
••
slrtll/d by
trl/"'.. lfl¡. /l1ee-
l/lid "/l/l¡roiden!, as !lat'. •
2 /I/I'(IId,'" .. il~- dllllll1sk. 5paill. r
,'.',1
¡r>o {fl,' l'O;':lI[, jil!" :5(1'11;(
,/,-..ISII" /1/"011;.:11/ jOft!! 100111-
¡/'Oi,,'/I dotl/:> l'IIJumccd by
x'
1111/!lnllislic deliea/e slU/dill,'?
/l/Id 1/ r<'iaxcd flOi1' in lile IIrml'S<'IIIClll" OffloIl'crs. 3 Floral ¡mllpaperfroll1 a I/OH;;!? ill Brentjord Higll Strect,
2
.J _'o ::~.
Middlesex, ElIglnlld, 1755, c%l/1" pri!1f frOI1l wood block,;;.
o
t.:l
O
4 CottOI/ block-prillfcd by
a:
A. Queslll'1 of Daméta/, nl'ar
O
•
f •....
Prillters rel/di/y cnpifali=l'd 0/1 t//dr pietoria/ origills. Oftl'1I s/lOwil1g off Il/s/¡ mi.wd bouqllefS fIIl1id lIIore sfI¡li=cd jrli'ollrite lIIotifs sudl as .'ases aJld scrollwvrk.
t.:l
'-'-?7i
., .. ' .J' " ;';'
•
ROllell, 17805. COlIl/temctillg
fhe lIIove fo;vards na/lIra/iSIIl was file collfil11led influence of [I/dim¡ prinfed, WOl'f'I/, al/d elllbroidered textiles.
3
124
Rococo chinoiserie, Jean-Baptiste Pillement (1728-1808). During the period fram about 1750 to 1760 he had editions amounting to well over 200 engraved plates issued in both France and Britain, illustrating Chinese ornamentation and, in particular, flowers in the Chínese style intended for manufacturers of both silks and printed chintzes. These engravings, with thcir threedimensionalíty and shading techniques, another feahue of true Rococo pattems and also introduced in the 1730s, continue into the 1780s to provide the basis for chinoiserie designs, which become increasingly light and open in character. Pillement's motifs themselves appear in textiles manufactured as late as 1808. The same mutations fotUld in crunoiserie pattems f]oating islands, flovvering branches, sprays of vines, Ihrel'-dimensionality, meanders, and increasing delicac)' ,1 bn appear within other styles of textiles and wallpaper \ jll ritl b the periodo However, the treatment of floral motifs hl'l\\'l'l'n llbout 1700 and 1790 generall), moved towards ll,ltur.lli:-.m. Although very realistic elements become
4
noticeable in the 17305, they are often of incongtuous scale in relation to each other. As this tendcncy decreases it is replaced by mid-century with the introduction of subsidiary patterns of simply rendered naturalistic omament or mixtures of several very different flowers, vines, or trees, or the introduction of vases, ribbons, or scenic tableaux. Such inventive combinations are another key Rococo featllre. So too, at the end of the period, is the use of motifs derived h'om lndian embroideries and painted and priJ1ted cottons. So-called lndienne motifs, notably intemally pattemed flower petals and splaying ferns and the like, constitllted enhre designs or were added in Rococo fashion to other compositions. Sud1 leafy elements were well used in meander designs, which were particularly fashionable from the 17405 to 17705; in \vallpapers and sorne woven textiles these can be very large. Meanders were gradualIy succeeded by arborescent designs, indebted to Lndian tree-of-lífe pattems and representing the final move towards naturalismo
Meanders 1 Point de Saxe or Dn'Sd¡'// lace. Ct'mlfllIY. 1¡50-18oo. By Hu' 1 NOS, mellllders ,l'er!' jl/lldtl/1/l?/ltn/ fa Rococo pnltems
(Inri took 5fiwa/ /orllls. Logicnlly. tIJey appeared ;11 bordas (lJlri
texlill''; witll a 1Io,;=0,,'a/ <'//Ip/IfIS;S, SUell
as /nce.
2 Plntefro/ll Saiuf-Al/blll1'S L'Art du Brodcur hilO), sltowillg lIoH' 1I1l'IJllders
mil
carry more
ftlllCifll1 moti/s.
2
o
t.:l
O
t.:l O
a:
4 3 Britisll p/ate-prillted textile dt"Sigll. Bromley Hnl/, t\lidd/esex, 17705. Typicnl/y. tite parnllel II1l'(I¡/lter sfyle ¡m:5 /l/l/de lIIore /j¡y/y by iJlserfillg a x'COJld /xlIId IIlldlllafillg at a diffl>rl'llf pace; file:'{'
¡'f''Y
4 Block-prillted siamoise, Frene/¡, J77OS, 5110¡l'il/g (1 CJ¡illese~jllspired semI' (Il1lid floral lIlotifs (Inri scrolls.
oftm depictt'lj ril.'/l(II15 alld lau.
Arborescent 1 Block-p6llfcd lndinll c(Jflllll,
Frnllce 01" Britnin, lii5-¡Soo. /11 Infel" nrbol"escent dc~i.í;Il!', S"I/l'kJ! brnllches disJlln!fl'd (11/ I1rm.11 (!( bloo1ll5 nIId l1ird~.
5 5 ¡\Iock flock l/tIper, J7 AIlIl?/IInr/e Street.
Lalldoll. c.1J60. Lnr.~e fllrllisJJillg palfems
125
Neoclassicism Furni!ure 130 French 130 British 138
From the German States 146
Neoclassicism developed through the inspiration 01 antiquity and as a conscious relorm of the perceived excesses of the Rococo style. The term was coined in the 1880s and is generally considered to cover the period
Austrian 148 Spanish and Portuguese 149 ItaHan 150
from c.1760 to c.1830. Neoclassicism was both a historical revival and a search for a timeless style - hence the emphasis in contemporary
North Eastem European 152 American 154 Materíals and TechniQues 158
Ceramics 160
writings to the notion of a "true style." By its end these concepts had become subsumed into a romantic notion 01 the grandeur 01 the past and antiquity became one 01 several possible historicist revivals.
Major Contmental European Porcelaln 160 British Pottery and Porcelain 166
Ottler European Pottery and Porcelain 170
Glass 176 British and French 176 German and Bohemian 184
Silverware and Me!alwork 188 Textiles 202
theori~1s
~lrcsscd
the importance of inspiratian rélthcr th
T
he first
Ll'ft:
t/¡t'
e17N desigll
o/ this
jnsper mld gilt-brol/::e pe/fu 11I1' bUrIler by Pie"/! Golltlúere is bnsed
011
tlle (mfiqllc tápod, tnkel1
from Thc Cupid 5eUer, pnillted by Josep/¡~Mnrie VieH /11 1763. TllÍ5 .'US/OII ¡¡'liS desiglled fOT
lhe dile d'AlIlI1ollf by Fml/fois-
JosepJI Belnllger f1l1d sofd 0/1 his deat/¡ 111 1782 fo Marie Allfo/l/effe. Ht .¡.8.)cm/lgill.
Opposill': detail from l/u' C.1S00 pailltillg by Jacqrles LOllis Dai.'id of Napalton il/ Ilis stlfdy. s}¡owillg fhe lleiO sfyles of fllmisl/illg infrodl/ced at tlle begillllÍlIg of tlle 19t1l cellllln) by f1Je desigl/ers Charles Perder alld Pierre-Frall(oisLéollard FOlltaine.
,
\
•I
I I .
~t 'f l¡
I
1
1 AH enrly e.Hlmple of:'\'roc/nssicnl desigll, t1Jis mgrtl'i'hlg ,m,:; plIl>lis!lcd tl!1 Gio;'(//lII; Bnftistn Pirrmesi il1 1769. Tite dock Ill1d taM(' 11nI'l' lI1otif,:;from diflere/I! c/1l5sicn/ sOl/ras.
::: en
-en
U
en
:3 U O
w
Z
3
2 T/¡e C.l 767 il'1l/i'I'CO/Olll' desigll for ¡he ceilil1g DI /lIe cirClllnr drl'ssil1g 1'00111 nI Hnn'wood HOIl::e. Yorksflirt', sJ¡ows Rober! Admll's /¡<'e/Y trrofml'Jlt ol illferioTS. He nlfOtt'l'lj lht' eliml fa c1Joosefrom Dlfe of sei.'ernf CO/OIIT pillettes.
128
In the 17705 design became more fluid and elegant. Interiors '''ere decorated in. ,,,Dad panelling incorporating classical motifs or painted ,vith imitations of the grotesque ornament revi\'ed in the Renaissance by Raphael (afien called arabesque in France). Designs incorporated naturalistic motifs, flowers, and scrolling vines in light colours. A further range of motifs - the Etruscan style - was inspired by the decoration on Greek "ases, at the time thollght to be Etruscan. Franc;ois-Joseph Bélanger (174+-1818) and Jean-Démosthéne Dugourc (1749-1825) expressed in their designs the reviva.! of the antiqlle with clarity and delineation of lineo In the final phase of the allóen régillle (c.1780-92), bllildings emphasized geometry and simple forros for exteriors but remained elegantl)' decorative in the interior. Oesign under the revollltionar)' governments of 1792-1803, known as Directoire and ConsuJate, \Vas inspired by simpler forms of Roman arto This heroic sUnplicity was partI)' inspired by Jacques Louis Oavid's paintings, for example, Yhe Oa!1i of tlie Horntii (1785). 1 .lpoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798 was also a SOlITce of dL'c(}fative ideas.
3 Percier fll/d FOl1taiJlI! desiglled l/lis 511111/1
closel for lile Casa del Labrador il1 tlle Royal Pnlnce 01 Arnlljlle=, Gil/sirle Madrid. TJ¡e mirrored palie/s (Iel as n backdropJor paillted milI/deis, dt'rh'ed¡rom ROllltlll
interiors.
The reassessment of c1assieal sources led to the imitation of Roman architecture and design, best expressed by Charles Percier (176-1-1838) and Pierre-Franc;ois-léonard Fonlaine (1762-1853), Napoleon's architects from 1794 lo 181-1. Their publication, the ReclIeil de décorntiolls i1JtérielIres (1801), formed the basis of much ElITopean design of the early 19th cenhlry. They wanted to "imitate the antique in its spirit, in its principIes, and in its precepts, which are timeless" and "to adhere to the classical moclels, not blindly, but with discernment." Architectural forms retumed to the simplicity of early Greek and Roman monuments, but interiors \Vere deeorated in rieh, contrasting colours. Marbles, giltbronze furnishings, silk, and velvet damasks \Vere appropriate for an emperor: Tapoleon's imperial style spread throughout Europe. In E.ngland, James Stuart's decoration of the painted room at Speneer Hause (c.1761) is one of the first to take Roman wall painting as a sauree. However, Robert Adam (1728-92) synthesized classical motils deri\-ed from Roman architecture with a sense of elegance and lightness, concentrating on harmonious proportions. Adaro also created the first Etruscan room at Derby
House in 1773. He \Vas a proIific arcrutect and dominated English design lmtillhe 17805. Adam's style \Vas continued by rus pupil Joseph Bonomi (1739-1808), \Vho created one of the first interiors to be decorated in a reviva! of a Pompeian wali painting at Packington Hall, Wanvickshire (c.1780). lames Wyatt (17-16-1813) .Iso developed Adam's decoration in lo a more austere fonn of design, \Vith an emphasis on linearity and pure space. Henry Holland (17-15-1806) adopted French motiís and fonns of decoration, as \VeU as using inunigrant French craftsmen at earIton House, London, built fer the Prince of Wales, 1783-96. George, Prince of Wales, later became ti,e Prince Regent (1811-20) and then George IV (1820-30). Because of the prince's po\Verful infiuence on all aspects of the decorative arts, the period c.1790-183O is often referred lo as the Regency in Britain. Of great importance to ne\V architectural theories was the development of the picturesque, which emphasized the greatness of nature and man's role in perfecting it. This led to a conflict between those arguing for synunetry and reguIarity and those espousing the asymmetrical. It also encouraged the development of anti-c1assical styles such as Gothic, Chinese, and Indian. In the early 19th century, design was dominated by the search for the archeologically authentic. Thomas Hope in rus HOllsellOld FlImitllre nlld J¡,terior Decorntioll (1807) pllrified and developed the fonns and omament Hrst promoted by Percier and Fontaine. Until Napoleon's campaigns and the sllbseqllent redefinitions of territories, the map of Eurape remained much as it had been at the beginning of the 18th century. Design in the various kingdoms, principalities, ana
regions depended on the affiliations and laste 01 individual rulers, following developments in Engl,lIld and France, often with variations. Giuseppe ValadiL'f (1762-1839) in Rome expressed the grandellr o( archeological classicism and \Vas no doubt an influencc on the designs of Percier and Fontaine. During the 19th century Pelagio P.Iagi (1775-1860) look the Etruscan style to its limits in rus revivals for the interiors of palaces in Turin. The 1 eoclassical style in the German states mainly coincided with important potitical changes and with the rise of national consciousness but had first appeared at the Prussian court of Frederick the Great, where the earIy Neoclassical architect lean Lament Le Geay (171D-c.1786) designed the_ Neues Palais in Potsdam in the 17605. Later, afier the Treaty of Versailles (1815), reorganization of the German sta tes lead to new civic building in a fully developed ~eodassical style. The Empile style flourished from c.1805 onwards. The architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841) kepl the monumental simplicity of French visionary architecture but emboldened it with a strong sense of light. His vision of the granrleur of simplicity and thc importance of interior space is best expressed in the Altes Museum, Berlin (1826-36). In a similar manmer, the interiors of Leo von Klenze (178.J.-186-!) exemplify the 19th-centlllY laste for lUlomamented walls with bold painted decoration taken from Pompeian interiors. 4 Marie An/oil/ette's cabille/ al FOlllailleb1eall 1I'as desiglU'd by ROllssí'au de la ROllliere in 1790 ¡jlitll omamenloosed 01/ RnpbneJ's grolesqlles in I!le VatietJII Loggifl oj c.15 JO. The fumi/l/re is by Rieseller tJlld Sellé.
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1 TI/e portrail al Mndallle de Pompadollr by Drol/ni;;, L1J6" sllO'us a rl'Ork tab/e by Oebell ,(lit1l Gmit Cree lI10tifs SI/ellas file mm's lIead. 2 Enrlier c1l1ssicn/ stylt'S am be S•.'l.'JI ¡JI l/lis C.176j cOI/:iOle tableo /msed 01/ desigJls by ]eml-Ciwries De/aJoss/'. The sea!e 01 fIJe vitnwinll scrollllloy be illJ1l1ellced by Ellg/iS/1 PallndimlisIII. Ht 86.jcml3olill. 3 Tlle bllreau plat Jor Úllit'c de jl/fly ,nls desiglled by Le Lorraill (J71j-j9), Wit/l/1101l1ltS by ]acqlles Caffiér; (16¡j-1755). Its bfack (I1/d gold decorafiOJl evoked lile grnlld mmlllcr of LOllis X/V Excwted ill 1756-7. tlle set 'I'as f!Je jirs! example in Paris
he fust set of furniture to be made in the new taste, which the French referred to as Gout Grec, \Vas foc lhe cabinet of Lalive de Jully, 1756-7. The style favoured strong, rectilínear forms, occasionalIy retaining a restrained curve, with large-scale decoration in the bold mounts of vitruvian scrolls oc guilloche pattems, as can be seen in the designs of Jean Fram;ois Neufforge (171,1-91) and lean-Charles Delafosse (1734-91). Masks or term figures \Vere aften placed on the comers. Seat fumiture and tables \Vere just as massive, afien ",ith straight oc columnar fluted legs. Contemporary with t:h.is architect-designed fumihue \Vas that made for Madame de Pompadour by her fa\'ourite cabinetmaker, ]ean-Fran\ois Oeben (c.1721-63). This was in a more conservative taste, shovo'ing a gradual Ir.lllsition from Rococo forros to the ne'" rectilinear .Ippro
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Oeben worked extensively fer the crown, creating many innovative types of fumiture such as the roll-top desk (bllreall il cylilldre) and mechanical toilette tables. He adapted the comrnode and other carcase pieces to Neoclassical form - tripartite with the central shallow breakfront decorated with a panel of figurative marquetr)' - and developed the faJl-front sécretaire. He introduced new techniques in marquetry, wruch were taken up by, among other cabinetrnakers, rus brother-ínla\\', Roger Vandercruse, called Lacroix (172&-99) and rus t\\'o pupils Jean-Henri Riesener (1734-1806) and Jean Fran,ois Leleu (1729-1807). Riesener took control of the workshop on rus marriage to Oeben's \Vido\V in 1767, and he completed many of Oeben's original commissions. He continued to work for the crown as ébélliste dll roi lU1til an attempt to economize led to rus dismissaI in 1780. lliesener developed an easily recognizable vocabulary of floral marquetry panels, trellis motifs, and floral gilt-bronze mOlU1ts which he designed and had made in rus workshop.
Decorated Elegance '!j 1 A ;:l',.itill~ , fable decomtcd ill
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Rit'Sel/t'r Ims gilt-bron:e 1II01lllt5 ~ct IIgllil/51 11 ricJllllnhognll!/ "l'IIú'I". TI/c cmy"lidfigures Illld IImr.t' /togs IlJI¡Jt.'tlr ill room:> for AInrie Alltoillt'Ut'. Ht 2.6jm/Sft 8úll.
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afta ni/fique On/mllt'lll by Philip}!e enffié!"; (1714-74), TlII' shape 01 tflt' dock pny,.. 11I01111/5
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Ht 2.66m/Sft 8ülI. 2 T1Jis bofIkcnsl.' by Efit'1II11.'
LeimssclIr (1721---98) C.1790 is (!JI adaptnlioll of BOlllle's origillal desigll fllld IIpdn!ed by file -slrikillg l'flllds of ebcmy. 1
4L_~ 4 Rh'SelllT'S SI/ccrssor, ltall Ferdilltllld Sc1I¡cf!T¡~fegl.'r (fl.1760-90), made l/lis mbilld, 1788, probably lo dl'5igll5 by rD. DlIgOl/rc. TI/e ~ Vedg
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New Forms
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tlJis paillling of (11/ interior, n ¡1'01I1(111 is S}¡OWIl st'llted al 11 511I01/ writillg desk ;1/ (l lIf'il'I.II fumisIJed faslúollable interior. TJ¡f' collstallt illl.'eJltioll of lIeil' ty1Jt'S of.{lmliture alld forms of decoratioJl reflected fhe impartal/ce 0Ijas/lioll muf /lf.tllry in la/e 18tJ¡-eelllllry París. 2 A c.I¡60 bonheur du JOUT (writillg fable) by Roger Valldercruse. TllÍs
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pica: is tml/siliOllal jn its l/se of Clf,,-,jllg legs. Ht ¡Jcm/28iJl. 3 TIJe roll-top desk desiglled jor LOllis XV',; ..tlfd.ll. c.l760. Deben crentM Ihe marquetry. <{'/lile file gilt-broll=e 11/01/1115 were desiglled by]ermCla'lde Dllplessis (d.J774).
Design undcr Louis XVI (1774-89), \vhose name is
often inappropriately given to the entire period of Neo-
132
c1assicism in France, continued its emphasis on decorative elegance. Motifs derived from classical sources \Vere llsually combined with floral motifs, garlands, or ribbons. Omament \Vas continually refined, becoming smaHer in seale and tighter in exeeution - the jewel-like quality associated with Riesener'slater \\'ork or !he gilt brenzes of Fran<;ois Rémond (c.1747-1812) and Pierre Gouthiere (1732-1814). Fumiture supplied by !he leading marc1la/,ds merciers featured innovative materials. Pomer and Daguerre eornmissioned the 5evres poreelain factory to make poreelain plaques and bought 17thcentury Japanese laequer and paneIs of Italian pietre dure, whieh were mounted into secrétaires and eabinets by Joseph Baurnhauer (d.1772), Martin Carlin (173G--1785) "nd Ad"m Weis\Veiler (c.175G--181O). Chairs had square bades with rectangular seats, the fronts of whieh were generally modified by curved seat rélils. Georges Jacob (1739-1814) and Jean-Baptiste-
3
Claude Sené (17-18-1803) created sets with variations of their decorative details for the many apartments redecorated for Maric Antoinette. lncreasingly the motifs became stiffer and tighter, with small pointed leaves, tightly scrolled ribbons, or the bead and reel motif replacing the earlier floral garlands. Fumihtre designed in the 17805 began to show a reaetion to this delieaey and refinement, beeorning stronger and introdllcing classical motifs seen in Roman waH paintings and Greek "ases. Bélanger and Dugoure designed fumiture in the new taste, with elegant caryatid figures on pedestals at eaeh side and legs imitating a qwver-full of arrows. The arms were set at right angles to the baek, resting on thin columnar supports or, oceasionally, classical sphinxes. Decorative features included imitations of Roman carneo motifs, either painted or using vVedgwood plaques. Inereasingly, however, marquetry panels were replaced with plain panels of plum mahogany (lIsed extensively in Franee fer the first time) or thuya \""ood.
1 The Commode
1 TMs lriparfite eOll/madl'. made by]eaJl-Henri Ries.!lh!r;', 1;iB far lIJe kiug's apartmcllfs a( FOlltailll.-blf(l/l, ims ¡'elllyrl'd ill tlllip
sycalllon', 11 n'tnill:, fhe original fonll im'l'lItm by Ol.'ll(?ll. T1Ie In'/li:; mnrqllefry «'itl, (lit daffodil is typiCflI of Rie:;oleT. Ht 95C1J1I3¡Y:ill.
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Romeo wlJilc ti/e decornfioll /l1kl!s 011 II/O/'I' clnssicnll1lot~fs nssocinted Wit/l NeoclnssiciSIII. HI 1.1211I/3/1 Sill.
s/Ulpe 1"t!lIInills
2 Tlle 0.'111 bnck clmir beCllme illcreasil1gly po¡mlarfrolll C.J768. Tllis exmllple by leal1 Bapli$f~ Til/iard (1723-98) S!IOWS lhe ciassicaT, baTallccd proporliol/s of ftigil-quality Frelleh menuiserie (carpclllry). Ht 1.1111/3/1 7ill.
3 By lhe l780s tlll' emp/msis Il'M 011 rl'filll'd decoratioll al1d rigid s/¡apes, as il1 t!lis c/wir desigl1ed by Hen.'é alld madI' by Claude Sellé fol' Mari.. AlIloillcttc's apartmclIls at St Clol/d in 1787. Ht 81C11l13:Ú1l.
133
GoGt Étrusque 1 Tllis c1mir
tlll' I/l"" 11II/lq/lC slyil' ¡¡,¡O, sickks nlid s!ll'll( 1110/ i/~ il'1l;; lIIade Il!! Jea 11BtlJJfiMt·-Cf/lllcf.' 5t'll1: lIJI,1 rdkds tI'l' il~{/lIl'IICt' of EII:.:/isl/ Ik~iSIl. t\ llglolll<1r,ic (a cm:c jor nl1 l1¡jI/S.. . ["Slí"/¡) "'(/" ".!i,..lliollabh' ((//Ieep' at Ihe ¡'lid
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¡he 10:"II.'\l' Jlilltt'rll /11/ file back mili sen! dl'fin'¡{ lmm tlll' dt'Comtioll ~f Greek ¡'lIses. f-Iq.lOU/,¡ '/11.
Consulate and Directoire 1 The fllmitltrt' COllllllissiom'd by Madllllll'
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134
The incipient c1assicism associated with the GoíÜ Étrusque of Dugourc, which "'as inspired by ",hat \\"as thought to be Etruscan decoranon, ",as swepl a\\'ay by the Re'"olution. Most nonceably, furn..iture "'as strippcd of its decoranon. At the same time, the revi\'al of c1assical forrns, such as the Greek k/isl1Ios chair, airead)' under",ay during the nJlciel1 régillle, "'as even more popular ",ith the ne\\' republican governments. Furniture known as Directoire (1793-99) and Consulate (1799-180-1) reflecting changes of government, continued to de,"elop in archeologically correct forms. The furniture made by Georges Jacob (1739-181-1) \\'ho, \Vith his sons, was the leading cabinebnaker of the period, imitated Roman eouches, tripods, and stools. A ne\\" kind of table, the glléridoll, \Vith a round top and pillar or tripod support, \Vas introdueed, and the fallfront seerétaire \Vas now the chief form of \Vriting furniture. Bernard Molitor (1755-1833) de\'e1oped cabinets, chests of drawers, and secrétaircs that retained the forms of the previous generanon but \Vere plainer, the
only dccor.llion being eolunms or simple architeetural motifs. Simplificd pilW feet, deri\'ed from antiqlle seat fllrniturc, repl.lCed the twisted, tapering feet of the Goút Étrll~qlle. Afte!" Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798, Egypti
From Simplicily lo Grandeur
2
This Jal/:frollt S('cn:tnire by Ekmnrd AJo/itor, (.1811, reflccts lile empllasi:; 0/1 froll/nlity 01 enrly 1
19f1t-et'"fmy rlf'~ig1!. T,I¡e NC'ck/;:!'~ nr.- typic:i! of Infer Elllpirc ¡lImilllre. Ht
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2 A d¡osig" from t}¡c Recueil de décorations intérieurcs by Percier Illld FOl/taillt', SIIOit'illg !1:L' ¡¡¡OIllI11.<·¡¡1'7/ily uf 111': Empile :>lylt'. The 0/"/1(11111'1115 ¡1'01I1d be madI! il/ gilt brollzc.
Georges Jacob and lhe Early Empire Style 1 17/!! S¡¡'tlll e/llliT ,1'flS desiglled
l/y Perder nud FOlllnille (Inri /linde l/y Jncob Freres for ¡he clIlpress fosépJJiIll! nI Mofl/misol/, ISOJ. Takil/g its sllllpl! jroml1Ee Gn...·k kJismos c1mir, I}¡e (ldaifíoll 01 the
S¡I'mIS frolll ROl/11m illlperinl fllmill1rt! Sir'i':> il grnlldellr. Ht 77CII1/30'!ill.
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"Jacob Fr~n:s." as tll(' firm ll'ns m/h'd 1796-180;. ¡1,!Jt'lI Gt'orges Jacob
il'Orkillg 'l'it// !>Ut11111S :.0115. Ht I.l11l/3ft Sill. ,nlS
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--~------------------------~----
The Continuing Influence 01 Percier and Fontaine 2 A meuble d'applli (f0;:1' CIIpbottrd), mndt' ill 1810 ill IIIn//ognIlY nnd gilt ¡"-OIl:¡'/IY ¡neo/¡ Desmn/tcr, (l'hiel, prm'id"d lI/os1 o/ tlll' jllmitllre jor N(lpoil.'oll. HI 98[1II/3jl 1/i1/.
3 Sp/Jill.\" sl/ppor!s in ebOlli:ed lI'Ood CIll/lle seell 011 11lis IIInllognny nlld gilt-broll:e cOl/sole /nb/t: iJl ye,l', bneked 11'il/I fl lIIir/"()r, mnde C.IBol jrOIll ¡f"siglls ¡,y Percier nllri FOII/nille. Ht /.03'1113 jt .¡Yill.
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136
furniture for Napoleon's residences. Gilt bronzes reached a height of excellence in the work of ciseJellrdorellr> such as Pierre-Philippe Thomire (1751-1843), and Paris remained the centre fram ",mch wealthy Europeans ordered their clocks, candelabra, and other furnishings in gilt-bronze. Napoleon's two premier architects, Charles Percier (176-1-1838) and Pierre-Franc;ois-Léonard Fontaine (1762-1853) based their ideas for furniture on Roman forms, irnitating them dosely and taking up the simpler, bolder elements DE designo Egyptian motUs \Vere a150 high1y popular, the figures DE comer mounts often showing Egyptian styles of dress. Imperial ornament such as wreaths of laurel. rods, or medallions of profije portraits were set against a plain background. Seat fumiture retumed to square, frontal designs, generally simply decorated with motifs such as stars or balls. The legs and arms were generally more substantial than previous periods and the backs plainer. One of the most i.Imovative designs was the gondola chair which
appeared with swan ann supports. Another favoured image was the sphinx. The bed took on new importance and was set in an alcove under a canopy, the design based on the Roman couch. 1l1e upholstery emphasized the se\'erity of shape, with large borders and heav)' fringes addíng to the magnificence of the furniture. For tables and sídeboards the monopod leg with stylized panther head, sphinx, or Egyptian mask \Vas placed frontally on a pli..nth, beneath a simply decorated frieze, thereby elllphasizing the geometric solidity of designo The Illirrors above pier tables no", extended downwards forllling the back of the table itself. DiIfcrent parts of the fumiture \Vere either gilded or ebonized to contrast with the flame mahogany veneer. Secrétaires and chests of drawers were treated in a similar way. The French Empire style was most effectively summarized in the Collectioll de lIlellbles et objets de gOlit, published in instalments by Picrre La Mésangere between 1802 and 1835, which ensured the perpetuation of the style aH over Europe into the mid-19th cenhll')'-
-
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1 A (.1834 «'litre laMe bIt
Jl·t1Il~
2 TI,,::; fab/e ¡,/ lIIilllOgmlY witll
Barriste Gil/es )'oul (J 762-1 838)
fegs dewrnf('d in tlll! Egyptinl/
11/{' COIltilllll'd illjllll!IICI' uf [mpi/L" dL",¡i$'1. TlI': ill¡;/t',buf empllas;s 01/ ¡¡'ciglll illld lnrgt' OnUllII!!"! 1ms fypicnl 01 t/lis
sty/t> ,ms c'XI'ClI!e11 c.1810 for
51to1l'illg
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specia/ist glns;; s/¡op ill Par;s. Ht 92'¡CI/1/361;11. 2 TI/[' IOl'e ol/npnl1l!sl! /acquer n/'i'Cr disappcan.'d, as illdicah'd iJl fI/(' COlllllli;;:;;OIl fvr Marie Alltollldle for t!lis sop"isl icafed wrifillg desk, /linde (.178411.11 VVeisweilcr 1l'itlllllOlIllts by Remol1d. Ht 731CU1!29i11. 3 T/lis gi/t-brol1:c OI"l/{/U1Cllt WIIS made by fhe leadil1g cJ/{/ser o/ t!le Ct11·/y 191/1 cenfllry, Píene Fililippe Tltomire (1751-1843). Ht 58.)Cm/23ill.
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British Furniture Archeologicallnfluences
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Nt'Oclassicnl :::;/y/e prl'ferTt'd II!! Adalll duri/lg file 1¡¡OS.
2 TI/e! Pre!sidellt's c1Ulir of fllt' RO.I/n/ Salidy of Art,; ¡ms de:;.iglle¡f by \\'i/Iialll Chambas il1 1759~60. Tite c1Ulir is IIIlJn' I'Ccfi/illel1l' in olltlil1t' fllld IN'S arcl/t'o!ogicn/fy wrr.'ct .letni!,; ill
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he Neoclassical style, which dominated British furniture tluoughout the period behveen 1775 and 1830, had its beginnings in the 17.505, when design all moer Eurape was affected by the reYi,"ai of interest in a pllrer c1assical style, stimulated by ne'" discO\"eries of andent remains, particularly the excél\'ations at Pompeü and HerclIlaneum. During this period designers in France and Britain \Vere reacting against the excesses of the Rococo style and, drawing on both the Palladian and Rococo inheritance in outline, they began to introduce restrained classical ornament to furniture. TI1e architects William Chambers and James Stuart are credited \dth the earliest pieces of Neoclassical fumihlre, bdore 1760. Thev lIsed more rectilinear forms and ,Hcheologically correct decorati\'e details drawn from direct observation of Greek and Roman origjnals. The Illll... t (¡¡mous of the early practitioners of the Neoclassical ... l\"!L' "'l're the architects Robert and James Adaro, who dlllllin.lll'd British hlmiture design froro the late 17605 111l1i1111L' lillc 17S0s. Many of their designs \Vere made by
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the cabinetmakers Thomas Ch..ippendale, vVilliam & John Linnell, and Ince & Mayhew. The distineti\'e and original c1assical style of the Adam brothers, in their o"'n words, "captllred the spirit Df antiquity," bllt ga\·e it a fresh and modern interpretation. The style was light, highly decorative, and often small in sea le, concentrating on linear and two-dimensional ornament rather than hea\·y earving. r-..lotifs included the tripod and \·ase, rnythological creatures sueh as sphinxes and gryphons, c1assical figures, masks, and bueran..ia (ox skul1s), as ",eH as smallcr pattems such as Greek key and \·itrt1\'ian scroll borders, festoons of ",heat husks, laurel ",reaths, paterae, and anthemia. TIlese ornaments were carrjed out in marql1etry in woods of contrasting tones and in sC111ptural relief with carving or plasterwork. British cabinetwork adapted gradually to the introduction of the Neoclassical style during the 17605, and thereafter it de\·eloped into a confident expression through thc use of controlled rectilinear shapes, skilled craftsmanship in wood, and fine metal mOl1nts.
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Designs far \'¡¡~C's 0.nd TriFC'ds. 1793. It ¡ms il/tcnded lo bt' gi/l //Ida/ or ;¡YJ;Jd. {/lId thl.' nttl'llHtlfL'd desigll ¡1lc!lIdes IIUlII!f drll/cn/s derit't'd ¡mm nrcl1t'%gicnl :OVllrce:;. {'.wCl/lL'd ;11
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10 This 1"''1'(11 S/tli,l/, poli"tl'I' tll ~illllfll1ll' drapay mili ¡Cllchi¡¡wl ú/ri',",ll1l 1//llrMI'. ¡ms possih!.ll mo¡dl' ¡'.II JlI,' fi 1"111 11' ,\ 1¡lr.;/, & Tl1tJltl 111. ft is f/ll'i.',f {flllIl
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flll"lli"/liIIS" ill ti/{, l'lld)! 79th "'l1tur!!.
139
Tables and Frames 3 TI/c top of t/Jis pil'r fnbie rms ¡'f'Ju.wt:d ill sntil',I'OOd 1I'illl pai l1fl'd dl'Comt iOIl. Cl 790. Tile si/pt'ry figure 01 snlimmod nikcls fhc /nter lStll-cclI/ury /nsfl'
fil!" Jlt/kr CO/O/ll"5. mld tltc pailllt'Ii II¡'Ctlratioll follo'I'5 cOllfemporary ~I!lh,:, fmll/d
ill IIItJrqudry. 1/1 79011/31 ,'ill. 4 {o/m Cm·ter mnde I/Jis desigl1 .(¡lI' 11 s/n/unr!! IIIn,.¡,¡c IIlb/e illlrrid ¡dtJ/ {IIJ"III pllilltmss. ¡I,hiell ¡ms Pllb/isf¡('d ;11 The Buildcr's \1.1gazine. I¡¡J. T/,ct'/nbomte lop ¡I'ollld {',I"I' /1<"<'" slIppm"fed OH n gilded (1/" pnilltL'd Irnllll' ¡pifll slrnighl kgs ¡¡lid s/re/eI/as. 2
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This l!l1gl'lH'íllg for a píf'r s/nss framt' dt'siglled by B. Pastorill; tl'll5/ll/blisfled ill A i\.'ew Book oí Designs far Girandoles and Glass Frames, 1775. TI/e dl'sigll follow5 ti/(, style o/ Robat ami james Admll, in tltt'ir publis!l¡'d 2
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ol mirrar g/as;; domillaf\' ¡he de/ieate l\'eoc11l55ical omamell' 01 ¡he [nlme.
140
Publications such as Tlle l1\'orks ill ArcJlitectllre DI Roberf alld james Adalll (1773-79) and T"e Cnbillet-Maker alld UplJOlsterer's GI/ide by George Hepplewhite (published by his widow, Atice, ] 788) popularized the style, not just i.n Britain but in other parts of Europe and the United States. A distinctive feature of cabinetwork throughout the period was fine marquetry, incorporating delicate classical roundels, ovals, and shields, enclosing c1assical figures, mythological creatures, symbols, and surrounded by hvo-dimensional bands of architectural ornamento Painted decoration in similar styles and Iight colours was also used, sometimes co\'ering an entire piece, in others only in panels or borders. By about ]770 straight square-section or columnar legs tended to replace cabriole shapes. Carved chair backs incorporating classical lyre, oval, and shield shapes were adomed with small-scale omament of paterae, medallions, wheat husks, and laurel. Gilding continued. to be used for the grandest pieces but painted decoration on beech chair frames using a palette predominantly of
green, blue, white, and grey was popular. Silk damasks, or sometimes painted silk panels, covered luxurious seat furniture for drawing rooms and the best bed chambers; horsehair and leather were used for dining and library dlairS; and printed cottons were increasingly popular for light bedroom chairs to match window curtains and bed hangings. Patterns for furniture cottons fa\'oured c1assical medallions, flowers, and ribbons. Gilded frames \Vcre regular in shape, either oval or rectangular, with narrower borders enclosing larger sheets of silvered glass. Accompanying pier tables corresponded in their design, usually with columnar legs, straight hieze5, and tops of marblc, painted wood, or marqlletry decorated with delicate classical motifs. Occasional tables fOl' writing, tea eqllipment, and card games were simple and elegant, with slender straight legs and decorative marqlletry borders in light-coloured \\·ooos slIch as satinwood and harewood. Mahogany continued to be Llsed, bllt lighter shades of the wood were favourcd. Cast-metal mOlUlts, usuaUy of gilt-brass or
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sectioll oj ¡he table. The s/ende/" legs are tnpered 1l!1d slIpported by casters, wllich ,(lere l/sed incrensillgly frolll lhe //lid-18th cellfllry lo nllow lile 1l/mill/re lo be lIlo,'cd
clnssica/lIIotij 01/ ¡he bnckplate. Ht 90cm/35ÚIl.
10 10 Tilis desii;ll fOI" a mirror by George Sll/ifl!, IJlIblisllCd ill !Jis Collection of Designs, lS0S,
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141
Seal Furnilure and Beds 1 T/'11111,15 CllÍpl','ud,lk m",I,' "'¡~ ,-"r¡'cd .Uld
giMt'd i>.',·d, ."(!f;, ;:¡'¡/J, .""III~'II :,ilk d.IIII,¡4 1I11!JlI/'-:/''r!!};w Sil' / l/il'l',',,(,' DlIl/da." ill 1;65. AltllOf/>:/1 :,till ,-1/I";'jlill,"'1" 11I ollt/i!ll', fhe (1lIi.'iJl'i: • • (111 /1I('/1"I1IIIC i~ il/ r/IIIPf¡'lIrd¡I'%simlly dcripcd :'11//". l\'. ::0..1811I/';0 I ill. 21'11,' ,lI"IlIdl
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3 T/¡,. pnillted bergere e/mir. desigl1l'd by Rober! fllld jall11.'5 Arinlll. C.1770, ¡VIlS made by TJlOlIUls ChippelUfa!e for tllL' actor Dm,id GarJ'ick. Tire sJ¡npc is Frclrc!¡ hrspired bll! tire decol'fltioll !ypically EuglislJ.
4 TIJis desigll for n par/ol/r c!wir by George Hepplc'1'hitc ,1'11:;; Pl/¡'¡¡:;;}¡cd by A. Hepple,dJÍte il! The Cabinet-ivlaker and Upholstcrer's Cuide. 1788. TI/e s/JÍcld slwpe ¡('I1S poplllar il' /fU! 1770:;; nlld 17Sos.
ormolu, complemented the fllrniture. Handles \Vere O\'al or round, their backplates decorated with motiIs slIch as paterae, wheat shea\'es, or sunflowers. The high quality of British cabinetrnaking during the period enabled the de\'eloping enthusiasm for mechanical devices for compartments, spring-Ioaded slides, and secret drawers. Thomas Sheraton's designs for elegant and often complex tables, published in rus Cabillet-Maker alld Upholsterer's DmwiJlg Book (1791-94), illustrate the taste for such pieces. Th.is collection and his Cabil1et Dictiollary (1803) were important in presenting the current styles to a \Vide public. The Dmwillg Book embodied the French-influenced taste favoured by the Prince Regent and bis architect Henry Holland, and the Cnbillet Dictiollary reflected the renewed interest in archeological fOIm in the early years of the 19th century. Archeological sources for fumiture design received a further boost in the 1790s through the publication of both ancient forms and their decorative detail, drawn from Roman originals by CH. Tatham (1772-1842). Atter 1800
this influence was seen most clearly in the use of tripod and sarcophagus shapes and zoomorpruc elements in fumiture, created in a more saüd and hea\~y\\'eight style than that of ti,e Adam brothers. ln addition to the standard Roman sources, many designers and patron5 were increasingly attracted to Greek decoration. The Chinese and the Gothic styles, exotic altematives to c1assicism, \Vere u5ed to create specific decorative themes, and Egyptian and lndian styles were also introdllced llnder the enthusiastic leadership of the Prince RegentA leading exponent of both the Greek and the Egyptian styles was the connoisseur Thomas Hope (1769-1831), who published designs for furniture for his own houses in HOl/sehold FUnlitl/re nlld IlZterior DecoratioJJ (1807). This was soon followed by George Smith's
Collectioll of Desiglls for HOlIseholri Flfmitllre anri IlIterior Decoratioll (1808), Rudolph Ackermann's monthly magazine, the Repository of Arts (1809-28), was a150 influential on early 19th-century designo
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for tite 1St EnTI of Hnre<¡"OCld, Hnre,l,ood HOl/se, l'orkshire. 1773. Qlle of ¡!le gral/dest expr~siolls uf file Neocln5sicn/ IJeTe in fIJe c/nlxmlfl' l/51' of mn'f'd detni!
style
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desigll of (1 bed by George plIblislJed by A. Hf1Jplt;,whife jn The Cabinet)'laker and Lpholsterer's Guide, 1788. Hcpplewllite Heppleit'¡lite
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slIggested tlm! fhe Orllal/1C11ts 01/ tlle comice /l/igM be japmllled, ¡1'ltI, jestoollcd drapery 0/1 lile fo.!'er <,n/ances.
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In the earIy 19th century new shapes for tables ",ere introduced in response ta changes in the arrangement of withdra.. ving raoms. These included central round tables on tripod or columnar supports, with elegant inlays of brass or ebony, and rectangular sofa, games, and writing tables with lolding flaps, on supports in the fonn 01 Greek lyres or linked colunUlS joined by a single stretcher. Darker, richer woods such as rosewood, zebrawood, and dark·toned mahoganies, and simulated ebony smfaces became highly fashionable, making strong contrasts with gilt mounts ar brass inlays. Most tables and many chairs ",efe fitted with casters for ease of movement. In the perlod 1800-30 gilding continued lo be used extensively fer mirror frames, on which mouldings and other carved decoration became larger in scale. In addition the newly developed convex mirror glass w~s used with circular fr~mes. From the 1790s British chair fonns had responded to French influence in the use of much more rectilinear shapes for chair bades and seats, repl~cing rounded seat
and back upholstery with square-edged, or "French," stuffing. Afier 1800, chair design adapted again to the fashionable Greek style throllgh the use 01 tablet-shaped backs and sabre or X-form legs, with classical figure or zoomorphic supports for arms. Canework with loose squab cushions for seats increased a sense of lightness and mobility for chairs, but strong plain colours were favoured for upholstery textiles. Fashionable designs for beds also adapted to modem classical ideas with the introduction of couch beds, or /its ell bntenll, with elaborate drapery, although traditional four-post beds with fine classical pillars continued in use th.rollghollt the periodo The early years of the 19th century were also marked by notable developments in travelling or campaign fumiture, stimulated as much by Britain's colonial expansion as by the needs of campaigning soldiers and sailors. Compact pieces combining se"eral functions, or knockdown huniture that could be con\'eniently packed for travelling, ,vere both ingenious and elegantly made.
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Influences from Abroad
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In Prussia Friedrich Wilhcll11 von Erdmam'lsdorff (1736-1800) designed furniturc for thc royal palace in Berlin, the Marmor Palace in Potsd
147
Cabinetwork
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In the earIy 19th century new shapes for tables ",ere introduced in response ta changes in the arrangement of withdra.. ving raoms. These íncluded central round tables on tripod or columnar supports, with elegant inlays of brass or ebony, and rectangular sofa, games, and writing tables with lolding flaps, on supports in the fonn 01 Greek lyres or linked colunUlS joined by a single stretcher. Darker, richer woods such as rosewood, zebrawood, and dark·toned mahoganies, and simulated ebony smfaces became highly fashionable, making strong contrasts with gilt mounts ar brass inlays. Most tables and many chairs ",efe fitted with casters for ease of movement. In the perlod 1800-30 gilding continued lo be used extensively fer mirror frames, on which mouldings and other carved decoration became larger in scale. In addition the newly developed convex mirror glass w~s used with circular fr~mes. From the 1790s British chair fonns had responded to French influence in the use of much more rectilinear shapes for chair bades and seats, repl~cing rounded seat
and back upholstery with square-edged, or "French," stuffing. Afier 1800, chair design adapted again to the fashionable Greek style throllgh the use 01 tablet-shaped backs and sabre or X-form legs, with classical figure or zoomorphic supports for arms. Canework with loose squab cushions for seats increased a sense of lightness and mobility for chairs, but strong plain colours were favoured for upholstery textiles. Fashionable designs for beds also adapted to modem classical ideas with the introduction of couch beds, or /its ell bntenll, with elaborate drapery, although traditional four-post beds with fine classical pillars continued in use th.rollghollt the periodo The early years of the 19th century were also marked by notable developments in travelling or campaign fumjture, stimulated as much by Britain's colonial expansion as by the needs of campaigning soldiers and sailors. Compact pieces combining se"eral functions, or knockdown huniture that could be con\'eniently packed for travelling, ,vere both ingenious and elegantly made.
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Influences from Abroad
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an y of the rulers of the Cerman states decorated their palaces in a modified Rocaeo style into the 17705, and German Neoclassicism only developed towards the end of the century. The two main influences carne fraro France and England, and 18th-century Neoclassical design shows a wide variety of forrns. The most important cabinetmaker working in Germany was David Roentgen (1743-1807). He developed a form of pictorial marquetry in which the pieces were individually tinted, then inset into the veneer so that the colour or grain of each segment of the marquetry created the designo This technique, en mosarque, created a painterIy effect. Roentgen \'\'ent to Paris, Berlin, and Russia, creating architectural pieces 'with sophisticated mechanical workings. His monumental forms of the 17905 were developed from classical architecture. By this time, Roentgen had foregone the decorative fittings previously supplied by Pierre Rémond, using simple molUlts of great quality, occasionally decorated with antique scenes in bas relief, which "vere set against the flame mahogany veneers.
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In Prussia Friedrich Wilhcll11 von Erdmam'lsdorff (1736-1800) designed furniturc for thc royal palace in Berlin, the Marmor Palace in Potsd
147
Austrian Furniture Biedermeier Design
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orne of the rnost inventive furniture of the early 19th century was created in Austria, where the c1assical bourgeois style known as Bieclermeier took mot c.1815, soon spreading to other parts of eastern Europe and Gerrnany, and continuing until the 18505. Biedermeier absorbed both the French Ernpire style and English Regency, working thern into elegant forms distinguished by rOtrnded or geometric shapes and sparing ornamento Light-<:oloured figured timbers such as buch, maple, and fruih''''oods as ,vel! as mahogany were favoured, ,,,,¡th decorative motifs and borders in contrasting ebony or ¡vory, or painted in black. Convenient, comfortable, and ",eU marle, most furniture was designed by craftsmen, of whom the most important ,vas Joseph Danhauser of Vienna (11.1804-30). Capacious desks with ingenious internal arrangements, multi-purpose tables, and chairs with fan-shaped backs were typical, while COh.lIIU1S, IYTe shapes, drapery 5wags, and volutes were themes. The practical, clean-lined simplicity of Bieclermeier fumiture gives it a strikingly modem appearance.
Spanish and Portuguese Furniture An Elaborate laste •
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gilded ¡¡,oad forlllcd pa¡-I of a slIite madeJor /l/e s/lip in it'fJicJl file Portllgllese royal family f1ed to Bm:iJ ill 1807. T/¡e Cl!lllraJ Oi'a/ call,'aSL"S arc Ll/1scd 011 /lI1rOOl/r scel/I!s by }eall PilIell1l!lIt, L. l.ljllll3ft 9;/'ill,
Casita del Labrador, Artllljlle=, Spnill, fllis e/lI1ir .cas e.uwled in cbol/Y nlld boxwood c,1790-j, DllgoJlrc l/scd /IJe eJlgrai.'illgs 01 ClII1r/t'S IIrs Catalogo degli Antichi r..lonumenti (1759) for tlle paílllillg 011 lile hack.
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panish Neoclassical fumiture assimilated influences from Italy, France, and Britain, emerging with a distinctive flavour. The royal workshops, headed by the Neapolitan Mattia Gasparini ITam 1768, produced chairs, consale tables, and cornmodes for the Spanish royal palaces in a bolder, slightly exaggerated version of the Italian style. Case furniture was decorated with marquetry or paintcd panels of Pompeian figures in the Milanese style, sometimes \,,¡th small mirrors or ceramic plaques added to the ornament. In the early 19th century, the arrival in Spain of the designer Jean-Démosthene Dugourc ensured the supremac)' of the French style, with the use of sculptural motifs sllch as swans, sphin..X€s, and figures. In Portugal, fumiture makers follo'Ved French design extremely closely, although English influence was most important for chairs. A d.istinctive type of breakfront cornmode with marquetry panels and a deep apron is known as a DOIUla Maria conunode. José Aniceto Raposo specialized in marquetry of trophies, arrO\\'s, and AO\\'ers.
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149
Italian Furniture Furniture from the 18th Century
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royal jfllllily al Paln::o d'Amfos, Nap/es, willl floral Sil'ags tmd tl
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lodg!? Tlle designs 01 tile frie=e are taken frolll ellgrapillgs by Giot'alllJi Battista Vo/pol/e afier Raphael's desigl/s at ¡lIe Vaticm! Loggia. Table lit 94c1II137ill.
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Pala::o Borg/lese, Rome, ,ens cnn'ed by AlItollio Lnwll1cd, (.1775. /ls frttllsitiOlral slmp" reflects ti!!? iJifluellce oj Piml/l'Si's desigl/s. Ht.93.5C111/36'/,il/. tlJ/IIt'/HlIII ti,.'
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19th-Century Furniture Pe/agio Palagi desigl/t'd tJlis dmir for tJ¡e Etmscl/ll roolllat Caslef10 Raccolligi, TI/rill. IS34. Gabriele eapello r/óvived tlte ledmique of illlay. 'I'/lidl liad complelt'ly di5nl'penred ill ltaly. 1
3 Tlle pure ami f01"1/1 of tI¡i:; C.lS0l mee/mllical ¡¡'ritillg dl':;k bl' Ciol'al/lli SocdIi is 11I1 ele~llllf • • remillder of f/ie importallce of geomelry il¡l'IIrh'19tll-c¡>¡¡11I~1 desigll. T1Ie dmir couid be jifteli iJlto tJ¡e Ifesk lo clase il. L. 2.]1II/7fl 6'1:ill.
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eoclassicism developed differently in Europe: Ven ice, Spain, and Portugal ool)' «lme to it towards the end of the 18th centurv, while Rome, Turin, Genoa, and Naples e,"olved gradually towards classical forms. The main source of design was French. Giuseppe Maria Bonzanigo (1745-1820), the leading designer for the royal palaces in Turin, imitated French forms of the 17705. His training as a miniaturist carver led to exquisite decoratian on his fumiture, generally of carved and painted \Vood. Carved furniture - tables, chairs, commodes, and mirrors - was both gilded and painted. Roman furnirure continued its emphasis on bold, highly scu1pted forms, particularly in designs by Giuseppe Valadier (1762-1839). Roman tables had thick marble tops, typically veneered with a gilt-bronze edging. Chair designs were amang the first to be on a large scale and influenced Jater designs. The centre of cabinehnaking \Vas Lombardy and the mast famous exponent af veneered furniture was the Milanese cabinehnaker Giuseppe Maggiolini (17381814). The shapes of his commodes and cabinets
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developed fram Engbsh rectangular forms, their fronb eovered in fine pietorial marquetry. Follo\Vers such <1~ Abbiati took these designs to Rome and the tradition nI' marquetry continued. ¡nto the next century. In the 19th century the French Empire style ,-md 1I1l' influence of Percier and Fontaine became domin.llll. llll' Bolognese designer Pelagio Palagi (1775-1R60) .Illd till' Venetian, Giuseppe Borsato (1770-1849) bolh worJ...l'd 101' leading members of the Napoleonic regillh', prPlilu:ing high-quality furniture in a disciplilll'd bul oflt:n monumental classical style. Paolo t\h\:-.chini (b. 1789) develaped complex decorative dfec¡... in 1ll.1rqllclry imitating tortoiseshelt as \Vell as inlric
151
North Eastern European Furniture The Netherlands, Scandinavia, and Russia
TIR' G""lIlf S"foll, Hasa P(H'iliOIl, 5.t'o!dcll, do!:::igllcd b.l( LOl/i.. 1\lIl~rdÍl'= c. 1;86. i{'as illspiwf b!f tlw Rmt/i~~""n' 11t'~igl/s 01 Gil/lio ROllltlll()'::: Pa/rl::11 dd TI;. Tllcl//l"llitllrt' W¡l5 exewfed by frie Olmllllrk ill ¡lit, ¡l"ti'lll{' 1II/lIIIIl'r. TIII' :::i,k tllbl.' i~ in Fr,'l/eh t,l:::tl'. 2 T/¡js klismos dlllir ill Si/ll't,<,dl ¡Cib dl'Sigl/ed by N.A AbifdS'lflrd1M tlle crmm prinec ill Alllrl/h.'1111org e/l:::!"', Dmll//lrk, C.1790. Tlle lie;.i.~JI ,t'a::: tllkt'll IfOll/l1 ROII/rlll .(",11/ p,¡i¡¡li;¡S puNisJ¡,.f :li OdIe Antichita di Ercolano Esposte, 1,55-9:1, 1fll' officillf report 01 t/u.' ¡'XCrlt'nlioli al Haclllfill,'//lII. 1
utch furniture, like German, remained consen-ati\"e in Neoclassical design, for a long time simply adapting pre\'iolls forms by changing the ornament to more fash.ionable antique motifs. It was 110t LU1til the J7905 that the use of c1assical architectural SOllTces created the linearit)' fOlU'td in Franee and England t\\'o decades earlier. The cabinct on chest remained an important item for the Dutch interior and continued to be made in mahogany ",ith Calyed decoratian. Veneered hmliture fram the firo) of Matthijs HorrL'< in the Hague was Df él high quality, adapting both French and English fom1s. His marquetT)' made use DE contrasti..ng pallels of ebony and light woods. TI1e Gustavian stvle in Sweden, so-ealled beca use of its , association with Gusta\'us m, who admired French taste, paralleled de\'elopments in Franee. Some of thc most important examples of Freneh GoCtt Gree funtiture are in Sweden, where thc designer Jean Fran<;ois Neufforge (171-1-91) was asked ta pro\'ide dcsigns for both pri\"ate hOllses and the palaee of Drottningholm. ln 1769 the eabinetmaker Georg I-Iaupt (17..11--8-1) rctumed h'om a
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period in Paris, probably working wlder Risener, and a year's sta)' in London, to beeome the royal eabinetmaker. The late 18th eentllry saw the f10urishing of hml.i.hlre making in RlIssia with lhe patronage of Catherine the Great (1762-96). The Seottish arehiteet, Charles Cameron (c.17.j()-1812) introduced the Pompeian st)'!e of Adam to the royal palaces and David Roentgen eame to St. Petersbllrg in the 17805 bringing his fine mechanieal pieees. His innllenee continlled in the ",ork of Christian Me\'er . and Heinrieh Gambs inta the 19th eentur\'. , Freneh fllrnihlre was also imported.ln the early 19th eenhJ.ry, the RlIssian designer Andrci Nikiforovieh Voronikhin (1760-181~) looked back to furniture b)' Georges jacob but lIsed his o\\'n motifs such as intertwined serpents for the baeks of ehairs. RlIssian eabinetmakers eontinued to mélke pieees of exeeptional quality and variety of design throughout the Neoclassieal period, Partieu]arly Russian is the use of maladlite, lapis lazuli, and ivory to deeorate fine fllmiturc, In the eity of Tula traditional teehniques of working steel w('re lIsed in hlmiture.
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Northern Marquetry 1 AlnlllJijs Horrix (1735-18°9),
i¡wkillg il1 file J Ingl/l'. Nt'f/lerinllds, i/l!i't'loJlt'd ¡lis Oil'lI
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dl'coralitm of 11¡j~ eI'dir, c. JS:w, 1m' tYl,iml t~f R/f5Sillll :i-Ilfk. Russiall dt'ji~l1er5 "ubtll, . c/¡rlllgt,.i tI't' sllnpt'$ of Fft'llc1, lIIodcf:; IJlld
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American Furniture Simplified Unes and New Forms , Tllt' silllp/(fi¡'¡/ filies o/ SI/mue/ Willnnfs c/(lá lit/Jill,\: jrolll Col 8::!2-30 111,' l~bt'd 1'1/ 11Ie
:;¡/mbtll o{ NI',.' 1:::110,:/1/11/1 • • • sl'tl(ilrillli, ¡h,' /io,;!Itfw1/sc. • • •
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fter the Revolution in the 18th century, Americans 'were involved in building a new nation that they hoped would be an ideal republic following the tradition of Rome. EarI)' Classical Revival and Federal fumiture provided a ne\\' idcntity that was ideall)' suited to a yow1g nation. By the last quarter of the ]8th century Americans had rejected the excesses of the Rococo style, with its elaborate caIving and cunring fonns, in favour of the crisp tines and decoratian of the Neoclassical style, Furniture designed during this period looks light and delicate, The slendemess and rectilinearity of chairs, tables, and case furnihtre ofien give them a fragile or e\'en insubstéltltial appearance, Carved ornament was supersedcd by geometric inlays and \-eneers in exotic woods_ Mahogany or satinwood was most favoured for hne furnihtre, but cherry and walnut \Vere sometirncs used, while birch and maple were New England substitutes, sometirnes stained to resemble mahogany. Rectangles, squares, O\'als, and bands of stringing in the rippling grain of mahogany,
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satinwood, or birch enhanced the smooth, twodimensional appearance of this furniture, and classical motifs such as unlS, acanthus lea ves, husks, swags, \'olutes, and the inestimable symbol of the new republic, the eagle and shield, proclaim the style. lmported pattern books such as Hepplewhite's Cnbillel-Mnker nlld Up¡'olslerer's Guide (1788) and Sheraton's Cnbillel-Afnker nJ1d Up/wJslere,s Drnwillg Book (1791--:1:) did mllch to popularize classical design in the United States. The influx of Eurapean irnmigrants inclllded craftsmen and patrons, as weH as English and French hml.iture, and they added huther ideas and designs. John Aitken (fl.179G-l&.lO) and Ephraim Haines (177S-1837) in Philadelphia, Jolm Seymour (c.1738-1818) and Samuel Mclntyre (1757-1811) in Bastan, and Duncan Phyfe (1768-1854) in New York were among the leading cabinetrnakers, but many others catcred for an increasingly eager and prosperous clientele. Allhough Philadelphia and Bastan remained lhe chief centres of fashionable fumihl.fe, Baltimore now became
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Cabinetwork 1 T/¡e SlIIoot/¡, slcl'k SlI1fllCf'S o/ enrly c/nssicnl Jl/mi/lIre were se! off
2 EurOpt'ntl illJllligrnll/ crafbllll'lI
l/lis ]813 desk alld /lOOkcnse from
DUllcflI¡ Phyfe, ti/e maker o/ t/Jis 1810-25 ma}¡og{/JlY sideboard, JI/ld 11J1 l'xtellsj¡,l'
PorlslllollflJ, New Hnmps/lire, deconltioll is Si" a~niJlsf lIIallOgtlJlY ;11 rl)5eil'ooi lllld bircJ¡
brollghf ¡he lIei<' motifs nl1d dtosiglls o/ Ncoc/assicislIl fI'ilf, ti/cm fa tlle LIS. T/¡e Seo/SI/UlII
,'t'llcers willl imry.
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155
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The Elegance 01 lhe Federal Style
2
1 Aftrillllf.'d 111 Ifl c' ¡¡wJ..~J¡(II' al Jolm Seymollr. ,1'110 Jir::>f s.'ff1c',1 jll 1\ll1ill". fllc'lI ill 805foll, tlJis /l/ahogall.'! d¡,¡j r-/',I(k "d f. 't' ¡~f 1 S05 -1 ollas jigllrl!d birdl illlm,. HI 1O;.lnll/.p. ~ill" 2 SmJIIIl!/ Grnss'~ ~id¡' e1,.I", /111 illt¡'rprl'falioll al tlle Grc!ek klismos cfulir, /l/lIcft> il' 80::toll ill 1808-15, ;:ms file.' jirsl¡lit'ú' (~. tlmaicml ¡l/mitl/re.' to IIS¡'l'Clllil'(I(ld /1" a ~tl"l/cfllml
e/eme"t. Ht 8.:;(III/n,'ill"
Post-Revolutionary Seat Furniture 1 Affer tlle Americll" Re7.'O/lItioll [llg1isfllllld COlltilll!l1/n/ desiglls
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set ¡he !ns/¡iol1, pnrtiCIIlnrly ill Pllilnde/pllin. This firme/mil" 01 1785-1815 wítl/ ils IIpllOlskn~d Vl1ck, doublc·scoop nrms, 11I1d
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su/Jan.' exclllplifics bol/¡ Frellcl1 al/ti Britis1l ¡1If/lIcuces.
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bireh, IIInd(' in Snh'lII, A!n::;Sllcllll$fffS, 18°5-15. is tllIIOII,O;: lfle lI/os1 sfyli:#¡ forms for n riTmeiug room o/" jltlr/ollr ¡'I tlll' 1
156
jir;;! decndt"S of tJle 19tfl ct'llll/ry. Ht 97.:wll/;8bu.
important, particularI)' for the production of "fane)''' chairs with their attracti\-e painted decoratian, and Salem, 1I.lassachusetts, for its elegant secretaries combilling a glass·fronted cabinet with a pedestal desk" An increasing \'ariety in chests of dranrers emanated from the Connecticut Rj\"er Valley. The Federal or early Neoclassical style was fashionable for a brief periodo By 1815 the shift in emphasis frem decoration to form in classical interpretations gave rise to the Empire style with its Napoleonic inspiration. Empire design in the United States continued to satisfy contemporar}' tastes into the middle of the 19th century, in spite of competition from other re\"i\'al styles. The French fla\"ol1r of ml1ch American Empire fllmiture was assured as much by the arrival in New York of émigré cabinetmakers such as Charles Honoré LalUllIier (1779-]819) as by philosophicalleanings. In cornpal"ison to Federal furnitllre, large volume and sculptllral ornament deri\'ed from c1assical sources characterize pieces in the Empire style. Craftsmen made
the most of materials sllch as shiny glass, metal mounts, and gilding to highlight bold sculph.tral omament and to contrast with the luminous surfaces of highly polished mahogany \"eneers. Same fumih.tre forms were direct copies of c1assical models sud1 as the clIntfe and klis11Ios chairs, but most often the furniture incorporated decorati\'e elements sllch as caryatids, coltunns, ums, and Iyres to gi\'e a fashionably c1assical flavour to such items as cabinets, tables, and chairs. Imported design books as weH as fwnitlue in the latest European taste aU contribllted to the direct copies as well as the hybrid expressions of the c1assical re\·i\,al. The proliferation of pattem books after 1800 affected e\'en the smallest workshops in American llrban centres. Napoleon's designers Pierre Fontaine and Charles Percier published their designs in 1798. Other SOllrce material followed: 1110mas Hope's HOlIseJiold FlIl"llitl/l'e (lIld ¡¡¡ferior Decoratioll (1807), Rudolph Ackermalm's periodical Tite Repository of Arts (1809-1828), and Pierre La Mésangére's i\!Iellbles et objets de golit (1802-]835) were a11 infiuentia1.
Mediterranean Influences TlIl' curuiefoTm im511 significall! desigll oorroit'f?d 1
from ClIltiqlfity. T/lis New York ¡!('rsial! by lile cabinelmaker ~Dllllcall
PI/y/e jll 1810--2D ;m:orporntcs !fU! eurule slU1pt' jlllo /lle sirle 51lpports 01 file eha;r. Ht B2.1CI1I/p.Y,in. 2 /tnliflll mosnic /nb/I.'tops
embodied al!l/ll1t filas nI/fique
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AlItllollY Querve/le
oj Philndelplria probably made tlús IIIllhogmzy tl'ipod centre table of 1825-35 to flCCOllJIJlodnte his
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The Impressive Empire Style
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/TUribules
o/ fIJe Empire style.
Ht 167clII/65'1.;II. 2 Wlwf file ITllcimt Greeks cal/tri n klismos eha;r ¡vas kl/OUlllaS 11 Grecinll e/wir il1 tite lStll (lIId 191/1 celltllrics. This sirle cJ1flir IIInde by Benjnlllill HellnJ Latrobe of PlJilndelp/lin, 1808-10, is /lot only n dmlllntic expressioll of tlle snbre-legged klismos form blll illc1l1des paillted c1nssicnl motifs 011 tlle tabIet btJck. Ht B1.3C111/J2ill.
The French Style of. ; ;La,; ;,n;.;.;n,; ;,ui,; ;,er
1 TrIe exolic sntillwood {'elleers, tlle pntillnted
doIpllin feel, nlld tire gilt·brollZc mOl/llts make t/¡is bed, made ill Ne1.l' York City by file Frellell ill1l11igmllf cmftsm1l11 C/1flrles Hallaré LlI1l11l/ier, i11lpressive, HI 114CIII/45il1.
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2
157
Materials and Techniques Exolic Malerials and lhe Skilled Craftsman 3 By IIsillg II1n/lOgnl1Y 011 t//is
c.z¡So, ]lllrlol/l' dUlir. [he crnftsmall could Cfl'alt' fllc slmderlonlls popular ill the Neoc/assica/ periOlf. [llgli::II,
4 Tht' sllrfaCi' 01 t!/is 1772-4 secrétair(' b!J feall-Frml{(li~ Ll'ft'!/ is (,1//ircl~1 cOi't'red ,l'ifll Iligflly
e/abarate lIIarqlletry composed o[ lIIallY diffi:rellt rxofic r¡·oods alld Jillisfll'lf witfl 01'1110/11 II/oml/s
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the Neoclassical s/yle H/
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prot'ided British cnIJillelmakers
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ideal
/l/a/erial for good-qllfllify tl/milllre ~f all fypes. 2 TlEe ,vorkshop 01 Mnrtill Carlill /linde tJlis frellc/1 /Illlsic stand mrd il'ritillg lable,
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he craftsmariship and materials used in Neoclassical furniture \Vere of the highest quality and \vere distinguished by complex construction and often elaborate decoration. In Britain, plentiful supplies Df mahogany imporled !rom !he West Indies provided furniture makers with a stable, durable, and versatile \\Toad for constructing into every type of furniture in the Neoclassical style. It permitted the development of exceptionally slender frames for cabinets, tables, and dlairs, yet provided strength. Exotic timbers from the East Indies and South America were also imported into Britain and Europe for use in decorative veneers which were originally very brightly coloured. Minute pieces were precisely cut and pieced togcther to form complex patteros, pictures, and borders. I\'ory, mother-of-pearl, ornamental stones, and rieh Illl'l.lb \Vere also inlaid into ,...ooden surfaces. I'.linlcd and japanned deeoration in the Neoclassical ... lvlL' WclS used extensively, often on softwoods, which w,'rl' prone lo decay. Techniques irwolved laying a gesso
T
158
coating on the woad, applying oil-based colours, and finishing the surface with varnjshes. In France and Germany, lacquer paneIs and porcelain plaques couId be incorporated into the surfaces of tables and cabinets as an alternative ta marquetry and paint. Cast-metal mounts, in bright ormolu, 01' gilt brass ,vere supplied by speciaJist fOlUlders, sometimes working for particular designers and craftsmen. Gilding on minor, picture, table, and chair frames continued ta be important for luxury fumihIre. Specialist craftsmen \Vere employed to apply gesso and gold leaf with oil- or water-based techniques. Gilders often \Yorked in clase partnership with glass grinders and silverers, who provided increasingly large panels of mirror glass. Upholstery was sophisticated during the Neoc1assical periad, with refined techniques and materials used to stuff and cover chairs. After 1800 the work of the upholsterer became more important when elabarate drapery in the Greek style was applied lo beds, solas, and cabinet\York, using rieh fabrics and complex trirnmings.
5 TJJi~ dl'llli/ 01 {/ II/I/rqlldry pal/el ¡mm (J üIllIllW¡f¡> by TlIOII/I/'io CJ¡ipJll'lIda/e for HI/rt'il'(lOlf Hall:>,'. Ellgland, 1773, shoil>s the
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sI/eh illtrÍcafe ./'Ork. 6 /11 f1lis desigll by Rowrt Adllm for a paillh'd f(fble far Lord Bntllllrst, Apsley HOIf5e.
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Londoll, C.l ¡¡j. tite detailed omllment
sha't'll is lypÍCl1f 01 Adam';; iYeoc1assicnl style
perjectfy :wited lo paillted decora/ion 011 fllmitllTe. 7 Detnil o/ all ElIg/islt pembroke table, fllld is
01 (}{/k nnri Sillimmod. TI/e table has marqlletry illfays 01 mnhogallY alld stnilled
(.1780.
woods, witJ¡ bros:> }¡alldles Ulld plates. 5kil/ed
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cahi/lefmllkillg tecJmiqllt'S, decorat;¡'(' tmoos, /ll/d lIIe/a/ //lolmls produud fl/milllre il/a ¡feUmle NeoclassicaJ styJe.
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borders ulld frillges 1I'<:'r,' (//1 11111'11'-/1111/ f,'l/Iure ollater Nroc1nssicnl fl/misll/lIS.s, 9 Upholstery it:cfmilll1l'S l/"or.' illr/slmft'd i" Diderot's Encyclopcd'l' mI Diclionnaire Raisonné des Sci<'-'IlCl''', '771. U,,/¡olslerers el/lploycd sh/kd 1,'; Imll/III'S lo efl'u/e e/ubornle 511111);'5 Jor sml jlll"llillln'.
8
159
Major Continental European Porcelain ANew Art
Neoclassical Motifs
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1 A Inrge 5h>res bisCllit grollp o/ lIJe Judgement of Paris, mode/fed by LOI/;5-5;1II01I 80;=01, C.1780. Tlie lnrge si=e 01 ffle grollp WflS made possible by file de-velopmellt 01 IUlrd-pnste porce/nin.
111 file ]7605 Se-tlr('S grollps cOlIsisted I/lostly o/ clJildrell, bul by lile 17805 classical tI/fmes predomillated. Biscuil
porcelaiu ,I'as polished with /mrd sIal/es for el silJ...-y filliSJ1. Ht 42 cm!l6V,ill.
he Neoclassical style first appeared in ceramics in the 17605 when the French Sevres factory introduced vases with a strong Neoclassical influence. Although still painted with RocaeD subjects such as flowers, children, or lovers, the shapes were NeoclassicaL Of depressed or ovoid urn fonn, they \Vere symmetrically designed, the basic shape enlivened by a wealth of moulded or applied three-dimensional detail, including acanthus, anthemia, rosettes, laurel garlands, guilloche, ribbons, rings, swagged draperies, and medalJions. Sides ",ere fluted, reeded, or gadrooned, and banded with borders of simulated pearls, bosses, or studs, vitruvian scroUs, Greek key pattem, or stiff leaves. Moulded handles with overlapping leaves, Dr formed as sphinx heads, straps, or cven female figures, "'ere applied to the sirles. Coloured grounds, partieularly a rieh overglaze-blue (b/eu llOl/Venu), .,ddcd to the air of restrained magnificenee. In 1769 hard-paste porcelain was first made at 5evres, ,llld the production of large, magisterial pieces beca me p<':-... . ibll'. During the 17605 and 1770s imposing biscuit
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1 TI,;s Sh'res iCf'-cr('fl1ll eoo/er is Jmlll a Sl.'n'icc madI' Jor Call1aille tll/~ Grcaf c. 177¡j~. Ii 1/(/,; lypical dnssical scelll'S en grisaiJIc a/ld applícd cal/leos, (lIId lite jigllml/lalldlcs alld baJld oJ lt'flt'l'5 are a/so il//iJe c/assica/lmdilioll. I-1t 231CIII/9ill. 2 TlII.' lI/t'da[Jio/ls, sU'ags, alld Gn'ek key J!af/cl'll 011 /!lis Si:Vre5 bleu nouveau vase al1d COi'er, madé' e.1 76,;. are all Iypical Nf!odnssi((/Imolif~. Ht 3';CIII/13Y,ill. 3 A Jormnlily oJ sfmpe call be see1/ ;11 this Se-vres vase, e.1771, dt'coraled wiITl a bmld oJ pllfti. Tlle ltnl1dles are simple loops alld tlle cover is picrced Witll c1assica/ alllflt'mioJl alld Imm'l, Ht 45.7cm/I8ill,
figures were made, not as table decorations, but as rniniarure sculphirc. Throughout the 17705 classical subjects were fashionable, and the art of cameo painting ",as seen to great advantage in the great Frog service made, 1778-9, for Catherine the Great of Russia, a passionate collector of c1assical cameos and gems, and even threedimensional porcelain carneos \Vere applied. Cylindrical coffee cans replaced the traditional eup shape, and in the 17805 a new technique \Vas introduced by Joseph Coteau (1740-1801), which combined "jewelling" in enamels applied over coloured foils, with rich, elabora te gild:ing. After the French Revolution, the grandiose marufestation of 1 eoclassic:ism - the Empire style - reflected Napoleon's aspirations to achieve the imperial status of classical times. In 1800 A. T. Brongniart (1739-1813) was put in charge of 5evres. He discontinued the manufacture of 50ft-paste porcelain. Large vases and services were made as diploma tic gifts and for Napoleon himseU, The Austerlitz vase, made in 1806, was copied from a Greek km ter (a type of jar) and painted in Etruscan style with red
_.~-----~-----~--
ADisplay 01 Historical Themes
2 Tllís IIm-sllaped Paris
made c. J 790,
1 Napa/eDil prescllted 11Iis $f'i'res ice-crenm pail. frOIll fl ser..'ice /linde 1810-1812, lo
shows the simplicity 01 tite Neoclnssica! style nI
E11Ipress josep/¡illc as fl divorce presento Thc
i/s 11105/ jorlllal fllld res/mil/ed. TJ¡e cOllfilll101I5
Egyptiflll-sty/e pailltillg i5 bllsed 0/1 Delloll's
Irmdscape Scelll!, bJll"llislled gildillg, (lllri stiff
book 011 Egypl, 1802. HI 3D·3cm!IlÜl/.
ferlt'es embrace NeodnssiciSIII. Ht. 43(111/17/11.
¡'(1St!,
3 The Three Graces DistTcssing Cupid i!> tll!' tllemc of ,/lis (.1810 Paris pinte. TI/e IIIfltted gildiJlg /5 too/ed ;,lIitlt c1fl5siCfll border pnfferJIs.
Matt, bllmislleri, mui tooled gildillg was ofte" cOJltrnsled ¡JI Elllpin' style. Hl 23.jCm!9'1ill.
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1 Hnrd-pnsle IlOrcdníll ,1'n5 jirst ílllrodllced nI Sfi'rl'S, ,,,IJere tllís C.17S7 coff« cnll tlIld SiTl/cer ¡I'!.'r!.' IIItl1wfncllll'l'lt. Trie om/lll/'dnffiolls, pníl1tt'd en grisen, . ml/c/I il/ t/le
c/a::,sícnI5Iyle. 2 TJ¡e gildillg 0/1 t/lis coffc/' ca/1 nlld sal/cer is n fypicnl Nt'oc/nssicnl e1t'I111'l1t, as nre file
3 TJ¡e jl'll'dh'llltt'llll"11/ioll 0/1
IlIis Si''l'''''; f1!({•.•. (,111/111,1 ",/lI.a, mnlh' el¡SI -,:!, ¡."I~ dflllt' b,l! npplyillS S[o/!lI[l''' l~f t'l/tlIl/eI /¡) Ilit·-."lllIIlpt·d 1111'1111 {tlíl" ¡)II l/u' :'lIrf¡,Cl' .~r /!J.' 1"1'ú', símll/ntíllS 11¡'1Ir/~ /11111 (ll/Ia jt'll't'ls.
scro//work nlld sIHli:¡'d flOi/W 01/ tlle snl/cer, 'l'l,ic/, r/."$t·mblcs n c/nssjml roffered cé/jllg.
161
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Vase Shapes Inspired by the Excavations
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2 , Thc portmil of a lady is pnilltl'd 0/1 n dark gral/lid pmlf>/' n(compal/ied 'l'itJl a ricJi, bl/mi$JIl'll golri gral/lid Ol/ t/lis ptlir of t'nSl'S madI.' iJl París CIS20. TIJe IWJldlt'S fo11otl' n traditioJlnl c1assicnf slmpt!. Nt '1 jCm/I71ill. 2 T/¡is pair of Par/s Vflses, /linde ¡JI fhe Empire style CI83D, 15 pail/ted with topogmpllicnl semes. Thl? humished gildillg nlld s/wped lumd/es are typiml of i'nses of file periodo Tite sqllnre bases WI!I'l! iJlspired by lile eXCfll'fltiolls a/ Pompej; alld Herculal/cl/III. Ht 39.jcm!IjliJl. 3 TIle pedestal,; of t}¡ese grem-grolfl/d mses, mnde al P(lTis c. J 82.5. tire al111o:>t as grand as file bodies of file pases thelllsef¡,f'S. Tite upright SiCllIlS'I/I!(/d fWlldh>s are fypieaf of 'he Empin' slyle. 4 TI/e ell/1leO por/raits in profile 01/ thi:; paír of blllc-groulld t'I1ses 'wen! a populal' slIbjl.'cffor ¡he Neoclassical pain/er. HI 33CI1l/l3ill.
figures on a black grow1d, and represented Napoleon, crowned with laurel and driven by Victory in a chariot. Several porcelain manufacturers set up in Paris at the end of the 18th century. Fine painting eH grisail/e (in imitation of stone sculpture in black, ",hite, and grey) ,vas used for tea and coffee services, and inexpensive ",ares were painted with scattered cornflower sprays. Sorne tea wares and vases combined biscuit and glazed porcelain with burrushed gilding and innovatively shaped handles. Meanwhile, in the provinces, stiffly Neoc1assical iigures were made at Niden1iller, and at Creit founded in 1793, English-style crearnwares were printed in black with classical scenes and borders. During the Seven Years' War 0756-63) Saxony was llvcrrUll by Pnlssian troops, and production at Meissen l,11llL' ,lImost to a halt. After the ,var, the French sculptor Villt Ir Acier was appointed to introduce "modem" taste, 111 l-i.1I11pele ,\'ith 5evres, ,vhich had reigned suprerne over l'0fll'l,lin production during the war. Ten years later in 177·1, ( IllInt Ctlmillo Marcolini was appointed director.
3
4
By the 1760s the Neoclassical style, inspired by the excavations at Pompeii tlnd Herculaneum, ,vas becoming fashionable. Acier designed figures and groups of naked cupids at amatory pllrslIits, with square bases moulded with anthemia and edged ",ith Greek key pattern. Sentimental grOllpS of lovers and drildren sat on Neoc1assical chairs or by classical urns, and their oval bases were moulded with borders of vitruvian scroUs or gadroons, gilt to rcsemble Louis XVI ormolu mounts. Throughout Germany shapes of tablewares adapted to the new style, with pinecone, artichoke or, impractically, laurel wreath knops. Um-shaped vases had rams' -head and mask handles, and architectural gadroon borders were popular on flat \Vares. By the 1780s cylindrical coffee cans had replaced bowl-shaped cups across Europe. The oval mcdallion was a popular shape for reserved panels, with tooled borders of flat gilding enclosing monograms, silhouettes, or profilc portraits, which gave an il1usion of framed miniatures hanging from a bow or floral garIand.
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Maslering lhe Medium - The Skill of lhe Modeller 1 TI/e Neoc/assica! Inste for mytllOlogical chamcfers clln be serll iJl ¡!lis lvJeissclI figrlre
grOl/p, C.1765, 1/lDugh it sfill shows /IIIW!!
e/ell/ents 01 Rocoeo. 2 Morlelled by Micl1e! Victor Acier (/lid Jollmll1 Cad ScllOlllleit, tllis nllegoJ'icnl MeisscJl gral/p, lIIade C.177.f, reprcscnts The Test of Lon'. It shows ¡he lovers [¡I¡ a Neodnssicnllll"ll Olla
pedestal, ll11d ¡he gndroollcd base Itas rep/nced /lIe Rocaca racky I/1Dlll1d. Nt jOcm/19Y.ill.
111
-/ 3 3 This Marco/in; Meiss/'Il figure ofCupid, modelled hy Michel Victor Acia e1775, !Ins n
1
c/nssica/ eoll/1Il11 ¡¡¡Mead
o/ a
Rococo free /nmk. Thi' pale c%l/r pnlette, fIJe recftlllgll/l1r
base, Iilld ¡!Ie slIbject epitomise Ncoclnssical seI.'crity softelled by SCJltilllell/. HI14.7CIIl/S'!.iIl.
From Curves lo Angles
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4 TlJis Berlill bisClIit grOllp of Frederick tite Gretlt, /IIndc C.1780, SIIOWS lJiIll IIIOlll1fed 011 !Jo/'seback likc a c/assicnl elllpero/'. Tlle whitc JlIIgla=ed porcdaiJl SllOi{'S fIJe sClllpt 11m! r¡lInlity of tlle grollp. Ht 35·5clII!l4i1l.
1 TiJe allgular Imudlt,
/!lis Ma/"co/in; Meisscll chocolate ClIp w;tll COi'er (lI1d sal/ce/", /IIade C.1775. /lO longa 1m:; tile :;ilI1101I:; ClIrucs of/he Rococo. The grypllOlls (I/"e c1assicnl, as arc fllc clltil'illed garJallds. 011
163
The Reslrained Decoralion 01 German Porcelain ...J
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board.
211,c decoratiOll of t/,;s Frallkclltlml coffee ((111 nI/ti 5111/Cer, e.IJ80, ;$ rl'Stricled almost excll/si¡'ely lo lile central/m/le/ of ti lalldsmpe. Galle is lile extra<.'tTgallce of /lit! Rococo style.
3 Tlfis Frallkent/m/ coffec en" l/lid saucer, madI' 1785,1/(/5 ;"itial:; witIJill ri/IIlOl/I'd II1cdafliOllS nI/ti n S(alterillg offlO
Naluralislic Painling
2
1 A Viemltl Olml trny, paillten in
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At Frankenthal, a leading German factory, fine, detailed painting oE allegorical or mythologicaI subjects after French. engravings "vas seen on solitaires, déjellllers, and téte-{¡-tétes - tea and coffee sen' ices for one or h\'o peopIe on a n"latching porcelain tray - th.e last providing an unusually large and flat surface for the porcelain artist. The Empire style, which dated frcm around 1800, was by no means confined to France, and its effects were felt aH over Europe. TIle cylindrical coffee can becarne flared at the rim and was supported on three gilt lion pa\V feet. Borders of simulated pearls appeared, as did high euning gilt handJes in the shape of swans' necks and dragons' hcads. Gilding \Vas bumishecl. to a brassy brightness, matted, bronzed, or engraved for decorative effect. The rapid growth of the middle classes provided a market for single, superbly painted cabinet cups, as opposed to the Imge dinner services ordered by the ilristocracy, and by the 1820s and 18305 improved travel links fllrther stimulated th.is market by providing a need fm high-quality sOllvenirs of holidays and tours to the
beallty spots and spas of Europe. Ovoid or bell-shaped tea and cofEee wares beca me fashionable, and milk jllgS and coffee pots took the form of classical e\Vers. The icy white porcelains of the German Berlin and Austrian Vienna factories proved an ideal background fer highly skilled, precise, detailed miniature painting. Now, under the intluence of Friedrich Wilhelm III (1770-1840), the Berlin factory produced Berliller Vedllle1lpor:ellnll, exguisite topographical city views of unsurpassed guality. Flowers and portraits were also painted with minute naturalistic detait against grounds that inc1uded a brilliant Prussian blue, black, and buff. At Vienna, Konrad Sorgel ven SorgenthaI was appointed director in 178-1, and so committed was he to Neoclassicism that in 1792 his master modeller, Anton Grassi, visited Reme to assirnilate the forms of excavated Roman artifacts. Riell plates with coloured grow"lds and elaborate borders \Vere painted with scenes aEter Angelica Kauffmann, and spectaclllar plaques, vases, and trays were painted with flowers by Joseph Nigg (ji. 1800-1843).
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Richness al Colour and Gilding 1 TlIe pnlmdlt:s
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mbinet ClIp nlla Sal/ca, c/S r), mode /llore pral/Dl/Ilad by I/h'
strong pillk gral/lid C010IlT, are (/ popular Ncoclassicalmotif.
nI' lor/ll oj ti/e ClIp, sittilIg 01/
a.
(/ pedestal ¡ool alld wil/¡ (11/ uprigllt ¡/GI/dle, are typicnl
classical sl/apes. 2 This C1815 NympllclIbllrg mal! blue-grolllld cabillef ClIp
nlld sal/cer was paillted by Christiml Adlcr
01 Crowll Pril1ce Ludwig DI Havaria, Al/sIria.
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erect hand/es are fypical 01 Neoc/assicislII.
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brollziJlg {llld gíldillg, applied with biscl/it projile bllsts oJ QlIeell Lollise oJ Russin nlld /1l'r childrell. T/¡e shnpe oJ /he VI/SC was illspired by 1ft/' c!nssimllll"Jl. nl1d t!u: swngs nlld Sil'lI/l-SJIIIJIl' !/l/lIdles are Neoclnssiml
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165
English Pottery and Porcelain Moulded and Pierced Neoclassical Decoration 1 111." ..",., "1 11/1' \\",1,""'.1.,11 (", /1',''/'' /"'I/,'nll tlllr·.·II'~ .1',/,,', ,1' ,/,',111/./',/1,'" /1" .. /1111/ ¡'I,··4d 1111/'/'" r;':', S;¡, h I'It·hl·.II,' ,//111,1' 11/" .. /,'11111 jfOlII
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flll' /i'rl/ book for '7¡./ ..lmil';; sfrollg Neoc1as:,ical ,'{,'II/,'III$ SIlC" 115 the pilleapple fi"ifll, 'he cmfml Iml slmpe dl'cornted ,¡Jitll gndrool/s alltI //Io//1dt'd fesfooJls, (lIId tlle Ol'ernil sYllI/lletry of file shnpe. • "',/1/1 il'" f,'
Restrained Neoclassical Decoration
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IlJis C. 1 790 I Vedg,l'Ood al'a 111 il'/I 1',' 1///",','11 111 II 1/t'Jlrc:,:'€'d //1"1/ siln}'/!. Tlle borders ofpn/melles {'dIO IfUN'fmll/tI 011 Crc!'k pnsl's. Ht 16.6clII/6Y,ill.
he ceramic genius of the Neodassical age was Josiah Wedgwood (1730--95). He refined the Staffordshire cream-coloured earthenware (or creamware) to meet demands of the expanding middle class. In the 17605, he achieved a pale, thin body by adding Cornish cIay and china stone to rus Queen's ware. Large services were made, and in the 17905 nautilus shell shapes were intToduced. TI1ey ,vere sparsely painted \vith borders of bellflowers, egg and dart, anthemia, and bands of leaves in Neoclassical style in sepia, green, or blue. vVedgwood also developed pearh-vare to crea te a whiter earthemvare in 1779. More white day and flintwere added to the body, together with cobalt oxide, which gave the glaze a bluish linge to crea te the illusíon of whiteness. It was painted in llllderglaze-blue or coloured enamels, and paved the way for Ihe blue-printed earthenwares of the 19th century. lIt..' next developed a hard, fine-grained black stone\\'.1l'L', known as "black basaltes." Trus material had a h.lI'I.lllL'~S ilnd lustre that made it ideal for the crisp dd,liling (lf ilpplied moulded satyr heads, laurel swags,
medallions, and rams' hcads on vases. Jasperware, a finegrained white stoneware capable of taking a mineral oxide stain in shades of bluf, green, yellow, lilac, and black, was de\'eloped by vVedgwood by 1775. Other Wedgwood "dry bodies," as they were called, incIuded cane\vare, a bllff·coloured stoneware, and rasso antico, inspired by Roman tara sigillntn (Samian ware). The Chelsea-Derby factory, formed when vVilliam DlIesbury of Derby purchased the Chelsea factory in 1770, produced porcelain vases in classica! style. Dessert services \vere also made, painted with festoons and husks, lIT1ls, Greek key patteTll, and classical subjects el! grisni/lf!. At the end of the century, the Derby factory made vases in classical ovoid, um, and ewer shapes. Figures on canted square bases, similar to their contemporary Staffordshire earthenware cousins, also appeared at the same time. Derby tablewares were the height of elegance, with tea services based on contemporary silver shapes. Military, naval, flower, bird, mythological, and landscape scenes were shown against pale yellow, pink, salmon,
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166
2 TIIf! /I/illimo/isl e/egallCl' of 1111' NI'(ldl1~~i((l/ .¡;.tylc cml be '¡;'t'/!II
1 Tltis IVedgice ,I'I1S mnde jor Cntheril/e file Crenl c.J 778-<). The l}(/ill/illg en grisaille al/d gndroollt'd borde,.s nre Neoc/assicn/ e/emellfs. IV. ]1.5CIII/12,/il1.
011
New Materials fmm Wedgwood 1 Tltís ¡\'cifgil'OOlf J'Cl/I'1WI/I"
Vol/gIl poi. am' 011/ II/lir IIIU'//' c. J 790-1800. is fl typiCIII Neoclnssicnf 11m slltlpt'. T/¡t'
-
gndroollS a/lti Sil'l1gS aTt'
cOI/traste(( iu <,,/life agaillsl fIJe
dark gral/lid. Ht 36cm/l.¡.ill.
2 COi.'l'red <¡'itll n porpl¡yry gla::t', t1lis e.t 775-85 I\'('dgrl'ood ,'ase is made of wllite terrncotta stollL'tmre alld applied 'l'itlt gilded rl·/iefs. Ht 30 .5CIII/12ill. 3 Made frOIll d{ffeTl.'1I1 C%llmf /l/arbh·¡f c1ays, alld 1I10lfllted 011 a /l/arb/e plintlt, fllis c.1770-/5 l\'l'¡f~tl'OQ(f t'tt:::e Ims SIIf1¡I'S' Itead , . Imlldles t/mt 1?IIIl11afe n c1assicnl $lolle origillal. Ht :q.2cmho'b1l.
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rhe Apotheosis of Homer. T{¡e bluf' colol/I' is afiell associnled witll H'l!dgll'ood. NI 46clII/18 ill.
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2 Altllougll I!lis I'\'cdgwood CfllleWal'(' fl'flCllp (/lid S{/IICel~
/linde (.1790, s!Jows n hin! oj cltilloiserie, ¡lIe fluf('(f sities {lnd
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/"/!slmined, cool colo/lrs are typiCfllly Neocfnssicnl. 3 Tlle red m/d Nack CO/OIIT:; 01 tlzis rosso mltieo ¡,"se, /lUId/'
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(,178 j, U'l!re iJ¡spired blf Romml
Snlllinll ¡mre. The relie! decomfioll ¡s bnsed 01/ Egyplinn
¡tesigll:;. Ht )l/cm/l2/i1l.
Classically Inspired Figures Tltis 1\'('dgtl'OOd MarI.: 1~"",It,.,.. bllst ,?f~lcrcury, Jlw 1I/¡",.:.,'I'.'\l"T of tIJe gatis, ,/W" II/1f,{¡- ill tll¡' I,/t" 18th Ct'lItfln" .... . C/tl~~lwl 'I..:.III¡ . ,l'('re a 1/(lpuMr ,.:.///l{¡'¡'j 2 A c·Ji'i.~ 0..,./11/ .'\mlll', ill 1
bi:'Cllil,
01' 1111.'\111:1''/
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Imrcdll/ll, ~/¡¡lil''':' I hl' Ilm..",-' Gran'.. Dt.,llt..... IIl¡.; (IIJlU.l, /lf/a ¡'I'/JiIlJ/II.":' /'u '\/I.'\dú,,¡ J":IIIIf1Ú/llIllI. il'/IO i/'cWJ",'" /1/1111'
,\1C'¡l¡'III~"'clll ~/yl¡'. 111\, IIlIgIII::cd
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167
U1i1i1arian Wares !Ir
1 TI/e SI/tl/III.-.' WII/billo/ ¡mI gi/t lill.' "()rda~ olld I'¡jl yrlllkd InlldsCllI"'s l:ll
2 N,'¡l' Hall /IIade alis sen'ice C.1795-8o iVilh sparsely scattered
flower sprigs iJl ¡IJe style oj
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cmbdli:;/,,'" 1/1,' "ill"'/ lII"p;",'1I "M'u' 011111" "'//1/1"> (!IU¡j, (. ¡ 799 ka .;,',..p;(,' /11/ Spo'/,-, IV. (/¡'fllw/, 1/1/l/l/ft' lo "pout) ,¿/clII!lOf.iJl.
textiles (l1Id n t!le sllope 011111
col1telllpornry
creoll! jl/g
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illV/!rteri c/a5sicall1e!lIIet -
e/emell!s typicnl of lile factory.
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1 TI/e I/ovette10'111 oj tllis S11l1ce tllreell, madI.' C.1797-1800 af Derby. was a popular Neoc/nssical s!mpe, (/s wer/! lIJe ear-slmped JltlHdles. rile /lIwtiCllI 5celle 'lilas paillted 011 a brig/l! yellow grolllld. Tureell w. 23.5CIII/9'1.;II.
vase S/IOWS a faste for lIafllralisfic pnilltillg. Tire vase is 011 n lIlarbled base, relllilliscmf of c1assical vnses. HI 25CI1l/10;11. 3 Tllis Worces/er jug frOIl/ tI,e Barr, Ffig1lt & Barr factory, made C.lSlO, sllows a renlistic pailllillg of shells typicn/ of file periodo Tllcy are sel agaillsl a paillfed background tlml simulates c1assicalmarble. Ht 2S.5cm/llV,ill.
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168
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and blue grounds, and dessert services had fashionable fruit comports and urn-shaped ice-pails or fruit-coolers. In 1768 William Cookworthy, a Plymouth chemist, made a formula for hard-paste porcelain. It was imperfect and the PIymouth factory foundered. In 1770 the BristoI factory 01 Richard Champion purchased the Plymouth formula, and soon the Neoclassical style emerged. Teawares and dessert wares were painted with swags of husks or flO\"lers and medallions painted en grisaille, and a number of figures were made. The Bristol hard-paste patent was sold to potters at New Hall in Staffordshire in 1781. They produced. tea and coffee wares. The Neoclas~ical style was interpreted in helmet-shaped cream jugs t1nd urn-shaped coffee pots with simple decoration. Other faetories using a hybrid hard-paste induded \Vorccster, Miles Mason, Coalport, and Davenport. SlInpk teawares of spirally fluted form were decorated with gilt sprigs, and borders banded in underglaze·blue. ¡\ I¡ttll' Jalcr wares moved into the full-blown Regency t.l ... ll', with vélses based on c1assical um shapes and
painted with topographical views, f1owers, and aUegorical scenes, along with shells and feathers. TIley \Vere set against grounds realistically painted to simulate grey or black marble. Bumished gilt handles \Vere shaped and borders of simulated pearls \Vere added by hand. New shapes such as cabinet eups were designed in French Empire style. The Chamherlain's Worcester factory made similar wares of outstanding quality, while the Coalport factory produced vases, and dinner and dessert services. The greatest development of the period was the Staffordshire potler Josiah Spode's c.1799 invention of bone china. He added bone ash to the standard hardpaste formula, making a strong, highly translucent, white body, whieh served as an exeellent mediurn for tea and coffee services, as well as f1atwares and vases. The new technique 01 bat-printing, by wmch stippled engravings on copper plates were transferred onto porcelain, was especially suited to the Neoclassical style. Subjects included mythological scenes, country houses set in parkland, and scenes of mothers and children.
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Mythological and Dther Figures
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1 Al! ElIglish poftery blllt'-lllld-w/lile //len' disil, made c.18;w, prillted ¡vil/¡ Greek figure salles illspiren by nncien! lJases. 2 Tllis pair of c.18oo Stnffordshíre porcelaill bough pols Wfl5 pain/en tuirl, nllegorical scelle5 Di c/assical figures represen/illg Agriculture
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and Commerce. Nat only (lre Ihe lofty sl/bice/s Iypical o/ c/nssical art, but file D, DI' lJlllette. sllflpe i~ II/:,U r..:j1l!cIt'if iJl LOllfelllpllr
3 Tltís C/mmberlaill's Worcester chocolate Cl/p. CenltT, al/n stl/lld, mane C.ISOj. is pnillted ¡uillt ti NeocJassical scelle depictillg Hope Nursing
Love. TI/e lJiglt-IIIillded sl/bjcef is l/O/ WitllOlIt n nasll 01 EI/glish scmtilllt'l1fnlity (l/In reflects file slyle
Di Bnrf%zú ellgnwillgs after
Allgelica Kmiffmalll/. ClIp J¡f 12C1II/41.ill.
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The Peak 01 Regency Neoclassicism
1
1 T/,;s c..1S1D Coa/port tea serpice is paillted
witli a typical Eng/ish armorial, but ti/e higlJly
decorative backgroulld o/ slripes is ti/e epitome of tlle Regeney versioll o/ Neoc/assiciSIlJ.
2 Oue o/o pair 01 Maso,,'s irol/slolle /J/lIegrol/lld lorge uases alld COl't'rs, C1S20. AltIlOl/gI/ vases were o Neoclossica/¡orlll, t/lis olle is in cllilloiserie sty/e. Ht 54CIII/21'/,ill.
169
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üther European Pottery and Porcelain Early Northern European Neoclassicallnfluences 1 Thi:: SiI'l'di::/1
pnir DI
e.1785. i~ /linde (~( I't·nr/¡{':m.'. T/1t1! an' similar fo (ollll'lIIpornry IVedgi('OOd ,'I1$¡'S. T/¡t' 111"1/ :i-lm¡Je, enr /lIl11dles, 1IlC1l1ld¡'d /l/edal/iolls, I1I1d
¡\ laril'l'Crg <'fijes,
illlposillg IWIIIIJ/c lIIatcrinl.
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l/fte/pl!
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fmll/lltl' F10rrl DlIl1icn $t'l""iCt" 1II11¡/¡'.fllr el/lllaillt' /f ol RlIssin C.l ;89-1 SO;!. /1 disJllays lhe IIr"(Í:;.e /'olm¡j(¡ll "',Irlto ofjlO¡¡\',
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pit·u ¡m:: 1'¡l/lIft'¡1 icítll tT li~ff¡>n'lll jlC:1t{W. HI 26.5(1I//l0Iill. 3 nús SI. r":,¡s/"lo.\ .-l/p fllld Sfll/Ct'r, IIIlldl' C. '790,
/5 pniJlfed ,l'itll pt'lIsa,,'s in fmdititlllnl (o:'lllIIlt'. Tflt' /lmu1
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he Marieberg factory was the only S\vedish faience factory to adopt the Neoclassical style, under the regime of Henrik Sten (1769-82), after which the factof)' was sold to Rbrstrand. The famous "terrace vases," modelled as urns surrounded by a curving staircase, were often transfer-printed or painted with classical tropllies eIl gr¡saille, although the design was still Rococo. However, by the 17805 ovoid uros were of classical shape with high ear·shaped handJes, mouldcd with husk gar· lands and oval medallions hanging from ribbon bows. The most celebrated of Scandinavia's porcelain achievements was the Flora Danica porcelain service of illmost 2,000 pieces, made in 1789 for the Empress Ciltherine of Russia, and painted with different Danish llo\\"ers, capied from engravings by Georg Christian OL'dcr.ln sorne respects it was still in the Rococo style, but in üthers it ernbraced Neoclassicism with its pierced and ...lllddL'd gilt borders and centrepieces of flower-filled h,hl.-ds ...lílnding on rectangular pedestals, each wilh a h\ll'dl'1" uf (."I<1ssical scrollwork eH grisnil/e. Moreover, the
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delicacy Df the detailcd botanical specimens threw the rational light of scicnce anto the pure white porcelain, a style already populnr nt Derby, Vienna, and Berlin. In Russia, the patronage of the Empress Catherine lent impetus to the imperial factory in St. Petersburg. In the 1760s the factory \Vas producing wares in the Neoclassical style, notably dinner services for the empress and a service for her adviser count Grigory Grivozovich Orlov. This featured rectanguJar handles and gadrooned gilt borders, \\"ith applied swags of green laurel leaves, with the count's monogram enclosed within gilt oval medallions, or flanked by laurel and palm branches. At the private Gardner factory, founded by an Englishman at Verbilk.i, near Moscow, in 1767, a spectacular series of sen-ices \Vas made between 1117 and 1783 for the annual gala dinners of Russia's four supreme awards. These had moulded. borders of vine and laurel garlands. Classically inspired table sen-ices dominated Russian production and, under Czar Alexander 1 0801-25), the Empire style became paramount. particularly to be seen
Neoclassical Motils
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1 Gnrdllcr /IIf1de fJ¡is pinte, Cl¡77 1/" par! o/ ti 5er<,ice jor tlle Order oI 5/. Gn1t;\,l' tfu' Orngoll Slayer. lt
5110<1'5 ti
RlIssillll
illfl'rprdalioll of il'ill, . ti/e Nrocins,sicnl sil/k. . lflC ~{'/lt/l' impiJl\, ribboll of . ti/e arder el¡fi/'ilh'd ¡¡,;tl, afo/inh' garlrmd. Diam. :J.-lCIII/9/i1l. ~.
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2 TI/e IlOrlrnils iJl t111.' lIIedalfiOIlS f1mt make
1Jordl'f muf lit!' Iroplljes 0/111'/115 01/ this pltlll' are sfrictly c1assical in illflm'I1Ct'. IIp parlo/ tite
Ditllll. 24CIII/91;1I.
Later Norlhern European Developments
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Figurallnspirations 1 TlIis Gardl1l'rjigllre grOl/JI o/ MOlljiks.lllade c. 1860, delllollslrntes file sta/ic poses
I1lld plaill 0,'111 /Jases t/¡a/ benr 50lllC
Inst l'cstiges o/ fIJe
Neoclassicnl sty/e. Gel/re grollps <1'('1"1:' poplllar ill mid-19tll-cclltlln¡ RlIssia.
Ht 24C111!9:1i1l.
1 This CopeJllmgl'1l p/RIt', made c.l8]5
plate !las a rose after Redollté. Tlte ill/lllellce 01 tIJe Frellc/I EII/pire slyle is SCCIl ill lile brmlisfled llOrders (l/Id laurel/capes. Dialll. 22cm/S/,izl.
3 A portrnit olC::.ar Nicho/as / of Rl/ssia appears Cardl/(,/" ClIp alld sal/cero Por/mifs ((Iere popular
tlJis c.181O-1j tlle Nl.'oc/assicnl era.
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111
171
Italian Neoclassicism 2 Tití:; paír 01 figure:; 01j1oi{'er sellers frolll tlle ltaliall Doecia fami/y, Cl??j, S/IOWS 1/OIIe of ¡he drama al earUer Rocoeo figures, alld tiltir pnle sprigged efol/les are '1uietly restrailled. Ht 14 elll/j'l.ill. 3 Tltis Naples plate is from tite creo/al/ese seroice. /IIade c1781-l a:; a gift frOIll Ferdíllalldo IV to hislafher, Carla /11 ofSpaill. T/u: celltrepieee was sl/I'J'ollllded by biswít representatioll;; of tlle latest arclteological finds ni HercllfallelllJl. ami Ule central figllre is illspired by olle al tite excm,mted
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Le NOlJe grollp 01 Herwle;;, /IIade C178o-90, wllicll gives tile illlpressioll 01 a efassicn/ sclllpfllre in its slIbject, the COIIllIllI;;, it;; /nck 01 CO/Ollr, alld tlle Lnti" inscTiptioll "11011 plus ultra." Ht 26.jcm/IoI:iJl. 1A
in richJy gilt and burnished borders with c1assical motifs,
172
and solid colour bandings. Perhaps surprisingly, Italian porcelain makers were sIo\\' to adopt the Neoc1assical style. The Capodimonte factory was fOllilded in 1743 by CarIo m, King of Sicily, just olltside Naples, and it produced 50ft-paste porcelain made with clays from Fuscaldo in Calabria. Early \vares \Vere in the Rococo style, and it \Vas not until CarIo ID succeeded to the throne of Spain in 1759, and the royal factory was revived in Naples betvveen 1773 and 1806 by Carlo's son, Ferdinando rv, as the Fabbrica Reale Ferdinandea, that the NeocIassical style became de rigl/el/r. First based at Portici, and Iater in the Royal PaIace in Naples, the factory produced services for dinncr, coffee, and tea. Pieces \Vere painted \·vith classical ruins, landscape scenes, and figures in peasant costume. Sorne llniqllc jugs were made with trefoil spouts in the form of Greck oil1ocJlOe, or wine jugs. One of the most important Naples services was that nllllmissioned by Ferdinando rv as a gift for his father,
3
CarIo of Spain. It \Vas thc first service to be produced by Dornenico Venllti \Vhen he becarne director of the factory in 1779. Venllti was the son of an archaeologist, and had been the general sllperintendent of antiquities for the City of Naples. He \Vas a champion of the NeoclassicaI style, as seen in the ruins of Pompeii and HercuJaneum, and he brollght a realism, but also a heroic theatricality, to his designs. The decoration of the service was executed in stippIed styIe by Giacomo Milani, director of the Galleria dei Pittori, and Antonio Cioffi, formerly a painter at the Capodimonte factory. The centrepiece took the form of a biscuit grOllp of Carlo ID encouraging his son to continue with the excavations. Classical figures in glazed and biscllit porcelain were made under the auspices of Filippo Taglione, director of the unlikel)' sOllilding Academ)' of the Nude, founded at Venuti's suggestion. Another major ieoclassical senrice was made at Naples in 1787 for George m of England. Known as lhe Etruscan sen'ice, it was painted with scenes in red and black, copying early Etruscan vases.
-
Typical Neoclassical Elements
L
2 1 Parf
o/ n c.1790 Doeón coffer
3 Tllis NyoII tray. /IIade e1780.
S/IOWS 1111: ~(fccti"e
seruice. Tl1e slIgar Im:;ill Ims n depres:;ed l/m slmpe ami mI IIpstnlldillg rillS as (1 klJop - all e.mmple 01 Neoc1l1s:;icnl /orll1 1101 fOl/o<¡.jllgfullctioll. TI/e pailltillg is typicnJ oj the Neoclnssicnllot,1.'
(Jf IlIIsk
garlllllds nI/ti gildillg. cOIII/JÍlled with a borda ofjlowers ill cool b/lle camaieu 01/ a simple circlllar 511tlpe. TIle balllster·::.ltnped mifk jllg is pnillted mld gift ¡¡'itll rmlllillg fretil'Ork mld garfmlds, al/d a celltml ci rCIIlar enrloue/le depicl illS a tia,,!,, wil/¡ 1111 011101'0115 il/5Cripfioll. Tllis sl/Iall S,piss jacfory SIfCCesSjll/ly e/llbraced Ifle Nl'OClassical style. Tray djam. ].l.7cm/1];;;II. jllg lit 18.5clII/¡/;ill.
01 n mOllocl,rome paJel/e. 2 This e.1785 Fiirslellberg vaS('
s}¡ows tlle nngu/nl" uprighl Jlfllld/t>s fypicnl o/ file periodo E<,cll lile finjnl is
01 ereel rectflll.~II/flr slmpe. Tlle opoiti ¡'flSt' sflllpt' js perfect/y bafaneen al/d softelled by n lIIoulded circular paíllted meda/liOIl Iml/gillS from n rihbal/ bo1l'. HI 39.5clII/151,il1.
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An Exploration 01 Form 1 TlU! c1llssicnJ O
is l/sed for ¡!le body o/ tlJis DII/el1 ,'ase, /linde ni Loosdrl'cll¡ C.l¡S2-'¡'. Flf/II/boy(mt lIloll/rled mili':; lt('tld "(Inri/es 1I(1<,c bf.'ell
flJlp[ierl - n,est! are n reCllrrellf
lIIolif ill clnssicnJ nrc1/itectllrt' (I11/111l'corntioll. Ht 1¡.5C1/1/¡ill. 2 Tllis /1011'1. coper, (lIId sla/lti el1lbmces Neoc1assicism, wit/, Ihe en graisalle decora/ioll depictillg alltiqllt' figllres, tl'e l'ag/e-slmped kllop. al/d ear-slul1'ed ¡mlldles. 3 T/Jis Nrodassienf But'1l Reliro '{'illt' g/ass riJlioa ims madI.' ill Spajll
e l ¡¡o.
/1 rdil's
011
pnjllfl'd
decom IiOIl, 1101 /01"111, for a Neo(/assiml effl'ct. Festoolls (JI coJolII't'd jlOitWS. sl/spel/ded l/y ribllQJI 11001'5. ¡¡'ere a CO/ls/ml/ tllemt' to,('t1rd:< ti/e elld of tlle 18tJI untun,. L. 25"II/1oill.
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173
American Ceramics Foreign Influences and American Ornament 1 1Vit1l lb (11/,,\/1,.. '111/1'1111111.1/ ,...
/11
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Imlll/ds. mriatiOlls III""mdl'd ill IIII/I/Y stntl'S; tJJij S!II::'.·¡{ _~I,lIh'¡¡'nrt? jllg is by Dm,¡d ti/Id ..l/Id /11::'
I klhkr::'o/l, f!'l".~"lf,
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4 AII Americall engfe
tlle RocO(o slyle.
l'/lildillg 01/ tfJis 19f1Helltury jl/g
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comparison to imported goods. The designs of American ceramics made after thc Revollltion not only used local materials but also catered to the classic¡¡l taste that captivated so many Americans. Regardless of lacation or scale, the aim was to match European competition, iI not in quantity and economics then in design and fashion. Following the war of 1812, bitter anti-British sentirncnt eneouraged Americal15 to favollr Freneh designo The porcelain produced during this time and leading to thc rc\·¡\'aJ designs of the mid-19th centllry dosely resemblcd French porcelain of the periodo Amphora vases were favourite forms. These vessels were often omamented with popular local views, and sorne versions had güded handles and details, while others had gilt-bronze mülU1ts and handles. American manufacturers ingeniously transformed European classical taste for their o\\'n market. Despite the derivati\'e nature of American classical ceramics, competition was fierce with the affordable and desirable English transfer ware designed pointedly for the American market.
3 T/¡., s.mgs ofsarlanris, paterae, nlld IIIt"ks 01/ I/tis II/ft, IStIJ-ct'lltllry jllg
uring the two centuries leading up to the years of the new republic, the appearance and functions of ceramics in the Americ¡¡n colonies lmderwent marked changes. Many eady colonial households ate from wooden trenchers or pewter plates, and drinking vessels were made of pewter, leather, hom, or, in exceptional cases, glass or süver. But in the second hall of the 18th cenhuy, when ccramics became increasingly available, their usage changed. More fine ceramics began to appear in a greater munber of hOllseholds. Nonetheless, the majority of ceramics owned by Americans were still foreign. Exported wares in the late 18th century were simil¡¡r to those preduced for British and continental European use, although the decoration may include American motifs such as armorials and eagles. Althollgh the American manufacture of ceramics was rL·l.lti\"(~ly limited and most objects were imported frem hJropc, there were a few attempts at prodllction and 111.1rJ...eting. There was the odd handful of short-lived pren·\·nlutiunary factories. Their products are rare in
ill
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Neoclassimf Jonll.
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5 Aftrilm/.'d lo t'ílflCf Tucka {.- 11.-"'1"';1/ or ¡oSt'pl/ I-/c/l/l'lIifl o[ Pllilmll'1pllill. tl/l~ 111111 o/ gilf poree/tliJl ,'n:ie'S 1m:> madt' IS.13-,8. Tlle bodics (J1'l! 111 fIJe tnl/litiolla/ N('¡)c1(/~~ÍL'1l1 IllllpllOfa sJmpe. illcorporntillg AmericaJl l'
as /ulJIdles (/lid decorated with Al/lNimll lalldscapes (Inri tllltlu:min. HI 56cm/12ill. 6 Dcpoid 01 decomtioll ¡¡'if/, ¡lit' exct'ptiol/ al file jaJltos/ieal/mutiles j" '/¡e sJ¡IlPC o[ 11 ,t'OI/IfIIl'S lxKiy - tT pI/rija/ spJÚI/X1M:; parcelain ampliara .'flse [/'aS IIIl1de ill :Ve'l' York il1 18J6. Hl 33cm/l;ill. 7 TII;5 lead-gla::ed redil'are ({¡sil mnde by George HIIWI1l'r oj ¡\}olllgo/l/cry (O/mly. Pellllsylt'nllia, 1786./m5 stllli:ed birds al/ti I/I/ips. popular lIlotifs 1l1l/0llg lite Pt'I/l/sY/¡Y1IlÍtm DlftcJ¡, a cOllllJlllllily 01 Germall alld oiher I/orll/cm EuropCll1l
imllligrtTllts t1mt sett/I'd in ti/e stllte.
5
Oill"'·3 1cm/ L!IiIl. 8 rile dL'Comtioll 011 lllis 1817/elld-g/fI"":l'd tedi/'nre dish is similar to ffll! olle aoo;:e. but th!' styJi=ed bird 1m:; fJeell tml1sforlllcd il/to tlle Americnll ('Ilgle illcorpornfillg a sllield ml/1 c/lltchillg laure!, a poplllar American motif. Oinlll·3j·jCm/l.¡ill.
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British Glass Adamesque
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of Neoc/nssicn! sJmpes nllri lJIotifs ndopted jlY British glnsslllnkers, c.1¡¡o-80. frollllejt: e/llb, Inper, 1m/lIster (lit'Q Ilfl' 511O¡/11/ here), 111"11, Illld "Pmssin¡¡" s}¡npe$ npp/ied wil1l n t'l1riety o/slm/loi(' I/Iolijs. TIII.' e/ub, Cllt ,l'il1, perliea/ brondfllltes, is (IssocintNf Wit11 n 1775l1otice for "curiOI/:; barrel-slmped dl'cmlter:; wl 01/ mI eHlire
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2 TI'e ,~e/l{'rOI/S/I' LJQw/ed mmlllel" willc glas5.
i /5 "fell/o/l-sqw:e:er" pedestn/ loot, rell/aills lile epitome o/ Briti:;/1 ('nrly Nt'Oc!assicisIII. T!lÍs engrm.'t'd e.mll/plt· is c.1775. Ht 15clII/6;1I. 3 A ¡mil bo,,,1 decornted tl'i111 Iypicnl ear/y 8rili:;/¡ Neoc/nssica/ cu/motifs, illc/lIdillg 5wags, star:;, /llld (1/Jel.'elled \1m! Dyck rilll, Ilnllll.'d njfer t/¡e lace collars wom by I/I(my of file arli5t'5 por/mil slIbjecfs. W.26.¡cm/lo'lill. Im/al/ced
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176
/lIt'
5 Au opaqlll'-;:l'llite Út.'aker liecorafl'li i" gold b.1f lames Gi/1'5 ;:{'itIE l'"erallin (ox-skl/l/sJ "lid i('lIt'd-lik('I/{/tl'nJl.'. t"km from Gio¡'m/lli Batli_~ta Pirml6i's 01' \\'i/finm ClwmÚt.'r:;;' ill,,:;;trated u'Orks 0/1 Romall ardlitl.'cfllrl.'. C. 1 765-¡o.
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6 A tllmbter fllgrm'Cd
it'itll
patcrne, portmil 5il1/OI/C(t6,
file merc1mllt-€I/fter \ Vil! ¡(1m
jestOOl/S, n"d borders pUl/cfuoled wil/¡ sJlallo
Pnrker ill 1781. TI/e cobnlt blue
file /xz5e Cllt il'it1,II01fOW jlllfes,
g/nss
kllO¡I'1I COl/tempornrily as "fillger
probably by !flJllf'S Giles fll/d are npplied ,I,¡,lt orillO/u mllls'/lf~flds
bottOIllS", C.'780. Ht 14cm/j'l.ill.
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8 A NI'OCfnssicnf cullde/abrJ/1II sl'f 011 n lmse oj fl form pntellled by
Il{lSt'S witIJ
paterae.
giTdillg are
7 A Jnrge, mngJlijiceJlf 8rilisll ,\'I'0c111ssicn[ c1,¡¡II¡fdia,
nIId
CI7J5-So, cOllformillg lo tI,e
mOllllfed 011 n lelllOJI-5t]lIee::er
priJlciples estnb/is/ted by Robert Adnm ;11 Works in Archilechne
base, c.I775. Tlle badIl II'flS bloit'lI ;lIfo 11 1I/0l//d befan: ¡lie decorntipc
(1773-8). Hll.S/II15ft
l10tclzes
17i1l.
Ht 50CIII/19%;II.
9 AII Ad<1ll/Lsqlll' IIIl1stard poI
rt't'I't'
npp/icd. Ht lOCIII/4il1.
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eoclassicism has proved to be Britain's favourite and most enduring dccorative style. Its themes of empire expressed in geometric sobriety were adopted wholesale and with remarkable speed after its introduction from c.1760. 1110ugh initially apparent in combi.nations of engraving and cutting, its ultimate manifestation, in cut mitred motifs during the Regency period (c.1790-1830), brought the fa~oll rl'Allgleterre from the backwaters to the forefrant of world glassmaking. The success of Angleterre Neoclassical glassware lay in the lead-based "crystal" perfected by George Ravenscroft in 1676. Possessing greater powers of light refraction and dispersion than European equivalents, lustrous lead or "flint" glass could split the spectrum in sun or flame-light, notably ",hen cut. British Neoclassicism ,vas influenced by Giambattista Piranesi's engravings of Roman architecture (17,,:13), William Chambers' pattern book A Treafise OH Civil Architeclllre (1759), and Baron d'Hancan'ille's engravings of the Sir William HamiJton collection of classical vases,
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AJlfiq/lités Etrl/sqlles, Grecqlles el ROl/milles (1766-67).
Howcver, its success is almost entirely attributable to the Scottish architect Robert Adam, who retumed to London from his Grand Tour in 1758 to set the capital alight with designs evoking the grandeur of the Roman Empirc, lt1tcr augmcnted with Greek themes. Adam's domimlllcC' nvcr prevailing taste was so pervasive that the form of Britbh Neoclassicism c.1760-1790 is known simpl), as Adam. 111e ,,,holesale adoption of rus themes, as sel out in Robert and James Adams' Works ill Arcl,;lecllln' (1773-8), supported James's assertion that Robert "brollght abollt in this country ... a kind of revollltion in the whole system of this useful and elegant art". In contrast to Baroque and Rococo, whose expressions on glass ,,,ere largely superficial, Neoclassicism influenced form as well as omamenl. The style held sway over every form of glassware, notably chandeliers, rummcrs, cruet bottles, and decanters, their decoration growing increasingly exuberant over passing decades lIntil reaching its zenith in the Empire style of the 18205.
177
Irish and Anglo-Irish 1 AH In;,/¡ dip-lIIl11l/dt'd Pm::,silm-s/t'II,,-,¡f ¡fl'ÚIll/ <'r l'l/gra¡'I'11 ¡l'it/I .\úldll"""iCllI rillbo!1.k"/OOlh illld SlIrdcllillS /0(1/;;.
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Ii¡ird
(~f jJlc!,
l¡jl'u'~ ,l",¡~ /IlO'I'11 iJl/() bllckl'l-
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(Ir ;;IlIlIdllflf "i:(~
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ir/lid/d/",-' lTmflod II/ár "t'rlicnl/}f rif>l~'d d,'(lImtiOI/. /11 26(1II//()/.ill. 2 /'1"1I;;,';;1111
dCCIlII/cr
dccomft'd
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,SIO. Ht 2~m/1I!ill. 3 A S¡'llf..'/(J;;;;ically j/lIIpl.'d lmckl'l/lowlcd /"1I11I11U'r dl.'corafl'd il'illl
AIlf:/o-lri:,11 w!tillg, c.18:w. Tire [1¡J¡1'1
is Cllt ¡1'itllllOllow cirClllllr
"lIrilltit's", Slllllfillg comb-/ikt' "bltCt':/' (/lid filie dinmollds, /111'
foo!
'{'il/¡ 11
rndinl stal".
Ht 121(/II/5ill. 4 A jmmd-lJl1sed /npl'l" decal/fa .pjl/I
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ligllt clIgmt'iJlg nlld n
"pillcllt'd fargd" slollpa by Ifu' Cork GftbS COIllp'lIlY, (.1 Soo. Tlle crud{'1/('ss of Iris11 di¡1-
II/ouldl'd
Ikmlllt'r~ has
SlIggl'SfiOIlS
llY
t!lat fIlL'Y
led lo
,pel"(' IJhn!'1l
fmlllll(llllc
!aclorit'io. Ht 21.jcm/Slil1. 5 T.lfl'icall\ah'~ftJr¡f PrJlssial1 dccmlh'r t'llgra¡'l'd 'l'itl, .Yeoc/assical COlrlll1llS mld arc1Il'$. Ht 2'¡'CIII/9!iu.
6 Al! lri.~ll e/ar!'f dL'mult'r, id¡'lIt!(iIlNI' IIY ib ('xaSgal1h'd ~1".)///, lil't'¡Jly (111 ¡dI/¡ ¡Jri~11I:',
strml'llt'rry Ifillllll",d~. II/lIt p'll flul (':;, c. 18:20. .! S. 5(" 11/:,/1 I 11I.
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178
The grant uf free trade ~Icltll~ to Ircland in 1780 h,ld íl profollnd effect in rcju\'cnating its dormanl gl¡¡s~ indllstry. Previollsly without él single operational glasshouse, as many as ten new ones were cst
5
6
cutting machines, essential to deep-profile cutting.. were no! in~I<111ed in Ireland until 1818, almost 30 ycars after lheir inlroduction in England. Whilst Lrish glass cnjoys high romantic repute, sllIprisingly little was actually made therc: statistics prove that its national oulput barely m
7/\11 Ilhl" ''-,III( ¡Us (I1nnld"II~1I1 0/11/
deeply
C/lt ¡l'itl,
,,'JI/,.,
¡""X '1','/11
IIll1hllfll
i'cr/ieal prislIIs mul 1/ VI/I/ 1)111 J.. I"illl wif/¡fnll
detnils, C.IS2V."
Ht 2o.6clIl/S'l;iI/.
8 Piggills, repllten/y l/sed as crerllll 01" lIIilk bOil'ls. nre gl'l1l!mll.ll H'Rnrded ns nn tris/¡ (
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Ji((
bOl1'1 01/ defnclmble slal/d ,pit/¡ Allglo-Tris/¡
(Jlt
lIIofir~, il/e/lIdillS
II~
a \fnn Dyck rilll, faHs, dinlllollds, l/lid JIu/es. TIII' lermeed foo! is
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Cork, (.1790. Ht jOclII!I91.i1l· 10 A disfillctil'c Iris/¡ bu¡pl forl/l.
l/lis
011t' kilO,!,/!
as the kt'ftit'-
dnllll shnpe, d('corafed Wit!111
mnge of f!fpienl Allglo-l risll !/lotir::;
l/lid
(lit
set 011 a !emDII-
sqJ/('(':t'1" base, C.1825_
HI2.1.6clIl/S/iIl. 11 Varia/iDlls 0)1 a ¡IICIIIC. A
oI cylillder decl1l1fer pnttems ¡mm ¡lit' ¡enger of
II1Dllfnge
Watclford IIIflster-CJltter Srlll11lel Mille¡~ Cl82j-35.
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Britain, Steam-Cutting, the Regency 1 COlltempomry desig1l5 tllflt
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il1l1stm/e tlle dei.'efopmellt 01 Neoc/assicnlly ¡',spired Britisll glass-ClIttillg, C.1770--1820. Fmlll fop: :>oy stand (/litl, sJIfll/(l'Il':f/lIted mld t'ngrnl.'ed /101l1e:>, e.1770; botrt-slmped crllel stalld ¡l'iIIl milis' Ilelld lerlllillll/S colltllilliJlgflllted alld dill11lolldCIIt bofffes, IVllkelin & TII.'Ifor, Ijj6; sllllld cOllfllíllíllg declIll/ers ;:{'itll po/isllc:d filCCS mlil deeper dialllollds, IVII/ker & Rylnlld, c.180j-1O; slmlll colltníl/il/g extrfli.'nglllll dinlllO!ld alld prisl// CIIt declllllt'l"s, (.1815-20. 2 TIl'O sllip's 01" Rodllcy decantas dl"lIollslrntillg I!le slylislic ei'o/lItioll o/ Britis1l g/nss'l'flre, °775-183°. Left: plnill exCt'lJ/ for t/le alldlOr lIIotif 111/11 · .. I "PR" r. !'I!gm:'!'l l !m!m.s .. , ,(0'H¡'lS Princess Royal. /flllllclled ill 1773. HI 25..¡cm/Joill; rigllf: deepll, wt ;I'itl, dilllllOllds, C.1815. HI 2.¡.2CIIl/9ülI. 3 Neoc/nssicllf desigll prillcipll's i1WC IIpplied lo ('¡wy /01'111 o/ glasswnl'e. / !ere n silr'el"-gilII'Sg ClIp jrmlll' cOlltaillillg ciglll CIIpS is C111 il'itlllldmllesqlle brOlldfllltes. 11 is hnllmnrked jol' HCllry Chml'"cr, 1790. Ht 21CIll/8~i".
3
British glas5 cutting, which had de\"elopcd an individual path since c.I7IO, achieved the highest standards of exceUence and almost universal appeal when expressed in the Neoclassical style during the aesthetic Regency periad between c.1790 and 1830. Rejecting Boheme cutting in fa\lour of nat and slightly hollowed monIs, British cutting evolved graduaUy over several dccades. TI1e introduction of steam-driven clltti.ng from 1789 acceJerated the trend, \vith sliced "broad flutes", the defining cut of adamesque glassware, gradually superseded by deeper motifs, typified by diamonds arranged in diverse peFJnutations. Cut motifs \Vere applied with increasing depth and complexity between 1780 and Ul20 as craftsmen became familiar with the technique, and in response to popular demand fer ficher ornamento The groupíng of prisms, fans, pillars, relief, and "strawberry" diamonds became collectively tenned mit:re-cutting. Engravíng maintained a slender foothold during the'period, most cornmonly in the form of borders, armorials, and inscriptlons.
The consenslls in Regency Neoclassicism was broken from (.1800 by a Iimited taste for the French Empire style (see p.183). tore significantly, a schisrn from c.l820 saw sorne opt for decorative sobriety, whilst others drO\'e the cutters towards a dazzling, jewel-like complexity that agaín echoed the Empire. The services produced for a grollp of north-eastem nobles illustrate the division. On one hand, those made for the Duke of Northtffilberland, c.1825, demonstrate the restrained theme, cut with alternanng vertical bands of pillars and fine diamonds, and adamesque broad flutes. The contrasting group is a series of increasingly expansive services made by Wear Rint of Sunderland for local nobles, applied with complex mazes of diamonds, pillars, fans, and arches. By 1830, uniformity regained the ascendancy. The horizontally orientated forms and decoration, typified by stratified decoration and prismatic cutting, that had dominated since (.1790, vvere abandoned in favour of verncal equivalents. Broad-flute cutting and perpendicular vessels carne to the fore in the 1830s,anticipating Victorian Gothic.
----------
gl"OlIp of 1Jrili;;iI 11'111,'/ ,'1/','" cut ¡¡¡itl, liml1d f11111'~ l/u.! /'11111/" 4 A
orfiddj 01 dillll/ll/ll/;;. TI,,' ,',11/11",/ nt tll/!frollt, (.1790, tht' Ifltl'~I, back rigill, U8IO, HI (ti ti", tallesf) 22.-4Cm/9'/JII. 5 A Sheffie/d plated jolly bOllt, l/sed for passillg decan/ers arolllld /!Ie dining tab/e after the mea/. Tlle cylil1der decaJlter", are Cllt wit!I dimnolld", aJld pris11Is, L1S15-2.0, Ht 26.5cm/1O'ÜII, 5 6 AI1 ice bucket, deeply (lit witll
dialll0lld5 (1l1d priS11IS, typicnl of ti/(: work acllieved by Britisll gil/ss wtters IIsillg stcnlll-drivell Cllttillg Il'll/:ds, C."l815-20. HI28cl1I/111.;II.
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7 A brolld-based taper decl1lltel~ c.181O-15, CII/ ¡ui!/¡ flulrs, dimllollds, arc]¡es, 1111d mi/re cuts ill re/fe!, delllol1stratillg the cut/tr's illcreased collfidellce (wd ba/dlless. Ht 36clII/14'/,;II.
9 Decorafioll jit for a killg: a cylillder demllter wil/¡ an ellgraved alld se/ective/y acidetclled royal cyplter, c.181O-16. Ht1SCIII/7ill .
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10 A lIIe!oll-s!uzped lIol/cy-pot ftl/e/y ClIt wif/¡ pillars filld sfrnwberry dinlllol/ds, Illld 11 dinIl10Ild-clI/ di511 olld 11 sccol1d IlOlley-pot ¡villl orillO/u 1/101ll1tS, al! C182Q-j. J-lt (o! ¡he tal/est) 131C11I/S'ÜII.
11 Desiglls ¡mm a price /isl of fhe leading lale Georgiml/early Victoriml
g/asslI/aker Apsley Pellatt's Faleoll G/assIJoJlse, L1S37, illllstralillg nlllll('rO/lS broad-Jlllted decallters.
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4 Xt'oc/a:,:,im! '1fl1-:"lwpt'lf i:'n~e ill boulle-de-sñ\'on crystn/ opa/il/e gla~~ ¡1'i11l lIIerr:ury-giMed orlllolll /l/Ol/lItS. TIIl' g/as:" is probably Baceara!. flll! 1I101lI1!~ G/Id dt-sigll/J}I Crt'lIsot. (.18:w. H! 'H.-lCIII/l;/ill. 5 frl'llcJ¡ alllefillfst (llld ¡{'IJite opalil/(' taLLa I/Illlllltcd llll a c1Jased orlllO{1I foot-ring al/d fitted wit]¡ a pair t~r l'agh's lIS /ml/dho:;. C.1830. Ht llclJI!-ll.ill.
for IIIt' Fn'IIc1ll11flrkd, C.1SlO.
Ht 31LIII/l::!iIl. 2 BaCCI11"111 maulé en
plein goblcl ¡I'ílll (lit /¡igMigli/s cOlllníllil1~ ti fll/l-Ilelghf polycf/l"ollll! slIlphidl' porfrnil (~f Napo!l:oll BOl/tirarte. Ht 9.6clII/]I;1I 3 011(' ~f Bncctlmf's:.lS maulé en plcin sL'n,icrs. eOll/billa/iolls o/ f1t>eply profilcd 1I/()JIld"d dinmollds. [lfllI/llOO stm't's, sit'ngs, lmres. ¡,seu/el/COI/s. alld poiJl!:>, nccelltllntcd by se1ccti.'t' ellftillg. nppem"l?d 011 nJllllmmer 01 BncCflraf glnSSi('{lre I/lItil al IMs! 18#_
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182
The French glas5 industry, amongst Europe's oldest, regularly last many craftsmen ta religious persecunon and war, lea"ing its 18th-eentury products derivanve. Boheme dominance in Franee was supplanted from 1767 with its leading works, including Saint-Louis, SaintC1oud. and Vonéche, transferring lo Neoclassically styled Angleterre lead crystal. Franee regained its glassmaking ¡dennty from 1810 through various innovations manifested in Empire-style Neoclassical wares: sulphide indusions, moulé el! plelll pressure-moulding, and opalines. Glassware containing biseuit-porcelain sulphides was pioneered by Sevres sculptor Barthélemy Desprez, 1796-8. These are inextricably linked with moulé ell pIein glass moulding. invenled by Ismael Robinet, c.18Z0. and adopted by Baccarat, then Saint-Louis and Val-St Lamhert for a wide range of faux raek crystal tablev.!are. Echoing similar trends in Bohemia, French makers also pioneered opalines over two decades: blalle laitel/x, fmm 1823, bIel/ fllrqlloise, 1827, rose opalill and violet, 1828, and alabas/re, ]844.
7
6 Frend, Empire dock ill bleulavande glliss will,ormolll 11101/111:", ('182j. Opnlille glass gailled its IIlime frolll its fiery go/d colol/r wl1en .'iett'ed ill tmllslllitled /ig1lt. 111 33cm/13in. 7 A Frel/eJ, blue oplilille ClIp Ilnd S(ll/cer, ¡lIe ClIp ({litll mI orlllolll /wlldle in tlle slwpe of a se/pellt. '.182j. HI13.jCIII!j'ÜIl.
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flrclled protmSltlil."', Iflt' I1eCflllt",:" ~'f ,/'ilh sfoppt'r:s Sflllpl·tI as tlllenl COrollt'fS. ¡\/aker /mkIlOiI'll. c.181j-10. HI rdecalllers) I¡.1cm/6J:ill.
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The Napoleonic Wars did not pre\"ent the adoption of many of the Pereier and Fontaine Freneh Empire themes in Britain. Under the ardent patronage of the franeophile Prince of Wales, renowned for his appetite for voluptuous omament and prodigiou5 spending, their style was propagated by the designer Thomas Hope's pattern book HOllsellOld FUl'1litl/re & Interior Decoratioll (1807),
The earliest expressions of Franglais Empire glassware date from c.18oo, but the best known is the service eornmissioned for the prinee from the \I\'arrington makers Perrin, Geddes, by Liverpool Corporation in 1806. Its deep cutting and f1amboyant protrusions were atypieal of mainstream contemporal1' taste but admired by the prinee's wealthy eoterie. The leading designers of British Empire glassware "'ere 10hn Blades, Apsley Pellatt, slIecessor to Blades's mantle, and thc fine metah-vorker, Matthew Boulton, ,",vhose designs coupled ormolu and brome with glass eut at his Birmingham \-Vorks.
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183
German and Bohemian Glass Biedermeier Neoclassicism 1
Typicnl BoIJelllinn Allgleterre
dril/bug glnsses ll'il/I !acef-CIfI ::;1t'11I5 IWrf gilt .\lcocln$sical
SWlIgS, ¡estoo"5. ribboll5 l/lid bow$, nnd styli:ed ll/lips. c-1790. Ht (tn1fcstJ locm/¡/'iJl. 2 AIlOIIYIIIOI/S 801lellliflll pllftl.'rIl-
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he intemational supremacy of Bohemian glassware, typified by Baroque and Rococo superficial decoration, was usurped by Angleterre Neoclassicism from c.1775, and disrupted by the chaos of the Napoleonic Wars. Sorne makers resorted to copying British forrns. However, with political and economic stability restored by 1820, sorne 170 factories \Vere again operating across Bohemia. Bohemia, abundant with fine sand, fue cIay, woad, and \'vater, had produced glass since the 13th century, drawing on German and indigenous skills. Formerly driven by high-bom patronage, its 19th-<:entury output focused on the Hapsburg Empire's wealthy industrial bOllrgeoisie, mostly living in Vienna. Centllries of cxperience \-"ere combined in Bohemia and Austria to create a dazzling and diverse array of retro and advanced lcchniques, forms, and colours across the quality scale. I30hemian makers and decorators at home and abroad wel'C slow to adopt Neoclassicis01, with early manifestalit)l1S simply echoing Angleterre interpretations. Though nalurally inclined towards extravagant ornament, the
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184
5 Cellfral Ellropeall t'flriatiOIlS 011 tlle Neoc/assical /llelll/!. Frolll hif: bmka l'lIgmved Wit/I Greciall lIlotifs and fesfool/s by Frall: Alltoll RiedeL (.1810; b/ack I-I}'
bittemess felt in Napoleon's wake alienated many from the Empire style, lea\'ing a void that was eventually filled by an extraordinary range of variations on the Neoclassical theme. These were generally applied to the sober Biedermeier shapes predominant from c.1815 to 1840. In Austria, Johann Mildner rejuvenated and perfected ZwisclIeJlgoldglns, whilst the Mohns and Anton Kothgasser achieved lU1surpasscd realism in transparent enamels. To the north, Johann SigismlU1d Menzel echoed Mildner's shapes and themes, and COlU1t von Buquoy and Fried.rich Egermann transforrned the colour palette of glass. Central Europe's most inflllential contributions \Vere the colours formlllated at Buqlloy's Gratzen glasshouse, 180C}--l0, and Egennann at Novy Bar, 1828-40. Buquoy introduced red marbled Hynlitll, 1803, black Hynlitll, 1817, and a series of fine decorative techniques, and Egerrnann created new yello\\' and red stains and marbled Litl1yalill tints 1828-40. Bohemian colours and techniques were widely adopted across Europe and helped re-establish the ascendancy of the Boheme style.
6 Nt'od(l~sicn/ly ill:,pired gobkf tlll jtlllflllll Alildller witl, a U1edal/iOIl por/mit of Emperor Ixopold lJ of Allslria; siglled alld dafed 1801. Nt 12.scm/sill. 7 Cable/ ,pi,l, filie frallspnrent t'lInll/e1 decoratioll of 11 IIlOltlltailllop Sc1/1oss by Gottlob Molm, ti/e SOIl of fIJe glllssblo¡L'lIIg flllllily, origillnlly of Drestiell, Sigllffl lll/d dated 1816. Ht 20CIII/8ill. 8 Benker 't,jtJ/ decora/ioll by Allfoll Kol!Jgasser. Tllis e.181S L·.mlllple bmrs a Neoc/assical medllllioll cOlltaillillg sYlllbols of 10.'1'. N/ 10.jCIII/.¡l.ill.
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e/linoiserie decoratioll by COI/II/ HJI1 BI/quoy's gIIlSS¡'OIlSC, c.18;w-37. BI/ql/oy aiso dl"i.'doped a ml/ge of otiler U1arblt'd ca/our effecfs. Sllllca ¡[iwlI. 14.jcmisúII. 10 Lidded gobiet. set 011 a lellloll-sqllee=er base. cOllfnillillg illserted lI/ednllioll silhOl/clles of 1111 elder/y cOI/pie - nlld ec!Joillg tile work of 101/11111/ AJi/dlla - by folJal1ll Sigisllllflld Aft'll:e/, 'Varllllmmll. e.179S. Ht 26.jcm/IOi1ill.
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185
American Glass Classical Forms and Decoration 5 AII idiom ¡~( late d(lssicism, ti/{' IMplliJl sJ1Ii1'c.' ol l/lis IIIN/I/nisl' giass c(llJdkslick ni t S.¡.5-65 IiIkes illsJ'inltÍtllJ fmm cnamic Clllldit'Sticks JJrt'ltlIfCt'lf iJl El/stand bul ultilllatl'll1• •(mm dcsi\:,' iJl tlll' e ....
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2 T/lÍs 'IImb/er. lIIade 111 Pitls[llIrs;1t by Bnkt'¡¡'c//, Page & Bah'¡ed/, C.lS.U, has n dnssicnlmoW of n rt:C/lml~l/t greylEolJJld c1milled lo mi 11m; it ¡{'liS copicd ¡roll! Europeml g/n:i-Sil'llrt'. Ht 8.&1II/3Iill. 3 P05silJ1y /linde ill Pellllsyf¡'llllin, c. t 81 5-35. ,/¡is ce/ery ¡'{/;;t' Itl/S 1111 11m !orm witll parillS lip mili gndroollil/g as ¡pcll 175 n sfyli:ed II/CdlllliOIl 01 pnllll ¡rol/tls - 1111 of c!nssicnl desigll. HI 28clII/11 il/. 4 T!Iis American jug 01 lS:W-'¡O ¡¡las l1/1ide il1 a
/IIollld. TI/{' c/assicnll(lH lIIot!( i50 from CIIt g/(lss; tite OPl'ral/ 5ollliJle, rel'dillg, and ribbillg.jro/ll COIJlelJlJlOrnry siker._HI 16.3cm/6liJl.
he number of American glasshouses increased dramatically after the re\'olution. Even ",¡th political independence from Britain, the few manufacturers who \Vere able to make the heavy Lnvestments necessary to start a glass-making concern still had to contend with competition frem imported goods. Despite the challenges of gIass making in the earIy years of the United States the need for huge quantities of fue!, the dependence on technical knowIedge and substantial finances - gIass from this period disseminated classicaI design to the masses. The glass manufachuers that flOluished throughout thc United States, fram East Coast centres to the Midwest, made available a vast array of utilitarian and fashionable glass\vare. ''''ares were designed in classical forms or with motifs drawn from antiquity and then marketed to the burgeoning population towards the middle of the 19th century. Objects were decorated by engraving, cutting, pressing, enamelling, gilding, or painting to enhance visual appeal. Ornament on late 18th- and early 19th-cenhtry glassware
T
186
ofien bears Neoclas5ical eIement5 with syrnmetrically arranged swags, tassels, eagles, and floral bands. On later Neoclassical wares, from the 18205 until the 18-l0s, cornucopia, lyres, eagles, and baskets oE fruit decorated much moulded glass tableware and bottles. Bold forms sud) as dolphin-shaped candlesticks appeared, reflecting the 5cime motif in furniture. The American introduction of machine pressing at the beginning of the 19th centur)' made mouIded and pressed glass an affordable altemative to labour-intensive cut glass. The design on sorne Neoclassical glassware \Vas based on importcd ceramics, \vhile other forms were just miniature versions oE furniture. Covered box shapes i.n glass used for various condiments, for example, referred to the ancient sarcophagus on which c1a5sical wine coolers were based. Ha"ing moved from its position on the sideboard to a Iess expensi\'e yersion that could be used on the dining tabIe, NeoclassicaI designs in glass brought the forms of ancient Greece and Rome to a more diverse audience.
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decanler is by Ihe Pittsbllrgll g/assllOl/SI! of R.B. Cllrling & Sonso Tfle sJll'lpe derh't'S froll/ Anglo-/rMI examples, but lhe IIl1derslnted decoratiou is a del1t1l"fl/refmm f1u' 1Il'ai'ily C/lf glnss illlported dllrillg tltl! periodo HI26·7CI1I!Jo/,ill.
187
Silver and Metalwork Transitions in British Silver 1 Tlle silFu-gilt Richmolld race
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he earliest mast influential, and prolific designer Df Neoclassical silver in Britain was the Scottish architect Robert Adam (1728-92). He conceived silverware as part of the overall interior design for large houses, and rus designs \VeTe realized by leading London goldsmiths such as Daniel Smith, Rabert 5harp, John Carter, and Thomas Heming. Drawing on the publicanan Df recent archeological excavations in Greece and Rome, frorn the late 17505 Aclam created designs for sideboards with vases, and sets of dinner plate that matched the plasterwork and carved hiezes Df rinceaux (acanthus scrolls), anthemia, paterae, and husk festoons. This "magazine of ornament" he freely and inventively combined \vith classicol sourccs derived fraro largely 17th-century Italian prints, like those oE the goldsmith SteEano DelIa Bella (161 Q---6.l). The urn or vase form was partieularly popular .llld was applied to both domestic and presentation silver. Another somce oE inspiration carne via the French, who crciltcd a heavier, more naturalistically based Neod.l...:-icislll very distinct frorn that derived frorn Italian
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--Renaissance and adamesque designs. The sources carne via prints such as Juste-Amele Meissonnier's Livre des LégllllIe5 and French silver, notably that oE Robert-Joseph Auguste (1723-1805), which was imported into Britain by francophile English aristocrats. The most prominent designer oE tllis type of English Neodassical silver was the architect Sir William Chambers (1723-96). His design for a pair oE soup tureens Eer the Duke oE Marlborough incorpora tes an artichoke finial and celery stalk handles derived from Meissonnier, with a high-dorned heavily gadrooned cover, Eeatures that recur in French-rlerived. eoclassical silver. At the end oE the 18th century the French-inspired severe Greek style influenced English silver, characterized by the use oE crisply modelled cast elements of classical or Egyptian derivation balanced with areas of plain silver. Much work by Digby Scott & Benjamin Smith (partnership clissolved 1807) exemplifies this later phase oE Neoc1assical silver. Its introduction into England has been connected with the pmchase by the Royal goldsmiths Rundell, Bridge & Rundell in c.1800 01
French-Inspired Classicism
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1 In 111;5 desigll Jor n SOllp tUTeen by Jolm YCIJIl afier Sir lViJ/i{/m CJ¡alllOCrs, C.176¡. ml/llrali:>lic e/eml'lIfs call be St'en;l1 lite celel~1
stnlk IJnl1dles llIuf nrlic/lOke finjnl.
tI/27·2CIII/I0'!cill. 2 TI/ese sal/ce tUTeens by TItOlllflS Helllillg
of LonriOIl. mnde 1769-7°, displ{/~I n oond of glli/focllí~. pnrtly
lliddell be/¡illd c/nssical mms' I,cads ndommg fIJe 1II0re e/a/lOrale sfmuk l./lIlike l~ocoC(l predeCl'S50rs, Iltl!Se 11IreellS are
sYlIIlIletrica/ il! designo Ht 16clII/6'1.ill. 3 A pclir of sih'er Lyoll-fi1Ct'd ((/lIdleslicks by BoultOJl & FotlJergill, II/ade 17N~5, displnyillS Nroda5sicnl fealllres sud, as bolllld Imlre! 'l'n'afltillg, 5wags, {l/uf 1IIl' Greek key lIIolij. Ht 311cm!J2'/,íIl. 4 A desigll for a mce Clip by J.J. 8oilcall, /IIade 1800. s/lO¡¡Os a en/y.. al brond fle511y leal't'S alld -sYllllllelricaJ. allglllar lIprighl halldles Witll dearly defi"{'(( jrie:es of OTllalllt'IIt.
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boxes. pIntes, ¡'ases, nlld ellter;; for the bu/fet ill 1111' dinillg 1'00111. No/e file sYllllllctry of tlle desigll.
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189
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The Impact of Tecllnology on Design
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paír of hlreens marle by the Parisian goldsmith Henri Auguste and designed by Jean Jacques Boilcau, \Vho emigrated to England and worked for Rundell and Garrard. In the mid-18th century new mechanized processes assisted in the manufacture of modular, symmetrical, and light silvenvares, exemplified by the silver supplied by the Bateman famill" Flatting nlills meant that largc quantities of thinner gauge metal could be scored, falded, él
roUed, and soldered to fonn cubes and cylinders - geometrical shapes integral to Neoclassicisrn - at a fraction of the (05t of hand-raising. nlin sheet could be easily and effectively worked with die stamps made Df ne", extra hard steel. Standard mouldings ar beadings could be supplied more cheapiy than hand carving, and machine cutting and wire drmving replaced hand fretting for cake baskets and condiment holders. Thinner silver involving less labour meant that Iight elegant wares proliferated and were available to a larger market than ever before. For the first time provincial silversmiths such as Matthew Boulton 0728-1809) in Birmingham and those in
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and tIJe decorntioll incorporales ensl t1Ird fll'p/ied re/ilis,Ht 4 3.8clII/1 7'1ill. 4 Rdlf'cca/¡ Elllt's & Edil'ard Bar¡¡anf made t/¡e sihw-gilt DoJlcaster mee cnp 111 Lolldoll, 1828. T/¡e sllakt' Jmndlt'S alld rdie! dl'comtirm llflCd'¡c figures ¡I'IlS appfied lo dOlllt'$otic a$o
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Sheffield began to compete with London manufflcturcrs in the supply of an e\'cr-increasing range of tea and l
191
Early French Silver 1 T/¡e 1760 tit/e page fo Suitc de Vases composée dans le goüt de l'Antique by /osepJ¡·A l(frie Vif'11 sllo,l's tllt' l'tl$e /orlll ¡¡,itl, IUlIldles (lllrl laurel wr('alJ, s¡mgs, c/lflnlcteristic lIIotifs 01 Frcudl Neocla5sicislI/. l!/ISil'epl
2 Tlw5e /leaiJi/y decornted 1770 tUTeell, cot'el~
nlld slnlld alld pnir of ((lJIrilesficks ¡rom lile Or/off SeT'i'ice. by J/lcq//f"5-Nicolns Roettiers 01 Paris. ;I'ere snid fo lIIark lile f.'lld
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GTl'C sty/e in Frf1lfce. Ht 3J.7cm!J3ü".
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TIJis Brmukl/bmg SOllp f1lrt'CIl, mnde 1801-0], 1m:; a ligll/er fce!,
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The French laid the foundations for Ncoclassicism. Charles·Nicolas Cochin (1715-90). in his Sllpplicntioll nl/X O'fe-tJres, published in 175-1, pleaded far a return to "simple rules govemed by good sensc:' and a return to the "oId style" - c1assicism. Symmetry, proportion, and classical architectural motifs such as the acanthus leaf, guilloche pattern, paterae, and laurel s\·vags returned. It is dilfieult to judge the early development 01 Neoc1assicism in French silver beca use plate \Vas melted down to fund the Seven Years' Vvar (1756-63). Ho\Vever, its influence can be seen in the spread of the new style from France to other European countries, most notably Britain, Italy, Russia, and Scandinavia, via prints such as lhe engrClvcd designs for VClses, published in Paris in 1760. Robert-Joseph Auguste (]72:>-180S) \Vas an influenli
Surviving dr
--------------------------------------j Stylized, Austere, and Plain Decoration 1,2 Tllis l¡S94}O eilW iII/11l~l:'ill
3 ¡\ dL':::igll for (l árcu/ar sollll tUTt:t'll/Jy Gill-s.epJN \'aladier s/lO¡r's a eOlleelllralioll OJl forlll. 01111'1' filan Ilu' rcediJlg, decoralioll is /i"lited lo t/u.' liol/s' hmds alld s¡mgs oflwsks, .t'il/I tllc cye eO/leclltralillS 011 ti/{' simplc, !let c/egallt (Un...s o/ tlle IlOd,ll.
by HeJlri Augllsl.., Paris. Ims rlll t'fegallt GreÓlm desigll /1(1$•.'11 011 pnttem,:; btl file >'C1/lptor JI'ml
GllillmlllJe t\1oitte fJ N6-1 SIO}. Allslen' omamt:n/ /5 COllfillCd lo 11(111115 mili focal poillf:;, 1t'lll'illg lmxe arcns 015ih','/, IIl1lkcomfl'd, il'i!/¡ a IIUlI/ 5111:f(/(('.
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Immclle::. are apllflrl'lI t. 2 Tití:; pair of 1814_ AIIsl";m¡ clmll1/4'T cfllldlcstick,; 15 bnsed 0111111 Odiol lIIont'l. EncJII1lJ51l sqllnrt'f/nl bast' ['dSt'd
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forl1/1.' DI/k!.' oI I\'cllillglol/ lo el'lt'lwaft' 111,' .,i(Ionl al Watt'rloo, litis lab/e ú'lItrcpi¡'('c, dL'siRIlt'd blf , . DOlllill"os Al/tOlút) d!' 5"I/llt'im ill 1816, ¡('as il~fJl/cllc¡,d l/y t/t,' Fn'¡¡dl.
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193
The Simplicily 01 American Silver 1 TI¡j~
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Josepll Ricllardsol1 Jr. o[ P/¡i/adelpllia. TlJis ,l't'ddillg presell/ is silllp/.lI decomll!d witl, brigltt-clIl t'llgm¡'illg Imd vendillg. Vas/'-
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194
lhe impact of the American Revolution meant that both the import and home manufachrre of silvenvares was interrupted between 177.5 and 1783. After the Revolution, despite the political situation, Neoc1assical forms and decorative motifs continued to derive from British sources via imported silverwares, pattem books, and trade catalogues. No system of assaying and legal marking of silver was established, except in Baltimore in 1814, although there had been several attempts in Philadelphia from 1753. There are sorne splendid pieces of American-made presentation silver, but it is the domestic tablewares, particularly those for tea and coHee, which dominated thc Illarket. Much Neoclassical sil ver was made in Philadelphia, a Ieader in taste and elegance, by such goldsllliths as Joseph Richardson (1711--84) and his son J"scph Richardson Jr. 0752-1831) wltil tho outbreaks of vdkm' fC\'er in 1793 and 1798. Many, including gokbllliths, ned to Baltimore, which took over as the L'piCL'lltrc of fashion. lhe cream jug made by the Boston
silversmith Paul Revere (1735--1818) 1795--1800, with its plain faceted body, hexagonal base, and upswept handle reflects the demand for simple, elegant vase shapes adapting antique fomls for contemporary use. American silversmiths adorned their silver with bright-cut engraving, popular in England in the 17705, often in delicate festoons. 1l1ese light-\'\'eight wares made from flatted sheet, and sometimes fluted, echoed London-made sil ver such as that supplied by the Batemans. At the turn of the century simpler, plainer wares became more popular, with large expanses of pIain polished silver. By the early 19th century fornls were becoming more robust and imperial imagery began to appear, such as the eagle head spouts, typical of sculptural castings of this period, on the John McMullin (1765--1843) tea and coffee service of c.1820. From the beginning of the 19th century the smaller workshops began to face growing competition from larger manufacturing and retailing firms, and forms and dccorative motus became more standardized.
From Simplicity to the Growth of Grandeur 2 TI/(" 1790-1810 /1'11 (1/,1.111 /111 folm ¡\lclvlllllill of Plliladt'1J,JI/II lms a plniJl o.'nl body, ¡lte I/llfy decomliOIl beillg {/ Jiglif bt'lld.'d rimlo base nlld COl'er al/ll tl simple sJ¡ie!d con! oj anlls.
HI16.jcm/6l.i1/. 3 loel & Jolm Snyre, probably o[ Ne.lt York Ci/y. madI' OlÍs tllrec-
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1 Tllis I/UW-piCCl.' tea seri'ice ,pi//¡ coffce poi H'I:'rl' madI' by IViJliam MOI//toll of A!nssncJllIseff'i, ISoo-JO. AltJlOugl/ simply decoraft'd, fIJe ¡orll/s hiuf ni a 1II0reJlnlllboymll 5ty!e, ,('it/¡ angufar 11(1111116 (llId fapt!ml, 5,cllri,t'd SpolltS.
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Sheffield Plate and the Importance 01 the Candlestick
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1 Qlle 01 n pufr al e17?5 5/It:ffield-p/nlc CQlldJesticks illspired by Frclldl
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3 A clmllge from file sqrUlre fa trinllSI//arfor11l ({I1l be seell ill t/Jis el7N cmrdlestick, made by MnU]¡Cil' 801l!tOIl of BlTlllinglJnIJl after a desigu by James I\'yntt. Ht 29Cl1I/tdill. 4 A <'nriely of Neoc/assim/ C/lIIdlestick deSoígllS for SIJe!ftefd plate (ll/ri
silt't'r ((111 be secll 011 this /"'SI' frolll/\lnttJ¡l'lI' BOl/lto,,'s cl7So ptlltem book, iudllding flllteri tnJX'ring Sft'lII$ nlld plníll COII/II/II$, nJl witIJ higll stepped feet, some of il'/úcJl lIrt' pillín. others decorateri. S n,¡s pnge frolll R.M. Hirst S/IOi"S I1mt fhe 51u?ffieid pll1ters I/lIderstood tlle principIes got'emillg c1l1ssiml lIrcJlitecfllre. TIJe Cfllldlt'stick to the le;ft is Doric, f!le simplist ¡onu ol co/mllll. tl,e Ollt' i" the middle Irmic. nnri tlle olle 011 tllr rigflt Corilll1Jinll, tIJe //Ios/Iterora/h'e forlll.
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Shelfield plate was invented in 1742 b)' lhe Shellield cutler Thomas Bolsover (1705-88). He discovered that copper fused with silver under heat and pressure, with both metals spreading at a uniform rateo The wlique property 01 Shelfield plate that seIs it apart from other plating processes is that the plating takes place before the item is formed. However, it was not until Joseph Hancock (1711-90), another Shelfield cuUer, started making candlesticks that manufacture began on a comrnercial scale. Copper was sandwiched between two silver sheets, harnmered, heated, and roUed, and stamped with steel dies to produce a variety of designs. There are few exampies 01 Rococo Shelfield plate, but the s)'nunetr)', modular construction, and repetitive architectural decoration characteristic of Neoc1assical silver \Vas ideally suited to this process of manufacture. The same dies were used to ll1ilke both silver and Sheffield plate, the latter only recognizable when the copper showed through the silver aflcr "'car. Sheffield plate could be worked in the sarne ",ayas sil ver apart, of course, from casting. Discs of silver
were let into Sheffic1d plate for engraving, and silver rims were added to shield the plate from wear. At a fifth of the cost of silver, Sheffield plate became very popular. Trade catalogues first appeared in the late 17705, and those of Matthew Fenton & Co. in Sheffield and Matthew Boulton in Birmingham shO\ved the great variety of de5igns that \Vere available. Much was exported to Europe, and although the French in particular tried to copy it, nothing matched the quality of Boulton's Sheffield plateo By the 17805 many more forms were available in Sheffield plate, from tureens and covers to tea urns and toast racks. Perhaps the grandest pieces were the combined tea and coffee machines, standing on plinth5, which are reminiscent of the simple and striking geometrical architecture of Ledoux. Sheffield platc did not produce any innovation in design, but its popularity helped disserninate silver pattems more ,videly than ever before. Sheffield plate omy beca me redWldant when it \Vas replaced with the even cheaper process of electroplating, introduced by the Elk.ington Brothers in ls.tO.
AVariely 01 Forms
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Ormolu: Early Forms tI/c 11ecorntiOll 0/1 t//is 81/11mefn/ plnlt' ,{'(Irmer by Vicderieh 1 All
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The word ormolu derives from the French for grow1d gold, and it \Vas mercury-gilded anta cast bronze, brass, or other metals. Onnolu was a luxury material in its own right, but it was usually used in combination with other expensive materials such as marble and porphyry. The supplement to Diderot's Ellcyclopédie reported that while gold leaf eost 90 livres an ounee, onnolu eost 104 livres an ounee. It beca me popular in tile 18th eentury ,vhen it ,,,as used fer the manufacture of decorative objects, especially as mounts applied to hm1iture and ceramics. As a French-associated product ormolu became highly desirable in Britain, and it was greatly adrnired by the nobility and gentry. The greatest exponent of onnolu was thc Parisian Pierre Gouthiere (1732-c.1813), who perfeeted. the technique of matt finishing to eontrast with the high burnish. Between 1768 and 1782 it was l1l
and cIocks, contrashng the glitter of the onnolu with other precious materials. Robert Adam, VVilliam Chambers, James "Athenian" Stuart, and other architects aeated designs for ormolu, which \Vere realized by Boulton and Diederich NicoJaus Anderson (d.1767), a highly skilled immigrant from Scandinavia specializing in om101u work. Adam's 1766 designs for the door knobs and eseutcheons for the dining room at Kedleston Hall demonstrate the qualities oE fine casting and detailed deJicate form far which ormaJu ' ...'as so admired. The bold shapes, decoration, and contrast typicaJ of the Empire style \Vere brilliantly suited. to the use oE ormolu, and trus can be seen on the pahnated copper vase designed by Thomas Hope 0769-1831) and mounted by AJexis Decaix, an émigré from France. In Paris one of the most skilled onnolu workshops at the time ,vas ron by Pierre-Philippe Thomire 0751-1843>' who had trained with Gouthiere, employed over eight hundred men, and was much patronized by NapoJeon.
The Papularily al the Tripad Farm
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"i.lI:Se-sllnpf:d verfllllle bllmer ¡:l'fJ~ /IIf1d,' /1 ¡t'/Jife IIInrble 1II01lllfed it'ilh ormolll by Boultol/ & FOfllergiJl's 5011(1 I\'orks, BirmillgllnJJl, C.1777-8· AIIIOII.~ tlle Neoc/nssicnl e1elllenfs disp/nyed, lile bnse is of fripod forlll. 2 nlÍs On/IO/JI nl/d Nuejo/m mse ¡r.1S mf/ed file Persian Candlevasem. Mnde by Bol/Ita" & Fotllergill, 1772, it demOllsfrnft'S Boulloll's effectii'e combillatiOIl of pl/rp/isb Derbyshire spnr ¡(,ilU, gilt bro/!:e scu/plllre. Ht SUIIJ/JÚIl. 3 Ro~rt Adalll dto,¡;;glled l/lis 01'1110/1/ mOI/I/ted door jl/mitl/re jor Kl'fflestoll Hall i/l 1766. Nofe ti/e sYllllllefry o/ design tllnf rms fypienl of Adam. Hf 13.9CIII/5Ii/l, 1 Tllis
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decornled areas, Sl/ell as fi,e wreath of /caves ellcirclillg the pedestnl base. 2 A LOl/is XV/ COllllllOde made ill l/le style of I-'I'eisweiler, wit/¡ a IIInrble fOp nlld 01'1/10/11 1II01/111s, il1c1udillg the fema/e figures at /he comers nlld decora/iou 01/ /he legs.L. 1.6¡1II/5ft 6ill,
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Pewter and Brass
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I 11I1//'llm..,; I'0l/lll/lr sihw SIIflI1t'5 ¡¡lid dl·com/ioll. /11;5 c. 1770 Ellg/ish 1',-,1'11'1" /O/'I/¡YO ba.. ¡s ami in lorlll fll1d decomted witll mI o,'n/ (nr/vl/dlt', /'''Slll-tlll t'IIgrm"l'd /flurellxmter, (md bt'aded IlOse. Ht 10.5[11I14;11.
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The high cost of preciolls metals rncant that cheaper slIbstitutes were desirable. Pewter, an allov , of ¡cad, was d1eap and couJd be polished to a sil\-er-like sheen, while brass gave a gilt~likc gleam. Objects made from them copicd the fom1 and decoration of sil\'er and gold, and disseminated fashionable design among cOllsumers who could not afford the originals on which they were based. These base metals were superseded by new, improved alloys invented in the 18th cenhlry that were harder than pewter and easier to ",erk than brass. Paktong, an aIloy of copper, nickel, and zinc, "'as imported from China in the 18th century. lt was tarnish·resistant and ideal fer fue grates - several were designcd for Adam interiors - as weH as fer candlesocks. De\'elopments in smelting produced harder iron and steel. The Carron ironworks in Scotl
2 Glll' 01 a pnir offin' gmf6 mld ll'lIdt"'; nttrí/lllfed fo /~o/}('rf Adlllll. The
dt'.;igll íl/e/mh>:> '5I.',/-""lIf il/(' .(¡-lIIft'r,. ill Jlit'fI,."¡·d 111/flll'lJliOlI Imfkm ';111'1101'/1'11 bl¡ - -(llIkd COIIllIIll,.. Tllt' -{í.'/hlt',,. Imt',· ¡'¡¡Il ,f,:ef. Gmfe ,1'. 96.jCIII/;Síl1.
\Vhile Britain led the field in developing new metals, the cut steel factory at Tula in Russia was one of the few to challenge their ¡ead. Staffed by foreign workers, it produced hjgh~quality decorati\'e wares such as candlesticks that combined cut and bumished steel with softer metals such as bronze, brass, and silvel~ wruch were d1ased and gilt. In París, steel was combined with gilt-bronze to produce exotic, highly \\'orked fllrniture. The hardness of the material meant that it could only be worked by highly skilled crafsmen, making it expensive to bu)'. At the cheaper end of the market there \Vas a fashion in the later 18th century for painted base metals. At Pontypool in Morunouthshire a process oE dipping iron in tin \Vas combined with a ne\\' \'arnish to make Pontypool \Vare, or tóleware. By the 17705 it had become popular, and followed Neoclassical shapes and decoration. Seen as exotic nm"eltíes, the design of objects made in these new materials always foUowed fashion. ll1ey \Vere admired as much for their llmm'ation as for the material from which thev were made. ~
The New lron and Steel 1 [¡'t'1I casi
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2 A l'air of :,tet'/ :,110/.' bllck1e;;, /linde in BirlllillghmJl e.1780, w/lidl imitnted /llore expel/;;j¡'( dialllolld om';;, bllt wen' las/liollable ill tlteir 0il'1I ri~/¡f.
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Textiles and Wallpaper Architectural '",-
2 The trnde card of lvfntt1úas Dar/y, ¡míllter, ellgra,'er, nlld {1{Ipt'r stailJer. ShOi¡,illg ¡mllpaIltrs ill "¡\,Jooem" (Neoc/nssica1), Gothíc. or C/Úllt'Sl' lastes, LOlldoll. C.176o-70. 3 Pillar-{lIld-llrc11 palJt:r, slelll:ilft:li allli blockprilltl'd, pro/m/lly BostOIl, 1787--<]0, s]¡owillS thl' ¡uf/1II'IIce 01 c/assical arclli!cctllrc. SUc/1 papas "'ere IJfll'tiCII/arly poplllar il1 AlIlaica.
1 "Got1¡jek" s!IICCQ-¡l'ork pllpa, M'?ffal-Lndd House, POI'ISI/10Ilfh, Nerl' Hnll1psl/irc, (.1760. Nl'oclnssica/ tl'nllpaper pallenl:' deril'cd milI/Y SOllras, in l/lis CflSl' din.'Ctly fr01l/ pln,,-
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c1/illt:, \Val/¡lIglolI, SlIrn'y, ElIglnlld, C.1791. :ntiOllfll sfrucfllrr for IT floral sfripe.
an y Neoclassical pattems overiap in time with those of the late Rococo, but are distinguished fraro them by the prevailing characteristic of a lighthanded formality and the inflLlence of ardlitecture and plastcrwork, a feanlIe that it is particularly noticeable i.n "scenic" textile designs. The organizational strucntre becomes simpler, even though the final effect roay still appear complexo This .is a style based on swags, trellises, stripes, and their related arrangement, grotesques. Despite this, it is also the period when naturalistie renderings of fieId and garden Amvers reached their apex; such free-flowing dcsigns co-existed with those employing both realistie and stylized blooms forced to conform to an over-riding strueture. Se\'eral types of arcrutecturaJ omament appear frequcntly in Neoclassieal textile pattems. Imitations of stueeo or plastenvork in wallpaper are a logieal extension of thc suppl)' of papier-m¡khé omaments, wmch was also part o( thc wallpaper trade at this time. Plasterwork roa)'
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202
Hae, plastcÍll'ork dt'mcnls prol'irle lile orgnlli-
6 La tvlarchancle d'amours, roller-prilllrd cot tOIl, O/lerkampf, fouy, Fl"I1IIce, 1817- FrOIll C.1795-18:!O. purists fOlllld illspirlltioll in origillal sol/m'S slIdl as deúglls Jor Nroc/assical 1,/aster.l'Ork (Sl'e 2, bo/tOIll grollp, oppositeJ.
provided a framework fer floral motifs. From about 1760 to 1810, depietions of colll.m..ns and arches \Vere also a SOLHce of partems. Towards the end of this period both elements are combined in trolllpe J'oeil Aoor-to-ceiling waH eoverings known as déeor or fresco papers, and the same principIe can less often be fOlUld at work in \\laven and embroidered wall-hangings. 80th Gotllic and ciassical architectural feanlIes are sources for all these types of pattems, which remained popular ¡nto thc 18705. However, the numerou5 illustrated accounts of rediseo\'ered aneient si tes and artifacts gave ciassieal omament wider circulation and it is thcse that domjnate during the Napoleonic period, lllustrations of all subjects ",ere cuJled for seenic designs. Aside from temples and ruins, operas and plays, wildlife, politieal events, trophies, and both real and m)'thological figures are the m05t typical subjects. Their arrangement falls roughly into three periods. In the 17605 and 17705 patterns are orgaruzed around "islands" or
Scenic Islands 1 Lethe, or Acsop in the
Shi1dc~,
pri Illed jl/sl ¡fin i 11 ehi 11/1 bluf!
1,la/¡'-
¡pi /11 Sl."t'lle,
Ji. ,,,,
II 1,1ny by Dnl'id Gnrrick fllld fig//rt'S fnl/ll prillts by Cnllriel Slllil~1 nl/n A. A!osk.l', J ¡66---¡.¡.
eoltoll al/d [il/ell. The c/assic X¡'/úe pnttems, knOil'lI as toile de ]ouy, aJlJlI)lIgh lI~illg a ft'e/miqlle al cop¡xrp/ate prilltillg ¡Je1lecfed illll't'itllld by 1752, H'ere ofl!!/! eoml/illalioll:; of Romeo illfOI'IIIt1/ity t1lld Nl!OClnssical SCf.'lIic dl'lIIellfs. 2 Block-priJlfl'dfllrJIishillg chint::, Pcd & COo, CJllIrcJI &Ilk. Ellglnnd. t8u. TIle fastejor ero¡cdillg fIJe $Ce/les 011 textiles tl/tlt dl!i.'t'/ollt'd jrolll tlle 1790S is t':'pt.'cinlly ¡'i.'idellf ill tlle ,"t'piml of scellic "is/nlld" desiglls, oftell ellilloist'l"ie ill sly/e.
Framed Scenics 1 ¡Yl7l1pllper by AppldulJ Prel1fiss, BostOII, 1791. As ¡IJe
Neoc!assicnl pcriod progressed, arrnllgt'lIIl.'llts oj sce/lie J'lltfems
...J
becalllt' /llore ordered t}¡rollg/l
5-
rile illfrod/lctioll 01¡mI/u!;;, cnrfollc/ws, OT rOlwdl!ls. SI/eh
en
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fnlll/l'd pl1/1ems lIIigllt bt' large 01' SlIIfll!, aud nlso appcared 0/1
iI'eflt'es al/d 011 ,m/1paper5,
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2
2 Dctni/ oj a page depicfillg plaques ¡mm /osepll Bt'IIlIal's Designs for Architecrural Ornaments (Paris, C.18t3). SI/ch origillal solfrce lIlaterial illllsfrntillg allcimf sit,>:; ¡m:; faitliflllly illc0'1l(1rnfed by sollle fextile dl':;igl1ers. 3 B/ock-prillled cofto", Fmllcis & (roak, (01'1'111 Gardm, LOlldoll, 1792. T/1I.' lmckgl"lllllld i.~f1/11 of orJIalllt'lltatioll. ill kel'pillg il'it/¡ CtIllI¡'IIIJ1° ornry tastf. SI/ch sepnrafedfmlllt,.I/1/o/!f... ,1'1'1",' ideal for co¡'ering c!/tIir SI'a/:,; mld 1"It-/,;.;..
, .
.. 1'""
.,
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l.
4 L' Allégorie a I'amour Cupidon and Ps\'che, rolfer-printc:d ealfoJl, Fa.'re, Petitpierre & Cie, Nalltes, frailee. 1815_ TI't' trell.l tOttYlrds dellsityfrom fIJe fnle 18t/¡ cnlfllry len lo scenes
e/ose/y sel 011 bnsily figured c%ll1"t'd grollllds.
4
203
Swags 1 NI.'cdkpoilllllll ,', '\1,,\1'10'/11 FrmU",'.l'.I-S, '",'""," ~u·¡/,\ ..
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,-/11/,'
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3 Block-I'rillte.j cottOIl
paper, prolmbly Britis/¡,
(olllllel"¡mIlC, joJm He¡"SOII,
4 Silk dflllllJ,;.k by f.I~ Lac05lal & Cit' for Ver:,ailli'';'. 1812.-13. TI/e
C.1750--60. More l/In!! amI (),!le/"
P/¡ilnddpilin, 1790-1800. Oft('ll
:;img,;. Ol! fIJij dallll'/,;.k are tn:atl!d
a,;. sfylb'd flora/boil'er:;, I'/lId
i 11 fl'r-re/ariol/sll/p /lt./ ¡¡'Cl'l/ Romeo mili .\'l'OC/assim{ /l'1/tt'm::. TJ¡t'~f
dep/ol/l'd as /lordel",:; ;'1 /11;:;; I'aiod. simss //l/da tlll' il~flll('J/ft' oI.\'eocl115$icaf r(',:;lmillf C()I/M ¡••'
illlrodl/ü' n Rtl((J(o tOlleh ha,',
,'/'n/ su!Jtl¡'.
/l/o/!f. S¡l'dgs dl'lIlOlIstmtc
tI/c
n'l/Ift'Tl'd n'i' bl/lltillg.
204
are a150 aspect5 of Rococo design5. Dl1ring the 17805 ano 17905 a more ordered format prevail5, with motifs contained within cartouchcs, 0\'aI5, rotmdels, and the like. Early in the 19th century, the hcight of printed repeats is often reduced, resulting in designs, whether of the revived island type or plaster\\'ork-inspired, with a cramped appearance. As a source of pattern details, swags and draperies based on real fabric treatments \Vere the principal altemative to plasterwork struchues throughout the periodo From the 1760s to 1790s these most often imitate sl1spended bunting, espeeially in damasks and damask~ style papers. Less overt variations depict floral bowers instead. Thc very small background patterns often incorporated into printed wallpaper designs - of this type ,111d others - is also in imitation of textiles, replicating the lin-Iy surfaces of minutely patterned velvets and laces. A... 1800 approaches, the cun'e of the s",ag becomes very ...h.ll1o\\', only gradually to rehUI1 to a more generous proportion by abol1t 1810 to 1815. Faux draperies \Vere a
a 1,/nstertmrk-Iike ,;o/illity l'lItirl.'1l' compatible i{'itl, pur.' Xl'tlC/assical rlesigll:i-. /IIH'{'
4
feahlre of many wallpapers and borders, but can also be found depicted in all typcs of textiles. Trellises and their natural accompaniment, sprigs, are perennial pattern types that nevertheless were particularly popular in the Neoclassical periodo Their treahllent may incorpora te a suggestion of ribbons 01' architech.ual ornament. However, even when the design appears complex, such as a lattice-work intertwined with vines, the struchue is cIear. The single sprig 01' spot patterns that are often positioned within trellises \Vere also widely used as all-over patterns. These were particularly important for cotton textile printers who were graduaUy mechanizing their production ITom the 1780s onwards, and beca me the sta pIe for dress cottons for more than a ccntury thereafter. Stripes of many types are 3ssociated with this periodo Often it is their inclusion in a pattern that defines it as being Neoc1assical rather than Rococo. The evolution of an asymmetrical \'ertical pattem into él symmetrical one indica tes the same trend; it is not uncommQn to find
Swags, Trellises, and Sprigs
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5 Snlllplt· llook 01 rol/a- nlld b[ock-prilIted caltol/s, !ollat/Iflll P.'e/, CllI/rc1/ Bnllk, LnncnslJirl!, 1806-J7. Sprigs ¡1'hellllSt'd afolle il'tW oflm n/iglll'd nlollg crossillg dingoJla/hl/cs.
6 Desigll fol' iJ/ock-prill/ed chin!:, Bnlllli5fer Hall, u1IICflsllirt'. 1806.
Tre1liS6 f1fpicnl/lj . . becnJ1le II/on.' prollliJlellf as
periad progrt'$sed.
tll/.'
Neoc!assicn!
205
Stripes 1 Brocnded silk, FrnllCt', 1;60-¡0.
5tripes /'Ot11 simple nlld mil/JI/ex ¡{'ere i/le/l/ded ill ll/allY Neoc/assical desiglls. A fa¡'OlIrite IIIOti[ slmred ¡{'itll/ale Romeo JlatleTlls ¡{'as a stripe cOlllposed o/ illterlillked II/l'mldcrs. 2 The One Slripe Net.>dlc\\"ork Flower Pot Chinlz Border, block-prinfed by 8mlllisler Hall. Lallcnshire,for RicJlard 01'ey, LOlldoll, 1805. Frolll a[¡ouf 1790 fo 1815 mld beyolld,florn/ stripes n/lolll/di'd.
Tites.' could be as
¡pide liS 35clII/J31.i1l, border delllollstmlcs.
liS
t/lis
1
Intricate Stripes ~
1 Domino ;:l'(ffll'npel~ C.li50, Frailee, bfack-l'l'illled (l/uf
en
stellcil1ed 01/ }¡mut·/llnde pnJwr. 111
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oi interlillked lIIenJlders, tite
e-n en
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ti/e IIIc(lIIders
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Allgel"S, Fml/cl', 1786. Tlú5/all'r
o
z
aMiliolla/stripc;;.
Nrocla;;,;icnJ lextik ¡"dI/des COlltorted
meal/das t/JfII apllCilr
Ntrappt'd" ,dtllh, a slripe.
1
206
similar pairs of asyrnmetrical/symmetrical designs fr0111 about 1760 unol the 17805. In weaving, stripes are easily added as a background to other motifs, a device that gained in popularity from the late 17505 onwards. However, from the eady 17705 thc motifs tend to be positioned within the stripes, rather than across them. The stripcs themselves also become less varied in width and number and, by about 1780, settle ¡nto an arrangement of h"o roughly equal-sized stripes, one ,vith a more distinct pattern. Double suipes also emerge in printed fabrics and wallpapers, although their relative scale remains varied. Many stripes were designed to be used as side-by-side repeats and, cut away, as borders, a flexibility reinforced visually by the inclusion of a narro", edging suipe. Related to stripes in their strong vertical emphasis are ~rotesque patterns. Typically incorporating images of fi¡.;ures or Clnimals, they were inspired by the elongated dL'signs found in Renaissance grottoes. At their most e1,lbori1te as wall-coverings, they are related to décor,
2
with no repeat from top to bottom. A master of this genre was }ean-Démosthcnc Dugourc (1749-1825), a designer who worked in several European courts and in 1782 published a series of engravings cntitled d'AmbesfJlIes (designs consisting solely of curling flowers and foliage are today known in English as arabesque patterns). 111C fashion for grotesques existed from the 1780s until the eady 1800s, although latterly they appear more typically in large borders, rather than as all-over patterns. Their legac)' remains in post-18l0 Empire designs with elongated forms. Towards the end of the 18th centurv, , two factors brought naturalism to the fore. One was the Romantic i\lm'ement and its concern with the relationship bctwcen pecple and their nah.tra} environment. 111is favoured the depiction of field and forest flowers and foliage, arranged to suggest random growth. The other was the increasing issue of hand-coloured engraved plates iJlustrating botanicaI specimens, many depicted in their habitat or as informal posies. V\'hile flower painting had long
5 Blod:-prill"'d JlII/'I" ,1'1/11
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Bt'ltfordsflirt', ElIg/al/d,
ISO(l_
Tapien! desigll5 apJ.Il'aml ill slriIJe:;alld i('al' C'spt'citllly !as/Jiollab/e as borders, com/liunl iPi//¡ Ireflis or sprig pll/tl'l'lI::.
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dr~ 3 Block·prillte,j JXlpt'r nlld borda. New ElIg/nlld, 18oQ-lj. Tlle DlIfer eriges ofjloral
sfript':> gradllal/y bccnll/l' /llore fluid (l11d I/n/umlistíc dl/fillg tlle period, rn/her t!UlII sfrnigllt
01'
Ilcnrfy
so.
4 De:;igl/ by jeall·De/l/ostJ,t-I¡l' DI/gol/re
Jor Amlljllt'=. Spaill. C.1786, ¡¡'hic/¡ incorpora/es grotesqllc pnttems nrOIlJld
dcpictiolls of !tn/imwlc SCCIlf'S. TI/e pertical !rmllc1l'o/'k d¡¡,idl's t/u.' pI/l/e/ ¡n/o ¡pllal are
csscl/tia/ly Il1Ig.:, (ompkx s/ri/h's. 4
5
:E en
Grotesques
-en c:.,:)
2 Embroidcred salill aJ'plifllléd i('itil slU/ded "e/¡'cf {//J(f che¡zil/c, a/l,.ibllfcd lo /C{//I-Frall(ois &my, Fral/U, 1795"""'9. Se/dolJl el/lire/y SYlI/lJlelricnl, cmphasis 1ICi.'Crtfle/ess ¡eU 01/ fIEl' groft'Sl]lIc pnttem's ..wlica/ celltre filie.
en
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w
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3 Block-pril/fl'd chilll:, II:lli Moon and Sen:,n Slólr.. Furniture, Jlrill/j'¡ll'.I( HIIIIIIl"/,'¡ Hall, Lallfll::/¡irl', (¡". lú. /¡,lId Qpl'Y, 180';. 1.111,'1' S'oll'~'III" d6igll:: ¡P¡'fl' IIIdd'f,''¡ ¡ti 1111/1,.,1/"
for cnn....d I'i/II.. . /l'f~. 4 Frt'llfll . . i/k ¡",/,...I. 1111' 1<1/,'
gmlc......JII.· 1111111'1" ,I'''~ 1II""III'lf IIY /,III""/,·,,n',k. 11 inh 11 ... ·11 ,11 lile Uy.. . ", 1'11111.1', f'an..... i" rS.;8 I/IId 11/ l.m/,IIIIC¡'¡¡·OI/. CIS50.lmd 111/11(1, ..... !l/l' ~lh/(/i'h'd i)~l7l1l'!lct' uf
IIr'wll I '1III'i",' IlóiSI/:=.
1
2 1 5ilk lampas (COllllJOlIlld ¡1'Clli'C). LYOIIS, 1790-2. Grotcsqllc pnltcms
ll'ere g{'//crally cousíslent witll tl,d,. illspirntioll, illcorporntil/g scro/lil'ork, (ameos. c/lerllbs, frophies. (l11d l/le like.
207
Naturalism , .. •
1 D¡'sigll for
ti
prill!ed fexli/e
by IViJlifllJl KiflJllrJI, C. T790.
Nnfl/mfiSIIl ¡,¡ lile J\h'OC/t1'Ssim/ period '11'/15 Ilor simpfy
tl
matra
o[ rt'nlisJJI ¡JI ti/e drn¡¡'illg. but n/50 Ik'rtnil/l.'d fo tl1e strucfllre of flllflltem. IJI nll--OPt'r pnttems. lIIo/ir... appenr fa ¡ml/der o<'('r tite
•
sl/rfna f7l1d l/u.' n'peal is oltell ski~flllly disglli:::ed. 2 Embroidery fllld nppliqllé Cl/!
tulle (lnd falfeta. FrnIlCt'.
C.1795-1805. AltJlOl/glI sddolll illtenlJiJlgled. /lntl/mlisric pattems ¡('en' plan'ji ndincmf lo ;;trile/l/mi repl'llts slIdl tlS
Sfa/e motift. 3 Borda froll1
:2:
en
-c.J e-n
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ow z
/OSt'pl1 8t'lIJltll"s Designs for Archileclural Ornaments (Pad:;, elSI 3'. E,'clI
¡I'//{'I/
dl'sigllcd 1/5 boniers,
a IlfltllrnJislic nrrnJlgeml'll/
is ¡'l:'id('II' ill Ibis p/atc, 4 Block-prilllt'd rmllpnpcr, Frrlllc;', C.1S00. Despile ,!ldr tll "1'1'·11i/IIt'llsiolla! re¡ IderilIS, flornl sprnys and ¡'¡¡les -¡uere typically p!aced agaillsl millllle/y pallemcd or solid-c%llred gl"t)/mds, I1ms clllplznsi:illg t¡I'O plallcs - fislI re mul grollluf mlll!!r Ilmll mI o¡'crnll trompe l'oeil !!ff!!c/. 5 Silk damask, Cnmill!! I'entoll for Sailll-Cloud, 1801-5, SUell eloll/, witil a dOllllllall1 IInturnJistic pnllel"ll o/ n sil/g/e p/tlllf /01"/11, ill tlJis ense file onk, oflt'lI ('lIIplwsi:cd tllI.' sen/e al1d I,roporfiolls of-¡{'(1lfs. ClIrfaills, alld funtisJlil/f?S.
4
5
208
infom1ed pattero design, these plates were far more widely available, Sorne ",ho produced them \Vere also designers, such as the English calico printer \,yilliam Kilburn (17-15-1818), The illustrator best kno",n for his impact on pattern design is Pierre-Joseph Redouté 0739-18-l0), who supplied plates for various \Vorks from 178-1 and his own volumes from 1803-24. An informal quality obtains in the patterns thus influenced, whether arranged. as all-overs, borders, or bunches, and sorne plants and trees were especial1y favoured: roses, strawbenies, thistles, clover, and acorns and oak leaves. ll1e emblema tic siglúficance of such motifs was still widelv , understood at this time, with imagery from oak trees, for example, recognized as dcnoting permanence and strength. Even at the height of the fashion for naturalism, ~Iylij'ed floml patterns were created, many influenced by tL',ti!cs from the Indian subcontinent. However, in kl'l'ping with Romantic notions, the result often suggests Ci1S11illly tossed leaves or sprigs. In addition, realistic
depictions of plants and flo\\"ers \\'ere sometimes employed as the internal decoration within leaves and petals. Coral and vermicelli, with their equally lively forms, were also elements of the designer's repertoire, The most lasting of internally decorated shapes is the bote/¡ (meaning flower), evolving among Persian and Kashmir shawl weavers bv , about 1790 into its distinctive cone shape_ Scarce and cO\'eted, these shawls by about 1805 to 1810 had initiated European imitations, hom which arose the manufacturing speciality of Paisley, in Scotland. As a result, now known as paisley patterns and then also called cashmeres, such exoticized floral fom1s became an important aspect of European designers' visual vocabulary. In particular, their stylized sprigs (used aH over) and borders appear in many repeat patterns, During the Napoleonic Empire, stylized Egyptian-inspired plants also adorned designs but, Kashmiri motifs aside, the lasting legacy of floral patterns to the following decades was realism, which even softened architecturally inspired late-Empire designs.
Nature Rearranged
1
2 •
1 Fn'llcll "ilk r/nUln5k /'!I 01ltilliell (Inri Tiléi/eyn' fin \1t'fsni/lcs, 1811. TI1e:;e file/l/Y
distribl/tt'd I'<)sit'=' are 1U'¡wflll'll'S::' tren/ro l/ni If ml¡sI icnfJ!/. 2 J. Fwr~ (Germm¡} dt'si'?lll'JI~rn¡'t'd lJ~, Hl'lIri Hnr/,:/, 1;9,. /1/ock-prilltt'd l'~f HtWS:i-IJItWII, Logdll(/cf¡, Camal/Y. fmm tite
<'flCtllmlnry olllldiaH textiles Ctlmi' :mcfl lt'nr-
dTO!' boleh fOnl/s.
:;E
3 Block-pl'illlt'd ¡l'IlfJpapcr bQl'dt'rs,
C.17So-1STO. Tile proliferntioll ofprinted
en
¡mI/papas
t .:l
(11/(1
e-n
textile:, dllrillg l/lis perlad
enwl/rased ti wide I1lld illi't'I1/;"t' tnnge vf pl1tfems lm$rd 01/ p/nll! lije.
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4 Si/k dall/u$k, proollced ill FmIlCt' (01" ¡he Pnfn:::o dd QuiTilla/e, ROl/u', 1813. Higllfy stylb.'cf plul/t ¡orll/s
SUe/1 tlS
t.:l
O w Z
pnPY"''' (alllldillg
lo Xapíl/col/'s Eg~lPtiml ((mlpaigll} ¡¡'l'rt' lIIost
oftell rt!$t!ri.'('d.{or grotesqul' ¡mUerm.
3 5
Rosettesfromfoseph
Bt'//I/jlt'..
Designs far Archilectural Ornarncnts (París. C.1ST.,J. Here. styli:t'd.floT<1f fortl/:' nppenr Ín pl/lsh'ncork-fiIú' desiglls. f¡'m .;,tI, ,¡/iS/I! 111I.1
/¡pe1tl IOllclljlft'l"úl... 6 Brocndcd .. ji/.:, /)i~~tI,.d(lll,
COl/sill & /301/!/ J¡lI"
VI'I",;rlin,,;,
1812-15. Ulú ' I/h' ro';'I'lIe"ji'lllll Be II! 111/ '" poi /c'1'II I/Ouk, 1116(' ,;,'11I i·, 111/11 mI j .. / h- {loml for",::,
ft:fa I(! /,II/,:,/c'r¡nwk 1'1l1l<"II;; t!f Iflt'
5
6
IlIIlt',
209
Historie Revivals Furniture 214 Gothic Revival 214 Eliz
Aenaissance Revival 218 Aococo Revival 220 Exhibrlion Furniture 222 Tcchniques and Materials 224
Ceramics 228 British 228
French 230 Olher European and American 232
G1ass 234 British 234 Ott1er European and American 236 Techniques and MateriaJs 238
Silver and Metalwork 242 Textiles 244 Upholstery 246
Wallpaper 248
Design during the 19th century was inlluenced by eclectic historical styles, the pervasive effects 01 the Industrial Revolution, and the international exhibitions that showcased design trends. Writing in the House Decorator's
and Painter's Guide in 1840, H.w. and A. Arrowsmith observed that "the present age is distinguished Irom all others in having no style which can be properly called its own." Certainly by this point in history, designers in Europe and the United States had an increasingly bewildering variety 01 styles from which they could draw as they responded to the latest fashions.
e
OIbWl1ers couId choose from él ,·afiet)' of objects created in a range of styles, fmm Gothic Revival to Modern Grecian or from Elizabethan to Rococo Revival. The past \Vas pillaged, through engravings and publications, to provide inspiration for designers bus)' trying to provide for a public which (according to the 1849 ¡ouma/ of Desigll) had "a morbid craving for novelt)' without regard to intrinsic goodness." For some the choiees available were too confusing. In response, works such as J.e. Loudon's Ellcyclopaedin 01 Cottage Farm alld Villa Arcllitectlfre alld Fumitllre (1833) and the American A.J. Downing's TIle Arcllitectl/re 01 COlllltry HO/Ises (1850) were published with informatian about ho", the new styles could be used and where they might be appropriate. Downing, for example, felt the Elizabethan taste to be ideal for the houses of collectoTS, or those who had recently moved to the US from the OJd World and wanted to be reminded of the homes they left behind. Both volumes featureci furniture in a bulky classical taste, termed by Loudon "the Grecian or modern style," which he described as "most prevalent." Despite the altematives, classically inspired design continued to play a part in furnishing tastes throughout the century, providing consumers "'ith, on the one hand, a range of salid unpretentious furniture and on the other with elaborate reworkings of ancient or Neoclassical motifs. But the trend to\\'ards stylistic vmiety was not ne\\'o Eighteenth and early 19th-century design, although dominated by c1assical sourccs, had begtUl to take a greater interest in a more varied cultural past.ln England, Gothic motifs had been periodically fas!lionable during the 18th century, but had been of a light, almost playful nature. By the 19th century, this whimsical version of Gothic was slowly replaced by an increasingly scholarly approach. Publications such as Thomas Rickman's AtteJllpf fa Discrimillafe tlle 5tyles of Ellglisll Arcllitecfl/re (1817) and the writings and dcsigns of A.W.i\". Pugin ga\"e the style a gravity and moral importance that appealed to highminded people in Europe and tlle USo However, for many it \Vas siropl), admired for its picturesquc qualities.
ú:'ft: t//(~ elabomfe floml dt'(ornliOll, fllefil/ial. mili tJ/l'forlll of t'lis ~i{-¡:er coffi-e poi, from a fl'tl aJld cofji:e SCJí.'icl' made by Sallllle/ Kil'k & SOIl in Bnltimore, Manl/and, (.185°, is in the Neo-Romeo s/y/e. Tile s/lÍp al1d sl'1lfrol11 tOll'll nn'11Op"far ti/emes (lll American H/3 6cm/ql..ill.
¡mre~.
Opposite: tlle Crent Ex/Jibitiol1 01 the IVorks 01 /I/dusl ry 011'111 Naliol/s, 11/01'1' cOllll1lOl1ly klro¡I'1/ as lIJe Creat ExIJibition, ¡:pas ¡u'M in J8jl al tlll' ~JIt'ciafly bllilt Crystnl Palaa in London. 11 illc/lldl',11lJis Medie.ml COllrt, dcs(~lIe,t by tf/e progres::h't' Cathiei::f A. IV.N. PI/gin (1811-52), ¡¡¡hiell di::pla!fed
eee/esiaslienl alld dome:;lie IlInJi::J¡illgs b.l' h'ndil/g mnka::. Gol/lÍe Rei.'hnlla,,/e ill al1 ib glli:>es ¡m:: Ollt' of ti/e /1/0::1 il~flllt'"1ial dl'~ign :;tyles i// 19111-
n'lllul"Il El/rapt' alld
the US.
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l/y Afc.mJldl!l" Jackso!l Dm.,is hSo3-92), nl/d it demol1:;tmte:; rlllcolllprolllísillg e.mlllp!e of Grcek Revi¡ll7! d6igll.
1111
212
Same styles \vere adopted for political reasons. In the 1820s, the aristocratic British fascination with French design of the 17405 and 17505 is often ascribed to a nostalgic interest in thc former Bourbon régime and the oId arder, which \-vas svvept away by the French Revolution and supplanted by Napoleon's Empíre. By the time it reached a wider audience in the 18305 and 18405, these connotations were replaced by an appreeiation of the luxurious appearanee of the Neo-Rocoeo styIe and its suitability for use on new and cornfortable hrrnish.ings sueh as the spring-uphoIstered sofa. Styles also had literary inspiration. In England and Franee, the Elizabethan or Troubadour styIes were partly inspired by popular noveIs, whieh identified the period with chivalry and high ideals. People wanted objeets that referred to the romance of "olden times." Sut eraving for novelty pIayed a part, too. Classicism in a variety of guises continued to survive into the 19th
eentury, especiaJly in Italy. The Industrial Revolution led to the growth of the middle c1ass, and these new rieh eonsumers wanted choice and novelt)r; designers were happy to supply them. As onc comlnentator remarkcd of a eoUon printer in 1849, "the very instant his hundred patterns were out he began to engrave others." The variety of styles available heIped to satisfy this rapidly growing, aspirational market for ,<\'hich ornament was often synonymous with beauty. Design was aIso shaped by the new teclmoIogy. It should be remembered that from the 18305, objects couId be produced more quickly and in some instances more cheaply than ever before. The oId-fashioned approach, where an affluent patron vvould commission an object from a craftsman, \Vas still viable far the vcr)' rieh but, increasingly, mass production \Vas the arder of the day. By the 1840s the \Vallpaper, textiIe, and metalworking trades had all achieved a degree of meehanization.
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Furnitl.lre trades still practised hand working, but this \Vas no\\' augmented by ne\\' equipment that a11o\\'OO the thin cutting of vcneers or the roughing out of carving. Devclopments in materials such as cast ¡ron or papier maché prompted the design of furnishings that cauld be reproduced guickly. In response, manufacturers \Vere increasingly seeking designs· that wauId sell in large quantities in arder to justify mass production. It was also a periad of intense innovation and experimento New techniques such as the development of the larninating and steam-shaping of woodwork, pioneered by the furniture makers Michael Thonet (l/96-1871) and John Henrv Belter 080+-63), ",ere to lav the foundations for • • 2Oth-century furnihuc production. Styles "'ere also increasingly cosmopolitan. Revolutions and wars, coupled with improved transport systems, moved craftsmen and designers around the world and loo to a greater exchange of ideas. In addition, the early 19th century saw the begínnings of the concept of international exhibitions as a means of stimulating trade and designo In 18-19 international shmvs were planned in Birmingham and Paris but both failed to attract exhibitors from other countries. However, in 1851 London was the venlle for the Cryslal Palace exhibition. Intended as a showcase for international manufacture and design, the "Great Exhibition of the Works of lndustry of AH Nations," or the Great Exhibition as it W(lS popularly knmvn, al10wed nations to view the work of compentor nations and to be infillenced by ne\\' trends.ln countries such as Britain, it gave extra irnpetus to the existing provision of design education, whcn British manufacture was seen to compare badly with the output of countrics such as France. In Europe and the United States, it set a trend for international exhibitions that were to last another SO years. These included Ne", York in 1853, london in 1862, Paris in 1867, Vienna in 1873, Philadelphia in 1876, and Paris in 1878. It also spa",ned a
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ne'" breed of object: the c:\hibitillll picce. Created in thc grand manner to sho", off lllanufacturing skill and design virtuosity, exhibition picccs oftcn llsed inno\'anve materials and techniques to achie\'c cyc·catching results; just as often they \Vere highly conservative. Out af the stylistic diversity af the 1830s and 18-10s carne a serious approach to revival styles. In 1856 O",en Jones's Gramilla,. 010mallleJlf was published, followed. by Heinrich Dolmetseh's Ommllelltellsc/mt: in 1887. Both were seminal \Vorles, atternpting to instruct designers in the true nature of historie styles and to encourage a more academie use of historical motifs. In manufacturing this was paralleled by the glass and eeramie industries, whose productions were increasingly charaeterized by the recreation of historie styles, often realized by using historically accurate techniqlles. ·Mass production also caused a reaction. The increasing tlse of mechanization led designers such as \I\'illam Mor~is (183+-96) to htrn away from industrial design to coneentrate on eraft produetion. This in turn \Vas to shape the highly influential Arts and Crafts Movement that emerged in the 18605. Historical styles eonnnued to be lIsed and re-invented throughout the century. ln the 18705, the Aesthetic Movernent fOW1d inspiration in the furnihlre of the 18th century, which \Vas previollsly criticized as rneagre or sparse. By 1880, furniture in the Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton styles \Vas part of the usual stock-in-trade of the commercial furnisher, together \Vith Freneh-style "Louis" pieces and "Renaissance" evocations. For the 19th-centllry conSllmer, variety \Vas almost a style in itself.
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Gothic Revival Furniture Architecturallnfluences 1 111 tht' 17505 Hornee VValpok Iteeornh'd }¡is !lOlIse al Stmwb,'ITII Hill, I\.liddbex, in file Go",ie -st.'lle. T/¡is decorafit'(' approac11 cOllfilllled fa be poplllar illto tlle 1911/ cmtllry. "Tlle ga/fery" ceilillg tmeery is based 011 tlml ;11 tlle Hellry VI/ chape! i'l \V.,,;tllli"ster Abbey, LOlldoll. 2 Golflic 1m5 0111' of tfle lila".'! ~l.ld.""S 1I,;¡'d fa ado,." f"mitllrt' lllld .1t'corafiOIl iJl file TS:!oS.
TI,¡s !ollr-IJostc,. bed desi~1I .¡las JlIl/ll;..lll'd ill lS26. Tlle crc~tillg i,; d{'(on1h'd witll slyli=ed fen<'t""S ami tll,' po,;ts .1';0, cnTi'ed 1I/1l1frl'-
foil "l(It!f~, 1111 ill:wired by AkditTl11 nrelliteclllre. 2
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4 3 PI/gin sllOU'l'd tllis cabine! in/Jis Ale1licm! COIITI al /1//: GrCllf Ex/libitioll in 1851. AltJ¡ollgll decornfed wifil ct1l'villg, lIJe onll7l1u.'lIfl1tioll
is restrnilled
e/ose/y bnsed OJI historienl profofypes.
he Gothic taste in Britain had its roots in 18th-cenrury design and the influence of connoisseurs such as Horace Walpole (1717-97), whose villa, Strawberry Hill, was decorated and furnished in the Cothie manner. With details derived ham Medieval architecture incorporated into modero furniture shapes, it was essentialIy él superficial style admired for its decorative and romantic qualities, and during the first quarter Df the 19th century it retained él certain prestige. Features in fashionable magazines and él growing interest in antiquarian subjects hlelled enthusiasm for the Gothic, and it began to be seen as the British national style_ This status \Vas confi.rmed when the style was chosen for Sir Charles Barry's ne,,Palace of V\'estminster after the fire of 1834. Gothic was characterized by the use oE architecnual fe
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4 Elaborate "p,úme//.o; 111 111,' Co/llje la..I¡' ({'al' {/ featl/re of l/u' Grt.'at E.rhibilioll of IS.:;/. /,';"I1l'I' {...- SOIlI~f Austria SlIblllitted tllis pas! oak bookCII~(', d,'s;g",·,( /0 look likl' 1/ c/wi,. Ma/l, as a gift for QUI!<'II Victoria.
",ounded by some uf its minutiae may consider himself extremel V fortu n
Furniture Forms 1 /III'lfillins rOOIl/ ni IV1l1d:'or Cl/~Ih'
mIs l'qllipp...d wif/t n lIew
o/ e/mir::: iJl f/¡t' 18:105. TlIey ¡('t'rt' dl'sigl/I!d by t/1;.' yollllg PU,l:ill. ni If,is lime ;:{'Grkillg in n Cn"súlIl Golflic molle. Usillg m:"I'i/'OOl1 .'meers 111~~fIJigJ¡ted by SildillS' tI/I.' ella;T backs are bnsed 011 ljtll-cmfllry ;;('illl1o
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Tllis is lile typt' o/ desigu tllflt Pugill rm~ Inter lo critici:c ill ¡lis pl/bUcaliolls. Ht JIIl/39/,j'l. 2 [k-:;iglltW lo be kl/dl 011 for ¡Jrtl.lft'r, tIJis FrtmcJl priMieu, ('J8.;0, is canm ¡Y1rioIlS Gothic
lIlotifs ¡Ile/udillg arcndiJlg (lJlri Cffrt't'd fn.foil:;. rile bnek Plfltei ¡s Jlt1ill/ed witlt tI/(, Virgill tllld Cltild.
afier Rnplmel. Ht 8lCJlI/3úlI. 3 Tllis fmcery-llt1cked dmi,. is al n IY/If kUO
n s/litably spiky silllOuette in tllh,: I'OlI1fllltici:ed recrl'atiol1 of tllC Golitic Myll'. 4 PlIgill'S publisllcd fumillll"c dcsiglls illspil'l'd IJ¡is Gol/lic nnllc!mil' (Jf 1 864, Mnde ¡mili cnl1'l'rl oak, t/lt' cilnir i;; e/aborate/JI lI}Jhohtacd ill tnpt'sll~1 fabriCo (/ r.'ficct;; PI/gin's lIJorc seriol/s nppl'onC!1 lo Gotltic nfter lile 18205. H t 1.l2/11/;ft 7;/,j1/.
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Tlll ' 1/:'(' of ,·... ·¡·l·lIll·d constrllctioll, ns Pugiu tt'TIIIC" il, 1II1IrJ.~ 111/ decora/ion Jor its iffi'Cb. u
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tI/" Gol/uo l{l·,'i...I/. ¡I'1Jic1, ((//1 n/sobe $0.'('1/ i/l tlll' d",,,. ¡'//.'\/II'.. publicntious iCeTl' higllJu m/1l/ml",1 11I HIIIl/1II mlil in ElfrDJ4' aud t1l,' liS. 1¡1~ .1·l'l~ Im.l 111,' fOl/lulntiOlls for tll.' I\rl" ,11/.1 (''''1//0. .\ IlI, ·../I/nll nI/ti illspirl'd dt'~("II'T" ¡,,, flldmS 1\";1/1'11I1 illl/lOrtmlfllC¡(' Sfralld;'1
Surges
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215
Elizabethan Revival Furniture Fancilul Furnilure lar lhe Romanlics 1 Tllmed IIprig1lts cllflrncteri:ed
1II/1e/1 Eli:n/;ethnll Rei'h'nl fllmitllre. T/¡js e.mll/ple. proll(lbly d{'Siglll!d by Riclmrd Bridgt'l/s {l/Id mnde 1/1 t/u.' it'Or!G}¡ops ,!f Gl'IJrge BlIllock. c.181j, ,I'as ¡'xew!ed ill paíl/ted (}(/k
lit 9ocm!3SIiIl. 2 By tite 18'¡05, the Eli::abet/lflII sty/e beCa/lit'
11/0'<'
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Can'ed nlld fllml'd decomliou
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c1U1irs tike l/lis om' proi'ided ti/e pafi'c! jrall/;?¡{'Ork for t!u.' IIt'¡I' Berlill <{'oo/(('ork. SC<'I/ /¡at' 0/1 ffn' sea! (mil OO(k. Ht 1.0tlll/3ft 3ülI.
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talllJ{lcks (1111'1 t¡¡'ist-lllmed I/prigllts. Y/Jis cxtllllph' im,: dt'Sigllf'd for tI/I.' Scott 5//11/1/1('( ¡lOl/se nI BIICkillg/UllIl Pnlnce ill IS.u. 4 QIIt'el/ Ad¡>/aidl"s bedroolll, ill "'Iaml/ead. Dt'i.'Oll, ¡I'a:, desiglled C.IS30 by Al/lltollY Sa/¡,ill fJ ¡99-1SSIJ. TJ¡e suite (Jf jl/rlllfllrt! is /IIade o/ oak WiIJl illciSl.'d alld cnn'ed decomfiOIl. T/Je I/lTIIl.'d legs af Ihe coI/eh aJld 1//1.' clIn'l'd slrelc/lcrs il'en' ills¡Jired by later 1¡th-cm t 11 ry f1l rIl i t /I/'l' desig //.
4
ir Walter Scott's historica1 romances and él growing sense of nationalism prompted by the aftermath of the Napoleonic "Vars \Vere sorne of the influences persuading British designers to adopt the Elizabethan style after the 1820s. laek of detailed historieal knowledge meant that makers \Vere unsure about the true nature of Elizabethan design, and they also took motifs from furnihlre no\\' associated with the 17th ccnhlry. This rieh mix generated fanciful creations of strapwork, arabesques, spiral twists, and elabora te can1ing. George Fildes, an advocate of the Elizabethan taste, confessed in 18-i-!, "there is no style... that affords a more fatal faeility than lhe Elizabethan for the exercise of bad taste." Materials sud1 as oak and walnut "'ere seen as rnost .lppropriate for Elizabethan-style fumiture, but cornmL'rcial makers \Vere keen to use the la test technology and lllilteriills to add novelf)'. The fashion 'lIso prompted a dL'lllilnd for real and restored mtique pieces. Historieal Ir.lglllL'nts sud1 as pallels and carvings were used as a ...l.ll'ling point for ne\\' fLUlliture.
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The pubJications available to makers at this time fuelled interest in the Elizabethan style. Henry Shaw's Specímel15 01 AllcieHt FlInliflfre, which illustrated many examples of Elizabethan design, was published in 1836 and re-issued in 1866. Richard Bridgens' FlIrllifure wifl1 Cal/de/abra alld II/terior Decomtioll of 1838 included plates of appropriate designs, many of them illustrating how motits eould be adapted to modem furniture types. Ln the US, the Elizabethan taste found new admirers, supported by the writings of Andrew Jackson Downing. Delighting in the "mingled quaintness, beauty and pichuesqueness" of the old English house, he described the "curiously carved furniture and fixhlres" of such buildings and revelled in their "romance and chivalry." He particularly reeonunended the style for the decoration of parlours and sitting rooms. The French equivalent of the Elizabethan Re\'ival, known as Troubadour style, drcw mainIy on Gothic motits, but was similarly inspired by notions of chiva1ry and historieal romance.
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oak e/mirs art' "J'holsll'/"t'd il/
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¡mJlY Lilld IIY Nt"l' Yorklin!/IIt'I' il' 1850. MaJe frolll fnsJ¡iollnble rO:'CiI'OOtI, il mixe5 Eli=nbetlJaIl nllJ Rt'l/nis:
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217
Renaissance Revival Furniture ARelurn lo lhe 161h-Cenlury Renaissance
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1 Tlle Re/1ni:':'{/llce stylf' mIs npplkd fa ('stablisllc¡f !OTI1IS SUe/1 as /11" ~f{/. TII is desi(! 11 of 1 8.J,7 il/e/ lides Cfl/1wi th ,,'e-túIIIf'IISh'llfl I fru i 1, lcm:l's. (illd groh'SlJlI1! auimal 1Jcnds.
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he 18-1-0s sa\\' an increasing intcrcst in thL' litL""ltllrL', art, and arehitecture of 16th-cl'lltllry 1I;lly. Newly termcd by crities "the Renais5<1nCe," it bCgtlll tu providL' inspiration for American and European furniturc lllílkL'r~. By the time of the Great Exhibition in London in -1851, almost every country had contributed something in lhb taste. Subsequent internationaI exhibitions promotcd it tlS a universally important style, its motifs poplllarizcd by the weU-illustrated catalogues of the period.. With its roots in arehitecture alld scu1phlre, Renaissancc Revival furniture \Vas characterized by brokcn pediments, deeply carved surfaces, applied. cartouches, and semi-nude figures. Makers used various materials such as bronze, marble, and ivory, along with walnut, ebony, and mahogany, to achieve la\ish results. The royal nadie commissioned by Queen Victoria was a splendid example of this sty1e. Carved from boxwood by W.G. Rogers (1825-73), it resembled an immense chest or cnssolle. Continental Europe sa\\' the Renaissance Reviva! style take on national overtones, especially in pre-unification
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lltll\' .llld CL'rmany. Idcntified \\'ith the past glories of the ~kdid lamily i1lld the Germanic late Middle Ages, the :-.tylL' \\'.l~ renJized in Italian ivory-inlaid ebony hmlihire
4 4 PrillCl' AIl\'rt's íllferi'5/ iu ¡lIe Unfinl/ laste call1le "(t'/I in the ro.l,nf eradl/' madI.' by \V.G.
RogeTs. /lIfll/l.'Ilced by Rf'l/flisSfluce 10mb j(/I1pfl/re flmi tl'l!ddillg clle;;!s. il rcflects file llIor¡' serioll:; c/lflrtlcteT o/ Tt'l-'i"fl/ f"misllillS=-. 5 Tl,¡s élrmoire a deux corps, mnde by /.B. ¡\'aTiIlS iu 1862, has fl brokeJl pedimeut
illcorporntmg semi-Iwde figure;; flud fl cartOl/du' iJl IIlt' «'lItr... T/¡f' lm:'ish, swJpfed decora/iOIl 01/ fIJe nrc1liteclurnl fOTIII are fYlJical 01 fIJe Rf.'l/flisSflIICe sl!lle.
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6 Hollfllld & Sal/S' colllbil1rd ch¡ullleypiecf' fllld bookcllsl'
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illcorpomtcd SO/lit' lIie/les for omnIllCIl/S. T/¡c sltnlloll' can'illg conlms!s
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rdie! can'ing fa fIJe pilnsftT:'. 7 Tlle 18605 alui 1870S saw n:fílll!lIIt'lIfs fo fhe RI'JlaisSllIlce
slyh'. CurvillS becmlle shnllower aIUI'IlOre colI/rollel/, f/5- 5-eell ill tlle 5-lIbtle cnrtOllche lIIotifs 01/
t/Jis :.o.fn /linde ¡,I Nn/' York. L 113111/jfI8ill.
8 Part o[ a Rt',wisSfIIlCt'-styhiledmolll slIite, tMs 1876 /J¡'d ¡ms ¡¡¡ade l/y 1/1(' Bl'rkl'Y & Gny Fllmi/I/re (0, ;,/ Crnlld Rflpids, ¡\,Iliclligall. Nt 2.jlll/8ft Úll .
9 Tlle Rellnis5f1!/(t' styh' rms /akclI /Ir ill/he 1870s-80s by tlle Ar/s flnd Cmft!', nl/d At'stlll'tic AJOl't'II/el//S. Tllis ros¡woorl cnbiJlI'/'U'itll i1'01~1 ill/ays 11.11 Stepltell ¡Vrbb, C.1SSj-9D, is atlribllted to Collill$(J11
& Lock. lit J .98m/6ft 6hl.
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Rococo Revival Furniture Dld French Stylc ,
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(1;;-;-1853 f de5igllcd tl/t' drnil'íllg room tll TnttOIl Park iJl tln' 1820:'. TIIl' dlrlir:; ami sofn:f. wt'r..' ¡,¡ /11(' "Loll;;:''' I"t'i.,jm/ stl/lt·, ¡,'itl/ r!a[¡omtdll cU/1','d /eRS, ftlld C- mili ,
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1850':: .\lCr!' )'rrk cxal1lplc r cllIixd fÜSl';:co¡Jd
il/corporales mirror pnnel:: tmd is topl,,'d l'.I, n flt'Sh." Rococo cartOl/che.
2
an y examples of antiquc French furruture arri\'ed in England afler !he Freneh Re,'oluhon of 1789, By the 18205, the style associated with Louis XIV and Louis XV had becornc popular. The original stylc, no\\' known as Rococo, was characterized by scrollwork, naturalism, and asyrnmetry using exotic woods and gilding. lts imitators gave it several names including "Old French" and "Florid Italian." TI1e style was supported by pattem books such as lhomas King's Modenl 5ty/e ofCnbillet \I\'ork Exe/llplified, reprinted from the 18405 to the 18705. As King pointed out, "carving will only be reqll.ired in the boldest scrolls." The rest of the design \Vas made of composition and co\'ered with paint or gilding for cheap production. I-Io",e\'er, there ",ere aIso cxpensive altemati\'es such as thc Im'ish recreations of the work of Louis XIV's ébélIiste, t\ndré Charles Boulle (1642-1732), famous for fumiture i..kcorated ",ith complex metal marquetry, and high-quality f.l('~il1lilcs of 18th-century French pieces. By c.1850, rurniture shapes were defined by the use of f!orid C- cll1d S-scrolls. Although not as asymmetrical as
M
220
18th-century Rococo, the ne'" "Louis" 5tylc embraccd gilding, marquetry, painting and naturalism, Another aspect of the style was its cornfort. By the 18505 the "Old Frendl" taste had combined ",ith new upholstery techruques to pro\'ide furruture that reflected relaxed trends. The Rococo was seen as appropriate for drawillg rooms and boudoirs becausc of its feminine d1aracter. Many critics hated the Rococo, considering it debased, but it remained popular. In the US it was championed by J.H. Belter (180+-63), whose lanunated roscwood fUllliture combined new technology with high-quality carving. Following the re\·i\'al in England, interest in NeoRococo design grew in France, especially at the start oi lhe Second Empire, \vhen imperial building projects fea tu red fumiture and panelling in the scrolling Rococo laste. The 18605 and 18705 saw a growing interest in the production of accuratc copies of 18th-century French furniture, often llSing the best material5 and craftsmanship. By the 19005, many houses were using a refined and more accurately observed version of the Rococo in fumishings.
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Nntllm/islI/ nl/d t!le
ROClJCO
Sfl¡/C (o¡Z¡'.'r~c {onu" o{ . ' ill Ihe wn',ICl'IlIl". .
fllis dmit'illg~roolll ~fn. Tlle illlrodlfCfioll o/ 1f1'/lOblt'ry¡ sJ'rillg;;, ptl5f-1 830,
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nl/d del'p /Jllffonillg, nllo¡cl'¡(fllrllitlfrc lo rcne/IIle;:I' Iieig/¡f" of COII~{O,.t. 7 TlIi:=: (ahille! [ll/ H{lil'flrd {~ 50!! ¡¡'ti:' 0/1 disp!m, nI file Creat Exllibiliol1l1wl :=:1/0,1':' Uu' "HortiCIIllllra! Sc/w(/I" (f!Je disparagillg f¡'rm coilll'd II!/ erifie R..\". ¡\'Orlll/lIl ¡JI 1851) nI il:;
Itdght. A /ln:;i, Roco(o :=:fJnp¡' i:=: em!wllisJ¡¡'d ¡¡'it/¡ cnn'l'd fiou'l'rs mIli fmil. if'f/iI/? :,upportillS
sprOl/t illiyrft'd nClliltlllls !cm'6. AlirrOf:=: ¡1't'''I' :=:cf jl/to tlu' ((lll/IIIII:'
SlIr{aC6 lo IIJ(1~lIif¡,I/¡c cffl!ct. . L.. o.
8 H¡'llri DIl:':"fJ1l (1825-<)6) IlUl'Ü'
ffJi.s (Opy of LOII/:=: X/V's /IIt'da! cnl,jl/e! in ISla' Frcllc1ll1U1kt'rs
l'xcd/cd illll("(lIratl' rt'llllJl.l1/ctioll:' offilll' a11 t iql/C f" Tll il 1/ re. TIJi:=: e.mll/ple i:: oi kill~¡/'()od, tlllí/,il'ood. mili
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Jig1Jter ,:el':;illl¡ oll//l' LVIIi:=: sty/I' ¡m:' INri ill faslliollllbh' dm'l'illg room:'. T1Ji:; LOlldoll illferíor 1111;; gildt'il Lollí;;~f!!1e
sofn" mili dlllir" n/ollg"íde pnillfcd Rococo SCfCCIlS.
221
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Exhibition Furniture AShawcase lar lile Talented •
1 This engl"lJvíllg s!lO'ws fhe
Alllerican sectiolI of LOlllfol1's Crea/ Exhibí/ion oj 185"1. The exhibí/ioJI proI1ided 11 S/IOWLnSC
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for Il'Orld 1IU1l1ufncturers lo display fhei,. ow// prociucts aud lo see file Il'ork of otller I1l1tioll5.
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In/se-sen/e cavillef Jor /III! París Exllibitioll of 1855, O¡W 40 CraftSlI/Cll i('ere im'o/vcd ill jls I/wl11l!acfllre. Tlic c{'mll/ie
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p/l1q1l6 were by Mil1/ol1's oj Stoke-ol1-Trellf, nlld ¡he muilld
incorporate:; (/
IICIl'/Y
jns/liollable
p/atl'-glllss mirrOl". Ht 4,311//1411.
ational exhibitions such as that held in París in 1849 \Vere soon to be replaced by grander projects. The Great Exh..ibition held in London in 1851, like the New York Exhibition uf 1853, started a trend for international exhibitiol1s that was to iast for over half a century. Popular with the public, the exhibitions gave furniture makers from around the \\lorld an opportunity to show off their talents in the fieids of design and manufacture. Accompanied by illustrated souvenir publications, they allowed new styles, tecimiques, and innovations to be seen by the widest possible audience. They were regarded as a shop window to the world. In response to the exhibitions, makers produced oplllcnt pieces intended to cateh the viewer's eye or rL'inforee the prestige of a campany. Exhibition items tended to be on a larger scalc thém ordinary domestic tllrnitllre, and lIsed materials and labour at a level that \VI Hlld not ha ve been cost-effective in normal production. J 11 l'vL'ry sense extraordinary, exhibition furniture (like lllllllll"l' tashion) offered an opportunity to experiment
N
3 \Vl"ight & lvlalIsfidd /linde t/lis
enbinet fOI" tile Pnris Exhibitiol1 of 1867. AH car/y e.mll/ple of Adall/ Repipnl fHmifure, tlle cabim:t is II/ade 01 satinwood ¡uit/¡ insd pallels by IVedg¡¡'ood alld gi/ded l'Jlricl/!//Cllts in cnn.'Cd ¡:/'Dod. Hf 3.371!1/nlt liJ/.
with new styles and ideas. The london lnternational Exhibition of 1862 gave the world its first glimpse of the work of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co., soon to become the perceived leaders of the Arts and Crafts Movement. 1l1e Paris Exhibition of 1867 showed, in the v,rork of London makers vVright & Mansfield, that the 18th-century Neoclassicism of Robert Adam \vas due for revival. The exhibitions reveaied the progress of manufachlre through the variety of new materials and teehniqlles that the 19th ccntury was to discover. They also displayed a certain eccentricity in demonstrating the ways in which hlrnihlre could be adapted to solve él number of everyday problems. For exampIe, London's Great Exhibition displayed versatiie tabies that hlrned into bedsteads, a padded ottoman (a type of stooD that was aIso a coal scuttle, and a piano that couId be piayed by four people at the same time. These exhibits, like many of the other design ideas being displayed, rcflected the 19th-century passion for novelty and inllovation. It was él passion that wouid ultimateIy iead tú rcaction and reformo
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4 D6igllcd l/y fmm'S Pir~:;{)1I 01 Ncil' York, Pat,'lIt DOI/NI' Grl1l1/1 Piano nl101I'l'd fOl/r peop/e, fwo ni cad, el/d, fa plny nI file
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was 11 S(,?I/ificrmt fentllre of ill/i.'mntiollnl exhibitíOI1 desigllo tillll!. 11Il'l'lIti¡'CIle:;s
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lIpllOlstcn'd armc!mir, James HeatJ¡'s bnlll c/wir is lill'ish/y cnrpcd (lIui pail/led ¡,/ 'he f~ococo fas/e. T/¡e w!u:els
6 T/¡is fauteuil, 01" armell,,;,., rms 111m/e by A.]. J0111'5, of DrMin. (!lid di5¡Jlnyed ÍlI file GI'I.'nt Ex/¡ibitioll 011851. {l/tended lo il/usfrnft'
H'en' df.'sigm·d fa nllml' lI5as In pro!,,,1
irisll history, fllláel1t ¡:mrriors ndom ¡he bnck
¡ltcm5eh'e:; amI/mi n rooll/ I/llaided.
(Inri fhe (lr1l/5 are ill tl/I'101"111 o[ wo~f1lOlIIlds.
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by Ole roYIII decora/ors, George AlorlllJ! & Sons, 11/ 11,(' Grellt E:dlibitioJl 01 1851, is SlIpported 01/11 tripod bllse ¡t'ntl/rill,'? t/¡ree Sil'IlII~ ,,'itb 11 celltml ¡¡iflnr cllfi'ed ,pit/¡ I'1/slt/'S. ActulII tllblt' "1 ¡.¡cm/29ill. 8 Tlll.' IIIl1ill figllrt'5 o{ fltt' CfI/$(1lk~ nn' f1'prt'Selltcll 011 tllis ell/'SS tnvlt', w/Jiell ¡¡'ns mnd¡' vy Grado" o{ DlIvli" mili SIIOWII n' tite Gn'nl Ex'Jibifioll oI 1851. Tllcfigllrcs, enn'en ill i1'OI'Y, <¡'al' slIpplied by n LOlldol/ cm/blllnll. 9 This stn/e /lI'd ¡1'aS cxlJi/lih'd nI the Crcal Exhi/litioll 1851 by Fnlldd & PIJiIli¡IS of LVI/doll. It il/e/I/des nl/d dnbomfl.' t'lJIilroidcmt bülltt',ld IlII/I Itml'i;illi>s. , " 10 T!Ji.~ ligllt Illld grnccfllll'rIlss ellIll1dt'1it'f il'flS desiglll'd (lIId ex'lil.itelt by Cor¡'ley & /,ll11t':- f¡l crenft' mI d/u'/"t'lll fec/illg ill a dm
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223
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Techniques and Materials Carving
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te 19th century saw innovation in aH aspects oE the furniture hoade. Frcsh materials as \Vell as new and revived techniques made it a period of experimentation. Fumiture makers worked hard to sllpply the public's constant demand far design novc1ty. Carving lUlderwcnt a revival in the early 18005, partly due to the demand for Elizabethan and Gothic furnihlfe. "V.G. Rogers oE Londol1, Gerrard Robinson oE Newcastle, and T.H. Kendal and William Cooke DE \ Varwick \Vere sorne oE the mastcrs DE their arto Much DE their can"ing was uscd to tell stories on the \"ast sideboards and cabinets that "'ere in '"ogue the mid-19th cenhrry. The demand for can-ing led to the de\'elopment of can-¡ng mad\ines. Bet",een 18+! and 1848 no less than fin~ British patents ",ere taken out for this kind of m
T
224
al Waril'ick is d"fllmtcd ¡('itl,
The 1830s sa'" the introduction of ne", steam-dri\'en machines that could cut \'eneers more thinly than by hand. Once introduced, they allowed a greater economy in the use of expensive \\'oods. MOlmted on softwood, the new vcncers gave a lllxlIrious look to even the cheapest furnihlre. In response, the word "veneering" began to be used as a term synonymolls with shoddiness. A more attracti\'e use oE veneer was developed in the 18205. Called end~grain mosaic or TlUlbridge ware (after Tunbridge \'Vells, Kent, where it was made), objects decorated in this ",ay were especially fashionable from U,e J8-lOs to the JS70s. The technique used thousands of minute colOtued hardwood sticks, which were assembled in blocks to match an ornamental pattem mapped out on graph papero Thc sticks were glued together and thin lavers "'ere sawn off to be mounted on work boxes, tea , caddies, and other small itcms to give a colourful, decorative finish. The American funuhlre maker John Henry Belter (180+-63) used thin layers of wood, gllled together to
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Veneers and Papier Maché 1 Costfy it'()(lr.ls col/id be 161'd
more ¡'collomiml/!f ¡che" I1Cil'
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¡'clleer-clIltillg lIIac//il/e:; ,l'('re Ifsed. TlIis 1878 combilled U'Qrk (lIld gmllf'S table l/51'S
¡enll/ut ulld ulIIl'oYllfl
¡Yllea$
/l/ol/I/fed 0// {/ pille carease. HI 71C111/lSill.
2 EI/d-gmill 1II0:,(I;C gat'e 11
(OIOll/f1/1 Jiuís/l fo s/IInl/-scnilfllmisllillgs Sl/e11 as flli;; Tilllbridge mm' ¡l'ritillg U't'f!'
dl~k. D~igJls
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clJlltel/lJ1oml~1
Bt.'r/ill ¡1'(I(lI¡cork
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llis grolllldbreakillK :oh'I1IJ1-beJliiillg tee/millllt', Tfl/.' ill/nid Mbit- 101' liftt'd lo rei't'a/ 11 semi-cirCII/nr stomge eOJJl¡mrllJll'III. 4 Papiel' mñché 'I'as aH ecolloll1icn/meall5 of prodllcillg rept'al ornall/ent. /11 Ihl' 1840S C!lflr1l's Hielefe/d s1/pplied pnpier-lJllk/u' detnil fOI' ¡/Ie enJlOPY uf tlle 11mme, dtosigued by Pl/gil/,111 ¡lit' HOIISt' of Lonfs iJl LOl/doll. 5 LigM fllrJlillln.-, SUe/II1S ,{'hall/ols, ¡ClTe ilkl1lly slIit.'d lo J'l1pit'T mñcJu¡. Tllis exnlllple i5 paillled 'l'Ub "Él'll'5 oI Colltie miliS I1IIli dt'Comll'd ¡l'itll Ilpp1ü'd penl'ls!Jel1 tilltcd «'illt tmllsl'nrellt gln=c5. Hll.37J11/4!f 6iJl.
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papicr-lIuicllé fllmil l/re in El/g/mu1. TI/ár OilY Dr€Clmer cllail" 01 1851 1151.'5 pail/tel! mili lacquered dl'comlioll 01/ file JJlOI/f¡f¡'(/ Il(lper JOrlll. 7 &cm/x' of jls fragile /lnfure. papier mJe/lr a'as rnrd.llllSt'íf for /nrge-ser/h' "j{'Ces o/jllmilmr. Tlti::: J850 Ih'lfslend I/SlS papier /linché lar lite lool allli /¡cndll(lnrd. T/¡e bl!dfmlllt' i:o lI1adefro/ll pailllcd irOIl. IV. 1.6111/5ft 3il1.
7
225
Stone, Metals, and New Materials 2 Soml! //lakers 1/5ed pnillled slate lo imitate cost/y I/larble tab/e tops. Pain/ed in oil(llld tftCII ...amislled, tltis e.mll/ple,
C.1S-l5. is decora/ed
i('itIl
floIl'ers alld exo!ic birds {//llOllg
Rococo foliage. Diam. LOÓIIl/3ft -lill. 3 This gardel1 seaf made by Carral! 01 Stirlings/¡jre in 18-16, s/,o¡l>:; file sopllislicntioll 1
Ualial/ tedllliqucs were copied fo create tlJis EIIglis/1 ;"laid /1larbJe tnble topo Prodllced by SaJ1lllelBirletj ;111862, lite lab/e is decomted Wit/I a rolll/del o/ RellaisSilllce-illspired ornalllellt t'Ilcirc!ed by "all/mUstic flOll'ers. 1
o/ c(lsl~irrJll desigll.
Ca/hie mili Rococo motifs are eDlI/bincd fo 101'11I ¡he fram/!work. Cnst-iroll desiglls often /tlld long productioll
T1/l1S;
/11;5 model
cOlltilllled fa be IImde illto ti/e
18go5. W. 1.63111/5ft 3 xiII. 4 CasI irOIl WIIS made fa imitnte
a varíe/y
01 materia/s. TIJis
e/mil', desiglled by Charles
Greell alld made bl{ file Masbro
Sto,-'e Grale Campal/Y, copies a woodeu pl'ofofype. eomplele
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226 h
had its grain running in the opposite direction to the one before, giving él material of immense strength. Belter then steamed the wood in moulds, allowing it to take on gracefully curved shapes that w-ere light yet strong. These w-ere then used to crea te the ¡avish Rocaco Revival furniture that Belter caUed "Arabasket." In Austria, Michael Thonet (]796-1871) used a similar steaming technique ta bend solid beech or rosewood rods. Bent into fancifu.l shapes, the rods were combined to make innovative, cheap fumiture. Aat-packed for easy transportation, rus furniture was sold all over the world. Materials such as papier maché found ne\V uses in the 19th century. First developed in the 17th century, it was made either from damp paper layers that were set into moulds and dried in a stove, or from \\'ood pulp which "'as pressed by machine into moulds. Once dry, the papier maché panels couId be formed into furniture, lIsllally in combination with a wooden or metal frame to give them strength. The surfaces were then painted or
_
could be decorated with pearl shell. Jennens & Bettridge of Birmmgham \Vere famous in this field. More expensive \Vas the inlaid marble furniture that \Vas briefly successful in Britain in the 18405 and 18505. Centred. in the marble- and spar-producing areas of Derbyshire and Devon, the industry produced table tops inset with flowers and stylized. patterns emulating Itallan pietre dure. It \·vas 500n imitated more cheaply in painted slate by makers such as E.G. Magnus of London. Metal furniture was popular throughout the 19th cenh1ry. Cast iron, often painted to look like stone or wood, was used for hall furniture, garden seats, and beds. Admired for its durability and hygienic qualities, improvements in the technique meant that by the 1850s whole items could be made from a single casting. Iron and brass began to be used for bedsteads in the 18305 and became the norm for the rest of the century. Metal tubing and springs were a150 features of innovative design, and American and English makers produced strikingly simple rocking chairs in this material in the 1850s.
5 JollII HeIll"l¡ Beller aJld llis cOl1h'mpomries l/sed a mixture ollall1iuafl.'d wood alld stemllprt'ssillg lo ac/¡ü:..'e 5;11110115 Jl/mitllre s/mpes. Tltis fo.'{' seat, C.JS50. has e/aborate can't'11 and pierced OTllall1eJlt. IV, 2.J2Ill/¡lt 61:ill. 611/1-' American Cltair Compal/Y of Nl'tl' York COl/5<'lf a slir nt tIJe J&5 1 Crl'al Exllibit;oll ¡('it/¡ IItár progress;¡'c CentripctaI Spring Chair. Cast-;roll Rococo OTllalllel/t nl/d e/aborate pail/ti/'ork COllceal a g;nl/t spr;lIg fltat al/oil':> the cltair to rcel;lIe DI' till.
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7 J¡/IIomti,'e 115<' ofme/al il'rlS afeature of mid-19th celltliry dl'Sigll, This e.mll/ple is by Pe/el" Coopcr OfTI"C1Itoll, Nfil' Jel"Sl'Y afta all EI/glish pl'otot!fPl'. TJ¡l.' silllph' sfmpe is forll/ed 11"0111 bmss stmp paillfl.'d to si/lll/laft' torloises/lelf. 8 IlIIitatillg lIel:(> fasllio/ls ill il'oodcnn'illg, this sidebonrd is madI' /1'0111 glllla-percJm. a material deriped frOIll wood sapo Culta-percha if'liS SOOl/ ablilhfolled as a I/eif' lIIaterial w!Jell il begall to disilllegmlt' ill IIS{'.
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9
227
British Ceramics Foreign Influences and Inspiration from the Past 1 1"'11I
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1.1 en'nte ,1I¡s Rococn-illspired tO/lr-dejorce. HI 9SC11l/3SIiIl. 3 Slip-ca'5f stOIlí'it'flre jl/gs {/lId 'capo/s ,{'en' oftell decDrnfcd ¡pítl, fasl1iOlIl1/t!t' l,fltl1ic m(l!~r.~. C/mrlc"5 Aldgll oI Hrlllfey /IIadt' tlJis )ÍJrk Alillster jug in 1846. Hi 201.:",/8;11.
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cemll/ics • ror MilltOl/, illcllldil/~ • tabletl'llrt' (lnd
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ontinental European ceramics and lústorical styles played a major part in shaping British ceramic designo From the 18205 to the 1840s, the Rocoeo styles of 18th-eentury German makers sueh as Meissen inspired the Coalport and Roekingham factories. Heavily modelled with flo\Vers and Rococo scrolls, their pieces \Vere elaborately gilded and enamelled. They set a trend that \Vas soon copied in France. Gothic design also influenced ceramic production. Stone\Vare jugs of the 18405 often included details such as arcading or tracery, usually as moulded decoration. The designer A.W.N. Pugin brought historieal accuracy to the genre by creating designs for tiles and d.itmer\Vare for the Minton factory. Taking inspiration from surviving Medieval decorabon, many of the je\Vel-coloured \Vares \Vere produced by the encaustic technique. The Worcester faetory also produeed these \Vares. As the century progressed there \Vas an increased intcrest in the ceramics of the Renaissance periodo By the 18505, Minton \Vas producing Henri Del/X ware, which
C
228
copied, in enameI, the inlaid ceranllCS of Renaissance france. Minton ",ent on to appoint Alfred Stevens 0817-75) to design \Vares emulating 16th-century tinglazed earthenware. Perhaps Minton's most impressive \Vare was majolica. Developed by the Frenchman Léon Amoux 0816-1902), this involved eolouring relief-modelled decoration \Vith brilliant translucent glazes. Taking the Renaissance ceramIcs of Remard Palissy (c.1510-90) as a starbng point, the \Vares soon included contemporary themes such as a giant fountain fer the 1862 London Intemational Exhibition. Competing faetories such as \Nedgwcxxl. went on to produce majolica wares into the 19405. The 18505 sa\\' a revived interest in 18th-century 5evres porcela..in, with faetones such as Coalport imitating its rieh colours, original shapes, and enamel decoration. Historic styles were augmented by ne", tcchniques. Franee introdueed pñte-sllr-páte, developed at Minton by Marc-Louis Solon (183:>-1913); and the Copeland lactory produced the white unglazed figures of Parian porcelain.
6 Frellc/I RellaisSflllCl' ml,lid pottery
decora/ioll. ¡VaTes il'ere markel¡'¡1 as Hcnri Dcux (I/Oil' kl/oil'1I as Saint-PorchaueJ. TI';,; i"l'as sho.t'll al ti//' LOllnoll Jlltel'llatioll(f/ Exhibirioll 0/1862. Ht 4ocm/I5t.ill. e<1'er
7 Aifn'd St¡:¡'CIIS (181¡-7j) u'as (f lendillg arc/¡ih'cf (fl/d de:>igm.'r .dJ() 'l'Orked ill t/¡e sty/e oj Ihe High Rel/aisSllllce. He prool/Ct.'d .'ariol/s de:>igmfor 1\ lilltOIl fJlI1f I'l/mJafl'd /taliall Rellai';5allce lIU1iolicfI, illc/lldillg tI,;s ampltorn-~haJ'fd i:'fIse, /lltII//' 1864, Ht 42.jcmh6l.ilI,
8 TIIl' Ali 11/011 faclory lerlllt'd /flcir ricfl-gfa:ed ¡-!'(In's "lImjolicn." Fi I':::t at tllt' Grc'a/ Exh i!JiIiOIl. 1851, /lle lec!m ii] lIe ¡ms lI:::edfol' 111m Iy itellls, like tlzis pair of /It'dl'stal-Jorm gardell seals, C.l 875. HI .¡.6clI/h 8ill. 9 Produccn l/y t/¡e Coa/port jactory C.1850, I/¡es(' 1'n:'t's arl' vI/sed 011 FI"('!1c!, S¡'~'n'~ porcelaiJl. Origilla! SCNes ("V/ollrs are I'cCl"cated, toge/hel" willl Cl/alllc/ pal/('/::: after the lStll-cmtllry pailltcr Frnl1rois BOllclter, :'/10<1'11
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(
229
French Ceramics Revived Styles, New Techniques
3 T/lis Sh:res Roman dock 01 1845 Teflects (/ grotl'illg illterest ill ReJ/aisSflllcelorms combilled 'l'itll Cothic details. Ellflmelled plaf/ues, !listorien/ 5CClles, alld sill/1//nfl'f1 n/nbnster display t/It' fnctory's tec1l11ieni ski/k
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allowin g the Napoleonie period, Frcnch porcclttin production \Vas adnlircd for its élllstcrc ccramics, which \Vere lavishly enamelled in imitillioll uf fine oil paintings. Themes ",ere taken from Medieval Fn:nch histary ar lhe Renaissance, bul lhe scale \Vas tnlly Empire. The 18305 saw a change, as the Rococo Revivéll taste began to influenee ceramic designo Factories such élS th
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230
technique, 1
5 Pompeinl/ tns/e H'ns JlOJlII/IIIl:::,·¡J
by ¡t'ell-pllb/ici::ed decoratin' themes sueh as that fol' Prim,' Napo/eoll's Ilol/se. Usillg maft c%llrs 0/1 a biscuit poree/ail/ body, Sh'rl'5 ¡pere ab/e to rttert'n1l' tlle s/y/e ill certllllíc form 011 t!lis Adélalde mse. desiglled by Le/oy alld madI' 1852. 6 rile Sevrl'5 jaclory developed the pate-sur-páte tecllllique ill fIJe 18605. Paillted by J. Gé/y, tlle vase is a porcelai/l copy ofa 16t1I-CelltIlTy rock-crystal <'esse/ in tJle LOllvre. 7 rllese ormo/IHllomlfed Vllses nlld COi..'ers ¡pere made n/ Si;
4 Tlle 5evres factor!! made 11 1H/IIIWr
ojnltempts fa imitnte
16tl1·cf'lItllry Limoges ennmc/s.
¡\·Iade ill lB.p, t/lis ¡'ase ¡s
decorafl'd «lith bnl/ds of RenaisslJIw? omnmel/t tnken from !Iistarie e.mll/pies.
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231
Other European and American Ceramics European Wares
1 Elllpite stylc5 ¡ccn' sli!! /leins prodllccd by I!w!ly (oll/pl/llie;;.
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IIses ctcl1(;d gi/dil1g, illspircd by Neoclas:>icislIl. L. 29C111!11/,ill.
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ClSo6-S2.) for ¡he NYlllp!lcllburg
pitchers collllJiIlC Mediwnll1lotif5 luit/¡
jactof!!, ¡!I/se porcelaill
I1l1turalistic detail;; suc/¡ as lelwl!5 l/ud figll 1'1:5. TI/e.!! ,l'crc
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SIIO
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LVI/don ill ¡S51.
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4 This Rocoeo pOl"cc!ain taMo, madI' by ¡\;leissel1 in 1853, is decorntcd ,('itl, Iznnd-lIlOdel/ed birds al/d jlOil't'I"s. Re¡'iml pieces ¡¡'{'re poplllar fllroJlg!u)¡{/ Ellrope; L1Idwig II of Bamria liad a ¡plro!c 1"0011/ decornfed wit/¡ Aleis,;cn porce/ain in tlle Rveoeo fa,;te.
5 Torc!li, a Flon'lItillC compal/Y,
drcw 011 ltalian RCl/ais';IlIlCI..' dcsiglls fo ereate t!lis di",/¡ ill ,S75· Tlle dl..'corntioJl c/'!ltres 011 11 creatil'c interpreta/iol/ of 16t/¡celltUI"Y srotesqut' lIIotifs.
American Wares
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1838. tltii> IVillit/m E!lis Tucker
11uftaJo Ilcad:, 1lJ1J1t'af mi ¡he L/ilioll Pllrct'lI1;1I I\'orks' Cellft'/II/Ía/ Vax' 1S;6. D..·j;pl"j ¡·y G.r/li"ljI'lll"ll f<,lr/ ,\ ludhor. lile ¡',Ix' a/:'(l iIlCOl]JIlI11/ es 11 r.-/ it:f-/1Iou/dcd frie:e
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pol'cdaill /.'(1 jo'r<'ice :5110;1'5 f!le
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gla:ed Paria!1
'il'(lres
11111111'11 afta tll/' Iris/¡ Bl'Ile/'k ("dIJrl/. TiJi:- tii",iI i:- denmltt'd ¡I'it/¡ Ct1101lmll1lltlll"l' stlldiL'~.
s/wwillg I,(/ssases frvlII AIII('riCtlll
Tl1e Paril1l1 fcdmiqflt' IIJI/y/m¡'/' bl'i'11 /nk('1l Iv ¡IJe l/S by JOItIl
M:,tory. Ht 56.5clI//24- ~ill.
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he chaos that followed the Napoleonic Wars left man)' European factories in a state of disarray. The ensuing years were to see a nwnber of closures, with some companies forced to make industrial goods to survive. TI10se that did sluvi,'e clung to old styles and fashions. lany factories, such as Doccia in Ital)', and others in Gem1any, Austria, and Rl1ssia, continued to make Empirestyle pieces where rich gilded decoration framed elabora te enamel paintings. By thc 18405, German factories sl1ch as Nymphenburg were producing pieces in the Gotruc and Renaissance styles imitating 16th- and 17th-century stonewares. However, it was the Rococo Revival that revitalized many companies. At Meissen, original moulds were pillaged for ideas and 18th-cenhtry models copied. As weU as figures, they produced porcelain furnihlfe such as tables and mirrors, enemsted with fully modelled Rococo flowers and scrolls imitating 16th- and 17th-cenhu-y stone,,'ares. Other recreations included Renaissance-stvle • dishes in tin-glazed earthenware from the Torelli factory of Florenee and lustre wares fram Escofet in Spain.
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The ceramics industry in the United States \Vas beset by problems. lmported ceramics from Britain were chcap, making eompetition hard, and the American Ci\'il War interrllpted the development of the indllstry lI11til tlll' 1860s. Tluoughout this period, imported British ccramie~ and European craftspeople were influential in ~hélping design, and historical revi\"als prevailed. Ncvt:rthL'IL'S~, attempts were made to produce poreebin, not.lbJy by ''''illiam ElIis Tucker, wha establishcd piL'cl'~. logcther with Smith's Union Poreclain \Vorks, thL'Y da//lcd the public with objects decoratcd ",ith American themes at the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial.
-
233
British Glass Cut Glass and New Technology
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il~f1l/(!Ilced lbe
of tlIis 18405 decanter mnrle ¡JI Stourbridge. Tracery
(IIftillg
Imftems
o/ l/le 14/1/ celltllry
illspired the Cltri'illg gtas:> ClIts, alld flu' diagonal strokes imitate willrlotl' leadillg.
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¡Olfll/nill. a combil/fltiOJl o[ Clfl
aJld II/Dulded glnss. for LOllrlOll'S Grent ExlJibitioll 011851. Os/er '{'ilS IT lending make, in tI,;s fie/d, speciafi::illg in large-sm/e eDlI/missiOIlS alld elaborate IigM
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same opemth'es. Plall! 101'1115
/linde cnsed glnss i/l the Bo/u:milm fas/e. TJ¡is decnllfer oI 1850 l/ses nl/-opa C1/tlillg fa gir'e n c/u'qllered slIrfan' pnltem.
D
234
espite the importance of revivéll styles, cut glm.s in the grand manner retainOO an import;ml huid (lll 19th-century British taste. Already populClr in 1800, the opulence and i..nnovation of cut-glass design loo many lo see it as Britain's most important contribution to the world glass scene. There ",ere occasional falls (mm favour - as in the 18605, when Iighter styles "'erc preferred - but cut glass reinvented itself to reach new levels of elaboration in the 1880s. Although described by the critic John Ruskin (l819-1900) as "barbarous," Britishdesigned cut glass was an admired element oE the intemational exhibitions. For example, the centrepiece of London's Great Exhibition of 1851 was a 20-foot high Clltglass fountain by F. & C. Osler of Bimlingham. Designers also adopted teclmiqlles such as engraving, enamelling, and transfer printing to create revival designs. nün engraved or etched omament was used to apply a c1assical touch to water jugs and decanters. Enamelling and transfer \\'ork hlrned milky opaline vessels into Grecian urns or Rocaeo fantasies.
\ Vhen the lax on glass manufacture was repealed in 1S..J.5, the lrish glass industry (which had been exempt from the tax) floundered, and the English manufach..uers foulld a new freedom to experiment. [ncreasing numbers of companies \\"ere making home-produced imitations of Bohemian o\'erlay and flashed glass, whose rich colours and novel techniques became highly popular. The 1860s saw an inereasing search to re-aeate historie styles in an authentic manner. In later decades, manufacturers sueh as Webb of Stourbridge made cameo glass in the Roman style, using it on Renaissance and ciassical designs. At the same time, developments revcaled that glass, cut engraved, and polished, couId re-create the beauty of Renaissanee and oriental rack crystal. Industrial glass production saw advances too. In the wake of American developments, 8ritain was producing pressed glass from the 1830s, at first in the Midlands and 1ater in the north east. Designers imitated cut glass or created nev~' lace-like patterns to conceal the unsightly lines left by the moulds.
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8 Rock-c')/:,tnl engrnc_'l'd ¡mrcs ¡¡'en' dccomfed ill n ,'oriety of sfl¡lcs, illdl/liiJl~ {nslliollnl>1e • •
9 8rilai" ¡I'n~ quid; !lIlldoll' l"";;~'d glt1:'~ II'dllll1/clSII_ HI' t/,e JSSo~, fll
RCWlissllllce omnml'lIf. TJ¡e
t'ilst ¡¡'c'rc'/lTlIt/UOIIS tlrtllllll,'ulol
Bolll'llIinll illlllligmlll lVil/iolJl Frit;;(lle (C.1S53-T92'¡) mnyd
illld /lIlld il"'tll IlIc'l ,':- i 11 el rtms,'
l/lis e¡¡w DI C.1SS0 {Ol" TllOlllflS
tl,;:< I'n""~-lIlelllldl'd l'ullt'/' di:5k C. 'SS:;, 1/111.11' /111 GI'm:""
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& SOll:; alStourbridge.
Ht 2jcm/Joill.
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L/¡¡¡'Id:-olll í~ C,l., 111 Gntt':'1tl'nd.
IIf 11(111/./ :iu.
8
235
Other European and American Glass European Innovations 1 Frkdridl E~('nllllllll dl','('/(l¡tt'd
n 11I1'1l1l:'. kllotl'lI 11:' JitIJYII!in. l~r lIIixillS opaqul' ;.:la:,,, ill d!O~'n'1I1 ((l/¡lllr:;
t(1
¡mifnh' pn'Citlll:' ,,/lu/,':'
.~lIcJl 11:: l1~nh'. •
11.'11/:' :'1/..11 o:' l/Ji:;
C.lSjo-,;O CtI,yrc,1
;n,. ¡I't'rt'
dccomlcd ¡l'iIll /lnlnd (¡Jn'l CII!::
lo "//Oil' off .. tll,' ,~nJiI/. 2 TI/t' GaJllf1ll gll1:':'mtlh'r Frmc Pmtl Za(/¡ pn1dl/Ct'11 t'/a[lomt,·/¡, ('Ilgrm'cd pi,'ú':' 111 tllt' 8[1{1.'lIIinll
::!ylt'. Tití::. ~(I¡'¡t'I
of lS55 is
dt'comtt'd 't'itll a dti~~i((lf frit':t' (lit
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tlml1l~fl n Im/t'/" tl( ¡,JIII' . .'I!/tl:':'.
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ohemian glassmakers exerted a major influence in Emape during thc first haH of the 19th century. famou5 for their overlay, al' cased glas5, with its brilliant
B
236
colcurs, detailed wheel-engra\'i.ng, and enamelling, their Rcnaissanee- and Baroque-inspired wares \Vere widely imitated by Freneh and German glassmakers. Designers such as franz Paul Zach (1818-81), for example, continued the tradition into the 18305, adapting it to suit the reú\"ed c1assical taste. Bohemia \VnS also an important centre for technieni uUlo\'atiOI1, particularly in the field of coloured glass. Friedrich Egermann (1777-1864) i1wented a rieh red colour stain in 1832 and in around 1830 he de\'eloped lithyalm, an astonishing opaque glass thnt imitated the
3 Semi Inm::/lIccl1t opn/hlt' g!n:::: ,1'(1:: /l/l/dI' by IIInllY EIIHlJ','¡m llImll~fnctllr<'r::. TlIl':'(' Btlhl'lIIinJl l'.\"(IlIIp!6, lS]o-,¡O. ::110;:1' tlll' rIllI,?!' , of . CO/Ollrs fl<'lli!n/llt'.
4 GotlJic lit'comtiOIl sudl a:: trefoi/s mil [I¡' ::t't'1I mI t/,;s mily ora/a.lr ¡'nse mili cm·a, madt' ill Boliemin LISjO, mI ¡,-'"ml/p/c of tllt' qua/il)! of delail tlml mil b,' fOl/lld 011 8011<'lI/iml glns::'I'flI·¡'. HI6'¡CIIIÚjil,.
5 TI,,' ::lmjl" of t/lis mi/ky ,l'Jlite opalillt' glas:, (';:{'<'r, ma,i¡> ill Fnlll({', i:: derir.,..d frolllll dl1::::icn! forll/, ;:/'llilt, f /tt' IInfl/m/islic dCI/J('IlI:: ::lIdl n~
tlt.. SI/Ilkt· I'llf¡l'illillS nnllllld tlll' //(Illdl!' nl1d fIn' ::1/l'lI~/ikt, ¡'d<;:ill,? • • aroul/li tltt'll(ldy nn' ill~pirt'd
l'.lf Ibt'
ROC¡J((l.
5 _ _~ , - _
American Advances in Glass •
1 TlI/! grolllld cO/OUI"S of tfJis
col1l.'dioJl of . 19fJ¡,cclltlln, . Jlfl'''''l'd slns:; ¡l/elude yd/Oil' (11/11 ti rerirlisll pillk kllOll'll il/ ¡lIe llllih'd Stati'i' as cmlll,t'r~/.
2 T!Ie finía! oi tM" eOIllI'0rl ilJ l/le Wesh\"ard Ho! I'flttt'rll, /l/adt' by jtllJll':l Gi/fillda & 50/1::', i::. a figure of fI l//l/h'/! Aml'rien/!. TlIe IIICII/t' is COllfillUl'll ¡(,jtll dt'CT cirWlIIl'l'lIfil1g ff/{' liad!!. 1ft 29CI/1/11 lill.
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3 TfJis decnl/ter IIY t}¡t'
Dorfliuger Cfns:; Co., IV/tite Mil/s, PeJlJlsyf¡'mJin, Ims n simple forlll, ¡l'itiJ l'llgrmwi decoratíon of
folinge. Ht :!9cm/11 /ill, dinm. (nlltnse) ¡.jem/3"'1.
4 Prod/fced in lS¡611lf the Do/:fliJlger Glnss Co., tllis hem'y Cl/t deC(lIlfer t'.wmpl~fie:; ti/(, ClIt-
glns:> J"t'7.,iml of the IMe-19th ulltrlr!!. Oeeper Cl/ts exnggernte
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the dl'comft'd sll~fnCt'. Ol'cnlltl'r J¡¡ ..p.jcm/J6"';¡1I.
this factor)' and at St louis and Clichy of lI1il/efiori paperweights. Mif/ejiori was an old glass-making teclmiqu€ revi\"ed for ne\\' uses (see p. 2-10). Serious historical re\"ival \\"as to take centre stage in 18605 Ital)'. Here, the Ven ice & Mluano Glass Campany (originall)' founded by Antonio Sal\'iati c.18.59 and known as Salviati & Ca.) revived 16th- and 17th-century Venetian glas5 designs. Made ",ith colotued and IntticÍlJO glass, their creative evocations of historic glas5 fOtU1d a ready market in a period of historical re\"ivals. Across the Atlantic, American glass design was irúluenced by the whole spectrum of European production. Bohemian glass was imported, appreciated, and intitated by manufacturers such as the New England Glass Co. Cut glass in the English taste was lU1i\"ersally admired and made, taking on grander proportions in the United States during the 18805 than anywhere else. In the early part of the 19th century, historical styles were less important in the United Sta tes because they COtud not be satisfactorilr produced using the cut-glass teclulique. However, in the 1820s, advances in the field of pressed-glass mantúacture brought a new medium to the
fore. At first tllis early method of mass production wa:, used to imita te the grand malUler of the glass-cutters' art, but it was not long before inventi\'e mould l1lakl'r... applied the whole repertoire of Neo-Gothic and NL'tlRecoco omament to crea te in\'enti\"e pressed . . h.lpL'..... These styles 'Vere soon accompanied by uniqul'h American motifs SUd1 as the eagle and the l1.1g. By the 18-405, American adwlIlccs h.1d illlhll'l11l'd world production. Exports were so ""'lIcn'........ lul 111.11 Bohemian glassmakers beca me incn....1:-.inglv l t !lIt t 'l"Itt'\"1 that they wOlud be eclipsed by th i~ llt-'WCI )llll'r 1\1 1IIl' t ldd. ll1e 18705 saw the developlllcnt nI ,1 dl'ttlr.lh'd gl.h:'-' type that is uSllally knowll a:- i\ 1.11'\ (:rt'glII'Y, ,1111,.'1' ,1 gl.1:-:, decorator who is said lo h.l\·t,' \\'llfl...t'd ,11 t11l' Bo:,lon & Sand wich Glass Ca. Al th< )lIgh thl' h ¡.. . tl 11'\' .1111..1 ,l ttribu tion of the ware is unccl'l,lill, 111l' ... Ivll' (whidl in\'oh-ed lhe enamelling oi I\l':-.IIll'lic i\10\ l'lllt'nl figures and landscape dclílib un .1 l-pIOlll"l'¡\ gl.l:'-'S ground) is llnmistakablc. TIll' IL'dllliqtll' \\'.1 .... U:-'l.'ll to imitate more costly call1l'O gl.l,,",s .1nd \\'.1,,", L"portl'd across the warld. Thc wan::.. induLlL'd dL'Ctll",lli\'l' \,.l:,l'S, jugs, and soU\"elur and COllllllL'lllOf,lti\'L' pil'Cl's.
237
Glass Techniques and Materials Glass-ClItting and Etching Techniqlles
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This "iew of tlle SIIO,¡'I"OOlll of tite Birlllingllll/llbnsed eomlmllY F. & C. Osler i!lllstmfes tlle mllge of wnres umilub/e from ti/e firlll, (.1860. TI/e stock illc1l1ded c1lnllddit'rs nlld I!/ubornte ClIt-gluss lustres. 2 Baeenraf proollccd tltis dl'$igll for u glusj Mlllellnir, probnbly fol' nll IlIdiul1 prillo!, nrol/Ild 1888. G/uss fllrllilllre, ofiell impired by Re1lnissullce Ret'i¡'u! jltnpes, wus lIIade Iroll/ ellt· ulld pres::.ed-g/us;; collllX)IIeIlfs.
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lass marle in the 19th century \Vas largely defined by method rather than style. Far example, techniques such as cut glass could rarel)' take on the fluid shapes of Neo-Rococo designo Instead, cut-glass designers developed their own repertoire of matifs independent DE historical styles. However, for those \'vishing to re-ereate revival tastes, surface-decoration techniques such as engraving and enamelling \Vere increasingly available. In the second hall of the century, manufacturers focused on reviving a range of glassmaking practices from the pasto These teclmiques (which included cameo- and rockcrystal-style glass) allowed designers to respond to the nced for more accmate re-ereations of historie designo Cut glass \Vas created by marking the vessel, roughing out the decoration on a V-shaped wheel, then refining l!ll':-;l' cuarse cuts on a copper wheel or sandstone. Wheel poli hing or immersion in a hydrofluoric acid bath lini lh'd lhe picce. Cut pattems induded fans, flutes, bLl/l·..., .lnd diamonds. Following the Philadelphia t \'lIlt'lllli.1l Exhibition of 1876, cut glass was given new
G
vitality by the introduction of elaborate pinwheel and geometric patteming. It was also popular in Europe. Pressing developed as an inexpensi\'e \Vay of imitat· ing cut glass. In American factories, two operatives \Vere involved in making each item. One inserted molten glass ioto the metal mould. TI1e other then activated a plWlger to press the glass into the mould. After the 18605, steam mechanization was introduced. Press moulding was important to glass industries worldwide; designers used it to experiment with decoration and formo TI1e 19th century saw the revival of a number of historie glass-making techniques. Opaline glass, a semitranslucent glass first developed in 17th-century Murano, Italy, was achieved by adding calcined bone ash to the glass mix. Baccarat re\'ived opaline in France in the 18205, and created colour by adding metal oxides. Calours ranged fram pastel shades to deep blue or coral. Individual pieces ,vere ofien gilded oc enamelled in imitation of porcelain or antique Greek portery. Classical forms \Vere used for Wldecorated wares.
•
3 RI'gt'IlC!' gla:::slllakas IS-tablisl/ed 11 ro!po!rfoirl' of pI/l/al/s acJtiepab/e /1.'1 il'llet'1 ClIttillg. Used illa mril.'ty of cOlllbillatiolls, they ¡I'erc illfllll.'ntiaf fllrol/gllOlIl tlle 19t/l cel/tur}!. nis extllllple is a cutglass :;:mter jug, 0820. Ht 20CIII/8ill. 4 Oriental oowls it't're a Wllru of illspimtioll for sOllle of tllt' 1lf'<1' rock-crystal ¡mres of t1lr! 1870s. De:::igl/r!d by JoJm .\fortlm'00<1. tlús e.mmpll.' ol 1884 SIlOi!'S tlle l/lldulnfillg sl/rfnce ac1lif'<'ed byellgraiJillg, t1lm po/isllillg. Hf 1l.5CIll/SilJ.
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Tlle prvcess of Clllfillg file dt'ComtioJ/ 011 a cl/meo g/ass I.'tlse is SJIOWII ill t//Ís lI/1fillis//ed exampll', possiblyJrom Jolm Nort/nt'O(xf's tl'OrksJlOp. L1875. Dark arcas represellf pate/u.'s of l/l.' rt'l/lo¡·..d l/ppa layer. Ac/¡l ¡¡'as sollletimcs l/sed fa I/cce/era/e fhe rellloill/l process. 6 J. T. Fere¡lay l/sed Rellaissflllce moti/s 011 t/¡is call1eo glnss ¡>ase of 188.J.. COlltmstillg coloufs of ulllber alld wllife ¡¡'ere achie¡-ed by layeril/g. fI/el/ el/ftillg fhe g/ass. Ht J8.5C1lI/7/'ill. 7 Sfer.'ells & I VillitllJ/s of 5tollrbridge I/sell acid etchi/lg lo create /!leír Death of Socrates <'ase, c.186j. Classical sl/bjeets ",ere ftts/liollttble ill tlle lIIid'19tJl cel/fllry alld glusslllakers ¡vere illspired by Greek mses. Ht 3OCIll!I2ill. 8 Machilles wefe l/sed fa speed /lP etcJled-g/flss decoratioll; Illey Il'ere especittlIy use/I/I ill creatillg lile /ooped fllld scrol/ pattems seell 011 tllis goblef, ill t'Ogl/e ill tlle 1860s. 9 TI/e nmewed fasllioll for copper-wheel eugrnr,illg ,I'as illfrodllced by Bo//emiall craftsmell. Elnborate scelles were eopied from Old Master paillfillgs; 011 t1lis t'llse /lIIri cot>er mnde by Al/gl/sl BO]¡III ill 1840, the scelle is based 01/ tile Lebrtlll paillfillg of AJe.wlIfder defeatillg ¡lIe PersiulIs, wlticll is'in file LOIlVre. 5
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239
Decorative Materials and Techniques 1 Cn:'
:.
g/ns:; ,,'n::: dl'¡,t'lopt'd by E. Vnmisfl & Co. o/ LondOIl in 'he 1840:5. G/a:;:; ll'{/'::; MOit'lI wit/¡ {I cm'il!1 ¡lito ,l'Jlicl,
sil¡'erillg se/u/ion ¡m,; pOI/red. T/¡e :'l/rfna ,{'liS ol/m flnslled ¡/'i//¡ colol/T nlld ClIt or t'llgrmxd.
HI23CIII/gill.
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2 BIlCCllrn/ lIsl'd opll/hu: gllls::; ill pll:,tt'/ ~J¡ndt':,. Admirl'd/or if:, porcelllill-likl' .fjllisJI, imres of . Ifl('
1860s.
SI/e/IIlS
t/Ji5
:'1.'1, (lWr'
oftell decornled ,1'it11 GrCl'k !l/Id /lIld c1llssiCllJ forllls.
1I/ol~f=;.
3,4 BollI.'lIúall-ill:,pin·d glass¡l'ill"l: lISl!d I! "llriet}1 o/Iedmü/Iles i Ilcllld i 11g jln.;h ¡I/g, sla i 1/ i liS:, eJlgmpillg, nlld t'llal/lt,l/illg. Brillinllf CO/Ollrs mut elabora/e delai/ /linde I}¡ell/ popular/mm tlll' 18-1-0:5 to tlll.' 1860.;.
2
Acid etching was used when glass \Vas too thin to be engraved 011 a wheel. The tedmique lln-olved covering the glass to be decorated in wax, an acid-resistant substance. 1l1e pattem \Vas then cut mto the wax 5urface and lhe vessel dipped into acid, which bit into the unprotected
areas. By the 1850s, English makers began to patent
240
stencils that could be used to paint the resist pattems. ln the 1870s, ]ohn Northwood invented a machine that applied templa tes for making geometric patterns. Mi/lefiori (a thousand floH'ers) invoh"ed embedding slices of coloured cane in clear glass. Practised in 16thcentury Venice and in the 18-+05 by French faetones such as Baccarat, millefiori was applied to papenveights and, at Stourbridge, to glasse5, perfrnne bottles, and jugs. lnterest in Venetian wares led to the re-introduction of crackle glass (known in the US as overshot glass). This in\'olved pllmging the hot blown glass into a bath of cold \Vil ter. The crazed glass, when reheated, retained a finish li"L' cracked ice. Exhibited by the London finn Apsley 1't.:lI,lH in the 18S0s, it was called Anglo-Venetian glass.
Bohemian glass was imitated across Europe and the United States. One type, known as flashed glass, was adúeved by dipping a cJear glass vessel into molten glass of a different colour. This outer layer was then cut to reveal the contrasting layer beneath. The 18705 saw the revi\'al of carneo glass. Used by the ancient Romans, the technigue was familiar to Victorians through the discovery of the Portland Vase in Rome in the 16th century. The approach used clIp-casting, in wlúch an outer case of coloured glass is blown and placed in a mould, before a new contrasting layer of colollred glass is blown inside. The two layers are then heated lmtil they fuse. Thkker than flashed glass, the auter glass skin was carved with relief decoration, exposing the lower layer. Engraving and polishing were combined to simulate the Medieval and oriental techniques of rock·crystal carving. Developed in the 18705, its water-like Mish was used fer marine sllbjects as well as far direct imitations of c1assical, Renaissance, and Japanese art. Press-moulded shapes \Vere later lIsed to speed up the process.
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iIlus/m/ion,
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gln::::; is loil'('rt'd ¡lIfo 11
/l/ol/Id bt:.forr fI pfllllga prl.'sSt's ir illto :.-1/(/111'. 5 T/¡e IIIl'taf-s/wpillg de.·jee S}IOil'lIllerL' rl'ns l/sed fo Sl" SlIlnll xc/ious of coloured gln;;s enl/e illto (kar g/fl;;:;. S,'ctioll:; oJ CO/Ol/red glns;; 'il'l're
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6 Cnm' glns:; 'l'I15 l/sed fa prol'ilic eDil/pie.\" mil1efiori decornfiOIl for pnpl'n¡lL'igllts 111/11 ol/Ie,. oiljt'ct;; ¡mili fIJe 184°5. TI/ese eXlllllplt'S rl'fleet lb/'
J9tfI-Cmtllry il/teres! ¡JI lIor'elty {lllri pnttem. Dinlll. 9cm/3bll.
7 S1Inrl' mOl/Id lilles oftell disfis"red ¡m?Sst'd ¡{'ares. A/ollld /IInke,.;; il'Ork¡'d lmrd fa desigll O<'l'r-fl1f decoralio" fo cOl/n'al all.'l impl.'lfl'ctiolls. T/lis jl/g ami goblef are e.W1l11ph'S o[ /f,ór nrt. Coblct lit q.jcm/jl.ill. 8 T/w FI'l'IICh cOlllpnllY 8ncearal cOlllllil1l'd press 1II0llidillg 't'itlll'telJillg fo pr0l.1l1ee /ligll-qllalily ollj('cls lar fi,e ¡¡'ealfll!!, 1876. ¡¡'hiel, i;:,: necomft'd witJ¡ Romall sa//(';:,:.
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241
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _n
Silver and Metalwork Inspiration from the alder Styles
1 Copil'd
¡mm mI ElIglis}¡
stollc
madI,' pitcha 01 oS.;.) is by lalllloll Bostwick (¡porking
iu l/le Cl,'l'tlIlzic original. tlle sil1es of tllI: <'051,'/ 1845-52). As
are decorakd ¡cil/I om,lllll'llt
ba:;ed 01/ Colhie IIrchitectllre. Ht 27.5clII/1oY,;II.
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2
uropean silversmiths \Vere quick to respond to the many shifts in taste that characterized the 19th century. Within the first half of the century, Rococo-, Gothic-, c1assical-, and Renaissance-inspired pieces \Vere available to a broadening market. Internationai exhibitions 5howcased prestigious centrepieces as taste moved towards ever mOfe accurate recreations of historie styles. Prometed by the court of the Prinee Regent, Rocoeo style ,vas an important part of the English silversmiths' repertoire by the 18205. Fuelled by books such as Klliglit's Vases and Oma11lellts (c.1833), makers produced a variety of Rococo-inspired items. Some v/ere direct copies from engravings of 18th-century designers such as JusteAurele Meissonnier. The end results were naturalistic, metamorphosing plant or shell forms into tableware, or fanciful, covering everyday items with a mass of C- and S-scrolls. In the U5, the taste was absorbed from pattern books and trade catalogues. Critics disliked the style bccause they felt that even an untrained artisan could produce something frem the wide repertoire of motifs.
E
242
desiglls
('IWlllcllillg, gildillg, (lI1d semi-pr..dolls stolles. (haUce ltt 26clII/IOY,¡II. 3 Th.. Frmch firm o/ Frolllt'lIt-AJellrice l1roduced tllese RenaiSSIlllceillspin:d il'tlrt'5 for llie Creat Exllibitiol/. TlIe ClIp is in gold alld silr.'t!r tllld il/corporalt'S religiol/5 scelles ill el/ame/.
Neo-Gothic had its roots in early 19th-century taste. By lhe 18-105, exponents fell into two schools: those ",ho took architectural details and incorporated them into everyday forms, and those with an archeological approach. A.W.N. PlIgin was in the latter category. \!Vorking with 10hn Hardman, the Birmingham metalworker, he designed items that followed Medieval precepts. By 1830, the Renaissance style vvas the international favollrite. Continental designers such as J.B.J. I
• 1
4 1\ fade by SaJIIlld Kirk, tlJis coffee pot,
(o//lbillt':' Neo-Roco(o mld llatl/mUs/ie onlrllllCllt tv opu!mt effect. Amcricalll11a/.;as ¡I'cre qllick to re"J,olld to tlle El/ropeall tastt:for tllt' "Old Frt'lIc!I" stylt'. lit J].jCIIl/J Yill. (.18-10,
5 Edicnrd Fam'U prodllmi IlIis Rococo Rt'i.'iml tl'apot in 1833. Shdlfl'l't al/d tlle scrolliJlg 1Jmui/e ami SpOllt an.' takl'l/ from 18t1I-cl'IItllry "rototypt"5-. T/¡e l'JIgra''!?lt decomtiOlls art' copied frOIll l¡tll-uJltllry Dlltcll gt'l/n~ sCt'l/t'S.
6 1\ fof!{s takt'll ¡ro", Gn'l'/'; ,'tISt' pailltillS
to decoratc classiml/y illspin'd sil"'!'r wssds. T/¡i;; t'xalllpfe by IV. 5issolls. 1871. IISt'S ('Ilgra¡'illg to reali:t' tfl!' dt'Sigu. lI'l.'fl' IISt'll
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7 Elkillgloll & Ca collllllissiolled tlle Miltan Shield ill 1866. MadI.' from gold, iron, alld elll/Jossed siker, tlle origilla! it'/lS easily copied btJ ell'Ctroforlllil/g, a mriallt 01 tlle ell'Ctrop!atillg proces;; dCi.'eloped ay ElkillgtOIl. \-'11. 67'5cm/26'ÚII.
8 A'lfoille Vccllte madc file Jupiter or Titan ,'ase ill 1847- Usillg JJalld elllbossillg, VecMe ims aa/e lo crente re/ief decoratiOIl o/ alllrt:illg deptll. His desiglls reflect a growillg illtere,;t ill Rellaissallce eraftsmallsllip. Ht 75.5elll/29'1il1,
9/0111I111I f,;'1I1 HI,....lIrd (b.I ..../o; ,'.\ltibilL'd a 1"IlIIX"'I'{ 1l'lIrr'~ 1/11I1 ""illlll''/ lótll-ú'llfllfl/ • •
Tlli .. ,'in'/ .'f 0:. ,"'So II:'1OS l'lIgrm'ed rOf/'; ("y~1111 (/lid t'wlllldlfrf ... il¡w faitlifully to /'¡'tr¡,alt' RI'I/11í~Nl1Iú'~Il/k. Ht 23(II1/9ill. dt~IS'b.
243
Textiles Carpe! Trends
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mednllio/l-pnttem carpe! de:;iglll!d lo fit tllt' roolll.
dt>5iglls were n stnple pnrt of tlu: cm'pellJlaker's rl!pertoir...
2 TI/e /iL1rnry ofCarito/1 Towers,
4 Tltis ¡('ntereo!allr 01 Iflc Royal dft'$sillg rOOIJl ni Osbome HOlIse
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nfllrbisl1cd ill lS-l4. TI/e Jlt'il'
nc1Iif."i.'lIblc witll Rococo-jllf>piJnt
Brussds mrpet
CIITpetS. CII'11t?tS il'l'Te f>pt'ÓIlJlI/ il'O,'í'1I lo /lllItc11 dccornti¡'C thelllt'f>
spl'c1af1y il'O¡'/'JI for the 1'00111 il'ith n rept'fl/ i'nllem oI llera/die sl/ields. WflS
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itted or "plaruled" carpets '''ere an essential part of the 19th-century interior, until they were supplanted by a re,'i\'ed interest in oriental rugs in the 1870s and 18805. The desire for integrated decorative themes led designers to produce carpet pattems reflecting the eclectic tastes of the time. Gothic, classical, and, increasingly, Rococo themes were realized in carpets throughout the century. By 1850, customers had endJess patterns and styles to choose from. Gothic motifs were particularly popular in the ]83Os and 1840s, using architectural detailing as a salITce of inspiration. Elizahethan Revival tastes loo to the production of carpets that took up heraldic or other suitable symbols. Scrolling Neo-Rococo patterns were in fa\'our at alllevels of society. New technology brought carpets to a wider audience. In 1851, at tl1e Great Exhibition, Erastus Bigelow (J81±-79) exhibited his new power 100m, capable of weaving a Bmssels carpet. vVith patcnt rights soon sold to European makers, the yardage of revival-inspired carpets began to flow wlControllably, responding to ever shifting tastes.
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244
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The Increasing Popularity 01 Needlework
1
2 1 N('edh'il'Ork bord('f~
aflell l/sed lo 1'llli"<'1l plnill e/útil enrpe/5. Tflis fllg/i::/i e.Hlmple of c. 184-0 IIses tlJick ¡('ool ill eross :;titell 011 (/ cOllrse dOl/b1c-llm'lId cmwns gl'OlIJld lo del/iet nlmil f.!ffl//l-bloil'll roses. ,l't'/"<'
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efft'ct, 05 in tlJis ('.mll/ple, C.1SjO. ¡¡'IJic/¡ nl50 iJlcllldt~ b..ads. Loo¡Jt'd pile ¡!'aS trillllllcd iI'itI, sá550rs fa errofe 111(' ClIm: ol rose pc'tIl/5 nI/ti folingt'.
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firexrt'r.'I/, tl1is w'ed/ework palie! dt'Picfs I \'fllter Scott in (11/ Eli:alJetlul1I illterior at Abbotsford. Old Ellglish alld Gotl1ic slIbjects HWt'faslliol/able Olellll.'S il/183OS and 18405 l/ec.'dlC
4 IVoo/icurk patterns ,¡'cre first produmi ill Berlí" 1'Y Pltilipsoll, a prillt sl'lIer, c.JSO-l. Colol/ud by 1I(11ld, t/11.'5l' e/m,-t::. ¡I'I.'I"" .'.\pellsii'r' lo produce but, by the 183°5,
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TI1e rise of Berlin H'oohvork in the 1830s and 18-1-05 introduced to Europe and the United Sta tes a needle\\'ork style that was soon praetised everywhere and lasted \\'eH into the 18805. The technique used a simple tent stilch in wo01s (at first supplied from Berlin), worked on <1 (<111\'<1:-grOlrnd. It was simple to do, quiek to progress, ilnd, augmented by printed design cards, allowed .llmo...1 anyone to produce an elabora te piece of embroidL'ry, v"oolwork \Vas used to decorate a rangl' oi objL'cb inciuding ehair upholstery, firesereens, and t:ven :--eltces. By the 18505, glass 01' steel beads were incorpurated into designs. AIso in the 18505 carne the introduclion Di new chemical dyes in brilliant colours such as magenta and mauve. These were preferred to the less lurid ,'egetabledyed wools. Design5 could be ambitious, duplicating in wool SUdl celebrated paintings as Edwin Landseer's MOllare/¡ 01 file Glell, or portraits of famous people such as Ceorge Washington, Eehoing the Cothie and Elizabethan revivals, many designs iIlustrated moody ruins or scenes after Walter Scott's novels.
245
----- --- - - - - - - - - - - -
Upholstery Furniture, Drapery, and Patterns
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:> w c::: Rct'i¡'nl 5fy/ó ill fumi/u re ,{'ere malchen by n dCl1Inl1d for npproprintc ¡abric desiglls. Thl!Sl' LOllis Re<'h'nl arllle/mir::; of 1855, e:dlibited by the Frl'llc!¡ IIpllOlsterer Lnl1glois, nrl' c01'c/wf 111 Rococo-illspil"l.'d eut veh'rf aud silk damnsk. 2 Ca/llie lIIotffs ¡cen' rlsrd Ollllllll/{'I"OUS CIlrly 19tJI-ceJltllry chillt: designs. T!Iis 1340 exmllplc l/ses nrchitecfuml pnt/f!nlsJrmlled by Ilcra/die OmmlIl.'lIt. 3 Fn!l1c/1 CIIrtnin dcsigns rl'l're HlliI'ersnlly admired. TlIis J 839 desigll fOl" (1 partiere, 01" door eurtaill, [{'as described as LOlli::; QlIil1:e ill sty/e. /t l/ses elnborntc frillged alla applied trillllllillgs fa ncJ1ic<.'c Il SlIIIIptl1011S e[fcct. 1
he importance of the 18th-cenhlry decorative theme allowed the upholsterer to continue to exert a major influence 011. interior decoration into the 18605. During the 18305 and 18405, advances in upholstery technique led to the widespread use of springing for seat furniture. Superlatively comfortable, such couches and chairs exuded a rounded, overstuffed appearance. One particular type of low armchair was known as a cmpnlld (toad) from its bulging look. Upholstery fabrics included Italian cut velvets, woven silks, and hand embroidery. Precious fabrics \vere usually protected with durable case cover5 uf glazed cotton or, after the 18605, creta/me (a heavy unglazed cotton). Curtains went through a period of elaboration with Irllnbrequins (¿m ornamental pelmet) used to finish off window arrangements. Trinm1ed \vith rich fringes and braids, French curtain concepts were admired in Britain and the United Sta tes. Published curtain designs were widcly circulated, providing a useful source of infom1ation. In meeting the upholsterer'5 needs, textiJe designers
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were aided by improvements in textile-making machi nery. Pattern looms, invented by Lyons-born Joseph-Marie Jacquard in 1802, were used in the industry by the 18305. Roller printing, often augmented by hand colouring (or "painting"), had been available in Britain since 1815. Designs ranged from a continuation of 18th-cenhuy fabric patterns (espeóal1y in the silk-weaving centre of Lyons) to new responses to revival tastes. Gothic, NeoRococo, and Renaissance motifs were aH realized in prillted chintz, cretolllle, or in the woven silks and cut velvets of the periodo Gotruc taste was refined by the productions of A.vV.N. Pugin, who used examples of Renaissance and Medieval fabrics and wall paintings as inspiration for his woven and printed textile de5igns. The 19th cenhuy was dominated by a pas5ion for realistic floral ornamento Often criticized by design theorists, flower prints from the 18405 to the 18805 5howed great virh105ity and invention in transforming natural forms into two-dimensional designo
¡t'ool dnllla5k (.18-1-7, tfzi5 dcúgll i::/1Y PI/gil/. TII!' ]lattl'rll ¡en:" ill::piTt'd bu Akdil7.'n/ l/cedll.'il'Ork al/d tlle fnbric ¡en:" 4 IVO¡'I'II il1
il1ft'lIdcd fo/' JlSt' a5 C/ltlaiIl5. 5 Pugill pmduú'd "l'¡'cml lit'Sigll:: for ¡¡'{l,'I'1I 5ilk. T//i" /lrOCllIl'1It' lt'as /I/adl' ill úmdoll's SpitnljicMs for f1lc decorator ¡.G. CmCt' alld "I/O¡e:, /l/(, ¡'~f1I1I'11Cl' t~{ !tafiall Rt'IInis$rll/cc :,ilk ¡mltems.
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6 Prodll(l'd by .\lnlfll'lIIll'l Blllmmi ill LyolI:: iJl 1868. f/Ii" Rl'//I1i::SIlllú'-st!!h· C/lt ¡y/¡'et
jlll)¡'ic ¡ms ill::pired by 16tllú'lItunl pl'ill/l'd Omlllllt'll/. 7 BII the 1880". Fn'lIch Ift'Si~Ilt'r"
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247
Wallpaper Naluralislic Scenes and Golhic Decoralion
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ill 1861 lJy Desfossé el Kar//¡, tllt! Décor Eden iL'flS prillled by /tnJld IIsiJlg 3,642 woodcll blocks. Bl! lSiD, sudl decora/iOIl 1111d
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pltlll! ¡01'1II5 (llIri tcxtilc-Iike
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4/11 LISiO, tlle desigl1e1' OWt'1I JOI1l.'5 produced !lis Oil'/I Catllic-
illspired papero Here, styli:ed plant (/lId ll.'a!/or/lls sit ill a /ol"lI1a/ .liapa pnttem.
PI/gill IJ(/f<'(f sIIJI<'rftcia/ G¡lt/,;( tJrlJllI/lt'l/lllIId jI:; l/S,'
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hose wanting to buy willlpapcr in IIR' 19th (~Illllr\' had a bewildering range of pattC'rn~ to ehoo~t..' from. Hand-bJocked imports from Franee and m.1chine-mi1t"k· papers from England all took up the fashionilble st)'ll'''' of the day or illustrated the grand manner throllgh their lavish scenic papers. Developed in the early 18005, scenic wallpapers were intended as complete room decorations. Known as pnysnges riécors, they were block printed and reqllired thousands of individual blocks to complete él pattern. Papers of the 18305 showed an interest in natural over rnythological subjects. By the 18605, affluent buyers could recreate the Carden )f Eden in their hall or drawing room. ElIropean maker~ avidly produced historical revival styles. Gothic decori'ltion took the form of what Pugin described as the "Ivretched character of a pointed building," that is, Gothic architectural detail. French versions of the taste varied the repertoire by offering scenic views of romantic nUns. Pugin was quick to supply improved versions of the Cothic taste, as was the
T
248
d~~igncr
O",en Jones 0809-7-1). Based on stylized plant forms, diaper patterns, or Medieval textiles, these papers mc1Tkcd shifts in taste from the 18-105 to the 1870s. The Rococo style was easUy adapted to wallpaper design, uniting e- and S-saolls with brilliantly coloured tlowers or fruit. Sorne designers turned to the paintings of Antaine \,IVatleau 068-1-1721) to enliven the scrollwork with figures in fanciful18th-century costume. Renaissance ornarnent was adapted to the sarne formula, with strap",ork encapsulating printed landscape views or naturalistic bowls of flowers. Throughout the period, French dcsigners produced a dizzying range of naturalistic papers that imitated s\\'ags of lace, buttoned upholstery, or giant bouquets of flowers. Satisfying the public demand for novelty, papers were soon recording moments in history. Buyers in the 18505 and 18605 could purchase wallpapers depicting the opening of the Crystal Palace or the ¡aunch of a rollerskating rink. Designs proliferated as inexpensive wallpapers fed a hWlgry market.
Flowers, Borders, and Documented Events
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Nnlllmli:Mic rcpresclltatiol15 01flo.!'cr:> ¡pere n rC8u/nr¡en/ul"¡' o[ wa/lpapcr desigll afia '!le 18305. Tllis LOllis-sfyle floral stripe Ellglislt 1
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cxnmp/t.> dates frOIll 1 860. TJw ar! i5f (lIId
desigll reforllla Ridll1rd Redgrave (18°4-88)
cl1anlcteri:ed SI/e/I pnper:; as 'jlorid nl1d galldy_" 2 Atlrihutt!d fa ti//! fn.'lIcll designa Hippolyte HCI/ri, IMs LOllis-stylc paper 01 1840-45 dcpicfs children ill falle!! rireS5. 3 Rellnis5(1/1CI? slrnp1l'ork ;5 used /15 11 decora!;...e
5 Tllis LyolIs Slrípl.'d wnllpapl,'I' vordef WI1S produced il/ EI/glrmrl by Willialll IVool/nms. 1837-52. /1 follo,!,$ '"c Frl.'lIc/l fas/líoll for
trompc-l'oeil rCl/difioll offabrics slIe/¡ a5 Illce 01' si/k. 6 A.lnllllfactlll"ed by HeY¡t.'OOd, Higgillbottolll,
papas tlml glWI.' n
!rnllll:work 01/ t!Jis e/aborale pnpe" dL'Sigllcd by ZipL'lil/5 nlld 1I/ade by Zuber ill 1843. TIJc rlt'Corntioll H'IlS eJl/lal/ced by sih't'r dllst. 4 Tllt' 18605 S/lW n Pague il/ Frmlee for blnckgroulld ¡mp",s (/Ild !lIm¡'sllillg ¡abric:>. T/Jis extlmple seis nn/lImlist;c r056 agaillsf (/ bnckdrop ollbws olla gríris.
& Smitll aTOl/lld 1853. tltis im//p"pl!r rlepicts pit.'W5 o/ lile Cry;Mn/ PnlflCl? Papas ;11 tll/: 18505 (Inri 18605 illclYnsillgfy recorded Iocr"
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The Aesthetic Movement Furnilure 254 Reformed Gothic 254 Britlsh 256
American 260
Ceramics 262 European 262
American 264
A British and American phenomenon al the 1870s and 1880s, the Aesthetic Movement was a cult al beauty which sought to elevate the status al all objects to works al arto Designers re-interpreted and combined sources, including historical periods and cultures, and exploited industrial processes, both new and established, to create an entirely new style. The Movement began in Britain, where in the 1850s and 1860s the
Glass 266 Melalwork 268 Textiles and Wallpaper 270
designers Owen Jones (1809-74) and Christopher Dresser (1834-1904) codilied the theories which were to lie behind much Aesthetic designo entral to their philosophy was the idea that nature, togethcr wilh the best designs cE different eras and cultures üncreasingly élccessible through public collections and exhibitions, and studied in design schools), should serve as J110dels to be appropriated and adapted by the l110dern designer for contemporary use. Jones's TI/e Grmlllllnr oj Omnlllcnf (856) illustratcd various design sources, including Greek, Egyptian, lslamic, and Chincsc; and Dresser, él botanist fascinated by plant struchlre, developed a fOrtTI DE conventionalized plant-based ornament expressive of dynamic growth. Both believed that design should be appropriate to funetion, expressed dral1latically in Dresser's starkly geol1lemc electroplated silver tableware; and also in fihless of purpose - for example, that the decoration of f1at surfaces, such as textiles and wallpapers, should reject the illusion of depth in favouT of hvo-dimensional patterning. japanese design profoundly influenced Aesthetic Movement designers (Dresser himself YÍsited japan in 1876-7). japan had on1y recently opened up to the \Vest, and japanese artifacts, inc1uding blue-and-,,"hite cera mies, cloisOllllés, ivories, bronzes, lacquers, and textiles, ,,"ere shown at international exhibitions in london (1862). P.ris (1867), and Philadelphia (1876), and \Vere ayailable from retailers such as Libertv , & Co. in London (est. 1875). Manufacturers and craftsmen were drawn to the high quality of workmanship, and designers to japanese geometry and abstraetion, novel to \Vestern eyes. Western design tradition \Vas ehallenged by devices such as the apparently arbitrary cropping of shapes and asymmetry, ,\'ith the result that, as Clarence Cook declmed in his book Wlmt SJm/l We Do WitJI Ol/r IVal/s? (New York, 1880), even "the c1assic laws of symmetry and unity are no longer to be eonsidered the absolute rulers of the field of decorative art." japanese and Chinese forms \Vere \'Vesternized, as seen in the Japanese architectural elements adapted by E.W. God\Vin (1833-86) to crea te his Anglo-Japanese furniture. Oriental shapes \Vere adapted for use in ceramlCS, as \Vere straight-sided vessels or shapes
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Lt:ft: tllC ~/lf1pc of tl1is fnicl1Cl' pn~', c. 1813. bll t}¡c Pnris ccrnll/idsf loscpll-TfléOtfore Dl'ck, is l1eri¡'cd froll/ a Chiuesc bro/D! /l/miel, il'/¡j/I' 1111' apl,'icd lIatI/rol¡siic fo/iagc lormi IIg lile I/audles a/ld sl/r/aCl' decoratioll bdrn.llS lapallese il~nl/I'IIÚ's. Ht -I8.jCll//I9ill. DI/pesifl': ~ly Lady's Chamber by ti/e Brilisl/ artisl ¡\'alter CrallC n1'prored a:, tlle frolllispil'cl' to lIJe A/l/ericall Oal"l.'II(1' Cook's popular 1101/51'decorofillg /l/mil/al, The House Beauliful h8/S). TIII' ¡/le/lISiOIl of so /l/allY Alostlll'lic IhcIIIl's ill fhc ¡¡'ood eJlgrn,'illg - file lady's Al'stllefic liress, bluc-alld-white orit'lltal porceiaill alltl Jalmuese lalls 01/ 1111' IIImllell'il'Cl'. 1¡gIlt
1 In the Morning - Three Young Ladies in an Aesthetic Interior. 1877, ti ,l'tlterCO/Ollr by GlIsttlFIIS ArtJlllr BOl/piel'. Like I'Valfer Cmlle's ¡lIustration (P.251), tllis is (/// ¡II/(Ige ful/ of Aestlu:tic lIIotif;; b!lIe-alld-w!litc porce/allJ. a Japtlllese fo1dillg scrcclI. alld clllbroiriered pea(ocks 0/1 ti/e lab/e COI'er.
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3 Bf1Ice Talba!'s fille ebolJi:ed, carved, gi/t. (/lid bu rr ¡('oad cnbillc! jor J'vlnrsll & fOlles of Leeds, late 18605, incorporate:; t'llIbossed Jnpnl1ese papa (lnd lacqller ¡ml/els. I-It 2.301ll/7ft 6ill.
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252
derived from Chinese metal\\Tork. Conversel)', lrVestern forms \Vere orientalized, u5ua11y by the addition of Japanese motifs. Sil ver and plated \Vares \Vere particularly strongly influenced by oriental motifs, led by Tiffany & Ca. in New York. The influence of Japan \Vas felt in Europe, particularly Franee, where JnpollislIIC flourished in cera mies, glass, and metalwork. The horror VflClli (fear of emptiness) characterizing most later 19thcentury design \-vas occasionally tempered by blank areas of space opposite an asyrnrnetrically arranged motif, aUhough taste often favoured objects embeUished with a profusion of designs associated with tbe Orient. These included animals (frogs, bats), birds (cranes, storks), insects (butterflies, dragonflies), plants (bamboo, pine branches, cherry blossom, chrysanthemums), objects (fans and circular family crests knO\vn as 1Il0IlS), and wave patterns. Other motifs \Vere lilies, bulrushes, artists' palettes, easels, peacocks and peacock feathers, and sunflO\vers, \vhich came to epitomize the movement. The Aesthetic Movement reached a wide audience at tbe international exhibitions held bchveen 1871 and 1878 in London, Vienna, Philadelphia, and Paris, and at the
shm-\'roorns of furnishers such as Morris & Co. in London and Cottier & Co. in New York. TI1e movement was popularized by a series of hOllse-decorating manuals aimed at the public, such as Hil1ts 0/1 HOJlsellOld Inste (London 1868; Boston 1872) by the British \Vriter Charles Locke Eastlake (1836-1906), which encouraged consumers to discrimina te when furnishing an artistic interior while taking into accowlt their individual means. Eastlake helped to popularize the refonning design principies of A.W.N. Pugin, Street, Shaw, and Seddon (see p.254) by advocating tmtb to materials and honest constmction. Bmce Talbert (1838-81), in his Gof!lic Forllls Applied fa Fl/mill/re (Birmingbam 1867; Boston 1873), provided the furniture trade with designs inspired by 17th-century Jacobean furniture, utilizing straight wood and revealed construction, and emphasizing surface decoration of inlays, lo",-relief, or incised carving which were taken up by the trade in both Britain and the United Sta tes. lllis Art or, as it becarne knovvn in the US, Eastlake furniture, ",as often ebonized and included cabinets ",ith a profusion of shelves to display Art objects. In tbe 18705, Gothic and Jacobean designs "'ere gradually supplanted by the English Queen Alme style and its American
equivalent. known as the Colonial Revival, \"hich predominantly drew inspiration from English 18thcentury prototypes. An unprecedented urban expansion, together with an increase in mechanized manufacture at aH levels, created él strong demand as weH as capacity for Art objects of aH types. Even manufactllrers not traditionally associated with advanced design employed freelance designers, or opened Art departments for the production of artistic furniture, ceramics, and metalwork, to mention a few. New or revived manufactllring techniques encompassed every sphere of production, and included an interest in artistic glazes in cerarnic manufacture and the emulation of the oriental technique of c1oisollllé by metal manufacturers. 1 ew materials carne into vogue: cast iron and rattan were increasingly used far furniture, and media sllch as stained glass and ceramic tiles were incorporated into dorncstic settings on a scale never seen before or since. In his influential manual Tlle HOl/se Benlltiflll (1878), the American Clarence Cook 0828-1900) stressed the im.portance of selecting from different periods and harmoniously cornbining disparate elements to crea te a coherent, beautiful whole. The remarkable stylistic unity which resulted was partIy because many of the key designers produced work for the whole gamut of decorative arts such as ""alter Crane (18-:15-1915), who designed furniture, ceramics, glass, metalwork, textiles, wallpapers, and book illustrations. Ceramic and rnctalwork design showed a typieally eclectic approach and often blended different themes, so that a vase \Vith a Persian shape may have had deeoration of )apanese,
Renaissance, or Egyptian origin - or aH three. Unity \Vas nevertheless also aehieved because the appreciation of the sensory qualities of materials encouraged a neH' freedarn in the mixing of media, resulting in painted panels, stamped leath.en,'ork, ceramic tiles, and cloisOJ/Ilé paneIs being incorporated into furniture and dock cases, for example. Textiles and wallpapcrs benefited from the emphasis on flat patterning and the use of a variety of sources. They were produeed in subtle secondary or tertiary COIOlUS, particularly green and gold, which aimed at a subdued and rich effect. TI1e flat, floH'ing, and eurvilinear naturalism of some wallpaper and textile designs ,,"ere precursors to the French Art Nouveau, while a reaetion against the rieh density of Aesthetic interiors eontributed to the reactionary simplicity and minimalisrn of much early Modernist designo During the Aesthetic movement the laws of the market economy affected the production and promulgation of designs. Firnls such as Morris & Co. built up archives of stained-glass cartoons which couId be adapted to new eonmussions. Paintings by artists \\'ith Aesthetic lealungs sueh as Albert Maore (18-:11-93) were copied from engra\·ings and appeared on ceramics, stained glass, and other media in Britain and America, aften without acknowledgment or permission. In an attempt to prevent copying of the designs for which th.ey had paid, manufacturers aften registered their designs at the Patent Office, indicated by a diamond-shaped registration mark on their goods. The cult of the industrial designer was bolstered by Christopher Oresser, whose name or facsimile signature appeared on a nurnber of the pieees of metalwork and ceramics he designed.
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Nagasaki illOi''-'!' silk dmunsk de-sigllcd b.l/ Brltce Tnlbert for H'nrllcr, Sillett & Rnmm of Brnil/trCf. EsSt.'x, C.J87'¡, Oire:; lo /apal/c:'/! desigll tllt' see""llsly rmllfOIlJ oiwlnpl'illg of letli'eS nl/d f/oil'ers.
25
Reformed Gothic Furniture Muscular Golhic Forms
1 Pailf/l'd (md iJl/aid onk !wkcnx' dt,,:,i~lIt'd blf . Ric/J(Ird -,"orll/ml 5Tmil' al/d /linde by Imlllos ForsyiTl iJl ! 56!. fl ¡ms SJ/oit'1/ at lTlt' Lolldoll llllC:nltlfiOlla/ Exllibitioll ill !56l.. Ht l..30m/9ft 2;1.ill. 2 BI(f/e/ ll(/sed 011 n d¡',;igll ill 81'11ce ,. TnTlJelú Gothic FomlS h56¡), de,;cl'ilJc:d as tl "side tnblc. " Madt' of onk ¡,,/aid ",itl, eboJ/Y, wnTIIII/, lltlXit'OOi1 {md otfler H'(l()(f~ l'y Hollnlld & 5011'; ill Lol/dol/, Ht l..14ll1/¡ft. 3 AIl {'nr/y e.mll/ple of Refonlll'11 Co/hie fllnlitlll'e. tlJi;; onk side e/lnir il'itTl boM gt'ollh'/rie ¡lIl(lid ll(/ck It'tlS desiglled by file tlrc1Jitect IVilliam I Vhile for /h.. rc?ctory lit 5/ Co/wIIII ¡\Jnj01~ COl'llil'nll, (.JSso. Ht 9I ..JCIll/36ill,
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rt Furniture of the 18705 developed fram lhe Relonned Cothic 01 the 18505 and 18605, a style advanced by a number DE innovative architect-designers in England who "Reformed" or re-interpreted the Gothic style. The seeds weTe 50wn in the ]8405 by A.vV.N. Pugin (l812-52), whose simplest furniture designs sho\\' an understanding 01 lhe underlying principIes 01 Cothie form and construction, ideas which were encouraged in the publications Df the Freneh architect Eugene Viollet-leDue (1814-791. ~1 England the Eeclesiologieal Soeiety advocated a reruTn to early Anglican church ritual, leading architects including George Edmund Street (182-Hll). William Butterfield (181+-1900), and William White (182:;-1900) towards the massive forms of 13th- and 14th- century Gothic in their ecclesiastical and secular fumihrre. Often large in scale - it is sometimes called Muscular Gothic - this furniture featured revealed construction, architectural elements such as sturdy stump colwnns and chamfering,. inlaid geometric decoration, and prominent hardware. At the london International
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Exhibition (862), fumiture designed or deeoraled by Richard Norman Shaw 0831-1912), 'William Burges 0827-81). John Pollard Seddon (1827-1906). Philip Webb (1831-1915), and IVilliam Morris (18~96) sholVed the revived interest in medieval parnted fumiture. By the late 18605 the Relomled Colhie style had la id the foundations for the Art Furniture of the 18705. Two seminal publications, published and circulated widely in Britain and the United Sta tes, set the tone. Charles locke Eastlake's Hil1ts 01/ HOl/sehold Tnste (1868) \,vas aimed at a \vide audience and addressed the importance of practicality in the design, construction, and decoration of furniture in the context of an artistic interior. Even more influential were the illustrations provided by Bruce James Talbert in his GollIic forlll5 Applied lo Fllmitllre (1867), which successfully drew on 17th-century English vernacular prototypes to reduce the massiveness of Reformed Gothic to a more domestic - and cornmercially successful - scale. Both publications paved the ",ay for the popularity of Art Fumiture.
Reformed Gothic Shapes and Motifs t"'--, ·• .
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Ht 1.71111/51t 6il'. 2 All outstalldil1g exnmple 01 Relorl1led Gol/tic desigll, tltis bed "il'ns desiglled by Cltnr/es 81.7.'nll c,1866. lt was probnbly lIIade by tite tceds fil"lll al Mm·slr & ¡mIes, alld blÚl1 01 syenlllore il1laid willt amboYlla, purpkU'ood, eboll!!, lIIa/lOgany, alld various o/her ¡poods. Ht 1.92111/6fl 3;'1.
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l 1 Carl'ed alld gilded [{'a/llIIt comer ¡¡¡ha/-l/al dóiglll'd by lvlm Pollard Seddoll ill 1860 nJld probably I/tnde ill LOlldOlI by ltis fa11l i 1y's cabi I lcfmaki 119 Ji 1'111.
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b/nck wa/lll1t blj Daniel Pnbst in Philadelphin c.1875. // display"
TI/e bfi'elled mirra!"s bllCkillS file
imngillnti1x tren/mcllI oi jorllls c!lnmctaistic Di lIJe nrchitecf's work. Ht 1.Sm/5f111ill 6 Tlle ante-room lo the drmvillg roOIll ('"trlmee al TlIe Grave, Harbome, /lear Birl1lillg/talll, I'C1I10de/led ¡nI tlle arcltitect 101m Hellry C/tnl1lbcr/aill, 1877-8, is of illlnid, paillted, {l/Id gilded sycalllore alld oak.
l/pper "heh't'd :>('ctiall lucre a COIII!!lOIl jcnl11re. H f J. 11I/6ft 6hz. 4 \Va/JIu! nrmc!ulir desiglled by lo/1/l Pollnrd SendoJl, pail/ter!
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2 T/¡oll/as Jeckyll's illlnid onk table. desiglled ill Ihe mid-186os jor a c1ií'llt ÍlI )'orksllÍre. is a ski/~f/ll jll!'iClII oj fas/cm and Eli:abetlll1l1 jorll/5. and ¡m5 probnbly mnde l'y Jncksoll & Cm/1I111l ill tondOIl. Ht 73cm/28 Yo;n.
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Fumiture of Town Houses (LoJldon 1881). 3 /eckyll proi'ided (111 il/tricnte :;('rit's 01 sheh't'S lo display /J/lIf-flIld-i"/life porcelnill for t!le Pencock Rool/1 ;11 fhe LOJldol! 110IIIe o/ lile slúppillg IIIngllille Frederick Leylfllld (110,0 j'l ¡lie Freer Gal/el}1 of Arl, IVnsllillgfoll).
n the 1870s él fashion developed for ebonized and painted fumiture, stemming partly from the muchexhibited versions of a cabinet designed c.1871 by Thomas Edward Collcutt 08-10-1924; see p.25?). This cabinet boasted a Talbert-derived architectural framework with Gothic details, such as the canopy over the upper stTuchlfe. 111e cupboard doors were inset with painted figurative panels and complemented by profuse shelves, one backed with él bevelled mirror to reflect the Art objects placed on it. There was none of the heavy carving that Talbert and Eastlake rejected, and much of the decorative effect was derived instead from mouldings. These features were to be found on mueh Aesthetie eabinet fwniture over the next fifteen years, when other items suitable for showing off objects, such as overrnantles ineorporating numerous shelves, and hanging cabinets also became popular. Fumiture designed during the 18/0s also refleeted the wide variety of influences to wruch designers were exposed. The marquetry devised by O\ven jones adapted
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elements from an edectic range of saurces including Moorish and classical prototypes. A knowledge of ancient Egyptian prototypes was demonstrated by the painter William Holman Hunt (1827-1910), who in 1857 designed a Tllebes stool (named after the site of Egyptian exeavations); sin1.ilar designs were produeed by Ford Madox Brown (1821-93) for Monis & Co. and were patented by Liberty & Co. in 1883. An interest in japanese art prompted W.E. Nesfield (1835-88) to design a folding screen with Japanese motifs in the late 18605. Thomas jeekyll, who incorporated japanese motifs in his Jacobean oak furniture, exploited both Japanese and Hispano-Moresque themes in the attenuation and complexity of the built-in shelves he designed for the Peaeock Room, named after James Mo eill Whistler's (183-1-1903) japanesque painted scheme. Tl1.is led to God"in pioneering a type of furnirure influenced by oriental sources, published by the London eabinetmaker William \Natt in Art FlI/"Ilitllre (1877). Godwin's Anglo-Japanese style adapted decorative and
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frollt ¡'itrine, C.1S70, slIggest file llames ofOwelI fOllesalld !acksoll & Cm/mm as designer alld mmlllfactllrer respecfivl.'ly. lf 10as retailed by He,,,etsoll & Mi/ller of Tottellhalll COllrl Road, LOlldoll. W. 2m/6ff 6ill.
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dock, by T/lOlIIas Harris for Howcl/ & fallles & Ca., was a/so desigl1ed fo sen'e as a /mllgillg étagere. AI1 eXl1IlIple <:Fas S/tOWI1 at file 1878 Paris ExpositioJl UlIi·uerselle. Hf 99CllI/39ill. 2 Tllis 1111Isic cabillet by Stephell Webb for CollillSOll & Lock of LOl1doll, C.lSg0, is //lade of hlonjilllaid rosewood. lts restrail/ed, elegallt proportiolls recal! tlle 18tIJ-Cf'nfllrYflll"llitllre by ¡IJen 50 fashiollab/e. Ht I.45m/4ft 9ill. 3 Tlle tallt, Si/lllOllS f01"ll1 of tlJis i/l/aid rosewood occnsiolla/ table leads fmm Godwill to tlle Art N01l<.1eall mOl'elllellf. A1nde by Lalllb of Ma!lcllestcr, c.1886, fI/e dcsigll is attribllfed to C!lar/es Edward Hortoll. Ht 66clIl/26ill.
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COllstructional devices gleancd from Japanese prints illustrating domestic fitments and ",oodwork to (reate a series of highly rectilinear deal buffets. They were ebonized to rcscmble oriental lacquered furniture and were constructed from symmetrical arrangements of straight horizontal and vertical lines, élChieving their eHect, as he put it, "by the grouping of solid and void and by more or less broken outline." l.n these, and in his other Anglo-Japanese designs, surfacc decoration was minimal and confined to panels of embossed leathcr paper and geomctric, incised gold lines. By the mid-1870s the Queen Annc style, an inaccurate title referring to architecture inspircd by 181h~century English design as well as other sources, had begun to influence fllrnitllrc. Neo~Georgian pediments and complex glaLed fronts appeared on display cabinets by designers such as Thomas E. Collcutt. Thc rC\'i\'al of interest in 17th-century ornament, sometimes known as the Wrenaissance after the architect Sir Christopher vVren, led firms such as
Collinson & Lock to produce delicately scaled i\'oryinlaid rosewood cabinets. Godwin dcsigned polished mahogany and walnllt fllrnitllre with attenllated, cllrving lines and slender, tapering legs, lending objects an increasingly Jightweighl appearance. Meanwhile, the work of commercial firms, sllch as James Lamb of Manchester, produced fllrniture reflecting thc la test fashions. From the 18605, fllrnitllre detailing becanle e\'en finer and the complexity of cabinets increased, with more and more elaborate panels appearing in the ",ork of H.\V. Batle\' and Thomas Harris. Conunercial firms sllch as James Lamb of Manchester b1cnded the fashionable designs into their work. From the 18605, the birth of the Adam Rcvi\'al stvle, named after the 18th-centuf\' architect-designer, led many manufacturers to reinterpret or re-introduce forms of that period, often vcnecrcd with satinwood. The style gathercd momentllm in the 18705 and remained popular until beyond the turn of the 19lh century.
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Furniture (187;). Dt'Sigllcd by Godil'ill anri mllJllifnctl/rcd by ¡ViIIilllll IVatt. tllt'lmlll!! ¡t'n:> offm:d for stlh'l'llOllÍ:ed or;1/ ook.
2 A dt.'sigll ieoll of 111/.' ArMllf'fic Afo<"l'IIIl'llt, tllis t'l!rsioll o/
GOf.i¡l'ill's AlIglo-JnptJlIt'Sl' sidl'bonrd 1m;; mnde il/ Lollcfoll by lVillinm ¡\'alt & Ca.. c.186'-70. lt is mnde of f'iI(lJli:l.'dmallOgaIlY
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distillglfis//f.'s Cllristopl/l.'r Dn:sser's e!lollb'd dillillg dmir, dt"Siglll:d c.lSS3for ¡lit' Art Fllrllitlln' AI/iallcl.', ,¡'l,id, lu' fVl/lld¡'11 iIlISS0./t ,ms ¡¡mde by ClIII/III & Ca. lar rl.'tniJ ill t/¡e Allinllce's sllol' ill Nl'iI' BOlld SfTl"l'f. Lolldrlll. Ht 88.5cm/J5ill. 6 Ollt.' of n Imll/lltr of cnsf-iroll dt"Siglls by DresSt.'r IImlll/factllr"d b.1f tll/.' Coalbrookdafe iroml'Orks ill SlIrop:;lIin·. T/¡e Myfi=.'d fo/ingt' mul Gothic nrcilit"ctllra/ detni/s OIlllis Imll-stal/d are all typicnl of f,is IIIl1dl·illlitnted Sftl/I'. It i~ MalllJlt'd ¡l'itl, a I'atl'llt rl'gistrnfiol/lllnrkfor 7869 /11 all nffl'lIIpt to prt'¡;'l'llt piratillg of tlll' designo /lt 2.31111/7ft 7il/.
259
American Furniture The Eastlake Style 3 TlJe bold arcililectllra/ /umi/llre /linde by Daniel Pabst, SUe/1 as tI,;s walllllf CIIbillcf willJ Ilickel-pfated Ilard¡¡>f1re, c.1880, sl,o¡PS file illflllcllce 011 AmeriClIII desigll o/ Brllce Ta/ber! (Inri CJ¡ristopfler Dresser. Ht l.Sm/5ft l1ill.
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by tlle Neil' York cnbilletmakers alld jUrIlishers Kill/bel & Cabll5. e.1880. Mooris/l infll/l'Ilces. ¡¡,¡liel, abolllld j" tlle horseslloe aTclles (lIId lile ]uwd-paillted Ambic-illscribed frellch tiles, are combillcd wilh promiue,,! /linde
Ca/hic stmp-hillges. Ht 2111/6fl 6il1. 2 Paillied Pflll/'ls SUe/1 as tllis,from mI
ebo,¡j=ed cherrywQod cahiutt mude by Kimbel & Cabus iJl New York, c.1876, were ¡nf1lfmced by ti/e poplIlnr¡fy 01 paillted Art Fumí/uTe 111 Brilail!.
n the United Sta tes, the British design refonns ofTalbert and Dresser were expressed in the designs of Frank Furness executed by Daniel Pabst in Philadelphia. Eastlake furniture, the American version of Art furniture, with its rectilinear fonns, panelled construction, tumed uprights, and spindJed galleries, eontinued in popuJarily throughout the 18705 and 18805. Renaissance decorative elements were also popuJar in the US, employed by firms sueh as John )elliff (1813-90) in Newark, New Jersey. More innovative was the furniture produced by George Hunzinger (1835-98) in Broaklyn, New York, wh.ieh played on the ingenious massing of complex turned elements. Materials popular in the US induded bamboo fum..iture and imitation bamboo marle froro bird's-eye maple. The teclmique of woodcarving, less prevalent in
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British furniture, was employed in the naturalistic motifs
260
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adopted by the woodean-ing schoal that flourished in Cincinnati,Ohio. Opulent materials and skilled craftsmanship were al50 characteristic of much American Aesthetic hmüture.
Herter Brothers of New York adopted a restrained stylistic vocabulary that drew on European - particularly British and French Empire - sources, often executed in ebonized d1erry or gilded maple, with flat panels of intricate, sometimes asymmetrical, floral marquetry. The AngloJapanese slyle popuJarized by Godwin flourished in the work of A. & H. Lejambre, which manufactuIed tables with asymmetrical shelves and mahogany tops inlaid \-vith mother-of-pearl and metal inlays. Other fashionable styles such as the Celtic and Moorish revivals inspired the fumishing of the interior of the Seventh Regiment Armory in ¡eIV York 0879--80) by the Associated Artists fonned by louis Cornfort Tíffany (1848-1933). The Moorish craze of the 18805 and 18905 was popularized in Britain by Liberty & Co., and in the US by Tiffany & Co. After the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, the counterpart of the English Queen Anne movement was echoed in the US by the Colonial Reviva!, inspired by its colonial heritage, which encouraged the reintroduction of 18th-century fom1s.
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Art Furniture in the US
1 A cell/re {ab/e by Herler Brofll/.'rs, c1878-80, in w}¡ic!¡ l/le sopllisticated desigl1, íls stylized cqllille leg:;; fcrl1lillnfing witl1 JlOojed ¡eel, is realized in sl/perbly exeel/fed lIlarqlletry (Inri low-relie! carving. W. 1.42/11/411 8il1. 2 AltllOlIgh its doors are /ollg gOlle, Ihe slrollg desigll of t!lis Herter 8rot!lers cabiHel is 1II1dill1!l1is/led. TlIe carcase is vel1eered
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fOI" its decorative effed 011 tite illcised strap-/lillges,jretted gaIlery, mld sllbtly I"eeded 1/10u/dil1gs. Ht 1.14111/3fl 9ill.
6 Frog-de-tIOlIrillg lIerol1s provide t!le theme for al1 oak dillillg ta/JIe desiglled by Fral1k FlIl"Iless al1d probab/y mal1lifaclllred by Pabst il1 P!li/adelpllia, c1875, as part of a dil1illg-room sc!leme. Dia111. 1.6711l/sft 6il1.
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European Ceramics Britain 1 T1Iis pie/ud (lIId gilded japall6r¡uc porce/nil1l1ight-lig!lt, made by Ihe Royn/lVorcesler Parce/nin
ell. in
¡Si;, imitnks asectioll al Cl/ri.'l.'d l'amllOO 01/ a CJ'illl'Se-iJlspin.'d stand. Ht lj.jCm/lOill. 2 Japonisme abollllds ill tite l/l/gil lar J/llIId/e al/d in fIJe styli:ed allli s('ell¡jllgJ.II nrbilrnry croppjllg
al f{¡e lrnllsler-priJlfl'd alld lJnJldcofOllred jo/iage 011 tlJÍs f1(Jsk mm/e
l/y Pillder Boume il1 Burs/l'IIl, Stnffords!lire, 1881. H/l'¡'CIII/9'1ill.
3 TI/e jallcijlll ::ool/lorpltic qlla/ity 01.{'1lielI
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;11 lIJe go/d figllre IJnlldks 01 Ibis I'rJ5e. witil poin/ed flornl pafferlls ill imitalioll oj doisonné; /linde blj lile O/d Hall EartI1CIl ims mnde iJl Stoke-Oll-Trent jll1888 for ti/e LaunaJ/ retni/ers Thomns Goode & Co. H/3 2cm!I2"ÚIl. 5 Persinll il/j1uence il1spir.'d lile form o/ f1Ji.~
eart}¡e¡¡¡mre pi/grim bottle (01' lJ/OOll flash /tnfinll RCJlniS5flllce maio/iea lile pillette. paillt"lj
aud /l/edicm/ nrt lb.. slIbject mafter. Desigl1en
by He,,'"!! Stacy Alnrks, arigiHally for A1il/toll's Al'/ Pollery Studio, ml(f made by MinlOIl & Co. ill Stoke-OII-Trcllt, 1877. /JI 3j.jCIII/qin.
he most pervasive influence on Aesthetic ceramics "'as japollislIle. The firm of the French ceramicist ]oseph-Théodore Deck employed designers such as Félix Bracquemond (1833-191-1), ,,,hose ,\'ork used motifs taken from Japanese prints, placed at seemingly random inten'als. Bracqllemond's concept "'as copied in Britain, ",here any elements remotely oriental ",ere often profllsely (even indiscriminately) applied to ceramics to crea te the rich effects demanded by the market. These motifs ",ere applied to forms from the European, lslamic, or Chinese repertaires, sometimes in sharp angular planes drawn fram Japanese ceramics and metal",ork. Oriental elements such as bamboo-shaped handles ",ere often incorporated; oriental metalwork also inspired surface decoration, such as the c/oisOIlJIé effect emulated bv , Minton & Co.'s much-admired enamelled and gilded porcelain. In the 18705 and 18805 Minton developed the French technique of pilte-sllr-pfite, used to embellish ornamental pieces with predominantly Neoclassical themes fused with japollislIle. Minton and Wedgwood also employed
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262
Dn'55er ,/'nS cnpab/e is
freelance conunercial designers such as Christopher Oresser fer their industrial production, and created special Art pottery deparhnents. Doulton's Lambeth Faience Co. produced delicately incised salt-glazed stoneware based on earlier European prototypes and Minton's Art Pottery Studio made hand-painted figllrative paneIs with subjects from contemporary painting in a flat japanesque style. Oesigns by other artists such as Albert Moare, Walter Crane, and John Moyr Smith were widely disseminated through transferprinted table\vare and tiles. Tastes varied greatly. Majolica was produced in a variety of naturalistic fom15 in bright colours in contrast to the austere Dresser-inspired geometry of Watcombe's unglazed terracotta wares. Dresser's other contribution was at Linthorpe, where he and Henry Tooth developed art pottery with coloured, ofien running glazes dripping down forms drawn from a variety of near and far·eastern forms, prefiguring the studio pottery of the Arts and Crafts Movement. l
Tiles and Plaques 1 TJ¡e Tilmbourine Plaver.
frOIl/ 11 series of eig/ll c/nssicnl/y illspiredJigllres ¡I'itl/lllusical ¡liS/fin,,!!,,!:;. d('siglled by 101m ¡\loyr Smi//¡ tmd procil/ced by ¡\lilltOIl
Chilla I\'orks, c.t8¡6.
A..'oi/able ill d~fJerellt cO/Olml'ay=" desiglls sudl as /fli" ¡pere adapfed by ofller mnlll~fncfl/rerS for d(fferelllll/cdia, nlld l!le ti/es fllelllsef¡,o it'ere l/sed to decomfe dmirs, stO¡~. alld imsfl-stnllds, etc. Hf 20.5clII/8ill. 2 Gllilll".'t·n! ,t'ears a /rose Hellellisfic gOil'll in f1¡jsllailltt'd enrlllellimre lIenrfll, llrobn/l!y dt'Siglled by Dnllit'! Cottier nlld madI! by Cottier & Co. ;n LOlldoJl. TI,e tilt'S n[Jo¡y are frOIll 1\ loyr Smitll's Fairy Tale series
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dt'Siglled for Millfoll, 18/3-4-, mrd fflr JireJ,/n((' ;1I~fnl1t'd in G/l'II"i/!t/' All1llsioll, )'ol/kas, Nr'l' )'ork, lmill (.1876-7.
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4 Siglled by IVillinm Stl'p/iell ColenulIl (IS29'"""IgO-lJ, l/lis enrthellimn' plaque ,,,tlS
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French Influences 1
111 porcf'fnill seTt';US sudt ns
Sen·ice Rousscau nl/d ti/{, Ser".ice Parisien (il/lIstrall'd tI/I.'
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....------------------------------------------American Ceramics The Pursuit 01 Beauty 1 AmlOJl Faienu eagfe-spolll pitcller mnde by lh;> Cllesnpeake Pottery. Bnltimore, Alnry/nlld. c.lS82. Tlu! form 01 fIJe SpOll1 ;5 ecJlOe,j in lile eagle JItad wJ¡icll forms tite lIpper part o/ fhe lumdle. HI 10(111/4;11.
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Art Pottery, Cillcimlt1ti, OJ¡io. C.1SS2.-J. Ht 19C111/7'1.;1I. 3 Hllllgllriml FaiCllce l!il'a J1Illdc by !Jlt'
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tlle ejforts 0181'111I Pitmflll. all ElIglislmUlII ;:1'110 iJl 1873 begflll tt'OOd-cnn';lIg classt'S (se" p.261) lofloit't'd by c1/i"n pai"tillg classes iJl 1874-; batll ellterpri~'S eJ/joyed tllI? strollg slIpport 01 10m! womell. Ht 26.jcm/1OY, ;11. 4 BlIjf mSt' decorated ¡;j,;t/¡ /x.'t'S alld s;:twl-p,'as by Jalle Porter Dodd of tI/I.' Cillcillllflti POllery Club. 1881. Tlze club wasfolllldcd in 1879 by
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honeycomb surface resembling hand-hammered metal. The Rookwood Pottef)f Co. in Cincinnati developed a sophisticated series of glazes painted with lffiderglaze decoration of whimsical animals inspired by Japanese Htnllgn Uapanese comic books) and the J. & J.C. Low Art lile \I\'orks, Chelsea, Massachusetts, produced thickly glazed tiles with relief decoration, which were sometimes incorporated into objects such as dock cases (see p.269). Hand decoration \Vas also highly valued. Tile clubs, sud, as that fOlUlded in New York in 1877 under the patronage of the painter Winslow Homer (1836-1910), encouraged the fashion, popular in Britain, for painting on ceramics. AIso in New York (after training in England) John Bennett (1840-1907) painted cera mies ",ith flat, linear, stylized flowers executed in a strong palette of vitreous enamels inspired by Persian ceramics and the work of \lVilliam Morris. Relief decoration was also praetised by artists sueh as Agnes Pitman (1850-1946; daughter of Berm) in Cincinnati and Isaac Elwood Scott (1845-1920) at the Chelsea Keramie Works.
2 The Pastorall'tlst.', ,dt/¡ its cltlssi((l/ icollogmp/IY, ¡¡'tlS dí.'sigllí.'d tll/d lIIodel1ed by Istltlc Broo",c ill 1876 (l/lli mtlde of ((1st termcotttl-colol/l't'/I porcl'1tlill by Ott & Brt'il'er, Trt'/ltoll, ¡\k't, Jersey. Ht 4,CII//I 7 ~il/.
3 Orielltnf &etltell lIIetn/lI'urk is rectll1ed il/ tlle
1t00leycolllwd surfaCt' of this /ctld-gltl=ed I'flrt111'Jli:l'tlrC ,'tlS(' IIltldl' tlt Clte/setl Kernmic I\rt 1V0rks, OU'/SI'(I, AltlSSllcllllsettS, C.1879-8;. Ht 19"CIII/71.ill.
1 AJI ctlrtltell'il'flrt' plaque ptlillted by Jo/m BI'IlJldt ill Neil' York, 1878. Blltter(lit'S (llId &ees é'lIcirch' blossoll/ ill Dile of Bé'llIletf's
ilion' j(lpnJlcsqllc desiglls, ngaillst n crnckh'll-icc backgrouJld derir.'ed frOIl/ orienttl/ cemll/irs. Tllc sl'llsifi.,,, tlrr(l/l~t'lI/t'IIt ol motif." tlmi sopIJistiCflf..d ¡Ja1l>ttl' a/"l'/wl/I//tlrks of Bl'llIlett's iL'ork. Dinlll. ;6CIII/141,ill.
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5 A fi'at ofgi/dillg and pnilltillg,
wi/fllf aSYlIIlIIl'fry nml colllpfex i1/IISiOllistic o¡>erlappillg offorll/s 011 tlJis g/a=ed enrtlU'lIimre tile; desigll n/tribllted lo Art/lJlr OSVoltrlll', madI.' {IY tlu' J. & J.G. LOi{! A,.t TUc Works, Che/sen, Massac!ll1set/s, J881-4. Hl1,cm/6ill.
t/Jis cartllclIWtlr.. co.ltred ¡'nse ,l'as decomted l/llder tI,,,, slIperpisiol/ of Ed1l'ard Lycett tll /he Faiellcc J\>ftll1lljnctllrillg Compal/Y, Grecllpoillt, Brook/y", Nei{! Yo,.k (.1884-90.
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Glass Brilain, France, and lhe Uniled Slales
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HI19clII/7'1:ill. 4 A sl/perb CXtllllple of Acstllefic
1 TII!! }Joil'dt'l't!d gilt specklillg file gmrlunted 8rt!Y Sl'ollluf o/ t!lis o<'~forlll glnss ,'(lse, prnduc.:d by Bnccnmt ill Ulle, c.1SBo, elllll/n/!!;; fhe e/fect ~ftl.'!l fOlll1d 0/1 japallt'se
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/ncl'/lIt?J'. NI 19·jCIII!7'1.ilJ. 2 Popular At'sthetic de:::.iglls, SUe/1 115 ti/ese pre:i:HIIOlllderl g/nS5 cnkc pIntes s/wped like
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/r(II//(' 01 golrlell qumTies produced by sih'er sinín (sodilllllllitrnte). Ht 66.jclI1/26'úll.
6 Edwl1rd 81/1"11('-101/1'5 dcsigl1cd tI/t' fisures l1lld Pllilip Webv fin' (jllnrrit's for OlÍs N!orris & Co. wil/dow,jor tl Refresillllellt RoolII ill f!le SOl/tll Kel/sillgfoll M/151'1/1I1 (I/OW tlle Victoria & Albert MIISCIIIII), i-olldoll, 1867-9.
2 ¡\ lade for Liberty & Ca. of LOlldoll ¡,y Jllllle:' COllpa & SO/lS of Gla:'goil', 11Iis ~CllltJ/{/H alllOrpllic grt:'t:'1I ¡:'a=-e ,/'itll III! opaqlle sil'irl ,{"l/S 11t:':'iglled llY ClIrislopfler Drl'Sst:'r alld P!pdl/Ct'11 c.1880--<)6. Tlle lIIottlt:'d or 1mbbkll gla;;s ¡I'as illspired by t'xeni.'llled ROlllall slass.
3 Au iIll/s/mtiOIl from C/lIIrJ.'S 8fXlf1":5- :\lodern Surface Omamenl (;-..·....1' York 18"J. 8000, i¡'l/S IlQm in Li,'t'rpoolllllll IIctirt:' ill Xt:'i:I' Yorkfrolll I/I"ol/l,d 187j-80. Hi:5- icork "J¡OiI'S /l/l' t:'xlt'lIt /0 iI'hiel, A6tfletic dt~igll. partiC/flar1.1f l/le 11 Amaimll d6igll circh':5-l~!! l/le lI1ill-18;0:5-.
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1 OatillgfTOlllaTOlIlld 1870, Cllri:otopller Dn's$t''-s Frost t1t>sigll for a staiut:'d-g/ass ,('i¡¡.hM' ,{",b il/:-pirúi by skttdl(s 1lt:' JlIld made offrosl 011 IIis 1I'illdo
2
he 18705 and 18805 wihlessed an explosion in stained glass production for domestic and public settings, partly an offshoot of extensive church glazing schemes, Figtuative panels designed by leading British artists, notably Edward BUrlle-Jones (1833-98) for Morris & Co., translated into glass the Aesthetic fine art motifs of languid maidens in aJlegorical guises, executed in golden yellows and earthy browlls with flashes of h.uquoise and ruby red. Flat background patterns composed of quarries (small, geometric panes) with com-entionalized leayes and flowers or pattems, stressed the two-dimensionai nah.ue of the panels, while admitting light to richly decorated interiors. Hand-painted or transfer-painted panels, usually of flowers and birds, proliferated in the doors and hallways of urban dwellings where the new tedmique of sandblasting was used to crea te a series of matte, or frosted, fOffi15 against a c1ear background. Christopher Dresser's geometric stained-glass designs illustrate his belief that a window should "never appear as a pich.ue with parts treated in light and shade." In the
T
3
United Sta tes, Charles Booth (18-1+-93), interpreted Dresser's geometricized plant forms with windows executed in a predominantly aquamarine, amethyst, pink, and pale yellow palette. ~1 1879, john La Farge deveJoped opalescent glass and pioneered plating (layering sheets of glass) to create combinations of texture and colour, also exploited by Louis Cornfort Tiffany, allowing subtlety that \Vas tmprecedented in shading, tone, and density. Aesthetic motifs, from nah.lfalistic flowers, \'ines, and ferns to japanesque devices, were painted, gilded, engra\'ed, or enamelled onto opaque and c1ear glass hollow-wares. Clear or colonred pressed table-glass \\Tas popular. A number of teclm.ical de\'elopments were made in tl1e USo In 1878 Frederick S. Shirley patented la\'a glass (1a\-a ash created the black body colour), embedded with chips of coloured glass and enamels and blo\Vn into simple shapes i.nspired by recent European excavations of Roman glass, Other techniques resulted in the subtle gradabon of colours, sLlch as Amberina glass, and the Chinese-inspired Peachblow glass.
26
Metalwork Naturalism 1 Casf-imll Jire slIrrOlllld desiglled in 1878 by TlIomfls }eckyll for fIJe NOIíI'ic1, fOl/ndry of Bamard. Bisllop & Bal'llards.
TJ¡e illjlllellce of japallf.'se desigl1 avol/uds ill tile trentnl/mt of the virds perclted il/ tlle spalldrels nl1d tl,c mons arOlllld fhe arc!Jcd grafe. Ht 96.5cm/3Sill. 2 The Botanic, a coppl.'r-p/ated brass cool scl/Hle alld sItO"e/ ¡l'it¡' a fin filler 011 a wrollg/lt-iroll
stalld .ms maJmfactl/red by Bell!Ia/ll & Froud in Loudoll. u892. Hl 58.5clII/23il/.
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Geometry 1-
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1 TIlI' strikillg geometry of tllij sill'4!r teapol, desiglled by CJlristopJ¡er Drl'sser {llld madI.' by HllkilI & Henth il1 Birlllillglmlll 111 1879. i5 n:/;('7.'1:d by ¡lte el/mue/kd cabad/GIl'; studding t}¡e j1attellcd s/lOulders, wlJile ¡lIe mfll1lel/cd
/l/Id gilt bOll(' disk 01 lapan!':;/' orig;1l scl ;lIto file /id sigllifies /l1l! designer's debt fa Japmll.'S1' art. Otller El/gUsl1 firms 511eh as E/bugtoll & Ca., ,t,/lid, dei'eloped tlle sihw dectroplntillS tec1miqll{', nnd ]mlll'S DixoJl & Sal/s, (St'C p.2- j:!.) nlfo"it'ed DrL'SSl'r fa desigll fi'tll ilion' strikillgJy nl/gll/nr {llIri Sei.'ere proto-lIIotiem desiglls for ten x-ri'ices (lnd e/arel jl/gs. wllicJl took ¡he colltl'lIIpomry illterest ill geo11letry fa extremes. HI 10.jCm!4Y.;II.
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esthetic metal\Vork \Vas extremeIy inventive and strongly infiuenced by Japanese and other Near and Far Eastcrn designs and techniques. Japanese motifs featured heavily in the design of Thomas Jeckyll's castiron pavilion which was "decorated in gold and orange, to the desígns of. .. Whistler," and shown at the international exhibitions in Philadelphia (1876) and Paris (1878). The design for the balustrade, \vhich consisted of stylized swúlowers, icons of the Aesthetic Movement, was adapted for use as cast-iron or gilt bronze andirons. Jeckyll also designed a series of AngloJapanese fireplace surrounds consisting of low-relief 1/10/15, often overlapping and asymmetrically arranged on diaper-pattern grounds. In France, interest in Chinese and Japanese art during this period was reflected in the designs manufactured by firms such as Christofle & Cíe. in Paris. In the United States, Japanese as well as Moorish influences were developed in the desígns of Edvvard Chandler Moare (1827-91) designing for Tiffany & Co.
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...._----_.. from the 1870s. Tiffany's japanesque sílver typically combined organic forms, often with attenuated spouts and handles, and hand-hammered surfaces. The surface of the metal was embellished \vith Japanese-inspired motifs, which were chased and engraved or inlaid with copper and other base metals (knmvn as Ilie//o work), a practice outlawed in Brítain. Much commercial British and American Aesthetic sil ver consisted of straightsided or very simply curved vessels decorated with engraved designs of Anglo-Japanese natural plant and bird forms. Techniques inspired by the Near and Far East, such as c/Oi5OJlIlé enamelling and decaration imitating Japanese komai work, were developed in Britain by Elkington & Ca.. Cast iron was also increasingly used for furniture, and brass was among the metals used for items such as dock cases and light fittings, particularly in the U5, where Dresser-inspired stylized botanical ornament was incorporated on cast-brass plant stands with winged feet and angular decoration.
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American Designs 1 Covcred bowll1wde of casi brom:e alln clmsed wil/¡ daisy heads el/tang/en jn spiders' ¡¡¡rbs, blf M. Louisc McLnugltlill o/ Cillcill1wti in 1884, Ht 13.5C11I!j'l.ill. 2 Broll::.e mal/le/ dock case il1corporatillg gln::ed eartheuware tiles by tllC J. & J.C. Low Art Ti/e Works, Clle/sen, Massnc/llIsefts. TI/e works are n/tributed fo fhe
New HaveJI C/ock Compal/Y, New Havell, COllllecticlIt, 18S4~O.
HI 30·5cm/lúll. 3 Dile of tlu' mos! bi::.arre cren/iolls
01 lIJe AestiJetic
Mo<.'clIICllf ill IlllljlllCdilllll, ¡his
po/is/lcd Cl1sf-bmss p/mll stfllld illset ¡{'itl¡ LOIIgwy Iíles, WIlS
4/npnllesque water pi/cher desigl1ed by Edwnrd e MOOl'e, witl! si/ver irises, Cllrp, Illld dmgollfly il1lllid in brOlce. lvlade by T~ffnllY & Co. il! New York abOllf 1877, Ht 2001l/8ill.
probab/y made in Meridcll, COIlIlcctiwf, alln re/ni/ed by file Meridcll Flillf G/ass Co. nrOlllu! 1880. Ht 85.5clII/33'1;;II.
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2 1 Qlle of {/ pajr 01 cloisonné el/ame! alln e1ectrogilded broll::.e vnses; ¡he desigll is allributed to Albert WillilllllS, fhe III1l11l1fllClure to Elkillgtoll &
Co. of Birlllillgllllll1, ClSl5. Ht 35·5clII/14ill. 2 TllÍs Cllillese c!oisonné vnse WIlS illlported to Pllris, where it WIlS Ilssembled ill/o Illnl/lp, complete 'lI'it!l si/ver IlIld gilt glnss g/abe, by $lIsse Freres, ClSSO. Ht (ine. c!úllllley) 72·5clII/2S'/,!1I. 4 Brnss, pewter, Illld vnriolls woods Ilre illlnid Ollnll ii.lory-grOlllld jllrdil/iere l11nllllfnc/l/red by F. 01lvillnge ill Pllris, c1870, T!le orll/olll 11101llltS nre ofCllÍl/ese inspimtioll. \'V 31CIII/12Y, ill.
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Textiles and Wallpaper Textile designs al the 1870s 1 CO¡¡¡'l!lItiollali=cd spray:, 01 {lOH'CI"S ami (I!I//rcd diapl.'rs, tlle sf1apes of [{'JI ie/¡ are dt'l"il'cd fl"Om Islnlllic lilr~¡t'ork, mld a /h'ely dnsf, /olflis ¡/'O¡'CII iI'oo/-nlld-$ilk fexlik d6igllc.i ".'1 C/¡rist0J,¡'cr Dróx'r ami lIInde I'y !nlJ/es l\'. & C. \\'nrd ('1 Hn/{(.n il/ 1 S;l, 2 TI/e dl!$igll of tlu' pencock ill IfJis cn'il·t'!-;:/'Ork pnllt'/ is nttribl/ll'li lo PIJilip IVd,b. l/u' saol/illg .'ille bnckgrolllllf fa IVilliam ¡\Iorris. lt ¡cns mndl.' ¡'!! MOI'I'is & Ca. ill LOllfiol1 arOIlJld 1880, 76 x 1.01(11I/30 x 3ft 3il/.
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& RnulIIl, Londo/!. 56.5.\' .¡.6cm/2:!.'!;.\' 1Sil/. 4 Ddail oI n silk nlld ¡I'ool jilCfll1nrd-¡m,'eJI partiere ¡{'illt pnsxmcllferie l1ecomliol/, I'roll(/l1Iy de,;iglled ¡'y Tallll.'rt nI/ti milite l1.i11. & ¡.5. Tt'lIIp/dOIl &
Ctl. in GIIl,;go
3·5 x 1./5!11/11ft 6il1 x 5/1 9ill.
extiles played an important part 111 Aesthetic interior 5chemes, from carpets and curtains to upholstery, as \Vell as in dress. By the 1870s the influence of Owen Iones, ",ho published designs based on Etruscan, Greek, ~loorish, and other SOluces, in addition to designing textiles for commercial production, was being felt in Britain and the United Sta tes. Christopher Dresser also designed textiles indebted to Tones, which followed his principIes of using convcntionalized motifs from naturc. The stress on suitability of ornament steered designers aH'élY from three-dimensional illusionism towards linearitv and f1at patterns based on what Jones termed "geometrical construction." Gi"en this emphasis on fiatness, sophisticated methods of disposing 5urface pattero were gleaned from Japanese art, which particularly captured the imagination of designers such as E. W. Godwin and Bruce Talbert. Some of Godwin's patterns utilized repeated circular motifs derived fram Japanese wood~
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blocks, whereas Talbert adapted Japanese and lndian sources in his textile designs, which included a number for partieres. Like Morris's designs, Talbert's floral motifs owe their li\'eliness to his careful studies of na tu re. The fluid lines of sorne of \'Valter Crane and Lewis F. Day's textile and wallpaper designs prefigured the Art Nom'eau mo\'ernent which followed. In contrast to the approach pre\'alent in textile prodllction in the 18505, japanese inflllence also helped to simpllfy the colours lIsed in textiles. Many of the textiles prodllced lll1der the direction of WilJiarn Morris (183-!--1904) were rnade lIsing \'egetable dyes in colours inspircd by lndian textiles, in part a reaction to the strident colours prodllced by chemical dyes in the preceding decades, and his firm's printed textiles re\'i\'ed the lost art of indigo dyeing. Encollraged by designers slIch as Morris as wel! as E. \ V. Godwin and James McNeill "Vhistler, subdlled secondary and tertiary (dllbbed "greenery-yallery") colours came to characterize the Aesthetic interior,
Japonisme and Beyond
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Butterfly brocndc dcsigl1cd by E.\ V. God1l'ill nlld III11(fl' b!lIVllrl/er, Sil/di & RI1I1l111, LOl1doll, C.1S74. /t ,('as ¡Jl'v/J(lb/y CtJlIIlI¡j~ÚiJIh'd by COllillSOIl & Lock. 51 x 55C1U/:W x 21~ill. 3 /11 J,is Batt il'OVCJl si/k desiglll'd C.lSS0 for Onllil'1 1Valte,.:, & SOl/S, Gcorge Haité !lns ll$cd ol'alnppillgjluttWS, rcctnngles, nlld sqll(lrl's clllb/n:OIU'd witllnllspiciolls CI1incse l1111s.
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2 Detail uf tl/t' Large Syringa silk dr1lllllsk desigllcd 11.11 Godwill. 1S75. {lnd ¡¡writ' by IVllnler & RIlIIIIII ilI LUI/doll. Co/i;t'in OWI/l'd n {npnlll.'5c ovo/> oj mOllS t/mf jl/spired file desiSII. 3.30 x 1.701ll/10!1 10il1 x 3ft ¡iJl. 4 Confillentn/ Art Nom.'call is ¡m'figul'cd in l/lis (ktnil
uf n príllft'd
Tussah "jlk depictillg allegaricnl ftSlll'6, deúgllt'd by Léoll Vicfor Sohm, C.1S93. 2.86 x 1.69111/9ft 5ill x 5ft ¡ill.
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'{ln/lpnper SC}¡t'1II1!' dei.'ised by Cnlldflce ¡-,¡'!Jeder for he,. .{'¡IIJliIlS
3 Apple Blossom .pnl/papa dt'SiglJcd by Leil'is F. Ony (lila lumd prillled by Jeffrey & Ca. for NI.8. Sill1~1l & SO/l:; ;11
of file ,{'nI/papel" sc/lemcs lit'
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1878. Day's colH'illcillg
dCi.,ised eOIl/mS! fI flowillg ji/l/lIg fl/!'Sigll wit/I a /llore gcolI/í'fric
lcal/papa desigll competitioll ill ¡S81; flu' sih't'T JlOlle~,coJ1lbs of
illll5'ioJl of mndom/y scnffered bJossolll COllcl'n/s n tiglltly
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tlle jiUillg conlnillrd go/dm ce/k
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272
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W allpaper carne into its own as a medium for creative design during the Acsthetic Movement. An unprecedented interest in the most suitable methods of decorating wal1s led to a number of prolific and versatile cornmercial designers being commissioned by manufacturers to produce patterns. The walls of the Aesthetic interior were llsllally divided into three sections, comprising a frieze, filling, and dado. As with textiles, sllbdlled tertiary colours predominated, and papers were prodllced in d¡fferent colourways to assist matching, with designers employed t~ produce en tire complimentary sets. Natural motifs predominated in waUpaper design at this periodo William Morris designed wallpapers (as well as textiles) depicting scrolling and flowing organic motifs filtered through the art of the Medieval and Indian textiles which he admired, while designers such as Lewis F. Day, Dresser and Godwin drew heavily on Japanese 3rt for innovation in their designs. British wal1papers enjoyed popularity in the United
States, particularly those produced by Morris & Co. and the designs of Walter Crane, who brought his superb control of linear mohfs to the medium. In the U5, Candace Wheeler (1827-1923) produced patterns combining naturalist plant forms with geometric Japanese-inspired patterns. Wheeler based her designs on American flora and fauna, and superimposed carp on formalized spirals oE rippling water in her textiles and, notably, swarming bees and blossom against él honeycomb lattice in the fill of él wallpaper designo Machine-printing \Vas widely used by this stage, and technical advances allowed firms such as Warren, Fuller & Co. of New York to apply bronze powders in a liquid sta te, producing multi-coloured papers highlighted with gold, sil ver, and bronze tints, \vhich created a shirnmering effect of illusory depth. Lincrusta-Walton, él composihon material evocative of 17th-century embossed leather waH co\'erings and often gilded, satisfied a demand for highrelief waUpaper.
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Rhythm and Line 2 The Bamboo 'lmllpnper desigllcd by E. W. Gonwin il!
free al1n ho/ti Ilse oj Jnpl1!1cse lIIolifs wllicJi
1872 nClllolIsfrntes
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c%ur:: il1spired by Jllpl1!lCSe ¡¡'oodblock prillts, 01" ukiyoe.
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LL 1 ClIrisfopller Dress['/" 's dcsiglls for ¡l'lllipnper (lnd frice cOlllbillc fiat Ilbstrnclen plan/ fOl"ms wi/h, in l/le fillillg, Ce/fic intcr/acing. rhe /1l1l'l1l0niOlfS colol//" 5chelllc rms enlCIIla/en l/O/ lo o<'erpower ¡lIterior:.. 3 TIIe rlIythlllic qlla/ities al ¡ille (lre IUI/ens/len in Wa/ter Crnnc's watercolOllr l1!1d gOl/ndle SWilll dndo dcsigllcd ill 1877 fa IlCCOIIIP(IIl!! Iris Iris and Kingfisherl1/1ing. 53.3 x 53.3CIII/21 x 21 ¡IJ.
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of a Sc!leme designed for Jeffrey & Ca. in 1877. A SCI"ollilIg c!oud lIIotif derh/cd {mm ariell/tl/ tlrl pro¡.'üies a sublle bulliile/y background lo tlle designo iUOS porl
2 5110rtly after ¡lis retufl1 from JapillI C/Iris/ap/la Dresser
dcsiglIed I¡lis AlIglo-Japilllese
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Arts and Crafts Furnilure 278 British 278 European 283 Amencan 284
Cerarnics 286 Glass 288
The Arts and Grafts Movement began as an English decorative arts movement in the second half of the 19th century. It was a rebellion against the Victorian fashion for inventive sham and over-elaborate design and it made a concerted attempt to break down established barriers between artists, designers, and craftpeople. As well as a style, it was a movement of ideas about work, art, and society, developed by eminent writers, architects, and artists lrom Thomas
Silver and Metalwork 290
Garlyle (1795-1881 j, A.w.N Pugin (1812-52), and John Ruskin (1819-1900) Textiles and Wallpaper 294
to William Morris (1834-96) - the lather figure 01 the movement. n 1861 Morris and his friends set up Monis, Marshall, FauLkner & Ca. to design and produce domestic decorative arts together with ecclesiastic stained glass. The architect Philíp Webb (1831-1913), the PreRaphaelite artists Ford Madox Brown 0821-93), Edward Burne-Jones (1833-98), and Dante Gabriel Rossetti <1828-82), as wel! as Morris himself, a11 designed for the firmo From the 1870s, trading as Morris & Ca., the company was associated with a number of younger designers including the metalworker, Benson (183+-192~). William De Morgan (1839-1917) designed tiles for both Morris & Co. and the Century Guild founded in 1882 by A.H. Mackmurdo (l831-19~2) along similar lines. Although its output was limitcd, Century Guild furnitllre, waUpaper, and textiles int111enced CEA. Vo)'se)' (l837-19~1) and other British Arts and Crafts designers as well as avant-garde figures such as Henri van der Velde (1863-1957) \Vho \Vere more closely connected with Art Nouveau. Morris's writings, lectures, and the force of his personality had as much impact on the next generation as his practical example. In 188-1, architects, designers, artists, and manufacturers set up the Art \Norkers' Guild, which "-as the first of several net\' cross--disciplinary organizations that attempted. to crea te a fresh approach to the design and making process. The associated group, the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society, \Vas named by the bookbinder, T.J. Cobden-Sanderson (1&10-1922) in 1887, and his plliase, "Arts and Crafts," became the generic title of the movement. The Arts and Crafts Movement was based on simple forms, an almost sensuous delight in materials, and the use of l1ature as the SOllrce of pattem. The generation bOrIl in the 18505 and 18605 \Vere at the forerront of the movement. 111ey \,'ere passionate abollt the decorati\'e arts and the processes of making. 111eir \\"ork could be highly decorated but \\-as often extremely plain, taking inspiration from vemacular traditions. The roughness and simplicity of some \,-ork could be cnlde but the richness of many interior schemes and individual designs
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Ltft: C.F.A \lo.IfSf.'Y, Brilaill, .ksigll for a elock cnj(' pail/kli in oils. '895. V01(,;n,I illcorJJOrated IIIOttOl.':i j'lfo his tmrk, ami jl/n'sll'li /l/otif;; ~lIcfl a_~ 1111' free al/d do,'!' ,,,ir/¡ sYlllbo/ic IJIt'nllillgs. TJ/t'5!' eJell/ellts lll'CflIlle pnl"l of tht: desigll rocahl//nry of IIJi' ;irfs nlld Cmft:.; MO¡'l'lm'lIf.
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Opposite: file n'frcs/tiIlS silllplicify nmi ~cak (lf ml/ell Arts 11IId Cmfts .t'Ork l//(Ilil' tf plTrtiC/l/arly apprvprjnft' fllT t11('
dOll/t'sfk il/ferior. l\'O¡'l'1l alld pril//¡'¡i fextiles blJ A!orri:, & Co. art' sho'l'Illtm' .t'itlt pottay /ly ti/e! ¡\Iarlin Brotl/CTs nlld IriJ/ialll De Alol:.\'nll, mld a sih't'r-I'/nfed C(lJldh'sfick by IV.A.S. B¡'IISOII.
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1 Emes! Bnms/ey. ¡he Jibrnry ni RodlllnrlOIl A'lnll('l~ Glolt({,~tcr~'ún',
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nl/ll ,;fOllí' pro¡'id". tll". llll~fyill~fflctor betil'tYII file IlIlIdscnpe, the IIDI/se, tllld ffll' fllmifllrl!, crentillg n spnrfnll ye! restflll atlllosplu:n'. T/u,' gardell beyoud ;:/'0'; lreafed as 11 '5I.'rit'50I
en
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gj¡'illg ;:L'ay fa 1II0re IJafl/rn/ pltllltillg. 2 A.T.]. Cobdel/-Snlldasoll, Ecce Mundus:
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Industrialldeals and the Book Beautiful.
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[orll/s alld geome!ric pnttems. His illtelh'cfl/nJ aud litemry skills fOil lid exp'~~/(m ill Hle Dopes Prt'5$, il'/¡jcJ,lle ¡aml/fel! ¡/'iH, EmI'r.'!
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skills liS a lJook/¡illder, l/sillg untllml
Wn/ker iJl 1902.
1
276
\Vas visually shmning. Ordinar)' domestic items for the middle-class ha me - kitchen dressers, kettles, and eurtains - \Vere considered worthy of serious artistic endeavour. Amateur work, often bv , women, \Vas encouraged ",hile the female role as consumer and decorator within the home was increasingly valued. The Arts and Crafts Movement \Vas a rehellion of both substance and style. Its pO\\'er came from tile conviction that art and eraft (ouId change and improve people's lives. Some cf thase involved with the movement were socialists and many more had a radical approach to art, work, and 5ociety. TIle written \Vord and therefore the associated book crafts played an important role in establishing and popuJarizing the movcment. With the printer, Emery Walker (1851-1933), Morris sel up the Kelmscott Pres5 in 1890; others in Britain, Germany, and the United States followed suit. The crafts of bookbinding, lettering, and typography "'ere developed and, through the work of Edward jolmston (1872-19+1) in particular, these impacted on design throughout the fírst half of the 20th century. Arts and Crafts designers were concerned with methods oE productiOl1, partIy as él reaenan against the
shoddy nature of much Victoria n mass-production and also to provide creative and satisfying employment. Sorne designers sl1ch as Voysey and M.H. Baillie Scott (1865-19-15) entntsted their designs to él fe\\' reputable manufacturers. Machine production and technology \Vere embraced ",here they performed él llseful role, for example in the precisely engineered metahvork DE W.A.S. Benson; hQ\vever, hand craftsmanship was particlllarly valued both for aesthetic considerations and because it could provide satisfying work for craftsmen. Craft gllilds or workshops emulating Rllskin's Guild of St George were set up. CR. Ashbee's Gllild of Handicraft (1888-1908) and the Haslemere Peasant lndustries (1896-c.193]) in Britain and, in lhe US, the Byrdcliffe Colony (1902-15) are typieal of the range of workshops whieh provided training and employment. The Arts and Crafts Movement believed in learning from tradition. Historie and foreign styles \Vere studied, absorbed, and llSed in the evollltion of new designs. Designers sueh as De Morgan and CR. Ashbee (1863-19-12) revived long-forgotten techniques such as lustre glazing and lost wax easting by a process of both research and trial and error. The architcct and designer,
Emest Gimson (1864--1919) deseribed the Arts and Crafts approach, writing '1 never feel myself apart from my own times by harking back to the past, to be complete we must live in aH the tenses, past, future as well as present." Following Morris's example, the medieval period with its rich narrative tradition "'as an important source of inspiration. Designers also~ echoed the Aesthetic Movement's admiration for Japanese art as weH as looking to Renaissance Europe, India, and the Middle East for their creative \rision. In a similar manner to Islamic art, much Arts and Crafts decoration was based on plant fom1s. Both Morris and ¡ohn Sedding (183&-91), ",hose architectural office provided a training ground for many leading designers including Gimson and Henry "Vilson 086-1.-193-1.), emphasized the importanee of drawing from nature for its uplifting qualities and to avoid staleness. The natural rhythms and patteros of plants and flowers were the refiection of a purity oC approach. ll1e Arts and Crafts designers reacted violently against the distortion of natural forms adopted by Art 1 ouveau in continental Europe. Symbolism, however, played an important role in both movements. ¡\llotifs such as the heart or the saiJing ship which represented the journey of life into the unknown reappear with regularity throughout the work of the Arts and Crafts commuruty. The British Arts and Crafts Movement found willing converts in North America from 1890 onwélrds. Following rapid industrial expansion in the post-Civil War period, a eentralized, urban, and industrial society had emerged in large parts of the Uníted Sta tes. Between 1860 and 1900 the number of office workers had tripled
and for many individuals the Arts and Crafts Movement provided an alternative to urbanized dwelling and the resulting 105s of autonomy. The main areas of craft activity incJuded the eastern seaboard from Boston southwards to Philadelphia, the central region around Chicago, and southem California. fndividual designermakers set up studios alongside craft colonies and large semi-industrial workshops. Arts and Crafts influence in Britain, the United States, and continental Europe encouraged the use of design to improve industrial manufacture. In many cases nual crafts and foIk art were also revitalized. The reappraisal of native foIk traditions as part of a seareh for national identity linked the Arts and Crafts Movement to popular nationalist movements particularly in Nonvay, Finland, lreland, and Hungary. -111e Arts and Crafts Movement has made a powerful and pervas~ve contribution to international designo Art 5choo15 and technieal college5 5uch as the Central School of Arts and Crafts in London played él significant role in fostering the movement. In turn the Arts and Crafts approach influeneed the teaching of art, cralt, and design in Britain, the United States, and, to a lesser extent, in Gcrmany through to the 19505. lts inf1uenee on design rllns from Art Nouveau through to the Bauhaus, the Modern Movement, and contemporar)' eraft practice, while many rurnihlre makers working today still see their roots in the work of designers such as Baillie Seott, Gimson, and Voysey. 4 1-\/illiall1 Monis, sketches, 1893. His doodles of plallts (lIId j70¡¡'CfS 0/1 a socialisf leaj7et abollf tlle pligltf of fI/e IIIi,wrs illdiente tlle dyl1tllllic re1aliollsllip belil'WI file Arfs al/d Cmjts. ll'OI"k, mul socil'!y.
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3 Comptoll Pottery. plallter. C.1910. 11I5pired by tlle HOIII~'
Arts alld Illdustrie:; AssociatioJl, Alary 5etoll {Vafts (1849-1938) set IIp craft cfasSt'S for local pl'Ople ill tlle ¡'iUage of COII/plol/. lIear GlIildford, 5l1rrey. TlU! sc1u)(}1 sold ils gardeu ornameJlts ill grey alld red ferrncoffa, decornted
4
2~
British Furniture Celebrating Woodworking Crafts
2 1 \,\lillinll1 Alorris nl1d OmIte G(l/¡ricll~OS5('/ti, cllni!"s, 1856-¡. T!J,' d6igll, iJl5pin:d by ¡\ Icdi'7.,tll IIIflll1l5cr¡piS, ¡en t11 n's sfmell ¡ mi
de/ni/s sI/eh (/5 piullen ioilIts (lnn /(11/ clumifl'rl'd upriSflls.
HI 1..fIll/.¡.ff ¡Iiu. 2 C/Jnrh's Remtie 1\.lflCkilll(1~J¡. dt':::J.; fllld clJnirs.ftlr flu' /i/lrm~/, Glflsgotl,
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Se/lOO/ ol Art, 19]0. Tlll' Sfflill('d 0lPre:;.s sI/PI'0rfs 01 (!Ji:: dt'sk roe// l/tI<'c (1 diffl.'rt'I/1 dt'Sigll rd(ltillg to tI/t' Iibrm~(s (lrclli(ecfllml lrotllrt~. Des/.: 111 1.36111/.ift 5ill. 3 Erie 5/10111(', ook sefft'l', C.1929· Arls mld Cmfts dt'Siglli'rs lJnti (1
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COIIS( rIIet illlml/i.'(Itllrt'S ;,/ tllór
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278
4 5idl1t'Y Bnrlls/ey, oak dillillg table, 1923-'¡'. Tlle Bnrllsleys adapted
5 fmesf GiIllSCII, sidebonrd (Inri pInte stand. 1915. Arfs (Inri Cmft:;
fmditiOl1nl ¡¡'OOd¡l'Orkillg tec/1!liqllt's fo (Inri n riistillcti1.'e erige lo tlteir desigl/S.f lte chnlllfl'rt'd 1I11delfmll1 iIIg dai,'t's ¡mm Ihe Ilnymke. 80<1'1 by A~fred Powel/ (sce 1).287). Table ¡¡'o 1·95111/6ft 5ill.
desigllers l/sed wn/llul fol' ils filie gmill al/(f lillks ,(,itll e/assic Ellglish 17'11- nnri 18tll-celltury desigll. He,./! it ;5 strikillgly cOlllbilIt'd witll IIIflcnSS1l1' l'/JOIIY.
Ht 1.54111/5ft, w. 2.05/11/6fl 81.ill.
5
Decorative Treatments 3 LO!lisc Powl!/l nl/d Pe/!!r \'\'nals, ddail oj ¡!le VVoodpecker cabillc!, 19205. The dmweI" .frollts of . l/lis pieee ¡¡JeFe <'el/caed in sntimcood, prol.'idillg n dapplcd bnckgrolllld for LOlli:,!' Powell's oi/ pl1inted desigll.
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frol115 mui I!le li/les ofgOl/ged decomtioll reflcct tlle light IJlld ndd ,'¡gollr /l/lIi IIIOVClllf'IIl lo tllis IIl1polislled oak pica.
2 Artlwr ROllllley GrcclI hS72-19.J.5), de/ni! of n ches! 01 dmiPC!":;, 1920S. Normal/y 0111 01. sigllf, fhese benlltijJllly (lit d01.'dl1ils ell/mnce tlle desigll, Iike lile contmstillg onk 1lOdYllm/ ¡he figured IIIncnssnr cbol/Y drm:l'eI" ¡rollf.
3 4 Gl'Orge \'Valfol1, Bru~~els chail~
c1899. WaltOll added fl/e
lIbiqllilol1,; ileart-shaped wtOllt motij lo all efegant jorll! iJlspíred
by 18fil-celllllry desiglls. HI 1.04!11f3jf 5Í!1. 5 C.EA. VOl/sel¡, Kelmscott Chaucer ca/Ji!lcl, 1896. Tl1e n.'clilillear desig!l co!!l/Jilled ,l'ilh
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4
5
he phrase "good citizen's furniture" coined by William Monis in 1882 expressed the intensely moral character of the Arts and Crafts Movement. It emphasized the central role of simple domestic pleaslu·es and the populist audience at which the movement was targeted: the middle classes rather than an artistic élite. The Arts and Crafts Movement was based arOlU1d the home. lhe Gotruc style adopted by High Victorian architects such as vVilliam Burges (1827--81) and by Philip Webb in the 18605 and 18705 \Vas not particularly appropriate for a domestic scale. A nev.,' approach was developed based on simple lines, exposed construction, and rural carpentry traditions. ReveaJed joints such as beautifuliy-cut cogged dovetails enhanced the decorative quality of the ",ood and fitted in with Morris's ideas about honesty. His comment that furruhue "... shouJd be made of timber rather than walking-sticks" was taken as support for framed-and-panelled construction in solid wood. Large tables vvith stretchers chamfered to the design of the traditional farm hay rake were both decorative and
T
Ht 1.67111/5/1 6ill.
practica!. 111e striking grain effects of planks of quartered oak OI figured vvalnut panels meant that, for Arts and Crafts designer-makers, additional decoration was often superfluous or was restricted to carpentry techniques such as chip-carving and gouging which could create a rich effect on the surface. The strong vertical and horizontal lines of much Arts and Crafts fmniture reflected the emphasis on simplicity and fitness for pllrpose in the architectllre of the periodo The most influential designers - CK Ashbee, Emest Gimson, and CEA. Voysey - were ardlitects, and funlihlre v..' as an important part of their interiors. TI1ey shared the interest of the Aesthetic Movement designer EvV. Godwin (1835-86) and Ford Madox Brown in )apanese art, llsing geometric effects such as la ttice work sometimes softened by chamfering. Even Charles Rennie Mackintosh (186&-1928), whose work grew out 01 the Arts and Cralts Movement even thOllgh it is more often d1aracterized as Art Nouveau, produced designs in the same idiom. Features of old v·,rork, particlllarly the chests and cabinets
27
Design Classics 2 AmblUSl.' Hl'a/, JHlrl 0[11 dillillg slli/('. 1938. A lafe t'.mmp1e iIIl/stmtillg tlll.' eudllrillg appea{ oj ti/(' Arts fllld Cra!ts approoch lo Jl/milllre. Heaf slIccessjl/lly promolt>d slraigJ¡~foril'flrd desigll" lo fl middle-cJfl':;$ IIInrket. Ht 91. jCm/36iJl.
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1 5idlley Barllsley. slatiollery box, (.1905. TI/e cr¡sp geometric in/ay j'l //lof/u!r 01 pearl 011 ti,;:; oak box H'as inspired by BIf:milillc arc11itectllre fllld decoratioll. L :!9C1Il/u/ill. 2 Regillflld Blollljield Kelltol/ & Cv., cabille! VII n sIal/d. 1891.
Jo,.
TIle decoratil.'t' geomelry o/ tlu.' Jronf (/lid tite tmsioll be/¡C!?!?ll rile
280
rectilillear dL'sigll oj Ihe cnbillf!f and tlu: pl't'Cisely tlll"llf:d frollllegs oj lile stalld Cr<'t1te a stl'Ollg impacto Blollljield dreil' illspimfioll /rolll 18t!I-CClItu ry illlaid fi In 1il 1l1'e. Ht 143111/4ft 81,ill.
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{/lId Cmfts, 5/,001/1.7 l'mp/Jasi:ed tlll' dOS<' n'/ntiollsllip beltl'Cl.'lI desigll fllld cmft. Ht t.:qm/61/ill. 4 AmbroSt, Hen1. Kewkn [wdrOOJll jl/mi/ur!!, C.1S9S. Tllt' woodcuf by lIJe are/lite,! C.B.H. QJlCIII1e/l he/ped fa I/1l1rkd Ibis muge of p/nill onk büfroom ¡l/milI/re by seUillg ir ;1/ ir:; Arls nlld Crafts colltext. 5 \V.R. Ú'thaby. Jmll fab/e. ctS92. TI/I.' seale fllld I'roportioll5
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of the 17th and 18th centuries, \Vere also absorbed and distilled into new rectilinear forms. The radical approach of these architect-designers influenced the Wiener Werkstatte (1903-14) and the work of the American5, Charles P. limbert Co. (1902....J-l) and Creene & Creene, as well as the fumiture 01 Cordon Russell (1898-1980) who ,vorked at Broad,vay, Worcestershire, in the 19205 and '305. Although simplicity was the dominant feature of the Arts and Crafts Movement, it was an adaptable style. \I\'alter Crane (18-:1:5-1915) wrote in 1913 abollt "the simplicity and splendour of theMorrisian method" ,vhile Morris jllstified "the blossoms of the art of furnitllre as much as for beauty's sake as for use." Ecc1esiastical conunissions were an obviolls area where designers could give free expression to their love of pattem and rich materials. But in addition, Morris and rus friends had painted pieces of domestic furnihJre for their OWIl use in the 18605, ",hile the simple four-square chests and cabinets produced by designers sllch as Baillie Scott, Gimson, and Peter Waals (1870-1937) were particularly slÚtable lor
painted decoration, \'eneers, or decorative inJays. As weH as using patterns inspired by nahJre, designers also looked to India, the Middle East, and Byzantium for decorative inspiration. In the fll.miture trade, small detajls sllch as inlaid floral rnotifs and heart-shaped cut-OlltS created an inunediate impression of Arts and Crafts style. Certain types of hmuture were regularly used in Arts and Crafts interiors. Medieval pieces 5uch as settles, dressers, long tables, and benches were still found in country ums and houses. Such pieces ",ere associated with cornmunal living and their simple lilles foerned the inspiration for new designs. Settles and dressers by Voyscy and Baillie Scott ",ere sometimes built in to eliminate awkward corners and simplliy cleaning. Dressers with plate racks were designed by Gimson and Sidney Bamsley (1865-1926) and "'ere also produced very successfuliy for a mass market by Ambrose Heal (1877 -1959). Thc importance of music and conununal entertairunent to the Arts and Crafts Movement encouraged designers such as Bume-Jones to produce decorated pianos. A range
2
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1 E/"IIt'::.! GiIllSOJl, dresser il1 oak stailled black, C.1902-5. Likc lile se/l/e, tire dresscr it'/lS mi aJ'chelypal picce 01 Arls al1d Cmfts fllmitllrc. Fealures sue/1as Ihe lntc" ha1ldles (l1Id lile
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of innm'ati\'e designs were developed by Baillie Scott and Ashbee with the firm of John Broadwood & Sons. Morris & Co.'s success with the adaptatian of a light, adaptable Sussex chair was emulated by many Arts and Crafts designers. Simple rush-seated chairs were designed by Ashbee and the Scottish architect George Walton (18671933) among many others. Gimson, working in conjuction with Edward Gardiner (d.1958), was the most prolific, producing nwnerous designs for ladder-back chairs.
After 1900,
282
c~ne
chaies became a popular choice foc
conunercial and domestic settings. Harry Peach (187.11936) introduced a nc'" range at the Dryad vVorkshops in Leicesler designed by Benjamin F1etcher (1868-1951) to compete with imports from continental Europe. The 18905 sal\' painters in central Europe join.ing forces against the art establishment and developing hvo distinct approaches to the Arts and Crafts Movement. One of these \Vas based on individuality: The Belgian artist, Van der Velde, was influenced by Morris's and Crane's theories about the unity of the arts. At Mathildenh6he near
Darmstadt, Emest Ludwig, the duke of Hesse had conunissioned work from the British designers, Baillie Scott and Ashbee. In 1899 he assembled an artists' colony. Young designers such Peter Behrens (1868-19-l0) and Joseph Maria Olbrich (1867-1908) produced simple fumiture based on British forms which was characterized by their painterly sense of decoration. As weU, in places as disparate as Russia, Hungary, and lreland, craft centres were set up in country areas by philanthropic landowners. They brought local craftspeople into contact with artistdesigners to enhance the rural economy. Basic skills such as woodcarving were taught and fumiture '.vas produced in tune with the Arts and Crafts spirit, based on traditional craft forrns. Intricately carved and painted pieces were decorated with syrnbols of folk. and religious imagery. The second approach \Vas a contrasting one. vVorkshops such as the Gerrnan Vereinigte WerksUitten championed design fer machine production. Richard Riemerschmid (1868-1957) produced elegant fumiture using veneers and larninates which vvere sllitablc foc batd\ prodllction.
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European Furniture Funclionalism and Decoralion 1 atto Prlltscllcr, /111m/el dock, C.J908. • Prufscher ilYIS illf/lII.'!1(cd by Ihe il'ork tlle G/nsgoi(1 Se/IOO/. TI/e distillcli,'c fl:clilil1('(lr
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de \fe/de, dillillg ehair, C.1S96. \ '1111 de: \ 'e/de: ,1'115 ,1 propoilcil/ oi the po,n'r of dcsigll lo illlprv,'e saciety. He desigllcd I/lnllY oj t/le fllmisltiJlgs for ¡'is IlOlIle, Blocmenwerf. il1c/urlillg ¡Ilis cltair. Ht 94CIII!)7il1.
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2 Lcopold Baila, mbin!'! JOl" 11 postcnrd colleclol~ c1901.TIJc
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¡illm chesf, 190.2. TJlÍs pieee n:/nles lo Arls (lIId Cmfts desig¡IS, bul t/le ¡lItrimel¡ o( the lIIetn/ hillges is pure Arl N01Il.'CtII1. Thl.'ir abstrnel yet I1nlumlistie pnt/cm dcrh'cs ¡1"01II pO¡Jlllnl" botWlicnl drm.¡,illgs. HI2.1111l/6ft lÚIl. 6 Cnr/ Lnr5501l, The Artist's Studio, 1899. This ¡mlcrc%ur oi Lnrssoll's eottllge il1110rtllem S¡I'Cdell depicls ¡umiture nl1d textiles erented bl¡ Lnrssoll nlld !lis arli:;1 {{1~fe Knrill.
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American Furniture Arts and Crafts lar the Wider Market
1 Gu5lnv Sticklelf, Ivlorris chnir,
C.1901.
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c!wirs ,('('re loosely bnscd 01/ ndjllstablc-back I"t'ndillg c!wirs prodllced by Jvlorri::; & Ca. ¡rolll file 18605. Ht 99CIII/39;11.
Gustal' S/ickley, ¡ab/e C.1910. Tlús ol1k lab/e ,!'aS ¡lie de1.'eloplllt'lI/ 01 n popllla!" desigll from 1901, sold <"ít!1 dl/ler n ig115. Tlle /J1/l/IOl/S "lvlackllllmio" ¡cct WI'rt' IIml1l'd afta ihe 8ril;5/1 designa. Ht 1.12111/3ft tbll. 5 Hnruey E!lis for Gustnz· Stickley, musir cnbille!, c. 1903. E!lis joilled Gustnv Stick/ey's Crnftsmnll Wor/.:shops ill 1903, n:spo/lsib/e fVl" il1troducíllg lighter, I/Iore elegnlll fonlls ,pil/¡ distincth'e illlnid II/otifs. Ht l.1.1.!Il/4-ft. 2
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nspired by British examples, the United Sta tes '
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important contribution \Vas made by the architect Harvey Ellis (1852-1904), whose well-proportioned designs often included the use of inlaid floral motifs. In 1901 Stickley established TIJe Crnftslllun, an inflllential magazine wltich promoted Arts and Crafts nationally, providing drawings for furnitw'e as well as artides about design and social changc. A consumer culture fuelled by such magazines ensured that good design reached a mass audience. Frank L10yd Wright (1867-1959) worked in Chicago, where he became the central figure in the Prairie School, and In California. HIs furnlture echoed the strong horizontallines, traditional materials, and vemacular style of his architectural work. Most was macrune-made to adtieve the desired dean-cut effect. In contrast Charles SlUTUler Greene (186&-1957), working with rus brother I-Ienry, was enthusiastic about hand,·vork and employed skilled craftsmen to create pieces with curved lines and pierced shapes. Both vVright and the Greenes produced bealltifully proportioned furniture and interiors that combined elements of Japanese and Arts and Crafts designo
6 CJlflrh'S P. Limbal Ca., onk /nble. c.1905. Lilllhat populnri:ed Britisll /ll1d Ellropl'ml dl'sig!15. TJ¡e ,,'e/allgl/lnr wt-Ol/ts (111 tI/t' cross-supports echo tlle gl!OlIIctric desigll5 of Bnillic 5cott all/i Alnckilltos/¡. Ht .¡6CIII/l8ill. 7 Dnrd HUllter, Receptit:m RoolII oflhe Rayerof! /1111, C.J9JO. /111'111/1-"51' prillts iJlspirt'd HUI/ter'", styli:ed l/se 01 b/nck Dl/flilleS, fin! c%llr, ml,j /111 tmgled ¡,j¡:'l'poilli.
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Architects and Interiors 2 fn1l1k Lloy'¡ IVrig/¡t, high/1tlcked onk c/Iflir for f11/! Hil/sidl' HOII:,<'
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IVrighf il'ns inspired by lite ~illlplt' Jorl1ls oJ ]npnllesc nrt, Tfle dcsign ce/lOes tllc strollg ¡'crlicn/lille:; nlld p/mlt'5 oj 1Iis nre/titectuml ,¡,ork. Ht 99.5C111/39Y..ill. 3 Chnrles rmd Hel1ry Creme, lile dillillS roOI1l, Cnlll/J!l' HOJ/se, Pn~ndelln, Cnliforllin, 19°8-9, Tlle Creme:; combined tlle Art~ mld Cmjts npprOllcll witll elemenls Jrolll Jnpmle~l.' nrcllitcctllrt'. Tfi(.' ¡pOQd pnnd/iug nlld JI/mitl/re t'rt'llt¡, n (()COOIl oJ il'nrm n.'pose.
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1 BmUlrd A1nyllt'Ck. Greyoaks. .frOlll I'Jltrlf. (Inri ;;tnil7l'm,. . 1906. Local fl?dil'OOd lilll/'<'I" left comp/de ¡pitl, l!Je IIInrks of file sn tlu' illfl'rior I~f tfJis Califomi/lll cOl/lltr!! "Ollse llllilt b,lf Aln!fll('ckfor tllt, 1;111/11'1" 1/I/l;?JIn/c,
¡.H. Hopps.
28~
Ceramics Painted Decoration
1 I\'illja/JI DI' ¡\ lorgall, rin' dis/I ¡1t'nmlt.,¡f by CI/llrh>s Pa:;':5-I'/lgt·r, c. '900. Islam ie l/lO! ~f.~ nlid tI'l' ., Pl'rsÍlm" (ohll/ r ,mkttt' ¡c('n' 11 /l/(/ ;or il~n 1/('//(1'
De 1\-lor';:flJl'':; ¡cork. Diam. .l.l.~ollh- :;11. 2 A(fn:d Pa¡n'lJ.lidded poi lOI" l\'t'dgrn'l(lll. 19.20:'. rile Ptlil'd/:: paiuted
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tiin'dl!! 01/ fo f!le poral/s, IIIlgla:i'd t'art!lt'I/'l'(ll't' ¡lady. {/ kdllliqUl' //111/ lIl'ct's::itated rnpid lIJ1fli'sitlltil1g 111"1/:::/Hl'tlrk. Ht 1ocm/.t ill. 3 LVII ¡st' Po¡ccll. Cica Jor W"dgrn1od. c. 1 9.2 O. tO/l ¡St' PO¡I 't'!! fOl/l/d illspirntio!1 for botll ab~lrnct n!!d flornl pntft'l'!I~ ill /~Inlllic po/tay nIld E IIg 1isll 1 6t!I-ct'IIt ¡/ ry ('111 broidcl"Y. H t 3 OC!II/l1 !.i 11. 4 Roycrofl ClIp n!!d snl/m; Bu.ffalo Poltcry COl!lpallY, c'1910. TlJis
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fea/I/I"es tJI!' !llnrk oj tlle RO!fcrofl ((l/mI!' dl'l"j-¡'I·d ¡,y Elbert Hl//¡/l(Jrd from a \lt'IIeliall 15th-alltur!f pri!1I('r'~ I/Iolij. HI SClU/2/.i!1. 5 Ha!!s Cllrist irmst'll, desigll for a cr,'CJ'cd ¡'(I~C 1901. CJ¡ri~1iall~t'II ¡l'a~ vI/e of the pa¡lIters nt the nrli~I~' colol1!f al Dnrlllstadt 11'/10 tUfIled llis skills fo domestic desigll. TI/e e/enr cololl rs nlld flo<¡,jlls !!alurn/i~tic pl7t1ems of tllt' EIIl:/iSIt r\rts ami Cra{ts Aloi'!'lIIcl1l are reflected ¡Hlti:. ¡curk. . .
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6 C1!ftOI/ Pofta.ll. Imlíllll jllS. e. J 9J o. Olle of IIlflllCroll:, smal/:;;cnil> tlrt ¡'Ioft.'ri.':' 5('f Ifp iJl fIJe UJlitcd Stak-:;, /In' Cl~ftoll Porta!! l/se,! l/nIki' AIIIl'Timll ¡lOlte,"!,
1 AlartiJl Bro/has,
1885-1900. DI/I.l! Ilmil/orify (~r Arls tllld Cn~fts I"Jltel"s apjlll'Cintl'tl tflt' p/astici(lf of cla.l{. T/¡js <'<1."l',
¡mm Ari:m!tl as illspim/hlll for /fll' pltilltt'd dt'wmtioll
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286
6
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Modelled Decoration and Glaze Effects
2 2 RIISkill PoUa~, ¡mres, 19:! j-fJ. A 1ll/llII't'r (!f art I'0Hajes. i"dlfdillg tI/l' RlIski¡¡ pone,"!, iJl 511l<,tflil'ick, EJlgflll/l1. sl't'óali:t"11 iJl Jliglt-h'lIIjlt'rtIlllrl' gfl1:e eflec!s ¡¡oflic/I ¡¡Wl' illspiml by C/ÚI/l'St' lJ/
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11t·¡'t'loJ".'d 11 Sf.lr/t' of drip-:;:/ll::ed d.'comtioll illspir.·¡f by /ll/lfl1l6{' POftt''',I/.
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arge manufachtrers had almost complete control Q\'er the production oE ceramics because cf the complexity and C05t il1\'oh·ed. Competition encouraged established finns in Britain to use artistic designs for industrial productioll, sometimes setting up smal! studio \\'orkshops such as that at Ooultons in Lambeth, or specilic art pottery ranges such as Pilkington's Royal Lancastrian. TI1e 1\ lartin brothers, who had worked at Ooultons, set up one of the fe\\' smaU-scale potteries in 1873. They worked in stoneware, producing vcssels and figures with modelled, ineised, and relief decorabon. TI1e designs by Robert \'VaIJace 1\lartin (18-13-192-:1:) "'ere based on plant and animal forms, or abstraet geomorphie decoration. Indi\'idual designs \,-ere also produccd by Edrnund Elton (18-16-1920) in Somerset, George E. Ohr (1857-1918) in Biloxi, tvlississippi, and by the leading American potter, Adeloide Alsop Robineau (1865-1929), ",ha produced porcelain ",¡th laboriolls incised and rdicf decoration. De Morgan began decorating tiles and potter)' in 1872. He experimented \Vith glazes, particularly the lustre
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effects of 16th-century Hispano-i\ 100rish pottery, and rus bright colours and flowing nah..tralistic designs \\-ere ",idel\' , emulated. In 1903 Alfrecl Powell (1865-1960) and his ",ife Louise (1882-1956) began a long association with Josiah \Vedgwood & Sons in Stoke-on-Trent, England. Their designs ranged from abstract repeating pattems based on plant fOffi15 to detailed buildings and landscapes, From 1906 they created a range of simple designs for the ne'" hand-painting studio at "'edg\\'ood. The small-scale repeating pattems ",ere adopted at Oannstadt and by many eraft potteries in the United Sta tes. European and American pottcrs also experimented with sluface decoration, looking to oriental examples fm inspiration. In Franee, potters sllch as Eugene Líon de,'elopcd dramatic glaze effects for their simply shaped pots, a style adopted by Bernard Moore and the RllSkin Pottery in staffordshire, England. The de\'elopment of smaller kilns in the ead)' 20th century helped to crea te the unity of approach to the forrn and decoration of cerarnics which led to the stlldio pottery mo\'ement in the 19205.
28
;
Glass Drinking Glasses
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;;illll'1.>. t'lt'gnllt, seu/pluml designs ejft'clj¡·eJ.'I t'xp/oit ti/(: tnmsJ/lccllcy
01 tite /l/aferínl.
2
3 PJlilip IVI'/Ib for Jallll';; Poit't'll & Sal/s, dril/kill~ glns~s, 15605. Tltis grollp is typicnl of lVebb's simple !/d distillcth'e glnss desiglls. rlley il'ert' sold by Morris, Mllrslmll, FnHlkll4!l"
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he demands of 19th-century entertaining and, in Britain, the removal of excise tax on glas5 in the 18405 led to the production of large amOlmts of domes tic glassware. It \Vas based on heavily cut ¡ead glass, él technique that John Ruskin vehemently crjticized since it \Vas both at odds with the fluidity of mol ten glass and a wasteful process in conjunction with such a breakable material. He admired 16th- and 17th-centurv , Venehan glasses, cxamples of which were widely exhibited for the first time in the 1850s. Their cLU'\'ed forms and light, fantastical decoration \vere \\'idely copied. Venetian and northem Emopean examples inspired a nurnber of decepti\"ely simple designs by Philip Webb for Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. in the 1860s. These solid, plain glasses were produced by the fiml of James Powell & Sons who also rnade stained glass fer the company at their factory in \I\'hitefriars, London. The firm became synonymous with rnodern artistic glass frorn the 18705 tmder the direction of its designer-manager, Harry Powell (186-1-1927), who developed a style inspired by
T
288
the proportions, clarity, and elegance of Venetian glass. He also experimented with different uses of coloured glass and developed a streaky white opalescent material. Powell used drawings from nature as the basis for bis engraved designs. Despite the rejection Df cut glass by Ruskin and the Arts and Crafts MDvement, he gradually introduced sorne shallow-cut glasswares inspired by Roman pieces. lhis softer, more painterly approadl to cut glass cDntinued into the 20th century in the work Df designers such as Clyne Farquarson (11.19305), Keith ~Iurray (1892-198lt and Cordon Russell. Powell's personal contacts through the Art \Vorkers' Guild and the technical excellence of the firm encomaged designers such as Ashbee and Benson to incorpora te pieces of \ Vhitefriars glass in their designs. The work of James Powell & Sens was exhibited widelv , and the firm was él major force in glass design through to the 19605. Its simple designs based on the qualities of the ra", material influenced designers inc1uding Riemerschmid and Behrens and Scandinavian manufacturers such as Orrefors.
Form and Decoration 1 Pililip IVebb, desigl1s fOl" table glas:;, 18605. ¡"'ebb sflldicd Velletiall rmd IlOrtlIern fllropealI
drillkillg glasse5 {/!1d produced simple s!wpes 1I'hicJ¡ relied 01/ tlidrjorll1 ni Id pmpartíons for illlpact, mlller Ilum 011 decora/ioll.
2 C.M. HeYiPood 511111!1erfor James Portlell & SOIIS, coi.1cred ClIp, 1898. The cllgraved nI/ti
gilt plan! far/lls Oll tlie bow! soften fhe wt j1illt glns:; Jonll. As <{'ell as HClJ'oood SlIlIl11cr,
TE Incksol1 alld George ¡'Valloll produccd tab!r?wl1re dcsiglls Jor ¡lie LOlldoll firlll. HI P.5e/l//ldi/!. 3 afio Pruiscl1er, (hall/pagne glllss, C.19o¡, T/IÍs AlIstriall
l'csse/ is of IIIOUld-b/oWII glns:; with (1 cololln:d m.lerla.!! (/lid n wt dcsigll. TIIt' sq¡¡an' s!wpes c!lI7rnctcristic oj ¡he Vil!1lllcse Secessioll 11m'/! beell (lit so I/lfIl ¡lit' sfelll has fhe appenrallce of a delica/e e/mili. Ht 21c11I/B'!ill. 4 GOI'don RlIsscll, dcsiglls JOI" glass clIttil1g, 1927. RlIsscl/ dcsiglled dOlllestic glass,{'nl"l.?jor a IIfll1lbCI" uf British I/lmwjacflll"ers ill the 1920S. Vesse!s decoraled witf/ tllese experi11lel1ta! desiglls for cut g!ass ({Jere produccd by jallles PO,l'cl1 & Sonso
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Decorative Wares 1 Omar Rall1sdcll, gl"l.'C!/ glass ,'ase 'l'itll si/¡'CI" 1I/01l/lts, c. 1914. Tllc desigll oj litis British ['aSt' ,('as bascd 0/1 a pica in a paintil1g by file 16th-cm/ul"!! Genllm/ artist Halls Hvlbeill. The tecJmiq/1es of blow!1 glass ami hnl!ll/lCl"cd si/¡PC1" l1'crc ideal/y s¡lited to its sells/ml C!1I,'e5, Ht .f-4c11I/17/.,in. 2 jml1es Pml'el/ & sm/s and IV,A.s. BcnSI"J!/, glass mse i/lll bron::.e Sflllld, 19°3. The POil'clls al/d BCIISOI1 Il'Cfe illm/¡'ed ,t'ith cxpcriJIIClltal ilwk; Harr!! Powell"s experilllCllfs ¡pith metal incfllsiol1s in calol/red glass, IlS lIscd in l/lis l'I1SC, ,pcn' illdicnfil'e of tlleír Ilpprollcf1. BCIIson designed the stand. Ht 36clIl/14'!in.
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Silver and Metalwork Techniques and Decoration
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Amcricallllleln/tl'Orkas tt'i'n' ÍIISpÍrM by lile Ilmllll/cred sift'er..lY)rk of AS/lb« alld tlle BrifiS/1
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1 101m PcarSOIl, copper pln/es, C.J892.
Pcnl'$OI1's desigll:;
2 ManJ HOllstOIl, caskct,
Arf5 (llld Crafts Movclllelll. HIlj.jCm/toilJ. 1902.
HO/lSIOIl, vl1:>cd ill umdOIl tllld
cOJltilllled il1 prexillClioll /ln/ii
DI/viiI!, l/sed fIJe rcpoussé teclllliq//c fa decoro/e tll;S silverplated eopper casket. Resemblillg n Cc1tic s}¡rillc, jI has b¡lricate lxmds olomamt'lI/ alld mI ideali:ed
1939. Diam (/nrgt'Sl) 59C111/2;'/,;1I.
[emale hendo Ht 24CIII/9'bl1.
!CMllrillg grofc.:;qllc ViTriS, fisIJ, {/lId fofin.,?c /Jallllllcred ;JI rdit'/. il/spired
lile d/!1..'clopment 01 tite Nl!i.I'lyn art me/al i/ldl/stry ill Comwa/J w/¡¡cJ¡
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4 eK AS/lúee, desiglls for boxes and pmrels, 1906. As/¡bee's plain boxcs mrd disllcs wcre afien decornlcd witll sparklillg (l/Id COlOll1uf cllamcJ pfaqllL'5 of flowers. allilllals, lalldscapl'5, alld /larra/á", 5UJlC$.
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he earliest Arts éllld Crafts metal pieces from the 1880s \Vere marle in brass and copper. )OM Pcarson (11.18805-1908) and John WiIliam5 (d.1951) \Vere both early members of Ashbee's Guild of Handicraft in London. Thcy prodllced large dishes decorated with hamrnered repoussé and chased decoration feahtring birds, fish, and ships. lt was a style of work that beca me a regular feature of Arts and Crafts exhibitions beca use of its visual impact and because the techniques involved were relatively simple, making it ideally suited to amateur work. In the 18905 Ashbee and his guild experimented with thc techniques of ltalian Renaissance metalwork. "lost wax" casting, which translated modelled work in wax into silver, was used to make the stcms and feet of cups as well as jewellery. As Ashbee gained confidence as a designer in silver he developed the most inAucntial Guild of Handicraft pieces. From about 1896, he produced quantities of cups, bowls, and dishes raised from harnmered silver sheet metal with looped \..virework handles. The silver wires were used singly, in pairs, or as
T
290
5 eFA. VOYSl.'Y, CO/Jpcr pen Irny, coated bmss IUllldle, «ud illk'Wcll,
1895-19°3. Tlle mefalH'ork of ti/(, Ellglis/1 arcflÍfl.'ct (llld dcsigm'r
Voysey ,¡'eTC cllfITflctcristically $illlJlle (llId complemellled ¡lis ftmJitl/re aJld illleriors.
a twisted group and demanded attention as thcy S\'\'ooped in an elegant curve. The otherwise austere vessels were made by hand, and Ashbee Iikcd to leave the surface lightly indented from the small round-headed planishing hammer which had shaped them. This mark of the craftsman's hand is fOlmd on mudl Arts and Crafts metalvwrk although sorne, including Liberty's CYIJII'ic silvcr and TlIriric pewter ranges, were made by machine with the hammcr marks added as part of the finishing process. In contrast, many of Voysey's and Benson's designs ",ere for items such as handles, hooks, and components for light fittings, intended for batch production. They "'ere either cast from prototypcs or tumed or spun on lathes and left with a smooth and polishcd finish indicativc of their machine origino Voysey, Benson, and Ashbee influenced countless metalwork designers. The cffcctive use of simple geometric forms and Aowing lines can be seen at an intemational level in the silverwork designed by Oliver Saker (185&-1939) for LibertY'5, by J05cf Hoffman
Naluralislic Decoralion 1 HellnJ Wilsoll, "mliceJor St BnrtllOlomew's ClmrcJ¡, BrigMolI. Ellg/alld c.1898. Tlle tecl,~ lliqllf'S alld l/se 01 si/ver alld si/ver g/U ¡vitl, rnrved iuory alld mamel Sl/ggest lile sp/elldollr o/ a,efi"est RellaiSSllllce work. Hl 46cm/J 8in.
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lIIa/her o/ pemI I-lt 58.5CIII/23;11. 3 CR. Asl1bee, GI/ild 01 H'lIIdicmft Si/vcI7l1Ork, C.lgOj. As/¡bee ¡¡scd i!l/el/se aren5 01decora/iou for !Jis simple, deglllll 10'1115. TI/(: CljlilldriClll sfem of ¡lte Clip 1lI1d caver is c11ased {l/Id pierced ;uitll (/ foxglovc desigll, (md IllJ(1ltem ollcaves llas /Jecll clznsed rolllld it:; bowl. Clip l1t 37cm!l4:{ill, ladle /. 38.5clII/15/11. 4 Emest Gimsoll, pail' o/ brass cnndle SCOIlCes
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Blacksmilhs' Work 1 Emest Cimsoll, door Iml/dle alld lockplate,
Like mal/Y Arts nlld Crnfts nrcllitects, Cimsoll desiglled metnl llnrdit.!(Ire for 1Iis bllildillgs. His desiglls m..re made lJy h;s blncksmillls wflO nlso /IIade lIJe stnmped decomtioll. HI J6cIll/6'1.;II.
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Flowing Forms, Curves, and Unes 1 CR. As/Jlll.'f.', bulla kl/!kfor lile GuUd of Halldicmfl, 1900. Asllbel! l/sed colIIJllercinl/y prMlIced sif¡'er il'irt'=' m/Cl vol1s in
conjunclion will! 1Iis IUlIIdmnde d{'siglls. T/It' j¡l'isted J¡nl/dle combinen fimctioll alld omnlllt'n!.
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lit 28.5CIII/111.;II.
(1870-1956) for the Austrian Wiener Werkstatte, and by the painter Johan Rohde (1856-1935) for Georg Jensen (1866-1935) in Denmark. Designs by Archibald Knox (18&1--1933) which combined spare, elegant shapes with
interh"ined Celtic pattems ,vere extremely popular.
Late Medieval forros such as decorative caskets and
292
chalices inspired Arts and Crafts designers such as Alexander Fisher (186-1-1936) and Henry Wilson (186-1-193J), who began working in metal in 1890. Smoothly rOlmdcd semi-preciolls stones and brilliantly painted enamel plaques provided a rieh inlaid 5urface finish to such pieces. An architect and sculptor, Wilson's metalwork is rieh in imagery and architectonic forms. He dre'" from naturc and eneouraged others to do the same. The naturalistie effect of many Arts and Crafts pieces was enhaneed by the bold eombination of materials such as amber, coral, bone, i\'ory, and mother-of-pcarl with sil\"er and other metals. Birds, animals, flowers, plants, and trees are fotmd in the simplest metalwork designs sllch as Gimson's sconces or Voysey's handles as weH as in
3 CR. AsllOCe. demllterfor tfle Gllilll of Halldicrafl. 1904. Tllis i:; olle of Asllbee·s clnssic desigJls. A cagl! of sili'er il'irert'ork elleirc1es lile g/aS5 l/{ldyJorll15 lile l'Old
cur"e of lile 1Jal/d/e. alld prvt,idi's n/l degn/l! suppor! for tI,e fil/in/. Ht 19cm/l'!.Ílr.
e1ahorate pieees sllch as eups and crosses. The ubiqllitolls heart motif recUfS regu.larly in pierced or raised forms. Ashbee's mature style in sil\'er, whidl de\·eloped frorn abollt 1906, has a rieh and imposing character also fOllild in sorne of the finest Arts and Crafts sih·erwork bv \Vilson and his close assoeiates, John Paul Cooper (1860-1933) and Edward Spencer (1872-1938). Bands of sih·er mouldings or rope",ork ",ere lIsed to divide designs into distinct horizontal sections dictated by the conshuctiol1. Cooper faund a ready market far his shagreen-cavered boxes ",ith decorative silver mouldings. Gimson's metalwork designs from 1902 combincd simplicity with precision. Handles, fire tongs, and other tools in iron or polished steel were designed to do their job perfectly and are an ergonomic pleaslue to handle. Their cIean lines were enhanced by a scattering of smal.l chased patterns SUdl as half-moons or dots made by different punches. Cimson cstablished a standard of metalworking which was continued in the Cotswolds by Cordon Russell during the 1920s and 19305.
4 Afexilllder Fislu.'r, altar cm:;:; ;/1 silver. ilmber,
and f'nllme[, 19°]_ Tlu.' spare geomelric eros:; COl/trasts 'I·itll ti/e ellcircfillg free dt"5igll j" clm~d si/¡ter. Ht -lOCIll/Ij'!.iIl.
5 Ardlibald KIIOX, Cymric piteller for Liberty. 1901. KilO.\" is I.It.'Sf kllownfor llis l/se o¡Celfic OTllllmCllt illspin't'f by tlle traditioll5 o/ ltis birt/lplflee, the lsle of 1\ Iflll. The eOIl/ m1led CIIn'es offlis dl!Siglls ",ere illsJ'imtiollfll tllrougllOut tflt' 20t/¡ eeJltl/ry. HI38cm/J'jill.
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Textiles and Wallpaper Embroidery 2 Lollise Powef1, The Whitebeam Tree hallgillg. c.I920, embroidery 011 Ilnlld-wOVCII illdigo-dyed si/k. Airee Wit/l sqllirrels, birds,
nlld jemlteads al ¡he base, provided Ihe frnmework for Ibis fmbroidery. L. 2.01//1/6ft 7iJl. 3 Godfrey Blol/uf. app/iqllt pallel. 1896-7, Imlld-wGtv!Il ¡illel!. Blol/ut's embroideries
provided afin' graphic fill;sh (lIld ¡I'ere arlapteri as /lllll/temafive lo stelldlled decornliOll. 4 Gllstnv Slickley, China Tree fab/e rm/ller,
c.I910. Stickley, who w/lllled "a rabI/si sort 01 henil/Y" for 1Jis ¡lIferiors. e/lOse l/Ilblenched filien f'mbroiderl'd iJl neutral tOlles Jor textiles.
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illiam Monis designed a number of embroideries in the 18605 whose painterly approach contrasted with the prevailing fashion for the precise cross-stitched pattems on canvas populady knO'wn as Berlin woolwork. He was inspired by late Medieval examples to revive the use of crewel work on wooUen cloth, a technique that could quickly but effectively cover a large aTea. In the 1870s Morris began using plant dyes, especia1ly madder (red) and indigo (blue), in experiments with Thomas Wardle at his dye works at Leek, Staffordshire. Their softee tones were more sympathetic to a painterly approach than the newly popular bright chemical dyes. His daughter May Morris (1862-1938) singled out blue as the most sympathetic colour fer embroidery, saying "choose those shades that have the pure, slightly grey, tone of indigo dye." In Deerfield, Massachusetts, the Society of Blue and White Needlework concentrated on that limited colour scheme with a sparing use of other natural dyes. This subtJe use of colour characterizes rouch Arts and Crafts \",rork through to the 19205. Linen and jute
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cloths were chosen for embroidery for the strength of their texture; double-woven silk and linen mixtures and damasks were also popular for the same reason. Morris added texture to sorne block-printed wallpapers by incorporating background lines or dots in the designs. Exotic handmade papers such as Japanese grass paper were chosen by designers and manll.facturers as the basis for stencilled designs for their textural quality. Flat patterns, whether for printed textiles oc wallpapers, required an underlying structure. In his Trellis wallpaper of 186-1, Morris used latticework to crea te a basic structure. The use of scrolJing acanthus leaves, Aowering stems, and other devices to provide underlying construction beca me more subtle and effective in his later designs. C.EA. Voysey excel1ed as a designer of repeating pattems and his wallpapers \Vere lauded by van der Velde in 1893 in an articJe in the Belgian magazine ElIIlllntioll. He and other Arts and Crafts designers \-vere particularly adept at creating coherent designs for border pattems on rugs, carpets, and
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domestic textiles. Care and irwentiveness ensured that the border design flowed smoothly round right-angles. The use of naturalistic imagery in Arts and Crafts embroidery and textiles is closely related to the growing interest in garden design in the 1880s. Morris described the role of nature in textile design as the depiction of "the olltward face cf the earth." He llsed traditional English flowers and plants sllch as marigolds, honeysllckle, and willow boughs in ms designs at a time when writers on garden design ,,"ere criticizing the fashion for imported species such as fuchsias and \Vere in fa\'our of \Vild or nati\'e flowcrs. lo the United Sta tes native plants such as the pinecone and the leaf of the maidenhair trec, were used as mohfs in cmbroideries and wallpapers. Many folk crafts and village industries involved textiles. Traditional rag rugs as well as American lndian and Mexican designs became a fearnre of Arts and Crafts homes in the United States, and in Britain and America, Arts and Crafts embroideries \Vere prodllced in kit fonn, and magazines published designs ter copying.
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TI1C image of the trce of life, a growi.ng tree, was
populm throughout Arts and Crafts design, but it was particularl)" suited to two-dimensional representation i.n wallpapers and textiles. lt eouId be an elaborate pieture incorporating birds and animals or simplified to an eyecatcrung graphk motif. Birds, animals, and hlUllan figures featLue in the designs of Voysey and of Henry Home (186+-1916). ""alter Crane produced popular designs for wallpapers and domestie textiles wmeh ineorporated the classical figures synonymous with ffiuch of his work (see p.263). The growing interest in the envirorunent of childhood inspired designs by Voyse)', Arthur Silver (1853-96), and others, with a strong narrative clement for the nursery. Bloek-printed and stencilled Hnen fabries by the Omega V\'orkshop in about 1913 heraIded a revival in hand-block printing in the 20th centLa)'. The most influential exponents \Vere Phyllis Barron (1890-1960) and Dorothy Larcher (188-1-1952) who worked dtuing thc 1920s and 1930s.
Narrative Scenes and Nursery Designs 1 C.F.A. Voy:>!!y. The House that J
2 Robin Hood ¡rice, Cl893, Probnbly desiSlled by Harry Nnpperfor Silver StlldilJ nnri slIpplied fa ¡he manufactura C/U/de:; KIIDwles. Tltis lIIac1tillCprillted wallpnper frie=e 11n:; 11
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Art Nouveau 1890 furniture 302 French 302 Belgian and Outch 306
German, Scottish, and Austrian 308 ltalian and Spanish 310 American, Hungarian, and Nordic 312
Ceramics 314
Art Nouveau emerged in the early 1890s and spread quickly across Europe and the United States. It reached a climax at the Paris Exposition Universelle of 1900 befare falling into decline in the early years of the new century and collapsing with the outbreak of World War 1. The style emerged from the activity of a collection of movements, manufacturers, public institutions, publishing houses, individual artists, entrepreneurs, and patrons. It encompassed
Glass 318 Silver and Metalwork 322 Textiles 326
architecture, the decorative arts, graphic design, painting, and sculpture and is characterized by various stylistic features which vary according to region. ost archetypally, Art Nouveau is associated with the sinuous, asyrnmetric curving line, but the style can also be identified through the use or organic or natural forros or applied decoration; geometric, abstract, or linear form and patterns; the use of specific historical SOUTces; and Symbolism. Art Nouveau can be most useful1y seen as the search for a modern national style, in a periad characterized by increasing nationalistic concerns. Fundamentally, it uses modernized decoration as a key approach to style. This movement is knov.'n by a variety of na mes in different countrics, including Modern Style, Le Style Gllimard, Le
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Tiffany 5tyle. However, the term most eornmonly recognized is Art Nouveau, after the gallery, L' Art NOl/veall, a shop and workshops established by Siegfried Bing 0838-1905) in Paris in December 1895. The first works appeared in 1893 with the Tassel House in Brussels by Victor Harta 0861-1947). the first full arehitectural statement in the Art Nouveau style, and a design for Osear Wilde's play Salomé by Aubrey Beardsley 0872-98). Both demonstrate a parallel investigation into the importance of eurvilinear lineo The rise of Art Nouveau was a eomplex phenomenon which eombined a large variety of factoTs in the different countries and cities in which it evolved. A desire to break with the design styles of the past and to aeate a unified modem art that was available to all was a goveming coneem in most eountries. Many designers weTe eommitted to the regeneTation of eTaft praetiee and developed utopian models, in part derived rrom Arts and Craft3 philosophy. OtheTs embraced maehine production, and realized mass avaiJability oC high-quality produets that responded to the demands for consumer goods of a new and prosperous middle c1ass. Devising a new idiom of design suitable fer the funetions of the machine became the goal of many in the field. This c1early set Art Nouveau apart from its Arts and Crafts forebear.
Left: tllis Rococo figllre grollp oJ VellllS nlld Adollis n'l'ls in mnde iJl tl,e /l/id-18th Ct!/ltllry ill VillCe'IlIle5, Frallce. TJle C/ln'tS, asymmetry, nlld sellslla/ity 01 tl,e Rococo iL'ere n SOllrce 01 inspiratioll Jor Art NoJlt't'il1l desiglll!rS, pnrticlIlarly ill Frrmce. Ht Jocm/n/'ill. Opposite: tIJe Be/giall arcllÍtect Victor Harta desiglled the Tasse/ HOlIs/! ill Brusse/s ill 1893. lt is olle 01 tlle 1Il0sI importaHI al1d complete exmllples 01 Arl NOllvenll nrc/¡ifectHre. Tlle SiIlIlOIlS, orgnllie lorms 01 the decomlioll are c/mmcteristic 01 lile style.
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300
The inspiration for the TIC\'\' style came from various sources and most Art Nouveau objects are highly ec1ectic. The urge tú create modern national design meant that the use of specific historical SQurces \vas given particular meaning within the national context. For instanc€, in Franee the use of the asymmetric and curvilinear fonns and sensual i.!l1agery of the Rococo style simultaneously associated Art Nouveau \vith él period of great craft skill and decadent extravagance. In many countries folk art and culture were thought to embody pure and honest values which could provide the basis for a modern style. The English Arts and Crafts Movement had already led the way in a reappraisal of folk culture, while the Morrisian commitment to a nonhierarchical unity of the arts and the total artistic interior or GesallItkllllstwerk became governing precepts of Art Nouveau. The influence of English design, however, went beyond John Ruskin and William Morris's concern to reconcile art and society. The "decadents" of the Aesthetic Movement with their ethos of " ar t for art's sake" also exerted considerable influence and this, combined with French Symbolism, provided a deeply anti-materialist and metaphysical element \vithin the
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style. As Octave Uzanne wrote in T}¡e 5tudio in 1897, "what the nevv é1rt sought to depict was the eternal misery of the body fretted by the sou1." Another important source was non-western art, particularly the arts of Japan, North Africa, and the Middle East. The arts of these regions represented a fresh aesthetic vision which could revitalize moribllnd Western traditions. Japanese \<\'oodblock prints were particularly inflllentiat and their use of flat areas of colour with strong defining outlines, bold and evocative tines, asynm1etry, lack of spatial recession,
Without doubt the single most important source of forms and motifs \Vas nature. 1 ature \Vas used in Art Nouveau in varying \,"ays and for different purposes. Onc strategy \Vas conventionalization. Plant and flo\Ver forms were stylized and afien made into patterns to be applied to a11 forms of art. Conventionalization \Vas the dominant aesthetic strategy in Art Nouveau, as it had been in Arts and Crafts design, and represented a rationalist approach to designo Nature \Vas al50 used directly and often realistically to crea te the form or imagery of an object. Realistic anirnals, insects, and reptiles \Vere applied. directly to \Vorks without conventionalization and often had particular symbolic meaning. Perhaps the most important stTategy for the use of nature \Vas the evolutionary model. Following the theories of Darwin, many designers thought of nature as representing a progressive model for designo ll1e forces of growth were explored and represented symbolical1y. The highly organic curvilinear line became an expression of this use of natUre. The work of the German biologist and evolutionary theorist Ernst Haeckel became particularly important for the adoptian of this approach. Combined with this approach to nature was the frequent use of metamorphosis. Many Art Nouvcau 'bbjects appear to represent metamorphosis and fuse the human form with the natural world. Through evolutionary theory man \Vas seen to be part of the natural ,,,'orld. The predominance of the metamorphosing female form, often in flux, can be seen to be part of this strategy.
Art Nouveau was disseminated quickly across Europe and the United States through a number of mechanisms. Periodicals \Vere important and the drama tic increase in the l1umber of new journals during the time had a direct impact on the spread of the style. Sorne of the most important journals devoted to the decorative arts were Tlle Stlldio, L'Art Moderl/e, Art et DécorntioJl, CA!"t Décomtij, Pnll, jlIgeJld, Dekomtive KIII/st, and Ver SncnJlJI. The establishment of shops such as Liberty's, in London, and La Maison Moderne and Galerie L'Art Nouveau, in Paris, actively promoted the Art Nouveau style. Louis Cornfort TIffany sold his creations through Bing, in Paris, while the Nancy-based designers of EmiIe Gallé and Louis Majorelle established shops in many city centres, inclucling London. The role of internahonal exhibitions enabled vast audiences to be introduced to Art Nouveau. For example, the 1900 Exhibition Universelle in París \Vas visited by l1)ore than 51 million people. Other \Vorld fairs with substantial displays of Art Nouveau took place in Chicago (1893), Turin (1902), St Louis (190~), and Milan (1906). Tational exhibition societies, groups, and salons evoked and did much to promote the style. Museums also played a role \Vhen they began to collect and exhibit Art Nouveau. Important collections were amassed in Hambtug, Budapest, Copenhagen, Trondheim, 0510, Paris, and London. These col1ections brought Art Nouveau to the attention of the general public and enabled designers to study at first hand developments by designers in other cow1tries.
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dell/o/Islmtt'd hall' plnnts mll1 flOit'I!TS cOllld W cOIli'entiOlln1i:ed nl/d l/sed ill decomtioll. 4 TI/e strollg, [jllmr desigll nl/d artiwlatiol1 of space see/I il! }apmlt'Se i{'ood block prillts, SI/eh as tMs e.mll/ple by Lltagail'U KlIl1isada of c18'¡7. 1I'1'/"(' extreme/y ¡'~f1l1elItial for I/J(' dei.'dop"u'ut ol Art NO/n't.'nl/. 5 Erllt':;/ Hneckel's Kunslform der ~atur of J898, ,{'hiel, ~lloicf'd tlle structure of plaHts {md $t'n lifi' in detail, /xcnllle mI importmll SOllTce offorms for Art "'Ol/penll dt'Sigm'Ts, II11Tt ¡cl/lnr/~, ill Gt.'rmn".'f. 3
31
French Furniture Nancy
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mnde of flSII lllld decora/eri Witll marqlletry DJ t'tlriOlls woods. The Si/l/IDUS, nSYlIlllletric decora/ioll ;5 clear/y illdebted lo !apallese art. Hl 1.DglII/3ft 6v.ill.
2 Emite Callé produced tltis cabillet in 1896. It is profusefy decorated ¡vit11 mlimal (l/Id jlower
lIlotifs ill applied ((lrvillg "lid mnrqllefry. Bals witll Dll!stretclled lVil/gs /01"111 ¡lIe
sl/ppor! of tlle cabille/, 3 Emile Gallé's J1/flstcnvork in ¡l/mi/lIre, f!le Aube el Crépuscule bed rilas made in 1904-. Agían! 11/01/1 i/l/ay ¡¡¡;tll
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anc y, an important city historically for the decorative arts, beca me a key centre for Art Nouveau furrnture production. The establishment of the A/liclllce Provillciale deslnd//slries d'Art (iater called the EcoJe de Nal1cy) in 1901, gave a coherent identity to the designers and companies responsible for the renaissance seen in the decorative arts towards the end of the century. The companies of Emile Gallé (1846-1904) and Louis MajoreUe (1859-1926) were pre-eminent in furniture production. 80th designers used nature as a basis for design \Vhile using traditional forrns and techniques. Like many Art ouveau designers, Gallé advocated the idea that beauty \Vas to be found in the sympathetic application of the principies of natural growth. His stated aim was to "synthesize the logic and essence of Iife." Flowers and insects, particularly the dragonfly, beca me sta pie motifs both structural and applied. Gallé's and Majorelle's fumitu.re was strongly influenced by French 18th-century forms. The use oE sophisticated veneers, marquetry, and ormolu mounts is a feature of their work. ll1ese techniques were, however,
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modemized. An innovation peculiar to Gallé was the use oE inlays carved in relief; rus marquetry ofien used a huge range of woods and represented new subject matter such as landseapes and lincs from poetry. Majorelle devised elaborate decorative forms for his om1olu mow1ts, usually plants and flowers native to Lorraine. He eombined these with exotic woods, and his 'work is typified by the use of rieh materials. Victor Prouvé (1858-1943) and Louis Hestaux helped provide designs for marquetry for both Gallé and MajoreUe. The Gallé \vorkshops did use motor-driven tools for eonstructional parts, but finishing and detailing were achieved by hand. Majorelle produeed fumiture on a greater scale, producing multiple versions of a plece through meehanization. Suites of furniture \Vere produced with almost assembly-line precision. Eugene Vallin (1856-1922) and Emile André (1871-1933) benefited from increased attention to Nancy. Trained as arehitects their furniture, made oE plain woods, was influenced by the organic, abstraeted line of Belgian Art Nouveau.
5 Tlle /oruer part of tllis MajoreJle
cabillet of 1899 dt-picts tlle COllllllon Lorraille plallt, the Ombclle-lgirlllt liogweed). T1Ie decoratiile pallel at tlle top, depictillg all eagle defelldi"g Iler YOllllg fmlll a snake, lIIay tL't!f1 symoo/i:e tlle fig/lt of FrellcJI Lorrai"e against tlle Genllall ilIlllexatiOIl of tlle terr;tory. Ht 1.69111/5f' 7;11. 6 TIu: St!IISIfOIlS CIIrve5 a/ld flowillg /i/les of this cJll1;r are typical of tlle work of Lollis Majorefle. Tllis chair ,t'as exlll'bited ;11 tlle Paris exllibit;oll of 1900 and slIbsf'qlle/ltly bolfglll as ti representalir'e examp/e of Art NOllveall by tlle Victoria alld A/bert MIISt!lIl1l. Ht 1.22111/4ft.
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il/tricate, cart't!d decoration of lllis cnbillet desiglled by LOllis Hestallx rei>etl/s a fasc;lIatioll Witll SYllloolislIl that was exp/ored by ma"y Art NOl/t'l.'al/ desigllers.
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10 Call1il1e Gal/tilier worked WitJl Louis Majorelle frolll 1894 /0 1900. 111 190 I he esfab/ished ¡'is OWII compallY. T/¡is sl/ite of '903 revea/s his clear debt fo tlle sty/e of Majorelle. Chair lit 94C1JI/J7ill.
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2 1 TfJis IlIO/mll/tlllal side/loord wns dl'sigllen for (/ dillillg /'0011/ ill tin' Cflstel Bérnl1gel~ Dile of Gllilllnrd's II/OS/ illll'0rtllllf Imildiug:;. /1 ¡:ms COllcó'-'l.'d (/5 pnrl (111 O'-'l.'ml/ de:;igll for fhe dinillg 1"001/1. HI 2.97111/911 71ill.
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Siegfried Bil1g coI/lJllÍss;ollt'd ElIgelle Gnillnrd lo Cl"t'Il/e 11 tlinillg 1"00111 for llis Pn1'i/Iol1 L'Ar! NOllvenll ni l/le Paris exJ¡ibifioJl {if 1900. TIII's ImIfet. ¡Pit/¡ elegnllt, 1'6/ milled [linTe:;, jorlllcd l/le cCIltl"l'piece of fhe displny. HI 2.631111Sft Sill. 3 Tllis slIite of gilded fl/milllre, by GeO/ses De Felm', il'OIl n gold IIIcdal ni ¡he Pnr;s exhibitiOlI. Oeeply illdebted fa Rocoeo f01"1II5, it il'n5 seCll fa represelIt lile heigll t 01 I/Iodem Frell c11 desigll. (hn i r III 9~· 5cIII13 ¡'Ii11. 2
4 Hellri Bellery-Des{cm/ajllt's ¡ras DIlt' of t]¡l'
/etldillsfigllres of Frel/e/I Art ;\'olli'eall. His sly/e ¡etls i¡~fl"el/ced by f1u~ ¡orllls of Catllje (lrt alul lile ({,Titil/g:; of Vioflet-/e-dIlL TJ¡c J10ml de(()mtioll oI tite tabie dOl.'S l/al disgl/i,;.e j/s sfrucfllrl.'. Ht 90(111/35;(,;11. 5 r/II' {kM lo /iÍstoricnl Fr(,Jldl lIIodels i/l clcnr ill tI,;s ¡eriliu.'? desk lJY tl/t' Frellc/I compnll!, 1\.1(1;$011
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Bagl/l'S of c.19OO.
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6 RlIperl Cnrabill crented some of tIJe /1/0st
1III1Isllnl works i¡¡ the Art NOllvenll style alld II/mlY combilU:d n¡¡illlal mld IlIIlI1ml forms. A crOlle/Jillg woman jorms fhe bnse oj I!Jis extraordillnry e/mir oj C.1S95, wJzile mts jreqllently appear ill hi~ desiglls. Ht 1.22I11/4/t. 7 Tite slender eurvillg fines, florallllnrqllelry nl1d nsy"/melry oj Leon Beuollvil/e's wrifi¡¡g desk nre ojten jOlllld in Fre¡¡clt Art NOllvctll/.
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nnd cnrl'ed wnlllllt is upllOlstered i/llent/ler. Lenther, embossed with floral or geol1letric pnttcl"Ils, wns freqllelltly IIsed for Art NOllvcnu seatillg. Mnde by AI/dré Dnrras, C.190o, t/lis e/mil' ({'as showl1 ni the Pnris exhibition. Ht 97CIII/3/t ún. 9 Charles Plulllet Iwd TOJlY 5e1mersc/leilll produced ensembles ojjllmitllre in plnill wood w/lOse bold strllctllre 1I1ldascored tIJe way t/ley were /IIade. Tllis carI'cd onk desk c1mir ext'mplifies t/leir interest ill stntctllre ova npplied decoration. Ht 93.5cm/36¡;in. 10 The cnrI'ed pedestnl jor Alexr1lrdre C!mrpt'l1tier's music stnnd oj 1901 is nll essny in dYllallzic /ille nnd SillllOIlS (orm; al1 nrc1ll'fl¡pal work il1 the Frellc!1 Arl NOIIUeflll style. HI 1.22l11l1ft.
\"Ihile still moted in a comm.itment to the new, greater attention was paid by many Paris-based designers to the renewal of the French craft tradition. The Rococo-inspired furniture and interior ensembles produced by Siegfried Bing to designs by Ceorges De Feure (1868--1943), Eugene Gaillard (1862-1933), and Edollard Colorma (1862-1948) ' . . 'ere intended to revitalize the French luxury craft indush-y. Bing promoted the idea of the small artisan workshop where few pieces were produced in series. His selected designs are typified by a fusion of taut, organic nahualism with Rococo fOlms, exemplified in Ceorges De Feure's sitting roOIll furniture for the Pavillon Bing, a gold-medal wirmer at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. Members of the Paris grallp Les Six, Charles Plurnet (1861-1928), Tony Selmersheim (1840-1916), and Alexandre Charpentier (1856-1909) prodllced hmuhrre that used plain woods with lU1decorated surfaces. TIleir pieces emphasized strllchlre and line wIueh lUlderseored the assembly of the huniture. As ellseJl1bliers, Selmersheim and Plumct were interested in the overall wuty of works
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within the interior. However, Hector Guimard (18671942) was the designer to best express the wlity of thc Art Nouveau interior design in Paris. Trained as an arclutect, his funuhtre designs are an integral part of rus interiors and employ a highly personal sense of arclutechual funetionalism. For Guimard, decoration comprises an essential part of the form and is never merely applied. The intense organism of rus art demonstrates rus corrunibnent to the strategy of nahlre praviding a progressive model for designo Guimard \vas inflllential and many designers adopted rus style. Rupert Carabin (1862-1932) came to furnihtre design fram sculpture. His carved pieces break down the barriers behveen the fine and deeorative arts, a key aim of Art NOllveau designo Working in many materials, lus hmutllre often incorpora tes metal fittings or details. The nude female figure predomina tes and is often aecompanied by animals with various symbolic meanjngs. Carabin's often erotic and highly mysteriolls pieees provide a link between Art NOllveall and Symbolism.
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Belgian and Dutch Furniture
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Belgian Art Nouveau
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1 Victor Horta's
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of CJ89S~I900 /5 mI importall! e.mmpfe of lhe total arlistie interior OT Gesarntkunstwerk. Horta's fumítl/r/' fo/1o¡n:.1 tf¡l! SlIII1I' principies tlS lli.; nrc]¡ifectllrt:. Botl, explored /lu' llse of eomplex. orgallíc fillt'. 2 Heury Van ¡te Ve/de's ,{'as 0111' of file jirsl propOllelltS of Art NOlweall. TlEe bold, C1/ri.,i/im:ar [onll of IIds di'$k of 1898---g, 0/1(.' ofseveralllUl¡fe lo t/¡is designo /Iecnlllc n/wllmark of {ús sfy/('. Ocsk lit 1.28m/.¡.ft ?in.
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3 TI'¡s onk nrmc1lf1ir by Van de \Ic/de of Cl897 fIn:; simple. Clllí.'illg I¡IIes alld general/s proportiolls. Ht 86.3CI1I/)4ill.
4 TI//! n1tí'lll/t1ted ¡orll/5 of Horta's fl/mitllre des;glls signalled J¡is n:jectioll of tll(' simp/icity of lile Arts /lllri Craft:; A!Oi.'Clllt?l/t l/lid ¡Ji;:, debt lo Rococo morids. HI 95clII/371.;1I.
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6 T1Iis 1895 sl/iteJor Chambrc d'Artisan by Serrurier-Bouy rc..'cals Ids illterest in tIJe prillcip!es of tite Arts nlla Cmfls MO~lel1lf'llt. C!mil' /¡t 93cm/36Y,ill.
7 !Jaul Hal/kllr dl.'sigl/ed l/lis foldil/g c1mir mld stoo!. A COIICl'lItmtioll 01/ lille n/Id for/ll is npparellt ;11 ¡!le clmil~ wllile tite legs of file slool follow a lIIodem ilJterprdat;ol/ of the cabriole le:? C!uúr II¡ I.14111l3ft 9ill.
of a gl.'lItI.1/ CIIrl'illg arell in tllis ih.'li by GlIsfl1l'l' Sl'rr1frier-Boi'Y is typicnf of bis fl/mitl/rl.' al/li I1rc/¡itl.'ctllrc. It is ,Il'comft>d ¡¡,¡ti, 5 TlU? l/51.'
C1/r..,ilillf'l1r ml'llllmo/lllts. a (0111111011 Art ,\'om't'ltl/ft'lltl/re. L. 2.J11Jl/6ft nill.
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Dutch Art Nouveau 1 rile decoral ¡pe ¡,,/ay 01 tropicnl il'oods 011 Ibis IIll1sic slal/d of '9°3. by Carel Ado/phe Lioll Cae/let, depicts sfyli:ed pt'acocks. Tlle decora/iOIl is illspin.'lt by IlldOIl/!sinll arto Ht 1-4/11/4ft ¡iJl.
2 H.P. Berlnge l/'(I'S DI/{' 01 l/le IIlOS! rntiOJlfl/ist
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dt'Sigl/crs 01 t111~ D1/lclI
NiclI.t't' KlfIIS/. TIJe n-stmilled decora/ioll nI/ti $O/id fonlls of t/¡is /(lrge sidebooni 01 1898 are typical ofllis styk Ht 2.6m/8ft 4ill.
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3 TIJe ClIn'ilill('ar forms 01 tlle Imek 01 t1Jis Offk :;el/el', madI' iu 1898 b.1/ lal! TllOrIl-Prikker, I!xcmplify file more orgmúc stmill
o[ Art NOl/ioeflll. Ht 1.24111/4ft. 1. J.oSm/3ft 6/1/.
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elgium became an important centre for the reception of English Arts and Crafts ideas, and it \Vas the first country to arri"e al a fully fledged maste')' of lhe Art Nouveau style. The key Arts and Crafts idea of the GeSl1111tkllllshverk \Vas dearly expressed in the works of Henry '·an de Velde (186:>-1957), Victor Horta (1861-1947), and Gustave Serrurier-Bovy (1858-1910). These designers applied to their furnihrre the principIe of the unifying importance of lineo Van de Velde, following Arts and Crafts forebears such as V\'alter Crane, described line as being "a force which is aetive like aH elemental forces," and Belgian Art NOl1veau design is typified by the use of cllrvilinear, abstraet line. In Horta's interiors a11 elements, inclllding furniture, are subordinated to the dominant and unifying use of organie lineo Van de Velde's furniture developed the idea of omament evolving from strueh¡re, and his 'Nork earried the organic away from an imitation of nahue towards the abstract. Most Belgian funuh¡re is executed in plain woods but both van de Vclde and Serrurier-Bovy occasionaHy incorporated
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metal fittings. The decorative qua lity of their work is inherent in their use of energetie line rather than through applieation of omamentation. Serrurier-Bovy developed a particular use of the arch, which gave his fumiture a struetural tension, belying his training as an architect. In the Tetherlands a number of architects tumed their attention to designing interiors in the 18905, and they gave Niemve KUlIst, the Dutch variant of the style, its d..istinetiveness. Various approaches emerged. H.P. Berlage (1856-1954) represented a rationalist strain. Again, inspired by Arts and Crafl principies, he developed functional fumiture where construction and craftsmanship of the ítem are clear features. Lion Cachet (1866-1945), Theodor Nieuwenhuiis (1866-1951), aud Gerrit Willem Dijsselhoff (1866-1924) represented another strain of Dlltch Art Nouveall that eombined deeoration with constrllction. These artists all ,,,'orked for Van Wisselingh & Co. Using exotic woods, materials, and pattems from eastern SOllrees (particularly Indonesia), the renewal of decoration was a primary goal.
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German, Scottish, and Austrian Furniture Jugendstil LL.
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like legs, is DIle 01 the gren/es/ exampfes ill file style. Pnllkok frequt!ntly l/sed decorarioll slIggesth>e o/ animal or plant
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Peler Belirens. Metal fittings were freqllelltly l/sed lo SlIpp/y ti/e decoratiw embellishmtllt for
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Germnll desigller. lts bold C1fri'ing lines ulld simple COllstrllctioll m'M/ RiemerscJmlid's illteresl in serial protillctioll. Ht 74(111/291,;11. 5 Heril/mm Obrist's be/ieJ tlJa/nn/ure COI/Id provide a /IIodcl for style govemed /¡is desigll. TIJe metal fittil1gs lI1ay ¡/(Ive bee" inflllencl!d by lile bolallisf En/si Haeckel. L. 1.32111/ifl 31.;11.
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3 Alfgllst Elldell (1871-1925), like Pnllkok, .ms fascil/aled 'l'iIIl /lntllral forms. TIiI! caTí.'t!d decoralion nlld pole colollr o/ tJlis armelmir o/ 1899 is slIggestj¡lf! of kllnrfed wood or bolle. HI 86.5CII//3-1ill.
he artists of the German JugendstiI (Youth Style) schools were divided between rational and expressive styles. As the critic Leopold Gmelin, editor of KIIllst lllld Hnlldwerk, stated in 1897, "1'wo principIes characterize the modem direction of applied art: first... simplicity of construction; secondly, the association with the plant and animal world .... Hand in hand with simplicity of construction goes a preference for modest materials." Designers committed to the first principIe sought to develop furniture that could be machine produced. The Munich-based United Workshops for Art in Handicraft (VereÍllÍgte Werkstiittell ¡iir KllIlst im HnJldwerk) developed a simplified, pared-down aesthetic for hlmiture and interiors, in part inspired by Arts and Crafts, that could be serially produced. Richard Riemerschmid's furniture reflected this concern \vith practicality, honesty, and truth to materials. His MascJlÍlIellll16be/ heralded production methods in the ne\\' century. The furnih.ue of those artists influenced by Hermann Obrist 0862-1927) represented the expressive second
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principie. Obrist's philosophical preoccupation ''''ith nature aS an evolutionary model for design resulted in the organic thread of }ugendstiJ. Abstract natural forms are the determining feature of tbis strain of the style and are seen in the furniture of Endell, Obrist, and Bernhard Pankok (1872-1943). ll1e leading Viennese designers trained as architects under Otto Wagner 0841-1918) and, like the Scottish Charles Rennie Mackintosh 0868-1928), developed an arcbitectural approach to hmliture designo A similar taut geometry can be seen in the work of J05ef Maria OIbrich (1867-1908), Koloman Moser (1868-1919), and Josef Hoffmalm 0870-1956). Mackintosh's display at the eighth Vienna Secession exhibition, 1900, introduced the Viennese to the stnlctural rationale and linear geometry of Glasgow furniture and led to a more rigid style seen in the furniture of Hoffmann and the \Viener \rVerkstatte. Ho\\'ever, 5ecession furniture continued to explore historical models for new style. Biedernleier exerted él considerable influence on forms and decoration.
The Glasgow School
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The Viennese Designers 1 Desiglled by ]oseph Maria Olbricl1;1/ 1905, tllis secrétnirc is ndapted frOIll {/ Biedellleier
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modelo 1ts f01"1II anri decorative motift; luwe beell silllplífied and arpenr sfrikillgly /IIodern. Ht 1.92cm/6ft 3ill.
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1 Charles RCl1Ilil.' Mnckilltosll developcd a unique style, freqJlI!I1t1y 'witJ, geometric forllls (I/lri e/ollgntcd lilles, with (/ profol/lld impacto Tllis e/mir, 1897-19°0, wil/¡ ils e/ollgnted bnck (/lid deccptiveIy simple sfrucfllrc is ¡collic. Ht 1.36111/4ft jill.
2 Mnckintosh worked wit/¡ llis lVife, Margare! MeDolla/d. This cabillet is dccomtcd with lIIotifs tila! becnmc nrchetypal of lhe Glnsgow
ScllOol: lIbstrncted eggforllls, styli:z.ed roses, (Inri nttclIlIated [cma/e figures. Ht 1.54m/5ft.
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2 2 Tltis lady'::; writing desk al/d arll/clIair was designed by KololI/olI Masa in 19°3. The armclmir slides allllosl illvisib/y i/lto Ihe desk. This piece n/so
dmws frolll Biederllleier ¡villl its satillIvood I1Ild bmss il/lay. 1-11 67clII/l6Y:ill.
3 TrnditiOllal alld cOlllempormy elell1e11ls exist ill ¡IIis /IJree-pa/lel scree/l mj Josef Hoffil/al1, 1899-19°0. TlIe Iyre forms a/ lile /op are derived from nlltiquiflj; tlle tooled gold decora/ion in /IIe lea/IIer pallels is lI1odem. Palie! lIt 1.55111/5f/.
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Italian and Spanish Furniture Stile Floreale
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C.1900 is t!fpiCflI ol t/u' l'xtrl!lIIdy decorntiFe
'[a[;a/l Stile Florcalc. Tlle Ol'l1atefloral jorlll5 aJld l/se ol /IJe lell/a/e Ilude I1S 11 sCI//ptum/ lIIotif e/lIlmcteri:t' "We/I Art NOlli'
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3 3 enrio Ze/l made tltis frl/íf<{'fXJd sirle e/Ufir ¡" C.lgOO. lt is ill/aid ¡¡'itll IIlotJ¡er-of-penr/ (llId
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metal, (lIld lile bnck of file c1Ulir bears allellllaled flora/motifs. Ht 93_7clII/361-ill. 4 Tlle can'etf back of Cíaco/llo COlllclfi's sirle ,ilair, for tl,e Exposi:iollt! Illlema:iollflle al TI/rin in 1902, n/so Sl/ggesfs lile IOTm of mI a/)slrocled planl or flOtt'er. 5 Ernesto 8f1si/e's trtlillillg as mi are/litee! is e/ror iJl ill II/C solid sfrucfllre of t/¡is ma1lOsallY secréfaire, 5110"'" al lile VeJliCt: BiclIJwll', 1903. TI/I! IIInssive proporfiolls are softelled wil!l figural decora/ioll ;11 file brOl/:e jitting:;. 6 /1If1l1cnced by ¡apanese art, some ltaliflll designer;; IIscrl )apmlese molif.~ il1 ¡heír desiglls. Tlús 1Il1l11Ogany eavinel of °902 by Cario ZCIl is il/lnid witJ! IIlOtlter-of-penrlIJlId vrnss.
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Modernismo in Spain 1 11lis PO
form oorro¡¡'S ¡mm /1/nllY SOllrCe5. P/nllt (lIId mlÍmnl forms cml be ideutified as .{'e1l elelllf"llts /nkcn jrOlJ/ tlle GotlJic alld Baroqlfe. ~ 2 This pitrille ¡¡'liS desigllelf by Alejo Clnpes Pllig nlld Gnlldí. Gmllfí's 1151.' of fligllly orgmlic /orlll5 illf/llellced II/nl/y of 1Ii5 cOlllelllpomries nlld call be seell in 1/,/' silll/olls alld dYllnlllic sculptllrnj fomls of ¡his work.
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3 Gnsptlr HOl/lnr (1870-J953)
n/so desiglled il'Orks illf/l/mud by Gillld;, bu/ l/lis [ml/ INlllef{ilJg nlld Sl'ftee of J9D-l represell/5 n more res/mil/ed approocll. Tlle lII(jrq/letr~1 pallds il't.'re desiglled b~llosepfl Pt'1J i Farriol. Ht 2.68111/8ft 9ill.
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wo disti.nct stylistic strains emerged within Italian Art Nouveau furniture designo On the Qne hand an extremely floral sCLdptural style was developed by such designers as Vittorio Valabrega (1861-1952) and Agostino Lauro (1861-1924), while sorne designers were inspired by the exotic forms and techniques emerging from North African and Middle Eastern art. Carla Bugatti (185&-1940), Eugenio Quarti, and Cario Zen (1851-1918) are prominent designers who experimented with exotic materials and eastern forms in their designs. The furnjture 01 bolh groups is oflen determined by rich ornamentation and great tedmical skill. The Valabrega compan), produced pieces in multiples by machine, and \Vere one of the fe", 1ta lían companies that could reach a larger market. Their fumiture design \Vas often highly sculptural, with decorative floral motifs. By contrast the work of Ernesto BasUe (1857-1932) and Giacomo Cometti (1863-1938) represented él more restrained, Art and Crafts-inspired aesthetic. Simpler linear forms \Vere applied to both hand crafted, in the
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case of Cometti, and machine-produced works. TI1e most original fumihtre designer in Italy was Carlo Bugatti. Ho\'vever, rus work \Vas often considered bizarre at the time. Tts exotic appearance was enhanced by the use of the characteristic kcyhole arch, a deternooing featurc of rus fumiture, and the use of vellum, silk tassels, and inlaid abstract decoration in pewter, bone, and ivor)'. The Spanish response to Art Nouveau interior design centred on developments in Barcelona, and particuJarly on the work 01 Anloni Gaudí (1852-1926). His ,mique, highly organic style had a profound intluence 011 the design style of his contemporaries. His avowedly Catalan form of Art Nouveau, Modernismo, depended upon the use of nature as both a basis for structure and ornamentation. In line with many of his European counterparts and under the influence of the French theorist VioUet-le-Duc, Gaudí developed a structural rationalism based on nature. His designs for furniture rigorously devclop organic form into él structural whole. Nature is not applied as decoration but determines the form in rus H'ork.
American, Hungarian, and Nordic Furniture l\~ (~\ America
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by tlle illter/ockil/g lIIotifs of Ceftic arto Ht 1.4111/4ft ¡iJl. 2 RoMfs' IJaIl desk, exewted il/ AlIlericml wlrite oak betweell 1898-1901, revea/s a debt to file Golhic, but tlle SillllOlI:> foml:> of l/le fillia/s alld CIII~ol/t decorntioll are c1enrly moen/ tite illfllll?llce of Europeml Art NO/H.'t"nll. HI I.421ll/4fl 8il/.
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The Dragan Style
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1 Tlte t/lb/e, c1mirs, n/Id blfffd frolll tJlt~ Hollllt!llkollell TOllrisl Hotel 11/ Norway by }.A.G. Ackel, were :;;11I1'/.11 desiglled witll e1egclllf a/te/llm/ed wrvi/illenr slU/pes, as seell in ¡IJe leg:; /lnd bnck oi tlUt c1wir.
2 TI,is extrnordinary (abille/ dt"Siglled by l.Jlrs
3 Gerhnrd ¡\JI/Il/he (t849-1929) desigllM tI,is
KillsnnJik (184-6-J925) is decornfed
dragoll e/",ir in J898 Jor tI,(.' HolllleJIkollell Hotel iJl
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Vikillg alld CrUie motift. Mal/Y Norwegi/lll designer:; l/sed Vikil/g illlllgery ill tlle :;enTe/¡ for (llllodem, IlIltiOll/l1 5/.1111'. Ht 1.89111/6ft 1/,111.
N017l't1y. T}¡e illteriors explored Vikillg iJllngay
(Inri motifs. rlEis e/mil' combines 11 styl/:ed dragoll 101'11I witit /Jo/d, l/1odem colollrillg. HI 1.VII/3ft ¡in.
4 Dt'i.'Oj¡i oj decoratioll, Carl I \btmflll refit'li
011
tlu,' $lIbt/e Clln't':5 alld simple filies of l/lis clmir to l/1ake a dl.'sigll stalcmf'lIt. Ht I.OlllI/3ft 4il/. 5 Tlllt Koti clmir ¡l'fIS Ift'Sigllltd by Eliel $aarilll!ll for file Paris exhibitioll of 1900. YIJe sflflpe alld dtXoraliOIl of tIJe clmir are adapled from fmdilioJlal FÍlmis/¡ fo/k fOfl11S. HI 1.]2111/4/1 1ill.
6 Akseli Gal/r,'II-Kalle/a was Fill/al1d's /eadillg
5ymoo/isf paillter. He occnsiollaUy desigllcd JI/milI/re alld lfle Tree of Knowledge cabil/eI of 1897-8
,l'fIS
desigJled jor
'lis flOme. !ts cnn'f!d
decornlit.oe pill/e/S depicls Et'f! IlfIlldillg fllI: apple fa Adnm.
4
Ht 1.29111/.J!1 Jill.
5
Hungarian Folklore and Art Nouveau 2111 HI/I/gnry lIIal/Y desigl/ers ndopted tlw iulemntÉmra! Al't NOI/
01 sil/I/OIlS
dl'corntivl' jorllls. Several dt'sigIlL'rs dl,•.!e1oped n distillct/y HlIlIgaritllJ
Údoll Fnrngó combiJled lII(lf~(<; drn,t'lI frolll HlIlIgnritlll (olk
respoJlse.
ar/, ÍlJ!('mntiQJlnf Al'/
NO¡r¡'("(lll,
(lnd Eas/em nrc/lileclllrt'. Cnbillt'/1Jf 2.4111/7/1 loill.
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< 1 1 Y/lis plllill forll/s of tllis o(lk (ll/Ii dJOIIY
siddJOard. 1900, bIt Ptil Horti (1865-19°7). are dí'comkd ¡¡¡il/¡ delicalt' bmss fittings. Afia
2
1904, Horti was acli",' in tlle Lillilcd Sla/l's, kllml'JI as Palll Horli. Ht 7.86111/61t ÚI/.
he Arts and Crafts Movernent provided a powerful precedent for an aggressive cornmitment to simplicity inspired by folk culture. Much Art Nouveau design in the United States, thc Nordic, and Central European countries was rnediated by an Arts and Crafts aesthetic or was inspired directly by national folk cultures. The predominant influence on fllrnitllre in the United Sta tes was the Arts and Crafts Movement, and fe\V companies acknowledged thc modernizing tendencies of Art Nouveau. The idiosyncratic Bllffalo~based designer Charles Rohlfs (1853-1936) \Vas one cf few to incorporate sorne more SinllOUS forms and natllre-inspired ornament of Art 1 Oll\'eall mto his solid Arts and Crafts pieces. In most countries the search for a modem national style led designers to explore their own traditions, and nowhere was this more c1carlv , demonstrated than in thc ordic and central European cOllntries. In Nor",ay the rediscovcry of the complex omament of Viking ship art provided the basis for a new decorative langllagc. The affi.nity of the abstract animal and plant forms and
T
interlocking sinuous ornament of Viking and Celtic art with Art NoU\'eall appealed to the new generation of designcrs. It was easily assimilatcd, adapted, and modemized for aH areas of the decorative arts. In Finland Akseli Gallen-Kallela (1865-1913) and Eliel 50arinen (1873-1950) explored ancient Karelian myths and legends to provide inspiration. Their fumiture used vemacular or folk-inspired patterns and sturdy forms or carving with Symbolist subject matter. Hungarian Art NOllveau fllrniturc design combined eastern ornament \Vith the vernaclllar. Designcrs lIsllally favoured natural motifs such as the flora and fauna of the HlIngarian peasant cOllntrysid~ or pattems derived from folk textiles. The hlmihlre of Odón Faragó (1869-1935), \\'hich is typical of much Hungarian Art Nouveau, mi.xed eastem ornamental forms and folk pattems with symbols of Hungarian national identity such as the stylized tulip. However, mllch eastem European Art Nouvcau furnitllre demonstrates a fllsion of folk forms with thc sinuous flowing ¡ine of the international Art Nouveau style.
3
Ceramics
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illterltSt in bolll experimelltal gfn=es nlld
orgnllie ¡orIll5. Ht (of tal/est) 66.5CIII/2 j'!:ill. 3 Tlú;; biscl/il it'are figure i5 pnrl of ¡he Jcu de I'écharpe Mbit seUil/g by U(}//flrd Agatl1011, made by Si:..'res, (llId exhibih'li in lhe Paris exhibitioll of J900. Ht 6OCIll/2;1.ill. 4 TIJis porcelaiu cofJee ser..';ce of C.J900, by ¡\ lnl/Ti((! DI/friml!, t('as sold I/lrollg/l l.J¡ 1\ l(/i5011 Alademe. lf is mi e.mll/ple of tite COIlIllIl7cinf
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owards the end of the 19th century the French art ceramics industry experimented with high temperature glazes to achieve the deep red known as flambé and subtle crystalline effects. Ernst Chaplet (1835-1909) \Vas the most influential designer to experiment with these glazes. New effects were combined with organic forms while artists such as Auguste Delaherche 0837-1940) and Pierre-Adrian Dalpayrat 0844-1910) reassessed vemacular stoneware as an arosoc medium. Delaherche developed difficult glazes, which he applied to stoneware bodies, ",hile Alexandre Bigot·0862-1927) specialized in firing large-scale stoneware for both the exterior and interior of buildings. The leading exponent of the popular technique of lustre glazes was Clément Massier (1845-1917). Sevres, the nanonal manufacturer, produced a vast range of works in the Art Nouveau style, from huge architectural vases by Hector Guin'lard to delicate porcelain tea services with applicd insect motits by Léon KaIU1. Many commercial factories produced ceramics in the nev.' style and they were \videly ava¡lable.
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314
There was aIso a revival of interest in stoneware in Germany where H6hr Grenzhausen employed a new genera non of designers to update tradinonal forms. Richard Riemerschmid and Peter Behrens gave beer jugs and mugs radical new decoranve styles, adding colour and linear pattems to traditional fom'ls. The German porcelain companies of Nymphenburg, Meissen, and ViUeroy & Boch made Art Nouveau wares. Nymphenburg employed Hermann Gradl 0869-1934) to produce a naturalistic fish service while Meissen cornmissioned Behrens, Riemerschmid, and Henry van de Velde to produce table services with abstract pattem and swirling linear ornamento The finest porcelain manufacturer in The Hague was Rozenburg. J.J. Kok (1861-1919) developed an eggshell porcelain unmatched for the thinness of the body and its delicate shapes. Rozenburg incorporated Indonesian motifs into their designs, as did other Dutch designers such as Theodor Christiaan Colenbrander 0841-1930). Lustred glazes using metallic oxides were first revived in Italy, and fine
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Wares 01 the Nordic Countries
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TJW5i.' pieces frolll tll(' Blue Anemones parcelniu ¡/iI/l/t'r 5i.'1l'iel', desigllt'd b"f tlll' NOlíl'eginll Gerfl{}rd MllllllJe (1892-3) for Porsgnll/d, incorpomtl.' ¡hl.' decomti,1C 1/10fi/s of s;:¡lirlillg Iinl'S nlld sfyli:ed fl0
1 Allribllted AlflVnllflllder,
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ti/{' nrtistic
director of tlle Sil'edi~11 fnctory R6r::trnlld, tllis porcelnill ¡tase of 1900 is filie/y I/Iodcl/cd allri Inkcs ¡lIe /01"111 o/ a f1oll'Cl". ¡vlnl!!! Rorstrnlld pil'as m'/"{' iw;pired /111 mlill/a/ DI' "Imll lorm:,.
3 Tire Billg nlld Grol1dnh! Fnctory specinli:ed ill t'xqllisite mode/lillg ill parcelaill. TI/(' Jlicreed body ol tlris <'ase fwd flon'l!r dL'Corntioll nI'¡' Iypica/ of Billg (1Ild Grolldn/¡f pieces fmlll file /um of tite cel//I/n¡. Hf 43clII/17;1I.
4 TI/(' Dalle TIIOIl.'tlld Billdrsoofl
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}lnjl/ten anri i"cised decora/iOl/ 011 r!lÍs /urge-sen/e l'flrlfleH
of ,893, He dt'veloped n dislillcl
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(lIrd extreme/y pain/e!"ly flppronch. HI57·5CIII/221,;II. 5 FO//Oil'i!1g tite lend alScvres, Va/demal" EllgellUlrdf
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Royal
(,S60-1916J nI tllC
a
Copt'llJlfIgell Fnctory, dfile/oped
crystnfljlll' gln:es ill
brig!Jt (010IlT';. Ht 17clIl/61Jn. 6 The Ambia Factor!! ill FiJl/nl/d
""'1' cnrtl1e¡¡;:l'(lre
/IlI/11dlCd (/ ml/ge t'ntít/i!d
Fennia
in 1902.
/t ((Ins cJ¡nrflcferi:ed by sfrikillg grollldric pnl/cms (Illri distilletj,'t' mOOCrJI
sltapes. Ht
2jCm/lOill,
s cxamples were made by Chini. The Zsolna)' Factory in Budapest 'Nas the leading company to make lustreware cerarnics fram 1900. Derunark and 5weden specialized in modellcd porcelain employing motifs fram natul"e. R6rstrand, Bing & Gf0ndahJ, Royal Copenhagen, and Gustavsberg produced porcelain wares typified by subtle, paJe colours and sculptural forrns with flora and falU1a. Designers, often trained in different disciplines, modernized the \Vares of lhese companies. Alf Wallander (1862-1914), artistic director of R6rstrand from 1895, used swirling lines, natural forms, and japanese manfs, while the Nonvegian porcelain manufacturer Porsgrund employed Gerhard Munthe to crea te designs for services slIch as a stylized blue anemone. The Arabia factory in Finland introduced a range of earthenware which, in contrast to other Nordic factories, used bright colours and geometric pattems. Thorvald Bindesbell's (1846--1908) painted and incised earthenwares disregarded tradition, and were influenced by Gallguin, revealing a strong painterly approach.
6
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American companies sllch as Grueby Faience, Teco, and Rookwood sllccesshilly experimented with new decoranve forms, patterns, and glazes. Grlleby and Teca developed llnique !TIatt and semi-matt glazes while the Roobvood Pottery's speciality was pai.nting in coloured slip on unfired clay. An atomizer was used to give a smooth and glossy surface to the work and successful new glaze lines were developed, including the Sea Green, Iris, and VeUum glazes. Painters such as Harriet E. Wilcox and K. Shirayamadani painted designs directly onto the vessels. Artus Van Briggle (1869-1904), \-vho trained in Paris and had worked for Rookwood, developed organic and sculptural vessel forms that suggested metamorphosis of the femaJe formo The American Adelaide Alsop Robineau was unique among ceramic makers in Europe and the United Sta tes. 5he carved porceJain and constructed the intricate forms and decoration of her works. Few British ceramics manufacturcrs made pieces in the new style, but Doulton created a range caUed Succession \-vare with stylized linear motlls on geometric bodies.
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Other European Wares 1 TIII:sc $(lit-gil/ud, slOllcware tallkards (l/Id jllg o/ C.J902 are by Richard Riemersdmúd
l/lid Peler
8eflrell5
respective/y. TI/ese
desigllers modemi:::ed freldiliOllal Cerlllall sn1t-
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Heril/al! Gradl desigllcd a fis/l dhlJler service iH 1899. EncJI
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piece fook a clIn,jlil1caT Jonu bul depict~(11T jisIJ lwtllralistiml/y.
Pinte ,l'. 62cm/:l.4iill. 3 50111[' o/ t]¡e fillesl Art NOl/venll porce/aiu ,"liS prodllced al tlle Ro:::ellblfrg jactory iJl ti/e Jlagllc. The/T u Eggsflelr porcdaill
,ms
extremely tllíll l/lid oftCll took flamboyant ¡orll/s. Ht (o! tal/es!) 3 J .jcm!I2iill.
4/11 Ita/y, Galileo C1lilli fook illspira/ioll frolll tradifiolllll maioliea ware. Tlzis pla/e o[ C.189S adopts file c%llrs of /l/aio/ica brlf its ptlftt'rz¡ is IYl'ica/ of file j10willg lilles of Art NOlliJl!all. Dinm. 17CIII/7ill. 5 T1lis grollp of enrt1letltL'are ¡'tlses ,I'as /linde C.1S99 af ti/e Zsollla.1fJncfory in HIII/gnry, a cOlllptll/y tltaf becnme a leader ill
ti/e fie/d of /lIstre
6 1Ms Cfllldlestick ;5 mI eXlImp/e ofSuccession I,.Vare pradllCf:d by OOU/tOIl & Ca. in Britaill. T!le linear, sty/i:ed decorafioll is c1early illdebfed fo file Viellllese sfyle. I-It 3OC/ll/11Y,ill.
316
6
American Ceramics 1 The BostOI/ firlll GI"I/f'by
3 Iv1aH gln:es werc nlso l/sed in
Faiella' emll/nted tlle IIlnff (Inri
llu' prOOllctioll 01 file AlllericllIl
sf'lIIi-lIIaft gla:es dn-eloped by
Terra Colla & Cerall/ic CompallY (Teca). Fril: Alberf dl!Sigllt'd
El/ropen" ceramists. T/lis SIOIle¡I'flre L'fist of 1898-1900 is gla:ed iJl ti/e fnmol/s "Gmeby Greel1". 1-11 33.5clII/13'/,;Il. 2 AIIIOlIgst ¡he American prodllcas. Arllls vlln Brigg/e
flig1lly orgmlic
i:'aSl'S for
Teca.
Ht (o! falfes!) 24cm/9!:ill.
dei'l'Jopt'd the mosl SCl/fptlmll approac1l. TIJe body of lIi5 Lorelei t'n5t", /linde by tlle Roo{..-¡¡'OOO
4 Kafaro S//irayallladalli in/rodl/ccd a Japal/ese pail/tillg /rnditioll n/ Roo1..'('OQd. He JIfll/d}"lill/ed decoraliOll direcl fo file body. mukillg eudl msc IIlliqlle. TJ¡js ¡'fl5l' da/LOS Imm 1928.
pottery. mefamorp¡'os;:es ;1110
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5 TIIl' Fulper POllery CompnllY prodllCl.'ri extraordillnry fnmps "wl combiJled glns:> (lIld
ceramic ¡JI orgmlie forll/s. This Mushroom lamp of c. J 910 1m:> fI ¡'ate nI/tique gln:e. Ht 45.5cm!I7I,il1. 6 I\delnidc AlsoJl RobillCflll (1865-1929)
crentcd litis cra/; ;:>ase in 1908. TII;5 'l'ork in porcdaill ¡ms: n feal o/ enTe/l/l/y am.>ed dl.'coratioJl. HI H}cm/7I.ill.
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------------------------------¡ Glass French and Belgian Glass
,1 Emile Gallé's La Ubellule mupe (lile dmgollfly ClIp) o/ 190,¡ employs <'llriOIlS tec/miqlll's. illcllldillg can1illg (lIld app/im glns:;, fo errafe
extraordillary detail and atmospllCri( ejfl!ct. Ht l.¡.jcm/l1'/,ill. 2 This famp of 190-1 f'lIlitlcd Les Coprins r("i'l.'als Callé's ¡ascil/afioll
he late 19th cenhlry saw irnmense experimentation in glassmaking in franee. Historie techniques \Vere researched, while nev·,' ones such as páte-de-verre ,,,,ere
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invented. The French industry went from ane-off handmade objects to cast élrt glass on a vast scale. Nancy \Vas thriving centre of production with both the Gallé and Daum Freres factories located there. The pre-eminent Art
él
318
Nouveau glass producer was Emile Callé. He provided the designs but never made and rarely decorated the works, many of wruch incorporated Symbolist prose or poetry. His mastenvorks are essays in the exploration of natural forms and imagery, and he used various techniques to acrueve subtle and dense effects, induding carving, casing, acid etching, wheel cutting, and applying glass. Many of rus pieces were rnade by serial production using the commercial tecluuque of acid etdling. Auguste (185:>-1909) and Antonin Daum (1864-1930) moved into art glass in the 18905 and employed artists such as Ernest Bussiere, Henri Bergé, and Amalric Waltcr to produce designs tor glass. Daurn also experirnented
with new techniques such as carneo or ¡JI terca/aire (inlays), where differently coloured glass is pressed into the body of the work. Alsace-Lorraine was also the centre tor other glass manufacturers sueh as the Gruber and Muller Freres eompanies, which produced glass for electric lighting, stained glass, and decorative vessels. The infIuence of Callé ,vas felt across Europe but particularly by the Belgian Val St Lambert Glasshouse, perhaps the most commercially successfuJ at the end of the century. Jt produced vases with floral decoration and nah.ual forrns. One of its most important designers was the Belgian Philippe Wolfers (1858--1929) who, between 1893 and 1903, produce
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6 Albert-LOllis Dallllllollse
3
4
3 TJ¡is mflstenl'Ork by Gal/i oI C.1904 demOl/strates his ability fa erente complexo 5y",boli:s1 ,porks flUlt (nrejl/I/y cm/ted c%llr, patillll/ioll, tlIuf surjnce tren/mcllt. Ht ]JCIIl/13Í11.
(1846--1926) .•I'as 01/{' ofse¡'eml frellc/I tlTfi:;!s ¡dIO crented ¡l'Or/(s IIS/lIg lbe /le'" tec1l1liqut' of pt'ifl:. tfe-r.wre or caslillg gral/lid glass paste. Sublfe, /11111/1101/5 I,'ffects alld illtcl/Sl! c%llrs were ac!Jieved /lIrougIJ l/lis tcc!miquc alld arc l'Xl'mplificd /11 t!lis bo¡l'l of c. 1898. 7 Jacqllt"S Grubcr was Ol/C of tIJe leading dl.'Siguer" of stnim'fi gfa"s iu FraJlU. 11,is 'l'illdoH' of C.1906 II/ade for a hOllSt' ill Nal/cy dl'picts gOllrd" alld watcrli/ies, t,l>o CO/II/I/O/I lIIotifs il1 Art NOIH'eall. 8 DallJ1/ Fráes ellwl(ltl'd Gnllé's art glass alld prodllcl'd 'l'orJ.:$ I1mt were afso tecflllical1y IJigfl/Y ski/led, TIJis Clip of 1905 is decornted ,pitl, n mol1l nlld spider ,{'eh aJld l/ses acid-eiclliJlg, ¡f'f/(,ef cl1gmvil/g, alld applied g/(l55. Ht 16,5clII/61,ill.
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4 D(/1/11/ Frercs coJlaoomfcd witl, Majorelle lo prodl/Cf' 1111" rcnlistic metal base for tlle Figuier de Barbarie falllp 0/1903- DnlllJl fllld i\lnjorefle jreql/(!Jltfy tt'Orked togethey 011
desigll5 fOY IfllllpS. lit 7jCm/29'1í1l. 5 CtllJleo glns:> WIlS 0111" oj ¡IIe 11105/ popular teclmiqllcs in Art NOIlVe(1lI glllS5 {{'are, muf Mul/er Frercs vecmlle n lending eOll/pallY ill tlle prodllctiolJ of eDil/meró,,! cnlllL'V gin:;:;. 71lis lamp, decomled witll roses, is fypicII¡ 01 ml/cll Ayt NOllt'etIl1 (01/100 gln55.
3
Glass from Germany, Bohemia, and Norway 1 The extrelllely de/iea/e bodies, clIr/illg
tCllririls, lenves, nI/ti stn/ks of t/1/.'se j10wer forlll gl1l5ses of 1905-6, by Karl Koeppil/g (1848-1914), 'lOae acllif""¡Jcd lISillg tlle
lalllpworking teclllliqllc. Few ll11dnlllnged e..ml/ples slInJive ¡mili file periodo Ht (tal/esO p_cm/12'!ill.
2 The best kllOWII Bohemim¡ glnssworks, Loetz, produced lustred 01" irridesccllt g/ass followillg file suecess of fhe Americnll compnllY TiffnllY. T!Jis is n rafe t1Jrce-hnl/dlcrl lllstred vl1se by Loetz. Ht 20.3CII1/8il1. 3 Typicnl ofJose! Hofflllrln al/n file Seccessioll style, tllis Brollzit vase of 1914 is restrailled in
bolll forlll rmd decorntiOIl. Geollle/rical designs are pnillled iJl blnck 0/1 frosted glass. Ht 14C111/5/,il1.
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3'=== 4 TJ¡is rair o/ruine glnsses ,(litll clanga/ed decora/ioJl were designed by the AIIstrirm designe!" Otto Prutscller il1 C.19o¡, G/ass (lefO II/ 16clII/6'/;i¡¡. sfem5
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This pliq/le-ii-jollr Clip of 1900 by the Nor.:vegian desigller Thorolf Prytz is a maslerwork Í/I the lIIedilllll. rhe &0<1'1 of Ihe Clip is decora/ed witJ¡ n cOI1VC/1liOllali:ed sJlowdrops pnltem ¡¡/hile 51lDWdrops Cllrl ar01l11d file sfel1l. Ht nClIljS;I;iJl. 5
lustring. Loetz, famous for its iridescent glass, produced the successful PhiilJOIllCI¡ range in 1897. TIle height of restrained, geometric Seccession glass design \Vas produced by Hoffmann for Lobmeyr. His Brol1zit range of 1914, with its geometrical designs painted in black on frosted glass, investigated linear form and decoration. Otto Prutscher produced elegant works for the Vielmese company of E. Bakalowits & Sblme. The German designer Karl Koepping (1848-1914) developed llniqlle lampwork flower-form vessels. His intricate designs became famous as examples of the new style. Although produced by a number of designers, including Feuillatre in Paris, the Norwegians vvere the masters of plique-a-jour. TIle tcchnique of enclosing glass within a fragile metal frame was practised by Gustav Gaudernack (1865-191-1) for the silver company David Andersen, and 1110rolf Prytz (1858-1938) who produced designs for Jacob Tostrup in 0510. Conventional flower decoration \Vas llsed for vessels, and Viking boat ornaments were also made.
Louis Comfor! Tiffany (1848-1933), was !he mos! famous American Art Nouveau glassmaker. Bis \vorks in Corona, Ncw York, made stai..ned glass windmvs, lamps, mosaics, and blown vessels. Tiffany experimented with forms and surfaces. In an attempt ta recrea te the nacreous surface of ancient glass he experimented with metallic effects, perfecting an iridescent technique called Favrile in 1894. Frederick Carder (1863-1963), one of Tiffany's on1y USA rivals, was an Englislunan who moved to Corning, New York, in 1903, and established the Steuben Glassworks. Steuben also specialized in brightly co]oured iridescent surfaces. Stained glass productian dlanged in the hands of Tiffany. John La Farge and Tiffany, disappointed with the qllality of American stained glass, aimed to revive the tedmiqlle as an art formo Tiffany used metallic oxides while experimenting with the sculphlral properties of glass. By building up layers he created rich effects within the glass, of folds, wrinkles, or ripplcs. Both La Farge and Tiffany made images of landscapes, some with figures or animals.
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America 1 LVIIi:> COlllfort Tifffl/lY's S;:l'aJl-l/eck i'fl:'f' o/ 1896 ,enj illspired by tlu.' sill/lol/s forms
vf Persillll pe~flfllle boltltos. TJu.' /"stred surfnn' o/ 'IJis .'ITSt' ,!'flS crentcd /IsiJlg TiffallY's IIJliq1l1! de;'dopIIlCllt 01 Fa\'rile g/ass.
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2 Dile of Tiffrl!1Y's II/nsferil'orks, this pUI1c/1 boa'! ¡¡'ítl, f!1I't?t' Ind/es mas mnde for file París exhibí/ion of 1900. Jt is /l/ade of F
3 TiffllllY was olle 01 tite 1/I0S! experil1lclltnl g/as$ designers tllld dl!t'cloped /l/al/Y differelll effect$. Qlle 01 file /llosl Imiqllt' was ltis La\'a gias:;. TlIis ¡>ase ¡pas desiglled ill C.190Ó . Ht Ijcm/6ill. 4 Tllis It'nded-glass screell depicts grapes, gOllrds, alld e/clllalis iJl /lll aSYllllllctrical dL'Sigll illspirf.'d by lapnJlese arto /l ,ms mUed a mnster;¡'ork iI,ln'll if il'tlS ex/Jibited al 111(' Paris {'x/libifion of 1900. HI l.¡glJl/jft nill.
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I/ntllrt'. He. like mmly desigllers,frl!qlli'lltly rl!tl/med lo ti/{, I//e drngol/fly tI/eme, appt'arillg Itere as tlle border of tlle sflflde. Ht ¡lem/28ill. 6 Frederick Carda establis11t'l1 lll/! Stellbell glass¡l'Orks, T~(fmlY's /l/aill eompetitor ill lIJe USA. T/Jis floral pase IIse~ add-etcJlillg to creale slIbtle surjan' effects. Ht 1¡.5emI7il1. 7 Jo/m Ln Farge hoped lo raJi¡'(' stnilled glnss ti:; tl/I art form tll/d, like IIItllIY FrellcJ/ dcsigllers. l/e sal/' 1I0tlll"e as tlppl"opritlte slIbject /lltlfta. Tllis willdow depicts peol1ics ill a 10l1dscnpe. Hf 1..J-2111/4ff 8ill.
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Silver and Metalwork French Wares
1 3 Raolll~Frall{:ois Larclte prodllced /llore flJaIl
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olle desigll for gilt-brol/:e Inmps ill~pired l/y Loie Ful/e"s scnrj dance. FuI/a becmllc n grent SOl/Tee o/ ¡I/spiratioll for tllis type o/ sta/llct/e. Ht 4jcm/J 7Ü'I. 4 Desiglled by PUlIl Fol/ol ¡II C.I904, t1lis silver tea ser<1ice demollslra/es ti/e Silll/01/5. fluid fomls IIml coI/id be acJ,if.'ilt'ti in IIIcta/.
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6 1 l-fLor/oT Gllilllllrd produced tltree el/franees for ti//.' Paris Metro, C.190o. 111 l/lis desigll for
5 TI/CSt! efecl rop/ated si/ver cast-copperfittillgs were designed by Georges De fellre for fIJe París
couered steps, a glnss calloPY is supported DIl a CfIsl-iron stmctllre. 2 Decorated will¡ monnaie-du-pape. or
exllibitioll of 1900 ulld sold by Siegfried Billg. 6 TIIe Dragonfly Woman corsnge omalllen/ of 1897-8 is René l.II/iql/e's IIltlsterwork ill j6.tltlfery. Mtlde ofgo/d, eJlulIlel, chrysopmse, 1/l00IlStOIlI.'5. tlnd ditllllOllds,l.IIliqlle l/sed II/UIlY tec1miqllt.'SJor lile picee. L. 26.5cm/1O'ÜII.
IlOlIesty, tllt'Se ;:('rol/glll ¡ron /l/Id bTOII:e gafes
by Louis Majore/fe R'ere dL'Siglled i" J 906. Ht 1.26m/4/t J'Iill.
eetor Guimard's famous cast-metal designs for the Paris Metro station are an important example of a standardized modular system in Art Nouveau. Designed for mass prod uction, the Metro design \Vas both functional and sustainable and is still in use. Perhaps the rnost important exponent of arehitcetural metalwork, Guimard also produced designs for fixturcs and fittings, induding vases, jardinieres, and balcony píeecs, aU in his highly organic linear style. The Parísian firms of Fouquet and Lalique produced jewellery in the new style. Enamelling, including pliqlle-iljaur, and semiprecious stones replaced traditional tech niques and gemstones, while nature became the prcdominant subject. Many pieces reflect a preoccupation with Symbolist subjects. Anothcr important arca of Art Nouveau metalwork production was the small-seale figurative scu1pture, wruch often doubled as a functional object such as a lamp or inkwell. A vast quantity of figures were produced by desígncrs such as Louis Chalon (1866-1916), Maurice Bouval (1863-1916), and Raoul
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Larchc (1860-1912). Larche became particularly famous for rus swirling, sinuous Lo¡"c Fuller lamps, cast in bronzc. In Naney, outside París, the MajorelJe factory produced lamps and fittings. The best designs combined elaborate metal bases in the form of plant stems, and struetures with subtle glass shades (made by Daum Freres) in the form of buds or flowcrs. lnfluenced by the rationalist principIes of Viollet-IcDue regarding the exposure of iron strueturcs within the interior, the Belgian Victor Horta's use of metalwork, and particularly cast iron in architecture, set a precedent (or Art Nouveau designers. His use of íron as both a structural eomponent and as a decorative element in both the interior and on the exterior of buildings beeame a defining feature of the style, while his exploitation of the sinuous line in metal is charaeteristic of mum Belgian Art Nouveau metalwork. Many dcsigners explored organie line in metal including Henry van de Velde and Femand Dubais (1861-1939). The in!eres! of both designers was in combining line with seulptural formo
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Wares from Belgium and The Netherlands
2 Femalld Dllbois desigllcd this candelabra C.1899. Madc of elcclroplated brollZC, lIJe bralle/les tal/gle alld iúterlmille fo creare all orgallic, asymllletric campositiol1. HI 53cm/2Iiu. 3 Tlzis six-bmllch eandelbmm made of elecfroplated brol¡ze, 1898--g, is a 11lastenoork il¡ tlle ClIrvilillear, abstrael slyle dC'"ueloped by Hemy Van de Vc!de. lts li¡¡ear forms sllggest dYllamic 1II0Vemel1t. Ht 36cm/14'/,iI1. 4 The partl1crs/1ip of Frans Hoosell1alld alld Egide Rombcaux prod1/ced exquisile sClIlplures il¡ silver alld ivon;. lu f/lis calldelabmm of C.1899, file delicale female figure is l/cid ill a sensual elll/Jraec by the searcJJillg phmf telldrils. Ht ]6clI1/141.ill.
1 1 Victor Harta l/sed 'WfOlIglIt ¡fOil tllI'OIlgJIOUI /lis illtcriors. Tile sfnirwell of Jlis ¡IDI/se ill Brusscls, desigwd bd¡oeell 1898 l1!1d 1900, dClllolIstrafes ¡lis IIse 01 ClIrvjlillcnr wrollght ¡roll as par! of tlle Ol'crall decorntiuc sdu:mc.
13elgium saw a Renaissance in the tradition of silversmithing combined with ¡vory carving, as products from the Bclgian Congo were officially promoted in the luxmy trades. The most drama tic use of ¡vory and metal "vas seen in the work Philippe Wolfers. Trained in every aspect of goldsmithing - modelli.ng casting, chasing, burnishing, and stone setting - Wolfers created aften disturbing Symbolist pieces that combine human, animaland plant forms. Dutch metalwork was influenced by developments in Belgium and the work of one of the leading Dutch designers, Jan Verheul, is clearly indebted to Horta's curvilinear metalwork. In German art metalwork, abstract natural omament, derived fram the ideas of Hermann Obrist, can be seen in the work af the leading designers Friedrich Adler, Ludwig Vierthaler, Gertraud von Schellenbühel, Ernst Riegel, and Hans Edouard Von Berlepsch-Valendas. By contrast a rich German metalworking industry meant that many factories mass-produced designs in the new style that afien used floral or figural motifs. J.P. Kayser &
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of lile use of mixed media. Si/ver, ellame/, ivory, opals, alld pearls are combilled lo creale a symbolisl mastenuork. HI42cm/I6Y,ilJ.
6 Jan Vel'lzeul's !lmlgillg liglzl fixtllre for all ofJice employs tlle simlOlIs, cl/rvili¡¡car forllls of Belgiall Arl NouveaIl.
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German and Austrian Wares T1Jisgobld desigl/('ll i1l190] by
1 Alctnmorphic imngery ¡ens e01l/1l101l iJl Arl ¡\'OIliWlIl IIIctn/¡/'ork. The stelll of tltis dt"5k /nmp by Frit>dridl A1der emerges
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Gertrnud t'OIl 5c1mellcll/Jiil¡el's l/11ir¡IIC tiCCllty fOllr-Iigllt cmufdnbrum of '910 is dear/y ¡'~fllIí'IIced by l/le ideas al Heril/111m Obrisl. /t is IIlIlde (lf sil<'t'r-plalt'd lIrass. Hf .¡S.5cm/I9I.ill. 4 TJ¡is len nlld colfi't' sen'ice. desigllt'd ¡'.IIlo$l!f Maria Ol/lridl. C.l90.;. is lIJadi' (lIJ'e.cter. I\'itfl ifs n'stmilled ¡1ec(lmliollalld gcolJlel ríc Iorllls, it is typicnl /lol 011/1/ OUlridl's ,l'Ork iJl ptwter ¡'lit (llllie $;'cú'Ssioll styl/!. Callee poi 111 19·5CIII/¡/.ill. 5/054 Hoffllll1llll de¡'t'/opt'd 11 po¡l'e111I1y, silllp/~fied Ilt'stf¡elic /l{1sfd 01/ gt'OlIIt>tric formo 1t !lf.'come kJlo
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coml. tl'Ot./d. fllld It'l1tllfr. ¡¡'ifJl ifs IJl1IlIi'/II1IIIIl/l!red sur/nce. (;·.·..11/5 fIJe fOn/mi pl/ril.lf o/ flis st.lfle. Teapot Ilf llcm/.¡f.ill.
5 6 \Vii rttClI/lll'lSiscllt' 1\ fetnllwarl'l1fa/lrik ,uns DI/e uf fin' In rgest (011/ JJtlIl ie:;
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of I/lÍs si/t'erp/n/ed flom:r (lIId ffuit stnlld take5 lhe fOJ"!11 of n ¡1'OIlIaIl. Ht .Jo7. 5clII/1 B'!in. fo lilas;; prOdJlCe Art NOll1.'ctlll-sty/e l/letal ¡('(In.'S. TJ¡e sft'1II
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American, English, and Scotlish Wares 2 T/¡e EI/gUsll desigller Knfe Hnrri:; protfl/CI!lf sl'i'era/ si/i't,,CIIpS fo,- HlIftOIl & 50lls ill /l/e Art Noili't'nl/ stH/t>. Altllollg// ti/e
ll{/se of IIJis cmlli/e Inmp of '900 i5 c/enrlH Arls (lIId Crafls ill inspiralioll. tlle slem adopls tlle teuse clln..ilillt?1lr forms of Arl ,\'oll,·emf. HI 3S.jCm/JjiJl. 3 Tflis si/¡'('r cignrette IlOx of 1903-4 by ArchilVl/d KIlOX is ¡fecomle¡f <('il/¡ //fOI!{S ama' 011
botll Celtic nrl m/II t1le orgnl1ic 5illllOllS filie of Art NOI/l't'nll.
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1 T!/I.' COIH'/:'lItiollnl slmpe of tllis wllddabl"lllll of c. 1900, by fhe GorJmlll Mnllrljnctllrillg Co, tlle [nrgt'sf si/¡'a IIlm¡¡~f{/ctll,.er in fIJe USA, i~ l1If1sked by lit/' 11lI1~il1gfonlls nnd sil1l1olls decomfiOll. Ht 49'5C/JI,/1g'lill.
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Sohn in Krefeld was the most successful industrial producer of pewter objects. Floral elements combined with linear forms gave pieces a popular appeal. ''''alter Scherf & Ca. of Nuremberg employed Adlcr to produce designs for the Osiris series while WMF, one of the largest electroplate and art metal ware companies, produced
vast catalogues of wares fer the horne including figures, plaques, lamps, and reliefs. In Austria, the VViener \.verkstatte founded in 1903 explored handcraft traditions and ideas. The silver objects produced by the workshops, which were some of the finest achievements of the enterprise, combined rieh materials, geometric forms, and unusual surface treatments. Many pieces ha\'e surfaces that were hammered or pund1ed, revealing a clear influence from the English Arts and Crafts philosophy. Most British silversmiths were tmaffected by Art Nouveau, but two leading figures, Charles R. Ashbee and Archibald K.nox, did produce designs inspired by the styJe. Knox produced a range of silver and pewter for
s_.. . . . . . .; . .__.. Liberty & Co. that exploited Celtic linear forms. His CYlIlric "-are of 1899 and TlIdric ware of 1900 became intemationally recognized by Art Nouveau designers and patrons. In Scotland the Glasgow School produced works in various metals, including sil ver and beaten and embossed lead and brass, that incorporated the typical attenuated symbolist decoration of the Glasgow style. American Art Nouveau metalwork was dominated by two New York based companies, Túfany & Co. and the Gorham Manufacturing Co. These companies utilized typical Art Nouveau forms and imagcry in their products, including the female nude figure, stylized flowers and plants, and swirling molten metal fonns. The Tiffany enamel workshops produced sorne of the \'ery finest and most original enamel work of the periodo The leading exponent of architectural decora ti ve metalwork in the Unitcd States was Louis sullivan (1856-192..J:). Much of the complex abstracted organic decoration and celtic-inspired forms reveal his intcrest in European models.
Textiles and Wallpaper France ~
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2 1 El/gel/e Gaif/ard l/sed tite C!lTi.'iJlg ogee ¡onll. derit't!d frOIll fIJe textiles oI tlle Islamic Orient. fa crl!afe mI efegnllf rt'pitllillg floral pnffem in
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1M:; prillted •.'eli,etce" of c. 1900. 2 A1llllY 01 Georges De fruTe's desiglls for si/k wall·coverillgs were illspil'ed by file floral rl!penl pnttcl"/ls of 18tl¡-ccllfllry Frailee. 3 Like 1IIf1I1Y 01 ¡he Nllbis paillter::, Paul RmlSQlI protil/ced desiglls fol' decomtit>e 11ft works. This texlile desigll was ex/Jibited ;"ll/(.' BiliS ptIi.'ilioll al file Paris exl'¡bitioll 0119°0.
lts ha/d (010111'5 alld composiliolls are /ypicnJ 01 Nabis desigll. 4 Félix Allbert prodlfced $011/1.' of llu' mast efegallf desigll5 for Art NOl/¡,f'tIlJ te:rlife~. T/Jis desigll of irises iJl it'ater is derj¡>ed ¡rom }apallt'5l! arto
5 TIJi:; dt'Sigll ¡or a ¡mllpaper alld border of 1902-3 by fiJe C:ec/l nrtisf AlpiJoll:ie AJllclm delllol/strafes J¡otl' flower 1lI0tifs (ould be cOll¡reJ/fiollnli:ed for l/se ill desigll. TI/e l/se of strollg lille nlld ddicate cofollr are
typicnf of Muclm's sty/e. 6 La Fete du Prinlemps l(>ns desiglled 115 n tllpestry by El/gelle Grasset il1
1900, witll the popu/nr Arl NOJ/l'eall sl/bjeet of dancing felllnle figures.
rrextiles, whether repeating pattem silks or tapestry .1 "pictures," were vital to the Gesnllltkllllstwerk, or artistic
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interior. France was the leading producer of textiles, and the important historic centres of the textile weaving industry in Mulhouse, Lille, and Lyons soon adopted the ncw style. French textile design is typified by the sinuous repeating flower pattems that echo French 18th-eentury silk patterns. Many leading Art NOllveau artists designed textiles induding Edouard CoIOlU1a, Eugene Gaillard, and Georges De Feure, who made designs for printed textiles and embroidery for walls and upholstery. Thcir designs include sorne of the mosl sophistieated eurvilinear pattems in Art NOll\·eau. Graphic designers such as Alphonse Mucha and Eugene Grasset also designed. textiles and waUpapers. Graphie images were often simpl), transposed to printed. or wO\"en textiles. Grasset designed. rnassproduced pichu-e panels, sold in department stores, to provide a form of inexpensive tapestry for the home. Sorne of the most progressive patterns for textiles and wallpapers \Vere produced in Cermany, Austria, and
Belgium. Abstraet natural or geometric patterns are typical of the designs of Henry van de Velde, Josef Hoffmann, Kolomon Moser, and Richard Riemerschmid. They developed commercial designs for textiles, papers, and earpets which "'ere produced often in more than one colourway and material. Several designers became interested in textile design as a unique form of art. Van de Velde's Symbolist Allgel's Wntch, influenced by Gauguin and the Nabis, was exhibited at La Libre Esthétique salan in Brusscls, where it was heralded as a mastenvork of the nc,",' style. nle embroideries of the German HennaIm Obrist show an intense commitrnent to nahue and the cnergy conveyed in his vVlliplnsh plant motif has become a defining feature oC the style. in the Netherlands, batik (an Indonesia n waxresistance tedmique) beca me popular in textile designo The Hague workshop employed up lo 30 women to produce batik. Chris lebeau's (187&-19~5) dcsigns \Vere complex, combining traditionallndonesian patterns with his own imagery of abstraet plant and zoomorphic forms.
Belgium, Austria, Germany, and the Netherlands 1 UI/der ¡Ile illfIlIel1ce o/Cal/guill, Val! de
Velde developed tlle use of bright colaur and flat pnltem in this appliqllé textife, AngeJ's Watch. Made in 1892-3 il I/lflrks a shift in Van de Velde's work towards a /llore argo,,;c Illld lillear style.
2 HemulIlll Obrist's semillal Whiplash cmbroidery of C.1895 is al! ;eo/l of ti/e Art Nouveau style. Many desigllcrs affempted lo emulate ti/(, fl:l/se ellergy ac1lieved tI/roug}, lile
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use of CI/roilínear lint!. 3 In AI/stria, Ka/amoll Maser created abstraet pnttems derived /rolll plant motifs in his book of pllttems, Die Quelle h90r). W. 1. 15111/3ft 9xi11. 4 Ricllllrd Riemel'schlllid jreqllelltly created
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The Nardic Cauntries and Central Eurape 1 Frida Hallsell rc,!ived the IIrt of tapestry wl.'avillg ill Norway. 111 lIer Milky Way fapestl"Y of 1892, 1111.' stars are persollified as
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etllercallllaidCIIs. 2 Tl1e Hll11gnrinll Nabis pailller, Jos7:ef Rippl-Rollni, created t!lis tapestry, Lady in a Red Dress, ill 1898. Tlle use of stmllg oIlffille alld brigllt calollr is derj¡'cd fmlll Japal/ese ar/alld typicnl of j\rf NOllvenl1 grnplJics. 3 Akseli Gllllm Kllllela's, Flame mg ¡¡ras cxlúbitcd ill the FimJish Pavilioll af Ihe Paris exhibilioll of 1900. It
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4 atto Eckmallll'S Five Swans tapestry was 111ade al the tapestr!! II'l!ai'ill" c' worksllOps af ScllelTl'bek ¡¡¡//Ích [{'ere fOlll/ded ill 1896 to colltilllle rile traditioll of wen,-,illg. This tapesfry wns 0111.' of the most poplllar desiglls madI.' af Sc1zerrebek.
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Innovative designs emerged from the new tapestry workshops in the Nordic countries and central Emope. Tapestry weaving \Vas highly esteemed and underwent a renaissance with such designers as the Nonvegians Frida Hansen 0855-1951) and Gerhard Munthe and Hungarian János Vaszary (1867-1939). They devised narrative patterns based on nananal history, folk rnyth, and legend to produce modern national designs. Hansen, in the tapestries \voven by the Nonvegian Tapestry Society at Kristiania, adopted ancient Nordic techniques claser to Kilim making than conventional tapestry technique. Similar v.rorkshops \Vere established in Finrand, Denmark, and Hungary and used indigenous patterns and techniques in tapestry, carpet, embroidery, and lace. Scherrebeck, in Denmark, a successfu1 textile centre, employed designers fram other countries to produce large quantities of works. Over 100 versions of Otto Eckmann's Five Swml5 tapestry ,vere produced. Hungarian textile design a1so sa"" the modernizing of other traditional techniques. Hallas lace
5jállos Vas:ary's Shcphcrd tapestry of 1899 combilles eJemel/ls of HIIl/garial1 folk art ¡¡¡itl! lIIodem Art N01fi1eall forllls. TraditiOl/aj ¡Jaftems are l/sed for t/¡e shepherd's jacket nl1d bordas while rhe background is simplificd a/Uf styJi:ed.
combined the sinuous forms, new colours, and floral subject matter of Art Nouveau with traditional lacemaking techniques. By 1890 Britain was a leading produeer of artistie textiles and wallpapers. A number of British manufacturers produced Art Nouveau designs for export \·"hile British designers were employed by both British and foreign manufaeturers. Although many companies made designs inspired by Arts and Crafts flat pattcrn design, eompanies such as the Si1ver Studio and F. Steiner & Co. produeed a range of exuberant Art Nouveau designs that used attenuated, stylized plant forrns. Seotland smva revival of interest in craft texhle design and teclmiques. Many, predominant1y women, designers associated \vith the Glasgm." Sehool of Art studied teehniques and patterns of British and European folk embroidery and developed a wlique form of appliqué embroidery that ineorporated materials such as glass beads and papero Conmlon motifs used indude the Glasgow rose, the egg, and gcometric forms.
England and Scotland
1 1 Y/Jis prillfed cotfOIJ textile dt'Sigllt'lf by Har,-y Napper, c. J 900. alld prillted by G.P. Bakcr Ud, adar!:; /he tradiliOllfll thistfe moti[ lo l/le
swirlillg /orlll5 of Arf NOll'.'CUII. 2 F. SIf'illl'r & Ca prodllced sl!fJi:ed,/lom! "(fUi'nlS far ex/mrt. TI,,:; }"in/ed coffolJ safcl'll ,pus prodl/ced in J906.
3 5fyli=.ed fl/lips Witfl CIIn'illg stems ami icm'e5 /orlll fllc pntterJI ill tl1is 1903 rles;gll lor a imllpaper by Lilldsay 8I1ttelji('lri. TI,,' slIbtle palette is
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illcllldillg nltcllllnlrd figl/Tl!S, eggs tlJld circit's. Ht 1.S21l1/5ft
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Early Modernism 1910-30 Furniture 334 Austrian 334
British 336 American 337 Gerrnan and Continental 338
Contemporary with Art Nouveau in France and Belgium and Jugendstil (Youth Style), its counterpart in Germany, were the often remarkably modern"looking creations emanating from the design studios and factories associated with the Wiener Werkstatle (Vienna Workshops). This association of artist-craftsmen,
Ceramics 340
modelled on C.R. Ashbee's Guiid of Handicraft in Britain, was founded in 1903 by
Glass 342
the business-patron Fritz Warndorfer, architect-designer Josef Hoffmann (1870-
Silver and Metalwork 344 Textiles 348
1956) and artist-designer Koloman (Koio) Moser (1868-1918). It owed a considerable debt to the principies of the Arts and Crafts Movement. he designs of the Wiener Werkstatte are often considered the Austrian manifestatian uf Art Nouveau, just as the output of the Glasgü'v School is often caHed Scottish Art Nouveau, but fOI the purposes of this book, early 2Oth-century Viennese design is being considered in addition to the output of Paris, Glasgow, Mw1.ich, Barcelona, Turin, and other leading centres of multi-faceted Art Nouveau, which were covered in the previous chapter. In Austria itself, contemporary design \·',ras referred to as Sezessiollstil. The na me derives from that of the Wiener Sczession (Vienna Secession) arcrutects, designers, and artists, inc1uding Hoffmann, Moser, painter Gustav Klimt (1862-1918), and architect-designer Josef Maria Olbrich (1867-1908), who in 1897 broke away from lhe Vienna Academy, the city's conservative, quasi-official society of artists. The Secessionists, who published the influential periodical Ver Sncrlll11 (Sacred Spring), airned to connect themselves, and their city, with similarly progressive artists outside their environs and cowltry, whose art they displayed alongside their own in the magnificent Secession building (1898), a square white Olbrichdesigned structure topped by a gilded openwork dome of leaves and tendrils. The resultant efflorescence of the new, ofien highly inno\'ative, design and decorative arts in the Austrian capital, informed in part by Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Glasgow School (see previous chapter), preved every bit as irúluential as, and certainly more long-Iasting and timeless than, French and Belgian Art Touveau. The goal of the aesthetically (though not necessarily socially) progressive group connected to the Wiener ""erkstatte, which existed until 1932, was to apply principIes oí tasteful design and sound craftsmanship to an extensive range of objects, from fumihlre and metalwork to textiles and ceramics. Hoffmann, Moser, Olbrich, and other Secession and Werkst.atte figures, among them architect-designer-teacher atto ",ragncr (1841-1918), and Dagobert Peche (1887-1923) and Eduard Josef Wimmer (1882-1961), both of whom were
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Left: Josef HOffll1i11l1l'S sil¡,>er~ colol/red-metal mellll llO/der alld Otto Beral/'s IitlJ0grapf/ed lI1ellll card for tlle \Vieller Werkstiftte, C.1906, were origi/lally desiglled for o Igo6exhibifioll, Der gedeckte Tisch (file laid tabfe). TIJe card i/le/udes tIJe decoratj¡oe elemCllts fOl/lld 01/ lII(lIIY Viellll/.'Sf! dL'Siglls of fI,e period, from glassimre ami chilla lo fl/rllitl/re alld IHJSters. Card lit 14CIII!,IiIl; holder J¡f 3.,CIII/1;;;II. Opposife: fI/e Paltlis 5todet, Brllssels (lgo,-nJ, desiglled by Jose! HOff7lli1llll, .ms a primtt' Ilol/se!I/rllished completely b.l/ lile Wicl//.'r lVerkstiilfe. lis simple, tllOlIg/l subtfy decora/ed, rectilillear black-alld-iL'hite exterior belied mI/di o/ tf/e il/terior dt'Sigll of fIJe reside/lce, iL'/lidl ille/lIdt'S decorated fllmitllre by HOffllll1l11/ alld Kolomall A'Io:;er, 111ura/s by GII:>fat' Klimf, alld bol/¡ utilitarii1ll alld dccorative objects by ¡he premie/' early Modcmist desiglle/'5 olld manufacturas of ea/'iy loth-cel1/lI/'y Vielllll1 .
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of a sty1i::ed blosslJIII Jor wt1/1pnpa or lt'xti/C, C.192.S, tlmt
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/ooked /Iflck fa organie Vil'l1m'sl'
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desigl/ ¡mili earlia in ¡/¡e celltury. Ht l.01l11!Jf! 4;11.
ivory-colollred gln::e ami jaggl!d
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by tlleir ¡Vieller Kernmik. C.1906. n/e grid-like d/'jigll is lypiClll oI
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fOil /lit 0/1 meta/¡f'Ork, fll mit l/ re, allll textilC'S. Ht 1.1.3cm/5Y.ill.
,,'OOd co.'en'd jar, C.1906, I'y LI/da AJatllr
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later artistic directors of the Werkstatte, held their own exhibitions, reccived important conurussions both at home and abroad, taught at the prestigiolls KWlstgewerbeschllle (School of Applied Art) and, most of a1l, had their influence felt not only across the Continent and the Atlantic but across the decades, weU past the demise of the Art Nouveau of France and other cOllntries. All these talented individuals looked with fresh eres at huniture, ceramics, glassware, metalwork, and other objects, espousing a clean new design vocablllary. Frem their highl), creative designing minds carne objects of beauty as \-veH as comfort, lItility, and decoration, characterized by qllalities sllch as rectilinearity, geometry, strong patterns, and bright colours. Te", materials were employed as ",eU, sllch as bentwood and alpaca, a silver-plated alloy. The ,.viener Werkstatte carne to be one of the most progressi\'e forces in art and design of the time, showing its wares at international exhibitions and opening additional branches in Marienbad (Czech Republic) and Zürich (bolh 1917), New York City (c.1922), Velden in Austria (1922), and Berlin (1929). A cenlm)' later, much of the Wiener Werkstatte's output still appears decidedly
Modernist, not LUllike the even earlier sil ver and base and composite metal tcapots, toast racks, and other lltilitarian pieces by Christopher Dresser (183J-1904), the polymathic British designer of the Victorian era. The creation most closely cOlUlected with tll.e ''''iener Werk.statte, and arguably its most famous and bestpresen'ed legac)', was a la\'ish priva te residence that was located not in Vienna but in Brussels, where Adolphe Stoclet, a wealtll.Y banker, and rus Parisian-born wife, Suzanne, commissioned Josef Hoffmarm to design for them a modem villa, known toda)' as the Palais Stoclet or Villa Stoclet (1905-11). This rectilinear, sllbtly decorated strllcture (still extant bllt not open to the pllblic) was in turn furnished and decorated by HoffmalUl, Moser, Klimt, and other talented VielUl.ese artists and designers of the day. A project marked by both simplicity and luxury, the Palais Stoclet is an icon of refined early Modemism that featured the cool, squared-off hmuture and fllmishings of Hoffmann and Moser, as weU as sparkling gilded and painted murals in the dining room executed by Klimt. Indeed, the Palais Stoclet boasts not on1y the sole sllrviving allthcntic Secession interior, but also one of the most important early-Modemist interiors
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in Europe, as fresh and modem today as it was when it was designed and fumished nearIy a cenhrry ago, In other countries, similar Arts and Crafts-inspired associations, sehools, workshops, and loosely linked groups of artists and designers arose aroWld the tum of the cenhrry, ereating, among other things, Modernist furnitllre and objects that were somctimes akin to the output of the \"'iener Werkshitte, sometimes distinctly independent of any other movement or style, In Germany there were the Vereinigte \rVerksUitten für KW1St llnd Handwerk (United V\'orkshops for Art and Crafts), established in 1897, and the Dresdner vVerkstiitten fuI' Handwerkskunst (Dresden Crafts \'Vorkshops), founded in 1898. Similarly, there was the artists' colony at Mathildenhohe, near Darmstadt, set up by Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse in 1899 to bring together all the arts follmving both design and social criteria; among its invited members and teaehers \Vere the German arehitect and designer Peter Bchrens, the Belgian Henry Van de Velde, and the Austrian Olbrieh, In ] 907 the Deutseher Werkbund, yet another Teutonic uníon of art, design, and industry, was founded with the aid of the \'·iener v'"erkstatte, A hule later in Britain, the Omega \Vorkshops (1913-19), which were associated with the Bloomsbury school of artists, \Vere set up in london by the art critic and painter Roger Fry (186&--1934). The workshops produeed textiles, rugs, furniture, pottery, and other objects in a painterly decorative style whose motifs, palette, and style \Vere somewhat akin to Tmpressionism but marked by an exuberance all their o\Vn (and decidedly non-British in eharacter). And though Omega
",orkmanship was not al",a)'s first rate, their decorative pieces proved to hél\'e a lasting appeal, in part because of the eminence of those, SllCh as Frv, , DLUlCan Grant, and Vanessa BeU, ",ho designed and decorated them. In Czechoslovakia, architects and designers eonnected ",ith a short-lived (c,1910-25) movement that took as its inspiration both Secession objects and Cllbist paintings and sCll1ptures created highly original, daringly decorative furniture and other objects known today as Czech Cubismo Multi-angled, zigzag~formed chairs and sofas, as weH as ceramie tea sets, "ases, and others \'essels, were among the arresting pieces created by Vlastisla\" Hofman, ]arosla\' Horeje, Pa\'el Janák, and others, As ",eH, a nllmber of arehitects, designers, and painters in the United States \Vere creating objects that can be considered outstanding examples of early ModelTIÍsm, Among them "'ere, in California, Arthllr F. Mathews and his wife, Lucia K. Mathews, and the brothers Charles Sumner Greene and Henry Mather Greene; in Ne\V York, ]oseph Urban, \\'ho for a time headed the V\'iener Werkstatte's Ne\\' York braneh, and \,\'inold Reiss; and arguably one of the greatest architectdesigners of his (and many \\·Olild 5
eDlltemporar!! Viclllw wilh rlccomti¡'e II/otifs of enr/y Art OtCO Pntis-, 1\'. 1.]5/11/4t 5bll.
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Austrian Furniture Square and Rectilinear Designs 4 Wagllcr's sfraight-cdgcd glazcd (Ualmll ((Ibilld of 1898-9, parf of a sllife offllmifllre il/ his Vielllw dillillg room, Jws ricJl buf sparse elllbellis}¡lIlenf: dOlllillO-/ike cire/es 011110fllerof-pear/, eclJOil/g lile ril1gs arOlllld tite drawer pul/s. Ht 1.991/1/6ft 6ill .
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Wagller's classic Vienncse hcnfwood (lnd metal arllle/mil' exisl, deri'pcd ¡rvlII a prototype desigl/ed by Gustav Siegel alln mnde by J. & J. Ka/m, C.lgOO.
TIJis 1902 /Ilode! by Wagller, of beeclnvood, (lllIlIIll1illlll, mld metal, is probably lile best ktlOWIl.
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Ka/aman Moser. Ht 85clII/}3)1,¡II. 3
he fumiture designed by Josef Hoffrnann, Koloman Moser, JosefMaria Olbrich, and Otto Wagner in Vierma is best known today, be it the mass-produced works of the prolific Hofhnarm or the unique veneered case pieces of Moser. Although perhaps better known for his metalwork designs, Moser produced sorne of the most exquisitely decorated and crafted furniture of the Werkstatte. He was adept at designing practical geometric pieces, but when he applied rus painterly eye and skills to inlaid and otherwise decorated furniture, the results were outstanding. Most of these creations had traditional, rectilinear forms, wruch acted as a neutral backdrop on which to append rnother-of-pearl, pewter, or exotic wood inlay or marquetry. His dining-room chair of 1904 of rosewood, maple, and mother-of-pearl features the chequerboard design, a Werkstatte signature motif, at the top and bottom of the back; its focal point is a dove bearing an olive branch on the back. Moser stopped designing for the Werkstatte by 1907, when he devoted more time to painting.
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The extensive array of largely production items by Hoffrnann is arguably the Wiener Werkstatte furniture best known today. Among the most attractive are the dark-stained, laminated, ebonized, or white-painted beechwood pieces, most "vith benhvood elements. His designs were largely made by Jacob & Josef Kohn's Vierma factory as well as Cebrüder TI1onet. Hoffmann's simple bent beechwood chair of 1904---ó, designed for the dining room of the Purkersdorf Sanatorirnn, was produced by J. & J. Kahn. Probably his best~knawn seat furniture is the Fledermalls chair, designed for the Werkstatte's theatre-bar, the Kabarett Fledermaus. Viermese furniture was also designed by Olbrich, Wagner, Otto Prutscher, Gustav Siegel, and Adolf Loos. Bentwood pieces are the most corumon (the process having been invented by Thonet in the late 18505); veneered, highly decorated ones are the most unusual. Wagner's ebonized woad and alumini~ stool, c.1904, was designed by Thonet fer Vienna's Osterreichische Postsparkasse (post office).
Bentwood Chairs
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2 TI,e belltit'OOd Acdcrmaus c1miT by
lose! HOjJlllflllll'S belltWooa ehair, C.lgD4.
Hoffmmlll, c.1906. TlIis;5 arare exl(IIIf example ruitll traces of ils origma! b/ack-alld-
ll.'flS desigllcd for tlle Pllrkersdorf Smmtorillm. lt /5 n simple desigll, WitJl J 5 rows of paired eire/es 0/1 ils pierced bnck sp/at tllld 8 woodcll sp/leres be/oiO its seat. Ht 98.¡cm/3ft 21,;11.
¡vllite pain!; lhe bnck pallel Imd sea! (lTe upIJolstered in red lea/ller. Ht 72.3cm/2S'/,ill.
e/elllcnts Cllt Dl/lalld !ldded. Ht 56cIII/22/II.
Opulent Veneered Pieces '"
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1 TI/e recti/illearJonll of Ka/Dman Masa's armc1ulir, J904,;5 in stark contrast to ifs
opll/ent decoration: rosewood and map/e velleer and mother-of-pt!tlr/ in/ay. Ht 94.9cml3ft lYJIl. 2 Moscr's Enchanted Princesses cabillet, c.J900, sllOws Japnllese mld Symbolist illflllences. WlleJI Opell. tlle comer piece re-veals two marqllelry "pri"cesses~ 0/1 tlle door backs, amid eircles o[ alpaca melal. Ht J.71/IJ!Sft 7~ill. 3,4 Moser's lady's rvritillg desk rvitJr anllc/mir o[ 1903, made by Caspar Hrazdil. Tlle pieces are made o[ exofic TlllIj/l1l.lood il/laid witll satimuood alld ellgraved alld illked brass. TIllo! figl/rative elemellJ - eigh/ womeJI IJolding IlOops - is /l distillctive Moser tOl/cIJ. Desk lIt J.4411l!4ft 7Y.ill; cJl/lir 1lt 67cm!26/,i,1.
2
-32 -
British Furniture Artisls' Furnilure from lhe Omega Workshops
2 1 DlIllmll Granr:; oil-{}ll-tl'OOdlilypond ~crú'li, 791 j. fl!'1tllrcs ¡¡ fop!llar Oll1l'sa 1\'orksllOps desi.~Il. GrillJI sa¡l' tlll! ~crel!1I as a
lrllt' meeting oj art aJld designo o/filll! alld applied arto Eadl pallelIJl1.7Slll/S/t Sl.ill. 2 Expertly crafted illllUlrqllefry o/ilflriolls woods, its decoratioll t1l01 01 tiPO styli=ed gil'{lffes, I}¡i~ eupboord wns desiglled by Roger FI'Y ond lIlode by josepll Kailellbol'll for lile O/11ega WorksllOps, 1915-16. HI2.1JIII/71t. 3 Tllis dressil1g table II/ade by Knllel1bol'll, C.1919. wil/I i IS s/lm pt HOl/5 I'etIeel' 01 (('al 1111 I, sycalllol'e, alld ebony 011 hally. is al OII(C a liad lo filie Cols¡l'Old5 crajtslllallship alld Frl.'lIc/l Al't Deco i'c?lIeeredfllmi/llrl.'. IV. J.5/1l/.ift nill.
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a lIaked ¡¡'OI/UlIl 011 tllis Omega \ Vorb:flOps illstrlJlllt'lIt. Jll"r slJn¡X disfortt'¡f fo jit tite odd allg/t's oIIJII.' lid. Opt'll keyboard ,,' l.o.¡.m/3ft jiill. pnill!l'd
umiture created by the Omega Workshops Tan the gamut from upholstered chairs and 50fas covered with Omega-designed fabrics to marquetry case pieces and hand-painted screens. Vanessa Bell \Vas the likely painter of a tile fireplace surround al' Monks House, the home of her sister, Virginia ,",Vaolf. Exuberant floral and fruit displays \Vere a150 painted throughout Charleston, the Sussex farm.house that in 1916 beca me the residence of Duncan Grant and Vanessa BeU, and the country retreat of the Bloomsbury set. There, stilllifes or simply large blossoms appeared on, among other objects, doors, windo", surrounds, a gramophone cabinet, a small threefold screen, and a kitchen cupboard. A screen, Lilypolld, was painted by Grant in 1913. At the same time that the Omega Workshops were creating colourful pieces of furniture, the Cotswolds master furniture maker, Ernest Gin1son (1863-1919). and other Arts and Crafts designcrs \Vere hand-fashioning outstanding objects in a simple and often gcometric style which prcfigured Modernism.
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336
Craftsmen's Artislry .:·-J';·f ..: .
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1 Ekgallt (l/Id pnillslakillsly cra/'ed, Emesl GimS(ll/'s mbinel, C.1902. is i'ellel'red ill ¡ml'lllt il'itl! gesso Si/l pOllds olld al/
~.~
ebol/Y stami. Note tite dialllOlldsJ¡aped pottcm arOIlJld tlle t,t'o 11pper pnlll.'1s. fIJe circulnr IllOtll~ o/'OlIl1d f!le lower lruo. IV. 63.2(111/25;11. 2 Gilllsoll's 5mall cnbillCf, C.J907. /eaturL'S all Ullllsllflllllarqlldry desigl/ - tlle pnttem re~elllbles a sea oj O¡k'11 book::; - il/ IlOl1y, elxmy, alld ¡ca/IIIII. Ht J6.scm/q.itl.
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American Furniture Salid Midwest Ingenuity 1 Wit}¡ its intriguing/y low al/d
nl1g/ed backboard, Frrmk Lloyd Wrigltt's ICllther-upllOlstered oak sirle e/mir, 1902-3, ¡vas for fIJe Fralleis W. Uttle HOlIse in 1IIil1oi5. TllOugh mnde of the sil/l/e
•
IIInferials as cOllfempornry
Missioll onk sen! Jumilllre, it Itas beell slIhver!ed illfo sOllletllillg
o/her t!Jrl/l (/ stmightfonvnrd sirle clwir. ]-Jt 76clII13oill. 2 WrigJ¡f's boxy wahlllt nrlllc1wir nl/d oltomall, 1937, ,vere
designed for his residelltial colllmissioll, Failillgwater, ill Pellllsylvilllia, 1935. TJ¡e (hair is milrked by t!le sllme slIperb crnfts11Iill1shíp (/lid n 1I11ify of npproncll ¡JI tcmz5 of its desigll mld tlwf of ¡/ie structure for w!licl! il was crented as the eXilll1ple lo ils left.
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HelllY MafllCl" Creene creafed t!lis fallle, CIgOg, of Honduras lIIallOgany, ellollY, and si/ver. Note t!Je graphic wavy filie, in/aid ill si/ver 01/ f!le dra,l'Cr and ClIt out 0/1 ¡lIe /ower she/f W. 1.37111/411 4il/. 2 Lucia MatIJews's hexagonal
1
arly Modernism in America had several exponents whose furniture and other wooden objects ,vere indebted not only to the Wiener Werkstatte and the Arts and Crafts Movement bllt also to Asian, specifically Japanese, designo Joseph Urban (1873-1933) was a ViCIma nativc \Vho settled in America in 1911 and in the early 19205 v.'as Presidcnt of the New York outlet of the Wiener Werkstatte. Urban created shovvy, luxurious furníture that was often lacquered and highlighted \·vith mother-ofpearl. vVinold Reiss 0886-1953), a German-born artist, also designed interiors and fllrniturc in turn-of-thecentury New York.
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carued al1d painted wood box, CIgIO, features floral elelllCIIls that /ie befwce¡¡ Arts mld erafts, Jugendstit and Arf Oeco. Ht 29C111/11'Ü11.
Using a design vocabulary more related to British Arts and Crafts were Lucia Mathews (1870-1955) and Arthur Mathews 0860-194.5), Lucía's hexagonal "lOod box, c.191O, is decorated with stylized blossoms. In the 19005, Frank L10yd Wright (1867-1959) \Vas designing furniture that \·vas neither Arts and Crafts nor Modernist but could fit in well with VieIUlese designs of the same periodo An example is rus oak side chair, 1902-3. Charles Sllrnner Crecne (1868-1957) and Henry Mather Greene 0870-1954), architect-designer brothers, are considered Arts and Crafts exponents, bllt their mahogany table, c.1909, has a Japanese look that also looks forward tú the strearnlined Modcrnism of two decades latero
33
German and Continental Furniture Simple, Practical Designs 1 Riclmrd RiemerscllllJid desiglled Ibis simple. sl/bslmllinl oak and leather desk, c.lgO). probably mode by tite Oresdller Werkstiittell Jij, Halldwerkskllllsl. W. 1.9911l/6ft 61,;11.
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back, arlll5, alld
alld cllnlllfcn'd leg:;. Ot/l(.'rwise il is a salid piece leal/illg lowards
later ModemiSIII. HI 82C1I1/P.t;;1I. 4 TI/e sweepillg dingowl/s of Bruno POIl!'S lIIaple flJld leallleT nrmclJflÍ" 1901, made by file Vereinigtell \Verkstiift('ll ¡lir
Kllnsf
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lIIake a stTOJlg desigll stafelllt'JIf yet prat,jde tite sitter ,¡>itll mi e/egnllfly em'e/opillg seaf.
Ht 87-5clII/3.:,lill.
3
t the time Hoffmann, Moser, and others, were producing their furniture designs in Vienna, designers elsewhere in central Europe, many of whom were associated with the already mcntioned ,vorkshops, ,·vere creating early Modemist furniture, generalIy not of the elabora te, opulent Viennese type but more straightforward wood-carved and machine-manufactured varieties, often ''''1th subtle decorative fillips. In Cermany, for example, Richard Riemerschmid (1868-1957) designed MnsclúIlelll116bel (machine-made, hand-finished fumiture) for the Dresclner Werkstatten, such as his beech and peanvood arrnchair of 1902. The Typelllllobel (standard fumiture) of Bruno PauJ (187-1-1968) was offered by Munich's Vereinigten Werkstatten für Kunst im Handwerk. A handsome oak dining table with four side chairs of c.1910, for instance, was relatively straightfonvard, rectilinear, and unadomed, but for the backs of the chairs, ,vhich comprised a simple rectangular splat with a diamond-shaped mid-section. Two other Modemist furniture designers working in Germany \Vere
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Hamburg-born Peter Behrens (1868-1940), ",ho had helped to establish the Munich Vereinigte VVerkstatten fur Kunst im Handwerk in 1897, and the Belgian Henry van de Velde (1863-1957), who introduced Art Nouveau to Dresden in the sarne year. Behrens's white-painted ,vood side chair, 1903, with two elongated arch cut-outs in its subtly curved back, relates somewhat to van de Velde's 1902-3 bedside cabinet, of white-painted pine and brass, which has trefoil cut-outs on the side. Although better known for his whiplash-cunred pieces, the Belgian Gustave Serrurier-Bovy (1858-1910) aIso created sorne starkly rectilinear fumiture that related to Viennese designo His bexy am1Chair, c.1900, is remarkable for its strong, vertical, almost cage-like elements. Among the most dramatic early Modernist rumiture coming out of Central Europe was that created by exponents of Czech Cubismo \Nith its Uluque zigzagshaped elements, Pavel ]anák's chair of brown-stained oak, 1911-12, resembles Art Deco creations of the 1920s, or Memphis fumiture of half a century into the future.
5 TlIj~ mlk dilljuS tnbk i/'itll fO/lr sid.' (/¡nir;;., c.J91O. dt·;;.igllt·t/ by Bntllv Pnl/I ml.lmadl' by tllC
.
\ft'rdlli~h'
IVl'rksliitlt'JI .fiir KlIlIsI i/1/ Hlm.fil'l.'rk, BaJiIl, is s/nrk/lf m:tililll'nr, bu/ filr tI't' dinlll(lII,isJmlll.',f «'lItrnlll(lá sl'lat tlll U,e
e/mirs. Its
~illll'liáty
nlld strnig1ll
lillt',: (lm/mst s/rvlIgly ¡('jllllln' (1/17'I'S I~f Pnlll's
nrllldmir f.¡
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l1't' IlTI,"';O/ls Jlngd. Tn/JIt' ditllll. l.:!.lIIl3ft J1 (ill.
6 TllI'se Iwo IJi,'ClS (~f¡j'''ift'-pllillf¡'ti, t'kgnlltly
Jugendstil fllmit II/'l' cOllld nll1losl /IC pnrl ~f /1 sil/Sil' (tlll1l11issioll, VIII il1 fnel caell is by n d{ffl'/'l'/I1 desi:;III'/'. T{¡c c"nir, 1903, IIY Pela Bclm'lls. is fnlll1 If/(' Hn!ll/I1I1S 110/1.'(' 01
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cnbillCI, 1901-3. hy Hl'l1rY ¡mil dt' Vclne,
n
Bdsinll nl'ciliteL'l-nesiglll'l' il'/W il'orh'n exl ('JI:;i¡'c! y i 11
Ce rtlm 11 y. i:j frOIl1 t 1'1' IVI'i II/{/ 1" npa rt 1I1t'1I/ llf ¡PI" ita ¡\ lnx ,'011 ¡\ 1ii IIcfIllIIlISfll, a wfita nt tI/<, B/11/I/IIIIS Are/Ii.,. ({mil' 111 90f1ll!;7Iill; (flbillt'f lIt S3.1C11I/31/iJl.
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;;.tnrkly rt'clilim'fIr.fárms, ill pnrt
illspirl',f IIY I1rls nl/li Cmfl:' e.mIllJllt's. Tltis pniJlft'tf iI'(l(hf e/mir, (.'900, i:; n IJ/tltftom St'fJlllt'lr;c t'~"ny, i1'ilIl ollly 11,.' SII/It¡"St tlf (1m'"" nI tlt" top of ils nrm~. Ht 731CIII/19il,.
8 (:I'e/I (/I/1is/lfc~iglll'r~ snit' fllmilllft' liS /111 nrl fO,.,II. 111 IIt;s ll/llil'l/-;itnillcti ol/k sidc e/mir,
1911-11, PIit'cl }nl/{ík took liS /Ii~ Im,[' t"['lrinI/SIc, il'flie/I dt'tcl'lI1il1t'~ <'irll/nlly il" el/tire slmpl'. HI 95rtl1/37ill.
3:
Ceramics Figurative and Painterly Pieces 2 MielmeJ POil'O/lIY cn'flted I/lnllY
poillted ceramic ¡'fIrintiolls of Ihe jo¡'inl c"erl/b-;:(·itll-j1o;:l'ers.-or~ frl/ils theme. TI,is Autumn piltro, c.1908, holds a riell bol/nty of seasollal frui/s. Ht 3i.jCfll/14!.ill. 3 TI/Dl/g/l of a reJafi<'ely late dale fc.193Q-j), Susi Sillgers expn-ssii:'l!, sculplural senfed il'OlI/m/ is Jlol dissimilar lo her earfier I Vieller I \'erk:stiille figures nlld lIends. HI -l6.jCII//T8iiJl.
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1 1 Berfold Loffler, wJ¡o Sl't I/p IViener Keramik witlt Nlic1mel POi/lO/l/Y. desigllt'd /I,;S figure 01 Pallas Athene iJl J908, (1 Nl'ociassicnl goddess il'ilI¡ b/ack·pnillfeti tOllclu'S. Ht 33.6cm/I;iill.
s in other media, turn-of-the-century Viennese cera mies often displayed the distincti\"e stylized design vocabulary fonnulated by leading lights such as Hoffmann and Moser. The vViener \'\'erkstatte produced numerous ceramic vessels, sorne by Moser, a fe\\' by Hoffmann, but a number of others by female designers, induding Jutta Sika, ",ho had taken Moser's ceramics class al' the KWlstgewerbeschule (fue designs from rus students even took on the name ScJlIIle Maser). The Josef B6ck firm of Vienna executed sevcral Schule Moser designs, notably Sika's renowned c.1901-2 red-enamelJed tea service, with circular motUs. Susi Singer was one of several designers frem the Wiener VVerksUitte to produce distinctive hand-painted ceramic figures and objects, many of whidl, true representati\'es of Studio Pottery, were marked by their wit and spontaneity. 1l1e Wiener Kerarnik, co-founded in 1905 by hvo KWlstgewerbesdlU..le teachers, Michae! Po",olny (187-!--1945) and Bertold Loffler (187+-1960), produced distinctive figural pieces, SUdl as L6ffler's Pallas Atllel1e, 1908.
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In Germany, various ceramics factories produced
\'\liener vVerkstatte-style wares, includ.ing Meissen and the Reinhold Merkelbach factory in Grenzhausen. Merkelbach's spherical \'ase, c.1905, to a design by Hans Eduard von Berlepsch-Valendas, features strong /lIgelldslil motifs: waves, dots, triangles, and a chequerboard pattem. Similarly, K6n.iglich-Bayerische Porzellan-Manufakh.u in Nymphenburg produced Adelbert Niemeyer's cylindrical vase \vith chequerboard motifs. Adherents of the Czech Cubist mo\'ement produced numerous glazed ceramics that strongly relate to Viennese pieces. These were largely made by members of the Artel Cooperati\'e, who included Pa\'el Janák. The Omega VVorkshops produced ceramics that were either plainly glazed, utilitarian \Vares, or exuberant showpieces with painted overglaze decoration. Among the latter are hvo vases, 1914, that feature stylized figures and abstract geometric designs. On the other hand Roger Fry's domestic tab1cware, was mostly of plain white tmglazed earthenware.
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Geometric Designs 1 IVilf, its stl'ikillS b/nck-(llld-wflÍte geometric dt'Sigll, 8atolll Lofflcr (IJ"llvliclmef PaicO/I/Y'S Itnm1-pailllt:d¡ah'Jlce! pedl'5fnl oowl. C.1906, is qllilllessl'Il1ial Viel/Ila SCCL'ssioll desigll,
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porcelaiJ¡ mse, 1905. mnde by KiilJiglicllBnyeriscfll' Por:el1ml- /'d(fIl/lfnkl IIr, ymplleubllrg, fi'n/I/res c/leqllcrrn efeml'lIfs
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its ¡cel (lIId IlIlder ils rilll. wllicJ¡ are balullced by slyli:ed blossollls. Ht 2J.5cm/lo'/,;Il. 3 HfIII5 Edllnrd ¡'Cm Berkpsch-Vn/mdas's iJase. e. 1905. has re/loes o/ file lVieller IVerksfiitle.
Ht q.9L1II/5Y.ill. 2
- :2 er. 4/rilln Sikn's
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servicc, IIUld!' IJY Jose! Bock. C.1901-2, tJ¡ought
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4 5 C:ec!l Cllbist Pavel/Illllík desigl/cd l/lis w/úle-g/a:ed, b/ack-paill/ed eartlJCl/warc coffee set ;11 1911. TlJc picas /mt'f 1/I11/51/a/ wad-/ikc /mlldfes. Coffee pot toiO/lid lJl12cm/S'lill.
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6 EJlergelicnl/y po;IIled de:;.;gl/s 1Im.'e lmllsforlllcd tlll'S/.' two Oll/t'ga IVorksflOp cemlllic ¡'ases witll trndiliollfl/ forlJls iJlto ¡,¡¡.id tlm.:e·riimell:.:imm/ Cllm'Il:'l?s. TIJe ellrfflel/(l'llre ('XIl mpIe 111 /eft, i ts I'a; 11 ter IlIIkIlOWI/, is fr011l 191~. ;plti/e lile porcelllil/ pcssel al rigl1t. pllillled ¡¡,il/¡ slyli:cd figures, possibly by Roger Fry, dllfesfroJII 1911-19.
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Arf DI'co chilla ofthe 19105 alld 1930s. Hf 701l/2I.ill.
7
34
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Glass Painted and Decorated Vessels 1 Dagoberl Peche's <'ase, 1918, is o/ bloil'll colol/red g/ass aud
ot'er/aid rotol/red gTass Clft ,{'itl, (/ slyli::ed-lenj designo AInde by foIl. Date! & Ca.. NOi'11 80r, C:Ccll Republic. it ,¡'liS retal/en llY lile lVicller Wf!rkstiitte. HI 23cIII19;1I. 2 Tlu: c/¡equerboard !'nftem ad:;
as fl border 01/ tl1is <1'1111' glas:), 1911, decomted by Ludil'ig jlmgllicke/. Sold by}. & L
I
Loblll/'yr oj Vielllla, lb" mOlf/d-
blo't'lI clenr glns:; Ilas
llt'l'lI ¡TOSten
allri decomft'lf wifll broll:;I/,.
Ht I8.7cm/7ill. 3 Jose! Ho!fIl1f11I1l'S striJ.:illg nrc/litcctollic ¡·nst', 1914, madI' by
Loet::-\ ViliP/" is oj bloWIl opale-;;C('", sJass o
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3 4 Atthe IVieJler \Verkstiitte.
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s um-of-the-centur y glassware produced in Austria eomprised plain, wldecorated utilitarian products as well as exuberantly decorated goblets, vases, and the like. VielUla was a major centre in the medium, with the Wiener Werkshitte designing a wide variety of wares, most of which were produced by large faetories such as Loetz-Witwe, E. Bakalowits & 5ahne, Meyr's Neffe, Ludwig Moser & SOhne, aud J. & L. Lobmeyr. As with Wiener Werkstatte metalwork and furniture, so the glassware marketed under its name was CTeated by its principal designers Hoffrnann, Moser, and Otto Prutscher, as \",eH by a number of women (mostly from the 19105), arnong them Mathilde Flag!. Hilda Jesser, Jutta Sika, and ValIy \A,'ieseUhier. Geometrie and stylized Ieaf ornamentation abounded on sorne but not aH \A,'erkstatte pieces, and there were even sorne unusuaI examples ineorporating figurative designs, such as a wine glass decorated by Ludwig Jilllgniekel Hoffmanl1 in 1911 and made by Lobmeyr. Their eylindrical bowIs sport a chequerboard pattern that borders a frieze of stylized
T
342
6
sporlswomell 0/1 a coi'ered jar of 1917. /lIade bll jolI. Oerte! & Co. Tire i!lspirntioll for tllt' el/amelled alld blo.t,/! dear giass riece is ill part FmlPíst. Ht 19.jcmI7IiJl. 5 A simple HoffmmlJl forlll benrs a sty/i=e'd /eaf lit'Sigll 01/ tl1is cicar gtass alld eJlame! pase by Peche, (.1917. Ht 15·]CIII/6íll. 6 AlatlIi/de FWg/ pailIted tlIe flornl al1d jigl/rnth11.' desigl1s 011 tMs l/Iollld-bloWII alld cII/1II1clll'd dmr glass gab/d. C.1920, made at 0/1' \\Iimer ¡·Verkstiitte. Ht fOClllh5~ill.
mon.keys within tendril-like medallions sprouting fruit and scrolls; the beasts' tails are similar scrolls. This type of Hofhnann-originated deeoration in matt black or dark grey on clear or frosted matt glass is known as broncít ware or broJlzitdecor (after the metal bronzite), and Lobmeyr, which employed Hoffmann as artistic director from 1910, introdueed it that year. Otto Prutscher employed eoloured elements in much of his glassware, which was mostly produeed by Meyr's Neffe. He was aIso k.nown for rus handsome gobIets, some seeming to balance preeariously on inordinately tall stems that were vertical cheqllerboards of green, pink, blue, and other lmes. Koloman Moser \Vas the first Wiener \"'erkstatte-assocíated designer to begin creating forms and designs for glassware, some as earIy as 1898. Most of his pieces \Vere made by Bakalowitz & SOhne in Vienna. Michael Powolny, the potter and teacher, designed glass for both Loetz-Witwe and Lobmeyr. His most distinctive creations "'erc vases and other ¡tems in solid eolollrs.
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7 VariatiOJlS of josef Hoffmnllll's stl/rdy, t!lick-wnlled bowl of CI915, tllis ofvio/d eut glnss, were IIInde by ¡InriOllS Bohemirm glnss fnctories for tlle Wieller Werkstiífte. Ht 12.2cm/4'Úll. 8 Knr/ Mnssnnet::'s dense ellnlllelled nllri gilt decornlioll 0/1 t!lis clenr glnss GlllrileJlOlder by Osknr $tnwri of Vielllw, C1914, Iwrks bnck to tlle Schwarzlot lec!lIIiqlle, but the styli::ed flornl fonlls re/ale lo FiCllllese ModemiSlll. Ht 14.1cm/j'üll.
9 TJ¡is colollrless Xlnss covered ¡mse, c1914, el/amelled in blnc}; as ¡¡¡eU as gilded, is IIwde by
toetz- \,\'itwe. Both its forlll nnd decorntioll nre illflueI!ced by t/¡e Wiena Hlerkstiítfe, much of wJlOse glnssi('{/re was made by Loetz-Witwe il! Klostenllii!lle (nenr Vielllm) nlld ti/el! reluJ"IIcd lo Vicll/m for decorntiOIl. Ht 31CIII/1 21,ill. 10 HOffl1l(/JlII's glnss celltrepiece, IIwde by Loetz-Witwe before 1914, is of Cl!flllu:/Ied nnd cnsed glnss. It fealun:s bol/¡ styli::ed lenf designs nnd Irios of trinllgles, effectívcly cOlllbillíllg t/¡e ge01l1etric (/Jld decorntii'e e1elllel!ts of Víellllese Modemist designo Ht 1j.8clII/61,ill.
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34
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••._------------------------------------------Silver and Metalwork Organic and Figurative Motifs 1 Ka/aman Maser':; nrcllitectollic box, 1906, ofsilt'f!r, enamelled fllld embossed Witll semi-preciol/:; stO/les,
,
made for lile lViener Werkstiifte by Adolf Erbricll and Knrl POllocny. Like sOllle of Maser's DlJe-of!fllmitllre pieces, il is elabora/e/y decoraled lVit!1 organic e/elllCllts (lIId stylized Neoc/assical figures. Ht 24CIII191,;II. 2 The Viellllese arclIitect lose! Maria WtlS
O/brich desiglled
buildings al tite tlrtis's' colollY set /lp ill IIl1me1'OlIS
Darmstadt, Gemltl1lY. 1899- MallY Germall designers mere illJ1l1ellced by lile l1Ieta/work he nlso crealed /!Jere, as
1
in t/ús silvered-pewter ctlJlde/abrum,
mllde by Edllard HlIeckoj L!idellscIJeid. Ht 36.4'111/14/11. C.1901,
3 A relatively late lVieller
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he metalwork designed and produced by members of the Wiener Werkstatte in the early years of the 20th century is among the most distinctive, attractive, and decidedly modem creations oE the time. Far removed from the Gallic manifestations of the new style were the largely rectilinear vessels, boxes, and flatware designed by Hoifmann, Moser, Olbrich, Peche, Carl Otto Czeschka (1878-1960), and others, The silver, silver-gilt, alpaca (silver-plated alloy), brass, enamelled wares, and other decorative metal pieces designed and produced by members of the Wiener \lVerkstiitte included a wealth of objects from flatware to plant-stands, their designs diverse and, for the most part, distinctive. The most easily identifiable designs by the Vielmese workshops were those pierced metal objects, mostly designed by Hoffmann and, to a lesser extent, Moser, which were markedly rectilinear, being made up of pieces of metal comprising small open squares, as in a chequerboard. Called gitterwerk (latticework), these
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tVerkstiitte desigll, Edllard Jose[ WimmeTs bmss jardilliere, c.191j, is illlpressed wit11 mi orgmJic desigll - but olle /llore likc a styliz.ed, evell primitive, lalldscape 1111111 all overall pattem o[ blossoms mld Jea ves - wlli/e lhe IIbiqllitOIfS Vielllle5e grid pnttem appears 011 its legs (llId O'i.'fl/lower balld. Ht 88.9cm/3jill. 4 O[ gilded si/i.'t!r tt'itll fI lapis lazuli finial 011 its lid, (ar! Olla C:esc11kn's c1lfl/ice-Jike covered gablel, 1909, has mi e/aborate opemvork desigll 01/ ils bowl, ill mI orgmJic pattem tJlflt is typicnlly Viemla Secessioll. Ht 2j.jClll!loill.
signature Werkstatte objects first began to be offered at their various shops in 1904-5. They could take numerolls forms and were made of either silver, alpaca, or sheet metal (this usually painted white), perforated with the regular square or grid pattern; occasionally other designs were incised, such as circles. They included handled vases and baskets, round-topped plant tables of white-painted sheet iron, and hexagonal or quatrefoil jardinieres. The vVerkstatte's metal output included a wide variety of flatware, with Hoffmann again providing the most, and the best-known, designs. His so-called fiad/es Model (flat model), originally produced in 1903 for patrons Fritz and Lilly Wamdorfer (p.347), was made up of a variety of arrestingly simple sterling silver pieces. 1l1e wide range of other Werkstatte metal objects ran the gamut from simple, undecorated forms that lent themselves to mass production to elaborately embellished one--off articles. Hammered, pierced, embossed, and chased metal pieces were made, as well as examples
5 Cad Qtto CzescIJka probab/y desiglled tllis Irnllllllered alld repoussé brass /all1p for tlle Wieller Werksliitte, C.1920. A sty/ized bird slallds out al1lOllg the USl/al foliale 1II0lifs 0/1 the silade. HI 64.1cm/25Y.;ill. 6 Of si/ver-coloured lIIelalalld cut glass, I/¡is /ab/e decora/ion ,vas desiglled by Hans Bolek, 19°9-10. lts ¡¡pper seclioll 's leaf desigl1 S/IO
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9 Peta BeilreJls erealed t/lese eigl1l pieces of si/ver-coloured mcfal fla/ware for AtfartiH ¡osef Rr"ickerl ofMaiuz ill 1902. Tlle lop four pieces are parliaIly gilf. Tlle Iriallgle-s/mped Iml/dles of aH but tlle kllife are ricilly decorated
34
-,-ürganic to Baroque
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1 Bl!1lflU¡¡'l!r:>, i.'ali((ll riblltm:., IIpper /ip, nl/n unse (Ir!' dccorntcli ¡pit/¡ tillY ul'ndil1g 011 ¡bis t'kgnllt si1r'cr vnse (¡¡líffl til/filler), 1911. Desigllt'd by lose/ Hofflllflllll, il
3 \'úTillg!rlJm ff¡c' S,'lJllld ric, :'o!l/lIl11drifn/ dl.':'oiglls of ¡Vic/ler IVl.'rkstiiffl.' fOIl/lders KolOlI/on Mosl.'r n/uf Hofflllnlm, Dosobert
IIInd!' by Alfred Moyer n/ lile !'ViellCl' I'\'crksliitte. The styli:ed
in 191), Cl"eo/enmore orn(lte, seulp/umlo/ljects. 501lll' Il'Cr1' e"l'lI Nl'o·B(lmqlll.' i/l spir;t. like f/lis jrllltosy birn box in sif¡'l'r r1l1d cOI'ol, J9.20. Ht .2J.7cm/8'hill. 4 Tlu! org(ll1;c t!lemcllts of HOffil/O/lll'S si/ver fco (/lid coffcc
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s/yli:cd leaf design, IIl1l11istnkau/y ¡Vicm.',. lVerksliille, cOlI/prises 1m 0IJl/II!III si/r.'CI' ciglll'elte !Jolder by HOf(lIIfll1Il
¡mili C.19Dj.
HI Tocm/;I.ill.
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Pec!Je, ((lito johlCn file H'orks/lOps
::I!f ,(lit/¡ tmy (lrl' bold, C.'l'1l vcrgillg 0/1 tI/f: Boroqlll'. Tcnpot, COfft'C: pot, crt'(ll/Icr, ol/d co¡'ef('d $IIgor bO¡I'¡ n/'t' s/mpl'll os sty/i=eri melOIIS. T/¡is de::igll for tite I\liCllcr IVcrkstiittc is quite late.
<.192.J. onri¡or rl'llIo"l'll frolll Hofjmoll/l's enrfier, 1II0rt' e1egmIl
In Germany, Muruch's designers created outstanding pieces in silver and other metals. An important Munich designer was Bruno Paul, whose 1901 design for a brass candelabrum was ingenious as \Vell as handsome: its dozen limbs \Vere capable of s\Vivelling around the stem, thus allO\ving the O\vner to crea te different configurations. German and other designcrs residing for varying amolU1ts of time at Darmstadt's Mathildcnh6he artists' colon}' aeated outstanding objects in precious and other metals, among them the multi-talented Peter Behrens, Josef Maria Olbrich, and Albín Müller. Behrens (1868-1940) created objecls ",ith a }Ilgelldstíl feel during his time in Darmstadt, where he lived from 1899 to 1903, but thereafter he beca me known for rus highly nmctional but stylish designs, such as his textured brass electric kettle for AEG of 1909. Olbrieh designed notable metal objects, many of which were mass-prodllced. Among these was a silvered-pewtcr candelabrllm, c.1901 (see p.3H), with characteristic Vielmese linear motifs, made by Edllard Hueck of Lüdenscheid.
6 Trio of H~ff"/(/1lI1 bnskets, C. 1905, of sililer-colollred metal fOI" t/¡c Wicna Werkstiitte. Thcir m'cmli rigid gl"id pnltan. sOllldill/e:; mUed gittcr\\'erk (/ntlicework), is softcllt'd by tllC loop /ullldles. HI 25·5clII/lOill. -,
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the Wiellcr IVcrksliillc, w/lÍc/¡ ,t'ns nftecfed by IlIc Snroquc cnergy vf Dngoberl Peche. HI 19cm/7'Ün. 7 HnmJllcrcd slIIfnccs nud fml
JIuliug dislillguish lhese 1'('0 silver i'csscls (pnrl of n I(¡[¡fe Hoffmmlll. "'?nmilul"c) bll .. . Dl'Sigllt'd C.191O nnd IIlndr! by lhe Wicuer \"'/erkstiittc, l!lr! mscs al"e recli/illenr, but 1101 n:; rigol"OlIsly so os Hoffmmm's cnrlicr piece:;. HI21.6c11I/S'/,in. 8 nc footed dis/¡ ,¡1íl!l cover by Hoftl1ll7ll11 of 1902 prednles /Iis fOllllding of IlIe Wit:Ht'r \'\'akstiilte. Of si/per [{lil/¡ n cnboc1lO!1 lurq/loise O!/ lhe lid, Ihe dis!1 conlnills r!/c111t'111:; llml are fOIl1,d 011 later H~ff11la1111 piece:;; itl7lllJllr!1"cd metn/, dccornli1'e bcndillg, nlld Icnf-like forll/s. HI 16.2.CIII/61.ill. 9 Bcadillg is n/so sce!1 011 lhe SpOOIlS, forks, alld kl1i<>eS of Hoftmmm's 190.J- silt'r!1"warc. TI/(' sel is rc,'o/lllionnn, for ils simple, flnttened ¡onlls. Lnrge fork 1.19·2.Cm/7 ill .
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In) lile IVcrkstiit/('. IIIngllijies the repenfed lIIoti{ 01 brlf-slmJK't1 blossoll/s Ilmid seml/il/g tendrils, olle flmt lIe l/sed in mllJlY ¡'lIria/iolls
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3 Hojflllmll1 's Vincta ¡abric design, 190'¡, /IInrle by JOIU11111 BackllnllscII & SO/lile, Viell/lll, is (l geomelric pnltem o/ vertical/il/es ll11d Irirlllgles 11m! COII/d be seell as sty/i:ed frees. 4 A block prilll mld ¡lIset ¡abric 5lllllp/e of HoffilUIIIII'S t'j.. ,id Kiebitz desigll, 1910-15.
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mong the rugs, carpels, and textiles being produced .L\1rorn the tum of the century and ioto the 19205 was a wide range of Wiener Werkstatte designs, though in Germany, also, sorne attractive examples were produceci. sorne influenced by the "Viener Werkstatte. ln Britain, the Omega Workshops produced floor coverings and fabrics decorated with the lively floral and abstract motifs that marked their painted fumiture and other wares. Over the years sorne 18,000 designs were produced by the Wiener Werkstatte's textile department. That division was set up c.1909-1O, although the Johann Backhausen & S6hne firm \Vere making fabrics and carpets for the Workshops from 1898, and the Workshops began prinling their own fabrics in 1903. Although Iwninaries such as Moser and Hoffmam1 \Vere responsible for many of the textile pattems, many others were employed who cOllld crea te handsome, decorative repeat patterns, among them Bertold Loffler, Cad atto Czeschka, Dagobert Peche, and Mathilde Flog!. Besidcs carpets, lIpholstery, and c1othi..ng, Werkstatte textiles \Vere used for napkins,
cushions, and lampshades. Sorne pattems were naturalistic floral and falffial designs, while others \Vere more characteristic geometric pattems, such as Hoffmann's Villetn design, of mangles and vertical lines. In Germany. many of the same designers associated with fumiture and other objects a150 designed textiles in the early 20th century. Richard Riemerschmid created a modem adaptation of a Persian carpet featuring stylized twigs in 1903 for the Thieme residence in Mw1ich. Besides furrushing fabrics, the Omega Workshops prodllced carpets, embroidered pieces, and even painted silk lampshades. Their fabrics are considered to have revolutionized British textile design in the use of vivid, often abstract or geometric designs, which were influenced by contemporary painting. AlIlellophis, a printed linen labric 01 1913 probably designed by Roger fry, featured a rich design of trapezoids ~d other abstract (yet vaguely organic) shapes. Omega produced textiles through the 19305, and contribuled greatly lo tI,e look and aesthetic of the Bloomsbury sel.
5 ¡..1iramar. a Josef HOff11ln/1II IÜ.'Sigll Jor
the \Vieller Werkstiitte. 191D---1S. combiJles diall10Jld n/Id :ig:ng sltnpes in n comp/ex o.'('ral11tori:ontnl pntteTll. 6 A snlllple book of \\fiel/el' Werkstiilte fabrics is Opell at K%man l\Io5Crs desigll for its Baummarder (pille marlell) prillted si/k fl'xli/e, ,l'ltidl ,l'nS al~ lI<'fIi/alJ/e ill bllle. TI/e desigll is frolll C.1903-7, lllOlfglt lite
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8 HoffmIT/1Il creatt'l1 do:ell5 of ¡mterc%llr dtosigll5 for textiles, SI/d, as Serpentin, 191D---1S' ¡\'ote lIle sigllatllrt' I/{'(Irl~s//{/ped 1t?nf. tlle Oll/Y orgIT/Jic ¡üosigll drll/l'IlI amid a St'a of lriallglt'S, SllllaTl.'s. mili rcclallg/l!5. 9 A ridl/Y pntteTlled colfal/ dnmask /rlb/edot1/ il'as d6igm'd by Pl'Il.'r Be/mms aud mnde by S. Friillkd, NClIstndI/Sc/¡lesiell. Gl.'rlllnny. TlIc ¡illells, C.19o,¡, ,I'rre l/sed nt tlll' nrtiMs' colollY ni Dnl'lll$/ndt.[or whiclt Bdm'lIs Cl"l'n/l'd 1I1111/erOl/S al/jec/s. Ht 1.28m/4ft Sbll.
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Richard Riemerscflluid's ¡l'Oo/ carpet, 1903. sat ill ti/(' liillillg room oJ lhe Thie/l/e /lOlIse ill AJmJidt, for ,I'/Jicll Riemersclllllid n/so cTenfed JI/mil l/re. Tlle strollg cmlra/molif aud edglos 01 slyli:ed t¡l'igs nlld bfossollls illterpl"l.'t trnditiolln/ PCl'siml rllgs. Ht 3m/9fl 10ill. 11 1'111.' Omega WorksllOJls' pri 11 ted filien film islJiIIg labl'ic Amcnophis, 19J3, ,¡'as I'rol){l/1/y Cl"l'nteri by Rog¡'r rry. Alndl.' 11Y lvlarolllmc Prillttl'Ol"ks ill ROl/ell, tite desigll is sopllisticnted yet spontmlCOl/s. 11 10
34
Art Deca Furniture 354 French 354 British 35B
American 359
Ceramics 360 British and American 360 French and European 362
The Art Deco style had its origins in Paris in the years belore the onset 01 the First World War, only a little more than a decade alter the 1900 Exposition Universelle. This exhibition marked the apex, as well as the beginning 01 the end, 01 Art Nouveau, the movement that took in the design styles 01 the Jugendstil and the Vienna Secession, whose motils and shapes olten relate more to those 01 Art Deco than the contemporary curvilinear, nature-inspired
Glass 364 French 364
objects produced in Paris and Nancy.
British, European and American Glass 366
Silver and metalwork 368 Textiles 372 Mass-Produced Wares and Industrial Design 376
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rt Deco did not irnmediately feplace Art Nouveau, llor was it a direct and virulent reaction against it. The movements even had sorne technical aspects in camman, especialIy in their French manifestations, probably owing to the c01.mtry's rieh design heritage: the finest materials, lavish decoratiol1, and impeccable craftsmanship. Also, thcrc weTe many individuals and firrns cornfortably creating fine pieces in both periods and styles, among thel'l1 Sevres, Daum, and Lalique. AIthough eClr1ier Aesthetic Movement and Art Nouveau designers ereated harmonious interiors as well as their furniture and other components, it \Vas the Art Deco era that wib1essed the rise of the ell5ellIblier, the multi-talented designer responsible for the total design, or ensemble, of él room, including its windo\V, floor, and wal] covcrings, furniture, lighting fixtures, and other accessories. The foremost maker of these strong unified design statements was the Parisian Jacques-Emilc Ruhlmann, while others possessing such notable talents, largely working i.n the French capital, were Robert MaUetStevens, the lrish-bom Eileen Gray, and, of the fim1 La Compagnie des Arts Fran\ais, Louis Süe and André Mare (olten callee!, simply, Süe et Mare). Although there are debates and disagreements on the definition and chronology of Art Deco, there is general acceptance in regard to the single most significant event in its history: the 1925 Paris Exposition des Arts DécoratiIs et Industriels Modemes. Not on1)' \Vas the st)[le's name adopted, much later, from a shortenoo version of the fair's title, but its greatest names - French and other nationalities - took part, showing their finest modero wares and thus influencing each other as weH as designers and manufacturers in other cOWltries, including America and Germany (neither of which exhibited at the fair). Variolls arbitrary end points to Art Deco have been suggested, including the start of the Second World War; the maiden voyage of the SS NOrl/ulIlriie, France's opulent "floating palaee;" and the 1939-40 World's Fair in New York. lt is agrced, however, that by the end of the 19305 Art Deco had nm its rieh, varied course.
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Ltit: tI/l' ¡¡'í"y-detniled, dyed sl1f1 rkskill-sllellt1Jcd, SlIllbllrst dl'Sigll ebollY sirle c1lf1ir by ClémeJIt ROII$St'flIl, c.192j, is fllXllrioll$ Frellc1, Art Oeco lit its fi"l'St. Tlu! forlll nlld mnlerill/s IIre Irnditiollnl, lmt eOll/billing t/lem ¡('itl,l/u.' distillcli<'(' deeornli¡'I! lIIotif is pI/re
modcmc. Ht 90(11I/35'1;1/ Opposite: lile refl/rbi$fllllelll of Clflridge's Holel ill LOlldon, '929-3°, O¡'í?rseell by OS¡l'fIld P ¡\.Ii/JlC, ¡t'II$ executerl in n ¡IIstt;ful Art Oeeo 1IIf11l1u'r. TI/l.' dOllle~ topperl I'c'Stibl/ll.' wns pnillfed yd/oit', i/s gl'omelric cnrpl.'t wns by lv1arioll DOI"II, (l/Id abol'c its /ncqllcl"I:d iIInck doors wac floml rOl/11dels by ¡\¡Inry 5. Lca .
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1 Gllerlaill's baffle nlld boxJor il:; scellf L'Heure Bleue i"t'('re /IIade by Baccamt afier lile 1925 París ExllibilioJl. TJ¡e stylb:dJO/mlai/1 decorat¡ou WIlS adapted ¡mili fdgar Bml/d!'s L'QaSls saeen. Ht 5.5clII/2'1ill.
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EXPOSITION INTERNATIONALE DES ARTS DÉCORATI FS E T IN D U STR lE LS MODERNES AVRIL- OCTOBRE 211/ lhe early 1930S lile desigller
IVay/allde Gregory crented Radio ill g/n:ed paree/nil/. Fro11l11er styli:ed, il'il/dsil't'pllmir, lo t/It'
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352
As for thc sources and main characteristics of this diverse and relatively long-Iasting stylc, there \VeTe many, and they differed from Cowltry to country, as with Art Nouveau, depending on vernacular designs and traditiolls. One important inAuence \Vas avant-garde painting - including Constructivism, Cubism, Fauvism, and Futurism - ",hieh provided a rich repertoire of abstract and simplified shapes and colour combinations from \vhich designers (ould draw inspiration. Aspects of exotic foreign regions, cultures, and traditions - including tec1uuqucs, forrns, and subject matter ~ were absorbed by numerous Art Deco designers. Sources were as eclectic as ancient Mesopotamia and the Maya, notably these cultures' ziggurat-shaped pyramids, reflected in large-scale ] 9205 and ] 930s skyscrapers as weU as in hmuture and other objects with stepped motifs; sub-Saharan Africa, whose tribal furniture influenced severa} French designers, jllst as its sculpture proved inspirational to Picasso, Modigliani, and other Parisian artists at the time (the Neuilly studio of fasluon designer Jacques Doucet included much African-inspiredfine and decorative art by numerollS. French Modernists); pharaonic Egypt, with the discovery in 1922 of
:ig:ng bol! slIe bears, tllis sleek nllegoricnl figure i5 nI! Oll/5ttllldillg Amcricnll Art Deco ¡¡iece. Ht (npprox.) 68.scm/2¡ill.
3 Roi'frt &mfi/s's strikillg CO/Ol/r lithogmpJI poster for tlle 1925
Paris Ex/¡ibifioJl ¡entures Art Deco sty/i:ed flora nlld falmn nlld n stnrk sa!1s-serif /ypefnce. Tite fisure';; Neodassicn/ garb is 110/ //I/comlllOll in l/le Art Deco periodo HI j6cm/2J/oill.
Tutankhamun's tomb a catalyst in this regard; classical Greece and Rome; China and Japan; and Russia, especiaUy the Ballets Russes dance campany, with the bold designs and vivid colours of its sets and costumes. From the mid-]920s another source of inspiration to designers, especially in America, was maehine and industrial forms. TIlis resulted. not only in the adoption of repeating and overlapping geometric patterns, but also in bold, cO!0urful rectilinear images incorporating cireles, half-circles, squares, chevrons, lightning bolts (often symbols of electricity), and the ubiquitous zigzag designo Somewhat related \Vas the science of aerodynamics, \Vmch further inspired designers and arclutects to create kinetic, parabolic, and winged shapes (huge examples of thc latter crOWIl Ne\V York's Empire State Building, 193]). A characteristic motif appearing in the Art Deco period was the stylized sunbllrst (or rising sun or sWlray) pattern; it was thought to have been especially popular in Britain because of that countTy's lack of sunslúne, but its basic geometric design was related to other Art Deco pattems. Also popular, especially in France, was the stylized fountain with cascading water, a variation on a classical theme. There was also a rieh repertoire of floral
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and figurative shapes, but unlike those appearing on Art Nouveau objects, these were markedly different in tenns of their stylization. Blossoms and bouquets were simplified and far removed from nature's originals. The insects, aquatie animals, and peaeocks that ,,,,ere typieal motifs in Art Nouveau for the most part gave way to sleek, elegant, speedy animals sueh as gazelles, does (in French, biches), greyhounds, and Borzoi and Afghan hounds (a signifieant exeeption to this is Lalique's Art Deco glass, whieh, like bis Art Nouveau jewellery, is rieh in avian, piscine, and entomologieal rnotifs). 111e snake, interestingly, appeared in both periods, its innate eurvilinear fonn an obvious reason for its earlier use, and its richly textured skin and exoticism appealing to Art Deco designers (sorne of whom used actual snakeskin in their furniture). Wornen were no longer the languorous, long-haired, voluptuous rnodels represented on a multitude of Art Nouveau vessels ~ though this type had not disappeared entirely - but rather they beeame androgynous, sleek, self-assured, and either shamelessly nude or fashionably dressed and eoiffed, descriptions that couId in part be applied to the flappers of the roaring 1920". Neoclassical figures also appeared on fumjture, eeramics, metalwork, and other objects, as they did in monumental Art Deeo sculptures, sueh as those by PauI Manship, and basreliefs embellishing Art Deco buildings, notably the fac;:ades of Roekefeller Center and other Manhattan skyserapers. But these figures ''''ere usually stylized in a manner - far removed from classical Greek or even 18th-
eentury Neodassieal figures - that was often referred to as lIlodeme, a terrn used in the 1920s and 1930s (and later), in Franee and elsewhere, to describe mueh of this eontemporary design. Concurrent with decorative Art Deco in the 19205, there was a strong Modernist strain of design, eontinuing through the 1930s and even beyond, and influencing mid-eentury modern Seandinavian and other designs, especialIy furniture. lts anteeedents were the nononsense, funetionalist designs of the likes of Christopher Dresser in Britain, Peter Behrens in Germany, and Frank Lloyd Wright in the United Sta tes. This sleek, functional style was exemplified in Europe by the fwniture and designs of Le Corbusier, Eileen Gray, and Robert MalletStevens in Franee; Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Mareel Breuer, Alvar Aalto, Wilhelm vVagenfeld, Marianne Brandt, and various Bauhaus figures in Germany; Alvar Aalto in Finland; and in the United States by the works of designers sueh as Gilbert Rohde, Norman Bel Gcddes, Donald Deskey, Raymond Loe,,,)', and Warren MeArthur, all of ",hom created designs for industry. Many of these people's creations, especially their fwniture, are now design oxymorons of a sort: period pieces that are also timeless classics. 4 TJ¡e Pnrjs bt'drool/l
o/ cOII/l/rier ¡ro/llle wmJiIl, desiglled iJl 1920-2 by
Armnlld-Alberl Rnleall, jJle/lldes opulent. exotic talle/les, Sl/e/I as u'l/l/s sheathed iJl "wllvin blue" si/k. Rateml was illspired by the nlláeJIt wor/d. fa '1l'lIicIJ he added Jlis OWII lIIodemized flora and fauna as we!! as persolla/ized tOl/clles, SUell as blossolJls o/lIlargllerite, the llame o/ wllVin's dallghler.
353
French Furniture Classical Ebénistes and Cabinetmakers
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by sr,'nl ISIII·cel1ll1ry Frel1c/llllaslerpieces, ¡ncq lIes- E111 ile /~ 11 /¡llIIn I1I1'S comer cabi /le/, 1916, is mI icOIl of PatisiaJl Art Oeco. Of lacqucred rosl'wood illlaid wil!J ¡¡'O/'ll al1ri rare woods, tllL' cavim't fentures all 111'11 overfloIt'ing with :;tyliuri flo
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acques-Emile Ruhlmann (1879-1933) \Vas the premier furniture-maker and ensemblier in 19205 Franee. Sorne of his earliest fumiture designs, 191-1-18, were already in the Art Deco style for \d1.ich he \Vas to become renownoo. Classical, elegant, and superbly hand-crafted, his furniture from this time marle use of exotic woad
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354
violetwood, and often included inlaid decoration in opulent materials like ivar)', snakeskin, and sharkskin. Cabinets, dressing tables, and matching chairs alike mostly stood 011 slender veneered legs, sorne shaped Iike fluted torpedoes. Figurative omament in ivor)', metal, ar \\'000 fearnred on sorne of the showier pieces, though most \Vere decorated more subtly with ¡vor)' dots, scrolls, lozenges, ti.ny squares, or rectangles. From e.1925, his fllrnihue had a more Modentist, functional look: less inlay, more visible metal, less rounded shapes. La Compagnic des Arts Fran<;ais of Paris, founded in 1919 by Louis Süe (1875-1968) and André Mare (1885-1932), known as Süe et Mare, made both veneered
and carved case and scat fumiture. Unlike Ruhlmann's delicate, understated pieces, ho\\'ever, their output included exaggerated, even overblown forms. Their inspiration was often dassic 18th-century shapes, but the i.nterpretation was far from subtle, especially in ternlS of the huge, wing-like mounts that capped sorne desks, pianos, and other pieces. Chairs and tables induded carved volutes, swags, tassels, and floral clusters, aH cornmon Art Deco motifs, while case pieces featured inlays of si.mple floral or far more elaborate designs. Other prominent designers of veneered fumihlre were Jules leleu (1883-1961), ",ho specialized in the use of light, warm colours, with the subtlcst of marquetry and inlay decorations; Léon Jallot (1874-1967) and his son Maurice, whose bealltifully crafted, often lacquered and inlaid creations werc latcr followed by more rectilinear Modernist pieces; and René Joubert and Philippe Petit, founders of the furniture and interior design firm Décoration Intérieure Moderne (D.I.M.), which produced small editions of exquisitcly madc furnihlre of classical
Sharkskin 1 Clbm'llf ROllsst!nll's pnir of Ilpllolstered side cll/lirs, C.1925, of fOSl!'il'OOd, galuchat (sllflrkskill), nlld molller·of-penr/, IIlnk('s IISI.' of t11l~ dyed orgallic /l/nterial poplllnr
nlllong mmlY FWlcll Arl De(o dt'Sig/lers. Note tlle Sl/Ilb/lrst designs iJl s/Ulrkskil1 l/l/del' tfle seafs. Ht 92·5(/11136'/.ill. 2 DntiJlgfrolll C.19T2, Pmd ¡ribe's petite commode, o/ IJ/nllognny, eboJlY, s/l/lrkskill, mld IIlnrLJle, is mI cnr/y L'.l"Ilmpk of FWIc/1 Art Deca, Bnsed (11/ mI 18f I,-Ct!ll t 11 ry Fn!/lcll /01'111, it ¡¡'tlS mnde for tire COlltllrier Jocques DOllcet. Ht 9WII/36ill,
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1 3 TlU! Pari:; dl':;igIlJir11l Dulllill¡C¡II~' pro.1l1a.t tlli,; s/lfIrkskill al1li ¡mliSllJlder (killgwoorl) drop·Jrolll secrétaire, c.192S.1f~fo,.m is
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jl'fltllrt:5lJO/dly geometric dL'Comtioll. T/u! blflcks fllld ,...lis are fncqllered ill 11u,' Jnpnllc$l' style, w1lile tllt' w1lite is pnillsfnkillgly npplied (rlls/lf?,t t'ggsflell (coquille d'oeuf). Hf 70cm/:q/iJl. 2 Botll DWIflJld nmi file"" Crny :-/lIdied file teclmiqm' of In(qllaillg il'itll tll(' mn$fa
SIlRn;cnrn, Cm!,s /iT.'t'·pnl't brOil'II//l/nck Incqui'T iPitll gildillg,/ms n gcolIIl'fl'ic
5(1'('('11 ill
dl.'Sigu ami dnte:- fl'Ol/I c. '922-5. Hf 1.4111/4/t 7ill. 1
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Stylized Floral Carving 1 L¿oll fallo/'s cnn'ed (lllri t'I!Ill'l!n'fi MnCflssnr coffre (ebollY cJll'St), (.]927.
has ti simple
rectilineaTJonll, hui its cnn'f:d bird nlllid styli::ed h/05501I/5 nnd ¡rol/ris. is strollgly Art Orco. f.. 111113/13Iill_ 2 5tyfi:ed jlowers (lJId lefli'eS ri/JI
¡Hluel.
ti
do'('1I ti cnnted ¡terlim! sirle pallel al Pnlll Follo!'s rOl/llded display cnbil/e/ 01 dnrk rt'ood and il'Ory. c.1925. cOJllmissiolled Jor Al/ BoJl A'!f1rché's PomOlle nlclier. TIu' piece «W5 0/1 dispfny nI file J 92 5 Pari!: Exl/ibitioJl.
2
Stylized Floral Leatherwork 1 Tooled (lIId d.1led lenfll('r pnl/d:;
decomled ,1'itll typicnl A,t Oeco blossom:o mnke up lile :;idcs nlld bnck of this cfcgnllt nrmc1l1lir, C.1925. by C/éll/el/t Mere. TIJe c/lIli, nlso iHe/lIdes ivo,y ncccllts nl/d Macnssnr ebol/Y cnrIJed ,l'it/¡ sty/i:ed flowl.'rs. HI72·5clIl/2SV,il1. Z Mere (¡gnill elllployed repollssé Icnf!lc, nl/d n desigll 01 styli::ed flom 011 tltis jewellcry cnbillel, C.1925, n/so JIInde 01 Mncnssnr eboHY, h'ory. nlld. nI tlle lop, grey mnrble. J-/t 1.4]1II/.if1 ¡:lill.
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formo Clément Mere (bom 1870) became known for carved and veneered pieces covered with large areas of tooled repoussé or lacquered lea ther. T",o designers "'ere noted for their extensive use of exotic gnll/c1ml (sharkskin), olten dyed in pastel shades. André Groult (1884-1967) and Clément Rousseau (187Z-1950) employed it to sheathe the surfaces of their tables, chairs, and cabinets, attached as salid colour blocks or in decorative pattems. Sharkskin-dominated pieces, as well as veneered and can'ed furniture, were marle by the Paris decorating firrn Dominique, founded by André Domin (1883--1962) and Marcel Genevri.re. Though small in number, the can'ed stools, chairs, and other furniture by PauJ !ribe (1883--1935) \Vere significant Art Deco pieces. In 1912 both !ribe and PieITe Legrain (1889-1929) worked on the apartment of couturier Jacgues Doucet. Carved and sorne times gilt-wood furnit1.lre \Vas a1so made by Paul Follot (1877-194]). Laeqllered furniture was created in large gllantities in Franee. A prolific designer of riill(lJIrierie (see p.368), Jean
Dunand (1887-1942) a1so created lacgllered chairs, tables, paneIs, and screens, sometimes embellished with crushed eggshelL Moving to Paris in 1902, Eileen Gray 0878-1976) was apprenticed to the lacguerer Sugawara and by 1913 was showing lacguered fumiture, sorne with silver leaf or inlay elernents. By 1925 she had begun to design her better-known Modemist pieces, with tubularsteel, glass, and alurniniurn elernents. Other notable fumiture makers inc1uded Jean-Michel Frank (1895-1941), creator of rectilinear furniture veneered. with straw and other organic rnaterials such as vellum, pardunent, and sharkskin, in geometric pattems; Pierre Chareau (1883-1950), whose practical pieces often cornbined wood and metal elernents; and Robert MalletStevens (1886-1945), él resolute Modernist working in tubuJar steel and canvas, as well as exotic carved. and veneered wood and leather. Taking his inspiration fram ancient Greece and Rome and the Far East, Arrnand Albert Rateau (1882-1938) created Neoclassical tables, chairs, and even chaise-longues, of patinated bronze.
African and Ancient Inspiration el/bis! nrt;;;!::; in Paris .¡'ere illj/llcJlced by AfricnJl art, tribal jllmitllre jl/spired Frenc11 Art Drco designers. Aftllollg/¡ ndnpted frolll all Africall 1 /1/51 as
chie/fa;,,'s fllro,,/.', Pierre Legrain's ttooden slool, C.191o-j.
is ob'Jiollsfy modeme j/¡ terms o/ i/s can,jng. L /3,5'111/29/11. 2 Armn"d Albert Rateall raid Ilomage to ancient c1assiea/ prototypes. Tllis brOIl:e cita ir, c1919-20, re/ntes to tlle nllciellt emule (foldillg senO, witb its frontal erossed legs.
Ht
~2.jelJl/36'1ill.
Exotic Sofas and Settees 2 Eilcell Grny's /acqllered <1'OOd alld siltv:r-lenfPirogue or Canoe sofa, c1919-20, ,I'as original/y made for tlle COllturia Su:mll1e Tnlbol.1I wns il/ parl inspired by fIJe Ballets RlIsses produclioll
3 IVilfl ils giallt serofl sides nnd smootl1fy arc1led baek, Pierre C/1fIreall'S tllree·scafer so(a, aloJlR . < ¡pi/II t¡l'O nl'll1ellai/'s,fumislled a SIIlon il/llle 192j Paris \Vor/d's Fnir. L. :l..1811117/1 lY.ill.
ofSchéhérazade. L. 21//1/8ft 10'/,il1.
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1 Pier/'!;: C!UlI'i!(/!/ desigl1ed tlJis exotic pa/istlllder wood nl1d ivory dnylJcd, C.I923,for ¡IJe "$11/011 de CorollIulldel" o/ (/ Paris eliel/t. TI1/! silk t'e/vet apricot-JllIed upllOlstery IIIntclled fIJe c%llrs o/ fIJe roolll's ClJiIlCSC
Unusual Materials
• 2 T1le exotic-lookiug mnterinl
, 1 COllturiel' p(1u/ Poird desiglled l/lis /acqllered gold- mld sih'Cr-1Mf dnssillg Irible,
c. 1 929, for (l hOllse of "/IIodl'l"Il ¡stic" ¡/lnútllre jl1 LOl1g Bcacll. N.Y. Tfle scroll is par!
o/ tite I)flllity's ¡onu. L
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131l1/511 8ill.
slleatJJillg l/lis doub/e-door CIIpboord by }L'flll-Miehel Frnllk, C.1928, is in faet simple str/lit· II/nrqlletry, a tec/miqm! popular ill J8th-eelllllry alld Arl-Deco Frailee, ill n J1fIlldSOll1e rt'penlillg fnll-sl1flped lIIotif. 3 Ei/een Grny's part FIIlllrist fnllf{/sy, parl fribal Afrienll f100r lalllp, 1923, of lacq/lt'/'('d n'OQd nlld paillted pnrc/lll1ellt, ,ms ex/libiled (lS pnrl o/ a be!droolllboudoir, mUed lile MOllle Cnrlo room, ni l/te 14111 Salon des A rf isfs-Oécornleu/'5. HI 1.8j11t/6ft l/I!. 3
35~
British Furniture Modernist and Traditionalist 1 Ed¡m,d Alm~fl!'s desk, 1924-5, /IIlIIfe by W. RO¡I'CI~ffe, of mnhogallY, mmpllor. and rbony g~SOr'd fllld Kilded ¡l'il/¡ ¡¡-1Iite go/d, ,ms erra/ed {(Ir 1111.' 1925 Par/s E:dlibitioll. lfs s1Jillillg rxir.7ioT nlld /nssel/l'd df'Coratioll11arallrlrd Fn'l1eh Art [)eco piocts 011 .,iCiI' tlll'Tt'. L. t·3.J1Il/.ift 5ill. 2 TI/I.' stepped lor1ll 01 Betty Joel's AlIstrnliml oak dressillg tableo 1931, re/ates /llore lo AmericaJl
Art Drco ¡orllls, bu! lile h'Ory IUllldles tire a /I/xl/riol/s Frellc1lstyle tOl/dl. It is by G. Ashley
1
(/lid IV.K Ir't,ill, TokeJl Works, POr/SII/Olltll. Ht 1.6711l/5ft 6ill. 3 Mal/riCl.' Adallls's sleek cocktail
cnhllle/, 1934. bespenks Ja::-Age America. AII elegalll, wellcmjted pieee 01 BritisJ¡ jllmitllre, il is /IIade o[ ebolli:ed lIIf1hognJlY wilh rllstlrss lIIetal wsillg filld
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2
4 loe!'s i1/t'itillg, satill-s1Eeatlled cJmise /ol/gue, c.19.30, is ntypica/ly Brilisil ill i/s s1mpe mld ostelltntiollS lmtllre, bul its comfort fnctor is liS lligll liS t1l1l1 of 11 plusli, COl/llfry-llOlI5e cJJ(lir. 5 Atade by }a1ll6 Clark Ud of Lol/doll, tflis peacfl glass-slient1Eed ¡¡'OOtÍeu tab/e, 19.30s, is n.,:ood e.mll/ple of Britisll Art Deco. B/ue glass, loo, tl'as populllr ill Brilaiu al/d America Itllrillg tIlis periodo Dinlll. 6:WlI/24Yill.
4
pieces were produced by Betty Joel 0896--1984), whose London showroom sold her fumiture and rugs. Gently cunred. forms and wood grains as decorative motifs are among the s<:,lient characteristics of her output - as they are of much of Ambrose Heal's work. Her pieces lean to the large but not showy. More Baroque in feel were the creations of Syrie Maugharn, known for her white furniture and interiors. Omate pieces were designed by the Russian-bom architect 5erge Chermayeff (190(}-97), \Vho \Vorked in Britain before moving to the USA in 1933. Lavish fumiture was also created by the arcrutect Edward Maufe (l883-1974), notably his 1924-5 mahogany, camphor, and ebony desk. 111e PEL company offered chromium-plated tubularsteel furniture in the modem-classie mode, while Finmar distributed Alvar Aalto's laminated-wood and pl)"vood fum.iture throughout Britain, and the Isokon eompany (1932-9) produced mostly ply\Vood designs by Marcel Breuer and Walter Gropius.
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358
5
orieme
American Furniture Modernist and Machine-Age
3
3 fliet SnnriJlen's efegnllf Jir 01' /IIaple dilliJlg·roolJl sirle c/mir wit/¡ black fmd ochre paillt 1ms designcd
il! 19:!9 ami
lIpllO!~!rr!'d
by Laja SaarillCII, (.193°. HI 95CIII/3/1 lill. 4 ¡,\'illt ils sfrollg geoll/el,.i, desigll
(Inri g/itlcl'illg slIIfnce, DOllald Deskey's screw, (.1929, o[ oi1 ¡)(lillt (Inri mda/lea! 011 cmWlls fllld ruGad, relates lo /Ilcqllert!d
1
1 PlIlIl Frflllkl's Skyscraper book({ls~, C.1928, fen/lIres black (lllri red /arquer 011 Califomin redwood. TIJe skyscmper was nrglmbJy file
symoo/ o/ AlllericflJl Ar! Ol'co. Ht 2.41111/7/1 nill. 2 T.H. Robsjo/lll-Cibbil/gs WflS il/spired b.lf c1n:;sicnl art (Inri nrcJliteclllre. TI/e Lotus cOllsole labie, ('1936, is oj pear.l'ood stnilled red (Inri deelJ grey·greell, L 1.35J11/4ft 5ill.
¡oremos!
4
he furniture of Donald Deskey (]89+-1989) was elegantly Modermst. rectilinear but often with curved or strearnlined sections, sorne pieces decorated with geornehic motifs, and ofien touched wi.th coloured lacquer or shiny Vitrolite or Bakelite. Many Modemist American designers embraced the materials, teclmiques, and spirit of the nascent Machine Age, such as Warren McArthur, Gilbert Rohde, and Walter Dorwin Teague. A handful of American fumituremakers, however, worked in a rnanner that could be viewed as a homage to Gallic traditions. These luxuriant, sometimes one-off pieces featured c1assical shapes, fine veneering, impeccable \vorkmanship, and monfs echoing Parisian designo Paul Frankl (1887-1958) was best knmvn for his skyscraper-inspired. bookcases and desks, sorne with lacquer trim. The carved-wood furniture by T.H. Robsjolm-Gibbings (]905-76) was Í11spired by and decoraled with c1assical motifs. Eliel Saarinen (1873-1951) designed c1egant but practical furniture, such as his ] 929-30 fir sirle chairs.
pieees by Eileell Cmy nlld Jeml OlllulIIrl.f-/t 1097111/6ft 5h,. 5 Mndl.' for Nl'w York rdniler Lord & Tnylor nfter n desi~11 by U01l Jnllot, ¡lIis /ncqllt'l"i'd wood, ~lnss, nl1d 111e/n/ dressillg tnble nJld Ixme¡', C.1929, looks lo frailee nlld Jnpnll for i/s dl.'eornlioll, bul lile l'íll1ity's llllgl/lnr sJlI1pe is rcmilliseelll 01 C:edl Cl/bist fl/mill/TI! (P·339)· rnble 111 79.5clII/3 J ~iJl; /Jellc/l
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35
British and American Ceramics Figurative and Floral
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1 Called Agc of jazz, n series o/ delightflll cut-out l/lid paíl/ten dancing (md IIl11siclll figures mas designed by e/aTice Cliff in 1930. TlIc set oj¡il'c
2 T/¡e British pottery Carter, 5tab/er & Adall/s iJl Poo/e prot!r/ced IIIllttc-gla::cd Ar¡ Deco cartllcml1are ¡:pitll distillctive lrand-paillted IIlOlifs - slylized
f1oral,faullal, 01" geolllelric - 01/ crelllll grollllds. Boll1 floral m/d geollletric e/ellJen!s appear 01/ t!lis vasco Ht 18clIl/7ill.
Coopa tJt Cray':; Potfer!!. Hall/e!!, {!lis enrtltCI/IUilre gil/ga jar 01 C1926 (it is lIIissillg ils lid) jeatures strollg Arl Deco e/elllellts. Depicfed 011 cadl of ils three palie/s is a single anima/mI ¡bex, a deel~ (/Ird a mili callgltt iu jliglrt. Ht 33clI1/1 3ill. 4 This ¡J/l1tter by Rochuell Kel1t is fl"OIl1 11 1939 set of c/lilll1l11l1de by Vemol! Ki/lIs I1l1d cl1/1ed Sala mina (after Kellt's book of tire Sl1/1le l/ame). Tite fellla/e jigl¡re mul /IIol/lItl1iu /l1l1dscl1pe ex/úbit 11 1IlOlIIlIJlelltl1/ity I1l1d geollletric sty/izl1tioll typien/ of KCIlt's work. Oi(/III. 31(1II/12'/,ill.
name synonymous with British Art Deco is CJarice Cliff (1899-1972). Her bright geometric Bizarre wares, 1928-37, were followed by Fal1tnsqlle, Biarritz, and other ranges. Cliff's huge Olltput inc1uded a wide range of earthenware vessels, generally hand-painted in a vivid palette of yellows, oranges, reds, bllles, and other hueso Designs inc1l1ded asymmetrical geometric pattems and stylized flora and fauna (CroCllS was one of the best loved). She also prodllced wlUsually shaped pieces SUdl as tea cups with solid triangular handles. Figtuative pieces inc1uded the 1930 Age of Jnzz series, brightly painted Cllt-outS of jazz musicians and dancers. For over 50 years, SlIsie Cooper (1902-95) designed and produced table\vare, vessels, and other decorative pieces. Her output is marked by a stylish elegance and functionalism; delicate pastel florals and subtle banded designs were popular patterns. Among the many factories to produce Art Deco ceramics were relatively new firms such as Wiltshaw & Robinson, \vith Carltoll Wnre, and the Poole pottery of Carter, Stabler & Adams.
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360
3 Designed alld pail/ten by 511sil'
Many American firms produced pottery in the Art Deco periodo Most successful was the 1928 Futura 1ine by the RosevilJe Pottery of Zanesville, Ohio, which inc1uded angled matte-glazed vases, bovvls, and \vall pockets, often glazed with striking colour combinations. Among the most innovative was the output of the Covvan Pottery Studio near Cleveland, Ghio, which from the mid-1920s llnti1 1931 produced brightly glazed decorative pieces. Best known "vere their limited-edition pieces designed by artists or sculptors, including Viktor Schreckengost (b.1906), whose Jazz Borol was notable for its distinctive glaze. Three dirmenvare tUles '!,vere designed by Rockwell Kent and manufactured by Vemon Kilns in Los Angeles from 1939, all transfer-printed with ilJustrations by Kent, sllch as SalmJlilln, which depicted the racky Greenland landscape and handsome Inuit v·,romen. An interesting collaboration behveen the Noritake company in Japan and Frank Lloyd Wright led to the production of a set of incxpcnsive porcelain tablewares, 1916, for the architect's Imperial Hotel in Tokyo.
Geometric Designs 1 C!al'icc Cliffs mre Fantasque Conicill Early Moming Sct;1I Diamonds,1929; 110/ VII/Y ¡1'I/5 fhe motijgeomrlric. bu! so w!',.e lhe I"e-Jo/lItionary Juwdlcs. Teapof lit 12CIII/4Y,ill. 2 Roseville Pottery's Futura Jine, 1928; incll/dl'd vases (lI1d bowls ;:lIíOI :iszng, ¡rinl/gu/ar, globular, IJI1d other geolllctric /l/otifs. Tillo' CIIbic sJmpes of (WO of lhese Futura vllses [end themselves lo 1111' Art Drco moti/s. HI Oef! lo right): 1Seml7ill; 30.5C111/12il1; 2o·5C1I1/Sill.
3 /'vIllll!wffall'S sigh/s (lnd sOll11ns illspired Viktor Schreckcl/gost fa crcate ¡he ¡collie COWaI¡ Pottery pWlch úO¡1'1 kllO¡UllllS ¡IIe Jau
Bawl, 1930, avaí/ah/e;11 blnck IJlld mryillg slU/des of blue al/ti :<,1"1'1'11. M lIsiea! il1sffl/1l1cl1fs
mulllotc:5, cocktail glas>!'s, skyscrapers, s/ars, al/ti círcks dallce 01/ (!Ie cnrJCd-{'afthemuare, sgrajJito-decorated slII!ace. Dia/1l. 3jCJII/13Y.ill.
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4 Tllis Carltoll Wan: Jaa vase is dccornlcd ¡uit/¡ a lightl/il/g bolt, sllllbllrst, alld gi!l [¡calJl. CarltOIl Ware mas the trade ¡wme ¡¡sed by Wiltslww & RobillSOIl of Stoke-oll-Tn:llt for its deeorative art itcms. Ht 14.jCIII/9'/,ill. 5 For llis Imperial Hotel, Tokyo h916-22.; later dClllolislted), Fmllk Lloyd Wrigllt dcsigllcd t!lis six-picee set ofg/azed porce/aill c/IÍlla, 1916, it:; motif lIIulti-coloured, off-cClltn'd, over/appillg eh·eles. Dimler p/ate diallI. 26.9Cl/lho~ill.
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French and European Ceramics Neoclassical and Modern Figures 1 Alythologicnl subjecfs (lllri (lbs/rae/, gl'OlI/elric di'Siglls Iypifi.'
tI,/? il'ork o/ pnil/ft'r-potter Rellé BIIIJmwf. ¡1'IIOSe gfn:ed l'nrlf/l'lIil>tJre i:'f1x' Europa and
the Bull dates {rom (.1925. Ht -10.5CIII/16;11. 2 for tllis enrtflell
decorati.'e stOl/eit'llre kllOWll as Argenta. tllis .'~rel!ll-gfa:ed l'tlSf:'. dt'si:~lIed by \Vi/he/m KAge. C.193o-,¡,o. de/'¡cls a ¡\h:oclassical IIIl1:,;iá.lII ill illlaid sika. Ht 20(1II/8ill.
4 Y/Jis terrncottn il'nll lIluSk. Tragcdy, C.1922, ,!'aS II/(/(fl> by fI/{' Goldsclleidcr r fletan¡. ¡{'/liel, origillafed ill Vit'II/Ul 111 1885. Tlle Illlcgol'icnllllcllle is allciellt, bul tlle jellJa/e ilead is cliic a/ld moderne. Ht 35.5cm!J4i11. 5 Cemmicist Vfllh¡ll\'iesdlhil'J' C/'t'aled IMs stl'ikillg, modi:;1t J-1ead of a Cirl with Flo\\'cr.
lile fisure, of red e/ay pollay
6/11 lile 19205, Cio POlll; dl'5;glled l/lis IInlld·,milltcd porcefaill cot'aed oo.\", mfled Omaggio agli Snob,for lile Doccin poflcl'Y Riclmnf-Cillori, w]¡ere Ile il'll5 arl director {rOIl/ 1923 /0 1930.11/ 29cm/nhll.
ome of the mast classical French Art Deco ceramics "'ere one-off art-pottery items. Emile Decoeur, Auguste Delaherche, and Henri Sírnmen "'ere renowned for their glazed vessels. The stoneware vessels of Emile Lenoble (1876-1939) often featuTed incised, painted, or lo",-relief decorations of scrolls and geometric motifs, as weH as stylized blossoms. The premier French ceramic artist ",as arguably René Bulhaud (1886-1987). This trained painter began to work ",ith ceramics arotuld ]919. His preferred medillm "'as stoneware, crackled glaze a favoured decorative technique. The men and women Buthaud depicted \vere largely in the Neoclassical-lIlodeme vem. The 5evres manufactory employcd well-knO\vn artists and designers, incllldmg Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann and Raoul and Jean Oufy, to provide them with forros, models, and motifs. Some of the most dlarming wares of the Haviland factury in Limoges '..vere bird- and ani.malshapcd tea and coffee sets, boxes, and decanters by the sClllptor Edollard-Marcel Sandoz (1881-1971).
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362
Elsewhere m Continental Eurape, the most notable Belgian maker of Art Deco ceramics was Boch Freres Keramis. Its output includcd wares in a colourful palette of doisollllé-type enamel glazes. Chief dcsigner Charles Catteau created vases with flora\, geometTic, and bold animal designs. In Austria, the Wiener Werkstatte continued to make ceramics before c10sing in 1932, mduding pieces by, among others, GudnlI1 Baudisch and Vally Wieselthier (189'>-1945). Many of lhese harbingers of later studio pottery were marked by a spontaneity of design and fonn. The Viermese firm Goldscheider made glazed earthenware and porcelam figures, busts, and masks. Italian architect-designer Gio Pon ti (1891-1979) provided modeme and Neoc1assical-modeme designs as well as traditional fonns to the Richard-Ginori factory, 1923-30. Arguably the best-known Scandinavian designer \vas Wilhelm Kage, 3rt director of the Swedish firm GlIstavsberg 1917-49. His Argel/In line (1929-52) of glazed earthenware features muscular J1udes and geometric and marine motUs.
Stylized Fauna 1
Ser¡h'lIts appl!Ylfed fa l'Ot11 Art NOIHWIlI (/lid
Art Deto ¡tesiguas. Hen'. a fllrqlloi$('-gla::.ed
sl1nke coi15 nrormd ElfOlfarrl-Mllrct'f Sml/1o:'s ,,'flSC, c-192;. ils IIl'ad risillg nl/{/¡'I' tlle <'CS5I'f's flllll'¡f lIIOIl!"- Ht 42·5clII/l6/ill. 2 Tlle Kermuis iW$t' by &eh Fri!'rt'S. (.1925. ¡¡'as 11t'Siglled by CJ"lrl~ Cntteflll, Bocll's imlO¡Ylti¡'t' MI;sl;c dinxlor {mili 1907. T}¡e
1Il01ll1ll/elltal ;,;tOIlt.'iI'llrt' ,'t'S;,;d /II1S 11 silllple form, bul it is il/tricatdy illcis..'¡1 al/d polyellromed
Stylized Flora 1 Cmik U!l1ublc's IlIrm'd ~lolle,I'C1re i'flse, its
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simple, Myli::.ed floral des(¡¡;/1 Of'l'rinid il1 slip, dall!sfroll/192j. HI19·jcm/n¡f.¡1I.
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2 Sty1i:ed jloH'crs nlso decora/e Hel1rí Rapiu '$ 1926 fUlHl·"nsfe porcelniu vasc, but ti/('
de/lene!, 01 ¡!Id,. material gives
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total/y
diffrrcl/t ..!feet ¡mili !1m/ of tlll! simple blossol/ls
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Abstraet Designs
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1 TIIl' abslmet pnilltcd df'Coratioll
tllt' gla:ed eartllt'//ware body of Robert l.Jrllelllflllt's ¡lflSe, c.1925-30, {'c/IOt'S tlle ,'esS{'f's allg1cd form, fllld IlOtl, muke nferellcc lo el//lis",. Mast oJ lhe desi.~l/el·'s (('mmie pieCt'S featl/red i<'Ory-sfa:rd grol/llds ulld H'('re Tl'prodllCl'd in fmxe lJl/alltit ils. Ht 2L6em/Slill. 2 Pail/ted 'I'itil abstmet slll1pt'S in tln' IIIU/1//{'r aud l'afet/e of Oll/c/I art 11I0,'('11I('111 Ot' Stijl, tllt' Bodenvase (Ial/ floor ¡luse), 19)0, is by file Germall Gus/u" Hdllkl'/ al/d ¡¡'US /l/ud/' VI; t/u: Stan 1/ iell(' ¡\tIu¡al ¡ka-Mm/ lifakl 1/ r il/ Kal'lsrlllu:. HI 6S.5elll/27j¡1.
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French Glass Classical and Modern Figures 3 Ln!iqlle's Infe J920S Victoire enr mascot is lIIodel1ed as an nldrogy"olIs fi'lI/ale Itend .pitl, streulI/lilled, Willd-bloil'l/ Imir. Jt 'l'Uj lIIarkeh'd ill tite United S/ntes as Seminole lIlId ill 8ritnin liS Spirit of Ihe \\~nd. Ht 21CIII/8Iill. 4 A lyriclI/ fema/e adoms Lnliqlle's /lJreejooted Opnlesct'llt cltarger, Trépied Sircme, e.192j. ¡\larine motifs alxn/lld in Laliqlle's Ot'lwre, and here fmi!s of bl/bb/es appear amollgst
"'t!
intemal dl'corafiOIl. DiallJ. 36c1ll/1.¡.1i1l.
1 L.;I
1 CJassiCtl/ in tJ¡cme (Inri seIlSl/OIlS in sririt, Rt'IIe LnJir¡IIf."~ Tha"is, 1925, is ti ,;:tllJlllillg
frvsted
(1IIi1
opale:>cCllt glnss il/lIl11illoted
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s/ntlldtc. TJmi"s ,¡ras Illl Egyptinll si/lIlcr
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co¡r¡rCI'fl'rl fa Christitmity. Ht 21.5C111/S'ÜIl.
2 Gabriel Al'gy-Rollssc(ll/ re¡>h'cd ¡IIe pate-deverre (g/as:> paste) lec/miqlll!, (md l/sed Neoclnssicnllllotifs. Le Jardin des Hesperides. 1926, Iws (1 Jrie=e 01 tllree l/1aidellS arel' (1 Gn:ek key designo / lt 24CII1/9/';II.
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Strong Stylized Motifs 3 La/iq/le's 1928 dl'sigl/ for CflI/flrilla'S 11I.'lfl/llle Les Yeux Bleus (1111/1' eyes) is llOth primilipe nlld lIIodem, possibll¡ illspin'd by fIJe udjat. or lI1/~
sl'l.'ing ('YI' o/ tI/(' [gypliall sky god HOrl/s, 'l'IJie/1 ,mnft'd off tllt' "l"i.'il e.lft'.
#
l.Pliqlll' lIIay 11m'!! fA'l'1l
illfllll'llced by t//(~ 1922 diSCO¡'C1}1
of Tlltllllklmlllllll'S fomb. Ht scm/2iJl.
4 A Baccarat bottlt, witll a 00,1'tie slmpt' l,t'!d the Glferiaill scml
Coque d'Or (goldl'1/ illfrodllced ill 1938.
NI8·scl/I/3 1.ill .
1 Tlle desigu 01 t//is strollgly tlllg/ed Lnliqlll! ¡'f1St', Penthie\Tc. is ntlribl/ted fa $1I::t/llIll' Lnli/ll1(', Rellff's dalfgMer. Crenled iJl 1926 Illld illtrOOl/ced /'1'0 ycnrs fater, file <.'l'sse/ is II/olllded ;11 fow reJief witll opp05iJlg rOi/lS of
¡ligll/y styli=ed (lugelfish. Ht 2j.jClII/lOilJ. 2 A /Jold. killelic dl.'Sigll11olllilltltes Laliqlli"j tOIlI'-de-fora! mOI//ded-g/uss FUX' Tourbillons (w/Jir/willds
or ¡¡o/lir/pools), U/50 mlled
Volutes en relief. Cn'uted ill 1926, tfle '-'l!5sel wus m.'ni!nble ill salid ca/ollrs but IIInde tite
364
sfrollgeSf stnfellle!lf in t!lis e/ea,. nlld b/ackellfllll('/Ied '1,t'1"5iol/.
HI .20clII/8;".
sllt'!IJ,
Internal Decoration 2 Alal/rice MariJlO!'S 1927 /1Qtt/e alld ~Ioppt'r (no. 1-123) is deep/y l'Iclled alld illtemally decomted. He tI'as Olle of tliefirst arti~ts lo caplllre tlie bCfllfty ofair bubbles, prl'i'iOlfsly cOllsiJfm:d fla¡¡'S, alfd lo lIIake tllem (/// illtegml pnrt ola t't'sse1's desigll. HI 18cm/7ill.
1 Frnllfois.Émile Décorchl'lIIellt, like Argy-RoIlSSt"tlIl, l/sed fIJe piite-de·verre tecill/ii/llt'. His "t'Ssef$ II/ostfy [l!n/IITe l/tickeT
.mlls (1IId míllima/ decornfiOIl. This minintllre ((151- al/d pofis/ll'd-gfass /'0,:1'1 ;5 fro'" tllt' 19.20:;. Dirlm. Semi];".
Enamelled and Etched Decoration 1 AJaree! GOIIPY ennmelled tite
,'ase called Les l3aigneuses (tl,é' bflfIJers) nrolllld 191:6. He aftt'/I Dl/tUl/cd so/id nrl'ns of CO/OIlT
U'i/l¡ allot1Il'T, dnrker III/t',
ns 0/1 tl'l' il'VlI/t''''S /l(l(tit.'S. HI :l6cm/1OI.iJl. 2 Hlllld-t1ecornted ¡"it/¡ f'lItllllcl pa¡lIls. I1Jis glas:> /Jo.!'/, si:;:l1cd
Quendl o,. Quenvit. is decornled ¡l'Ífh s/yli:ed /clH'eS (lml /lf05501l/S nl/d n dleqllerbonrd
palian. Lillk is kllOWI1 of ils lIU1ker, /lor ¡{'/u!l/ (/lIfi where il
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¡I'as III(Jfit',
tlle I!lUwlel/l'd smllop lIIo/ir 011 1~l!lle
Ln/iquc's 1929 bottlefol" COlltllria Lucien Lelollg's SCCllt is, nppl'opl'infe/y, epocntiroe of timpa!!. rile nrc/Jitectollie tla¡;on ims l/sed for al/casI Iilm' d~ffercl/t perfumes nnd calllc ,('il}¡ n lIIatc/lins elmlllel/{'d-lIIeta/ box (ill ~iJ¡'eI' wil/I Nnck, ye/loH', 01" greel/) I/irlt ~lipl'ed otW ti/e boltle. HI J WI//.{liJl.
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aurice Marinot and René Lalique, who created, respecti\'ely, exquisite one-of-a-kind vessels and a huge range of mass-produced wares, have come to exemplify French Arl Deco glass. Marinol (1882-1960) originally trained as a painter. lnitially he painted floral and figural motifs in rieh enamel hues on finished pieces, but produced rus blown creations in the earl)' 19205. These simply shaped, heaYily walled, internal1y decorated \'ascs, bottles, and jars were lauded for their beauty, originality, and craftsmansrup. Beginning with rus 18905 experiments and peaking with the mass-manufacture of objects from the 19105 to the 1930s, René Lalique (1860-1945) carne lo be Ihe unrivalled master of the meditun. Bis first attempts at glassmaking were via the cire-perdlle (lost-wax) process. Frem 1910 he bcgan making perfume bottles in col1aborabon with the perfumer Fran\ois Coty. Except for the rare cire-perdlle examples, Lalique's vases, as with aH of his mass-produced output, were blown or pressed ¡nto a mouJd. A pieee could be clear, frosted, solidly coloured,
M
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3 Dnlllll FriTes of Nalley began lIIakillg glass objects ill tlle Al"t NOI/Pt'au period alld colltilllled lo do 50 illto l/le Art Deco era. rile s//{lde 011 l/lis acid-etclled glass Inb/e Iml/p has n ric/I abslmct desigll, offset by t/le silllpla spilericn/ base. HI 4]elll/17ill.
4 Al DI/Ce OIsmlic anri nbstmct,
4
cased, or sandwiched; opalescent, with a blue--yellow sheen; or extemally decorated with staining. The most ablll1dant motif type on the \'ases is stylized floral or foliate. Lalique also produced vases with strong abstraet designs, most notably the TOlfrbilloJ15 (whirlwinds). There were also lalique tablewares; ear mascots; desk, dressing table, and smoking accessories; lighting devices; and archi tectural elements. [n the 1920s and 19305 the production of pñte-de-velTe, a type of paste glass, grew, as did the variety of decoration on vessels, including man)' Art Deco motiis. The Parisian Gabriel Argy-Rollsseall (1885-1953) decorated most of his richly hued, thin-walled vases and bowls with exotic, classical, or prov~ati\'e figures. Also producing pfite-rie-verre \Vas Fran\ois-Emile Décorehement (1880-1971), whose large vessels feahlred i.nternal decoration in inventive eolours. Daul11 Fn?res's main output i.n the 1920s and 19305 comprised acid-etched vessels and lamps, mostl)' th.ick-walled pieces with allover geometrie or stylized organic decoration.
3E
--------------------------------------_. British, European, and American Glass Figurative
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1 5wlpfor Sidney Bielder H'al/S" desigl1l!d fIJe Gazel1e /JO
1935. TI/e cr.llstnl ¡'c:e.:;e/ rens clIgm<'t'd l/y Josepll Libixll ,d11l n fril':c 0/12 fenpillg gn:dló. Diam. 16.5cm/6ó.iu.
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2 T/¡is comCCKut Stt'lIbeJl Glass <'aSt', c.1910s, ;s fl/ tIre Starnford parten¡. its ;¡'Ory glllss mI
;:{'itl¡ n lIIoWof dl'l!r (lnd gn:dl6. HI26.5clII/1O').iJ/. 3 A sfyli:ed Jigote OCWpi6 n $11/01/ part ol//¡;$ plniu ay::f"l ¡'1T5t', c.1928. l?lIgm¡'cd I'y Riclmrd Sii55l11llllhnllti. Il DresticlI-fmim:d g/ns:;'¡l'Orkt'r
frolll Pm:ig, Silt'sin. Ht 22.5clII/9il/. 4 Ida Puuli" o/ AlIgs/lllrg produud tM.; co..'ereti jnr 01 1!II1lllldlen nl/d gift /1/o¡¡>/1 g/a55. c.1925. lfs exolic decora/iou i5 rcmilli:,Cl'Ilf oI i\fricall Off al/ti Hl'IIr¡ lvlllfiS~l!. lIt 12clII/Lill. 5 \tick!' Lilldsfm/ld':, .'n~c. Think ~o hit Hear :"0 hil, See :\"0 hiJ. 1930. mndt' fhe Sin:dish fncfory O"':fors, i~ i/llbfratl!d /1.11 t1m:e /l/I/seu/ar ¡t'mnle /llldl'S. Ht 14cm/5 ,jll.
".v
mon g the British finns producing noteworthy glassware in the 19205 and 19305 \Vas Moncrieff's glass",orks in Perth, Scotland, makers of Monart ",are. These thick-walled vessels feah.ued internal decoratian in the French manner. The Wiener \'VcrksUi.tte continued to market glassware unlil it closed in 1932. Note\\'orthy are the clear-glass jar5, gob1ct5, and other vessels hand-painted in raínbo\V hueso As in the past, glassmaking in 19205 and 1930s Italy centred an Xlumno. Significant designers \\"ere Paolo Venini and Ercole Barovier. The \'arietics of glass produced \\"ere far removed froOl traditional millefioriand filigree-type glass. Venini's petra tesslIto, far example, featured vertical threads of caloured or white glass. From 1916 and 1917, when the painters Siman Cate (1883-1945) and Edward Hald (1883-1980), respectivel)\ joined S\\"eden's Orrefors Glasbruk, the firm began to produce 11Iodeme \\'ares. These were of cngraved, etched, painted, and Granl glass (a technique wherein ctched and engraved coloured vessels are cascd in clear glass).
A
366
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DlIring the 19205, Pragllc architect Jan Kotcra created glassware whose geometric forms ",ere Modernist, and other designers in the city produccd Cubist-style glass fram c.19?10 to 1925. There ",ere also t",o Czech glassmaking schools, at Nóvy Bor and Kamenicky Seno\', producing Art Deco-style vessels, their outpllt as handsome and varied as that of their Bohcl11ian forebears. In lhe 1920s, tmder Frederick Carder, Stcllben Glass \J\'orks of Corning, Ne", York, began to produce modeme glass, sllch as the Ci/ltm and Cllltltrn Iines, thick-wallcd c1ear- or coloured-glass \·essels, with internal bubbles and other dccoration; and thc 11ltnrsin range, inspired by Orrefors's Granl glass; and acid-clltback vascs of hexagonal, ovoid, and other shapcs. from the 1930s Stellben began to conccntrate more on colollrless crystal art glass and tableH'are. Dcsigns of a figllrati\'e, often Neoclassical, nature, carne from sculptor Sidney Biehler \Vaugh (190-1-1963). Hugely popular also \\'as the massprodllccd, moulded "Dcpression" glass prodllced b~~ among othcrs, Anchor Hocking, Diamond, and Federal.
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Etched, Engraved, and Enamelled Decoration 2 Stl!lI/JCII'S ncid-ddrcd glns:; ¡'ase of c.1925 ,('as r/e:;iglled iJl lIJe
Chang pnttt'f/1 by Frerierick Cardero 01 ce/es/e blllt' oiJer/l7id wil/¡ p/1/111 jade, lile i'6Sc/
fentl/res scrollillg floral dl!siglls abOl'e slyli::.t'd c/ollds. Ht 21CIII/S(,iIl.
3 ¡VJade by Lot::. H/if"¡('l' gll7ssH'orks, tllis copcn:d jar,
c.192.J.-5, wn5 decora/en by Mflrl:Y 8eckert (-Scllider). Of blo¡/'II clear g/ns:; {/11ft OI'erlaiti co/DlIred g/as:", tlll' "6sd has bcm clUl!lll!/Ied n/ld I7cid-efehed. Tire l'll('<.·,í;dic floml nnd ¡I'm-'t'~/ike motif~ eellO CO!1felllpomry di':.'igll:.' frOln file Wiel!t'r Werk:.'tiifft', linda Dn,'
1 1 An cXl7l11plc 01 Edrmrrl Ha/d':; !t:sfi¡,1' Fi rc'\\'orks /10
for 0l"nfOr5, jir:;! dcsiglll'ri in 1921 nllr/ eXt:ClIfed DI'er tlIe !Jea,.:;
-c:
l/y 111l1sla CI1Sflwer Karl Róssler /Hui oliJer:;, tl'I1S displayed lit tllt' 1915 París Exllibitiol1. llald ,en:; ,pít/! tI,t' Sil'l:dis]¡ ~lass {aetan¡ fOI" L
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o"el" 50 Yt'tlrs. HI10.5CIII/Sill.
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4 Probn/lh, . dc:.'i'>;lI['d bJI . Fla¡,io Poli l/lid lIIlIde by ArellÍlIlt'de Segl1:.'o, the Scgll:.'o Vl'fri D'Arfe .'II:.'e, c.1937-l0, i:.' n 11l1Ilti-ln.tlen'{1 ¡'e:.':.'e! CI/:.'ed oua :.'i/¡'t'r~roil ille/lI:.'ioll:.' (l¡W l"t'ddi:.'IIonm,'<1' g/ll:.':.' (l¡'(')"
.
5 Follo¡¡'in~ file /elld or . ¡\frlllricc ,\olllrillof, ofilcr ElIropt'nll:.' ¡'['SIIII to HU/k!' ;'[':.':.'e!:.' ¡pitll bllb¡'¡c:.'. IIldllJlic oxidt':.', IIlld other infernal decoration. Knrl Wiedlllmm crl'all'd lkora gla:.':.', :.'1Ic/las flris ¡'ase. 1929. Hf lScm!¡iJl.
6 A fillt' e.mlllp/c af Scottisil ;'vlonart gla:.':.', /IIade ¡'.ti JollII .\lollcrÍt:(f Ud af PatlL f/¡i:.' caral red-cn",ed l'n"'t', 1925, ha:.' cloisonné, crysfa/, alld CIU/llle! decoratioll. tll(' iI'hite el/alllel fakillS
01/
a !/Iefa/lie 1115tre. Ht 14.6em!5Y:ill.
31
------------------------------------Silver and Metalwork Figurative and Floral
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1 R..I\il. Y. Gil'nrio,,,e's si/ver fllld lIIo/J¡er-o[-J'cnl'1 ;"lermaid ClIp (Inri cm't'r i"l'llS /linde in 1938 for ti,,? GoldsmitllS & Si/i'f'rsmitlls Ca.. BirmillglliJlII. TI/(' t't.'SSt!lI1a5 n frie:/' of 5l'I/S/lOIlS illtert;:¡'illillg merlllflids fl//lid ro,I'S offisll fllld 5('111101'5('5. I-lt 37clII/14 '1:; 11.
2 Erigar Bnllldt's stlllllJillg sikrn:d-hroll:e potiche lcalllres n frie:!' of I/llde IIIllsicinllS (/lid drlllcers 01/ all nl/-fJf.'t"r gral/lid
sl.'lJi:ed flo¡¡'f.·rs (luri fea¡I('S.
f-/I 2.07m/6/'
sll'd. nllllllillilllll, brns), broID",
(md blnck mnrble, ¡he desk (Iccessory nl$O F'llfllres c1oisonne ellmllt'h¡'ork. L. 58.5cIII/23;1/. 4 Rose /1"(111 Works prodllced !!lis
ftrep/nce SC/WII, desiglled /Jy Pmd Fe1lér, c.1930Jeatl/riIlS a central Illldt' 01 gold-plated brol/:e alld sl.JIli=l'd floral rllld gt'Ometric e/I'ml'nt.; of sihw-plnted irOI/. Ht 1.5m/5ft.
diverse assortrnent of Art Deco metalwork was produccd by fenmllliers (craftsrnen in wrought iron), sculptors, enamellists, lacquerworkers, and factories. The French in particular excelled at creating a diversity of objects, both traditional and inno\'ative. American individuals as well as established manufacturers made items in metal, often combining it with glass, 'wood, and other materials to produce handsome, largely functional pieces. Many products were the rcsult of collaborations between factories and industrial designers. Edgar Brandt (1880-1960) \Vas France's leading ferrollllier. His huge gates and firescreens alike comprised dense floral, folia te, and scrolled designs that often centred on bronze figures or figurative panels. One outstanding design was his Cobra lamp of c.1925. The ferrO/miel' Raymond Subes (1893-1970) contributed fumiture, docks, lamps, and other pieces to the Paris salons. ID the 19305 rus wrought ironwork and bronze gave way to more pieces in steel and aluminiurn, and rus scrollwork and other fonns became simpler, largel~ and
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368
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ol
3 PaJI! Fellé/' (Inri Mal'/iI, Rose 01 Ohio's Rose 1roll \Vorks desiglled tllis ¡/esk sel jI! 1919-31. Made of
4
some\\'hat abstraet. The small but stumling output of the Paris sculptor Albert Cheuret includes outstanding Art Deco pieces, such as rus mantel dock in the forrn of an Egyptian headdress. The foremost maker of silver and platcd objets \Vas jean Puiiorcat (1897-19~5), a skilled artist who approached his vases, tea and coffee sets, and other luxury goods vvith the precision of a Greek 5culptor. The Italian designer Gio Ponti (1891-1979) created significant pieces for the French factory Maison Christofle: made in electroplated metal known as ChristofIe si/ver; bis best-known designs were his twolight candlesticks Fleche (arrow) and Dnllphill (dolphin). lean Goulden (1878-1947) studied chmllple-vé enamelling with Jean Dunand, the famous maker of dill{lJIrierie (decorative metal \Vares), and subseguently produced lamps, docks, and plaques embellished with colourful geometric pattems, often arranged in Cubist configurations. Camille Fauré (1872-1956), another French enamellist, worked in Limoges. He eovered base-metal vases and lamp bases with enamelled al1-O\'er patterns.
5
5 Displm,l!d al {he 1937 Pnris Exhibí/iOJ/, NOI
lu.ntriOIlS. H/ 27clII/l0r¡,in. 6 The HI/IIgarillll-bom Americall ar/ist IVillu:IIII ¡-¡Hllt Oieaerich crented a repertoire of ai:;tillclh,l.', !ligllly killetic, e/ollgalea hea:;/s in se¡lemIlI1cdia, ine/udillg //letal, ccmlllíc:;, alla fabric:;. T/lis Fighting Horses tripc/. c.1916, is of 1/(/lIIl11ered irOJl and limss. Oia//l.30clII/9ill.
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7 Tlli:=: paír ojl1'l'OlIghl-iroll 5COIlCi'S l/y RaYlllolld Silbes, c.1925,/el1fuI'I!5
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s}¡apcd ala/raster sJmdes il1 imitnl iOIl ,'asC5 .(or ¡,oWII1Cls of . s!l¡li:cd . !7owcrs nnd folia'{c. Ht 53.5[111/21 ¡JI. 8 Th¡> 51Wkt· ¡¡'as a poplllar Art NOI/1.'emll1lul Arl Oe(o 511bjecl. Edgar Brand!'s cnM-brul/:e Cobra {ah/e /all/p. c.1925, has a g/as;; shnde by 01111111 Fráes oI Nnl/cy. Ht 53cm/21ill. 9 FOllr palie/s of fruil-Indm "¡¡'es ndom l/lis sih'cr-c%ul"cd lile/ni bolt/e llO/der, c.1920, by DmIish si/pa51/Iit!¡ GCOIg !CI1SI.'Il. Ht 12clII/4/;;n. •
•
10 10 Bmlldt producea t/tis ens! alla
9
allle/ope or hilld set alllid scro/ling tendrils IlIld styli:cd b/05S0I!1S, Oi'L'r ti !1(/Jld l.!fforlllali:t'd 170"il'Cl"s alla foliage. HI 93.5cmlVt lin.
36S
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Geometric
I
1 Fnmcc'sjillt"Sl Art Dt'Co "i/i-'erSlI/itfl. ¡('CIIl PIf{fon-nt. ,1'11$ n Neo-Plafon;st idlose IOi'/? 01 pure, has/c /01'1115 - he snid !lInl lhe
eire/e ((las tlll.' ¡denl sfWpt'-
repeals itself in ¡I'ork:; SI/e/I liS /11;51931 sih'l'r mili roSt'íl'OOd lt.'n set. Tlle /lltls/e's '1l1t'Sl for Mt'fll IIInt1Il'lIInfi(nl prollOrtioll
2 Puiforen!':; coI'ered tuteen, 1930s, is o/sihw-c%llrl'd lIIetn1, flu: bo¡l'I bflluled by n rillg sel .6t1l ngnle clloodlOIlS.
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Ht 21cm/Slill. 3 ¡cml De::llrés oftt'lI illc1l1ltcd npplied ril/gs ill flls desiglls. ns ;11 tltis si/¡'cr-plntrd metal (/lid roSC1P00l1 II/tu/He/lr jol' n pt.'wler
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(¡¡Jiu/ioll trapl/y. T1It' willg-lik¡'
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/mlll/m'red metnllmlldh'S arr.'
apI'rol'rinte lo file I/nlllre o/ fi,e . H)1 'Q," I1I1'ú'. t __ CIJ/",JI;JI/.
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4
5 4 Tllis si/re/", silded
sif¡~r,
(lIId oxidi:ed si/¡w
Cubic (OIjee 5('r<'ice (nlso k/lo"'1I
IlS
Lights
and 5hriter fo mil il a CIflúsf slilllifl! ¡JI precioll5 lI1i'/a/." Cofft't' poI lit 2-lcm!9üll. 5 Nl1/1per & Drr¡'cllporl of Bir/llillgfwl/I prodl/ced flús siln?r (/)ld 11'00d('/1 tmpo! ill l/u' cllrly 1920;;, ils J/fllldJc ami 5p
desiglled al/ti prodlfcetÍ l!lis cirClf/ar-tllt'med
370
six-picCt' 5ift,(',. illld IlliC¡l'{lOd tea mzd (Offi'l' 5l''''icr.' in 1934. Coff('(' po/lit 22(1II/8ill.
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7 Camille Fallré's ,'fiSC, e 1925, has a IOil'-relicj geoll/e/ ric desigll ill black, ¡¡¡hite, l1!ld blw: CIII1/11e! 0l'Ct" si/per joil 0/1 copper. H t 30.5cm/12ill. alean CouldC!1'::; sili:.'ered brol1=c a!1d c!1alllelled dock, 1928, like I/mllll of fhe tl1/C!1Ir:d ellallldworker's dr:sig!1s, is 1101 Oll/Y decornlr:d ll'it}¡ an aSYIlIII/l:tricnl arrny oj o¡'cr/appillg alld partial gcometric c/CIllt'llls, bu! a/so !akcs 01/ nJ/ irrcglllnr gt'Ometric s//IIpC ilsclf. 9 Thr: ItI1/il1l1 nrchilr:ct, dr:sigllt'l", writcr. l/lid Ir:ac!lr:r, Cio Pouli, pro¡,idr:d desiglls for the frcllch si/<'crslllit/I C/lristofll.'. His p/ayfuJ, sili'r:r-p/atl.'d cllIldlcslick Fleche (arro,p) dales ¡rolll c.1927. HI 20(1II/8ill.
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10 Tlle si/¡wsllli¡1I Georg- ]el/5m'S Pyramid fin/ruare 1m.:; desigl/cd by Hllrnld NidsCII, jcnsell's brotl1er-ill-lnw, iJl1926, {l/ld /IIndeJor sOll/e year.:; affer. Tlle Egyptirm-illflllcllced lIIot!f ,ms ti/e jirm's fi!".:;t Art Deco pattem. 11 Albert Clu.'lIref's fOllr-de{ol"Ci: si{¡'cn:d ¡II"O/D' l1!1d O!lYx lIumte! dock, c.1930, resl'lIIblcs Il styli:ed EgyptinlI l1enddress, it50 locks lakillg n pyrnlllidal slwpe. L. 50CIII/16Ifill.
Aspects of Moderníst design were taken up by saIne British silversmiths and designers of du-omed and plated metal objets d'art. A cube-formed silver teapot with \Vaoden handle \Vas made in 1922-3 by Napper & Davenport of Birmingham. vVakeJy & \Nheeler of London produced high-quality silver and electroplate; a shuming figurative design \Vas its covered Merlllaid cup of 1938, designcd by RM.Y. Gleado\Ve. AIso working in a Modemist style \Vas Henry George Murphy (188-l-1939), ma..ny of \Vhose creations \Vere essays on the circle. In Scandinavia, the silver hollow-"vare, flatware, and jewellery produced by Georg Jensen was the best-known Art Decü metalwork to emerge from that part of northern Europe. Though various motlls first used in the eady 19005 still appcared on Art Deco-period pieces - silver beads, openwork stems, and stylized Ieaf and bird forms - there \Vere aIso articles with strong modern shapes and geometric motlls. Jensen's brother-in-Iaw, Harald Nielsen (1892-1977), \Vas responsible for thc Pyralllid flat\Vare pattem of 1926. In Norway, silver manufachuers Tostrup
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and David-Andersen produced Modemist designs, sorne of \vhich included enamclwork; Oskar SClrcnsen's 1937 silver liqueur decanter for Tostrup in the forOl af a stylized bird is an example. American Art Deco metaI\Vork ranged from massive decorative pieces to sOlall utilitarian wares. TI1CSC could be hand-crafted or, more often, produced in a factory i..n varying quantities. From the mid-19th century the prod uction of both precious and base metal objects, especially in silver and brass, \vas a huge US indllstry. Notable ferrol1l/iers included Hungarian-bom PauI Fehér (1898-1992), who created figurative and floral screens and other \vares for the Rose Iron yVorks in Cleveland; and Wilhelm HLUlt Diederich (1884-1953), also froOl HlUlgary, whase animal-rich screens, andirons, railillgs, and standard lamps \Vere distinctive, expressionistic \Vorks. Several makers and factories added Modernist designs to their repertoires. A Gorham coffee service, 1927, entitled Cllbic, or Lights l1lld Shndows of Mallhnttnll, \Vas designed and made by Erik Magnussen (188-l-1961).
Textiles Floral and Figurative 1 A popular Al"t Oeco lIIot{f ill
Frallce, sty/b'd fOlll1tnill5 can ¡'e ::eI.'JI iJl a/JllJI(lfmce 0/1 n detnil o/ EdOllnrd BéJII!lfictlls'$ les jets d'eau tcnhlre aml/gil/g), 1925. of satill, ",ifk, (lJI(I artificial si/k, /linde by Bnllle/, Mellllié & Cie. 2 Ajigllnllii'c IIJI/rill/' I/Jell1e
IIInrks l/lis l/Jlique tl~ftl'¡I-¡/'Ool
rIIS af J93-l, dl':50igm·¡f b.l{ orfisi ¡\larie Ú1l/rl'Ilfill. UIlJike olller ¡\rl Deco sin'lIs. Lallft'lIfill's
r!flterenl
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icen'
II!lIl1istnknbly 1lers, {/lId her pnstt'!
pllh·fte ¡m5 iedJ SllÍted fo lJ/oderJII.' i¡¡ft'riors. L l].Sm/:HJfl lill.
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3 Pail/ter nl/d lfesigllrr Pnll/ lrilIC created this block-prillted fllbric for Amir!!' Groll/l ill 1911. A ,'('1'1/ t'ar/y exalllJl/e o/ [Jnrisinn Ar¡ Ot'(O,
roses
tl//' pnftl'rJI is cOi"'I"ed ¡pit/¡
t1ml an' /llore 't'a/íst;c mIli f/'s5 styli=ed tlum ;11 later nlUll~festafioJls oj lile slyJe, 4 Bn~l'd 011 n dl'Sigll 1'.'1 ti//;' rrl!llc/1 mdn/worker Edgnr 8ml/dt, Les Roses, tllis lextik ¡l'n~ lila,/¡' by CJ¡clley B~. oj 1\ lallelles/er, COJ/llccticut. Tf/cjabric. ¡1'Í//¡ if~ deJlseJy I"l'pen/t'd dl'Sign oj :>fy/b'd {lIId /l'f¡¡'('i.
/JIo~::oms, 1!'ollld IlIwe bcCII lI:>t'd
jo/" I/pllo/sk,.!!. 3
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5 A Ill'aNrLl$lmcl figllm/il'/' 1II0lij appl!nl"~ 011
6 Tite I'l"Omcnfi¡>r 11n1lciug s;rl figlfft'S 011 tite
DouaJd D¡'skey's gOlfadlc-nlld·gmplJi/e-ollpapel' dl'Sigll for /¡is 5inging \Vomen cn'1't'I, J93.2, nt Radio G/y A·lllsic Hnl1, ,\'eit' York. L. 1.0";'11//3/1 5ill.
Brifi~lt
designa Frnnk Dol~(m'5 1938
IlnI/¡H']ock priuted /jl/ell art' lillked l/y r;boolls. ,dúdll'ellO IIlár s/yfi=ed III1;r,
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Faunal and Figurative 1 Rllt1t Rec''-'t'j'j b/ock-printed
colton <'{'it'el ,m//lltlllgillg Figures "'ith 5till Lite. 1930, ¡{'as de,;igned for Ne.!' )'ork rdailer lV. & J. S/oolJe. el/bis' pai¡¡fings i¡¡spired R('('i't's. not slIrprisillgly. jillce sIl/! l/fId stwfied witfl Fel'lland Léger ill fllt' 1920S. HI 2-33111/7ft 7/ill. 2 Marioll Dom's SCI'!!l'II-pl'inted filien alld myOIl fabrico Aircraft. 1936. madI' by n,e Old Blenc/I Linell Ca., /~mJ(lalstO'('II, Nortlll'nt helando is 1I0t as simple as it lIIig1lt nI Jirst look. T/¡e paltem fcaflm's slyli:elf m.,iall figures accompmJielf by tlleir subtle. O'-'C'r/apJICd ~sJ",d()'I'~. ~
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3 Diana. 1930, mI embroidered p,md by tll.: Brili:J1 jfóigll~r Rebecca Cromploll,jc'atl/res a c1assical figure accolllptlllied by hOlllld, bird, al/d blossoms, a/l stroJlgly, 'Silllply Art Deco; ,('lIite orgnlldie opa grt'l'IIllI!ssinn. ,-dtll nppliqué of ¡¡¡!Jite COt!OIl, fillell. mrd mcta/lic bmid elllbroidaed ill ,('!lite COltOIl. L. -/-4.,clII/!7;1,ill. 4 Also Brit isll Al'/ Deco is F. Gregory Bro,('II'S roUer·prillted IIIl11amed ¡i/lel/fabric. 19.31. il'it11 a repea/ of leaping dccr amid ,;tyli:ed flora. lt
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n the 19th century and up until around 1920, most carpets vvere traditional oriental types, with border designs and fringe, and .M.iddle-Eastern motifs. But the 20th century saw more floor coverings, many vlrithout border patterns or fringed edges, being made in Britain, france, and Belgium. Square, round, and oval shapes, as well as the conventional rectangle, were produced, some with scalloped edges. Top Parisian designers were commissioned to create Art Deco rugs for specific rooms, such as Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann, Paul Follot, and Eileen Gray, who designed Aoor coverings with geometric, stylized Aoral and figurative, fountain, and other Art Oeco motifs. Many carpets, mostly asynunetrical designs, by Parisbased designer [van Da Silva Bruhns (1881-1980) ",ere commissioned rectangular pieces woven by the Savonnerie factory. Cubist-derived geometric motifs abound, but he also found inspiration in other cultures and art fom1S, notably those of Native America and Africa. In Britain three carpet designers stood Out: Arnericanboro Edward McKnight Kauffer, better knmvn for his
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graphic designs (see p.-l12); his wife, Marion Dorn (1900-64), in 1934 head of her own company specializing in custom-made rugs (see p.413); and Betty loel, who designed her 0\'1'11 furn.ihlfe and carpcts. The Russianborn architect-designer, Serge Chermayeff, in Britain during the 19205 and 19305, was an influence on carpet design as well as furniture. EIsewhere in Europe, Art Deco-style rugs were made by De Saedeleer in Belgium, notably rich abstract and geometric examples by Albert Van Hufle!. In America, Donald Deskey (189-1-1989) created pictorial and geometric carpets, induding round bathroom rugs with marine motifs, Cubist-inspired rectangular designs, and the 5i1zgilzg Womell carpet of 1932, an abstract design of wavy-tressed, open-mouthed vocalists for Radio City Music Hall. Ruth Reeves 0892-1966), a painter who had studied with Léger in Paris, also designed carpets in the Da Silva Bruhns mode (see p.415), and Scandinavianstyle hand-woven ntgs were made at the Cranbrook Academy 01 Art under Loja saarinen (1879-1968).
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French Geometric Inspiration
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iCLl()/ carpd. c-I930.fi.'tlflln';; ~f!,li:c.'d gt'Ol/Idric patft'''';;
ill
sl¡nlfcs of 1II1l//'·C. /11//1', alld Im/c grcc/1 1"l.';5{,rt't'd asaill"5f a tall grolllllf. L. :1'9,m/9ft gil/. 2 TIJe c. 19:17 gt'ollldl'ic-J'affal/t:lf s/lnllfllllg fabric crt'ated l'y tlie
l/km i11 in ¡ l-bor 11 nrtist-desi::; Ila SOllin Of'!ml!lay hSSj-1g79) ¡m;; caUed Simu1t
hl'r Pnris ntf'!ia nnd !ler I~01/liqlle ni tlle 1925 Exposilic)JI ("Sillll//talleisllI" ¡I'as a/so al/otlll'r l/(llllt' {or OlpllisllI, t/le pnillfillg st!!/{' nSS
111 tJze
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tht' JJroli{k SOl/i,;
De/mil/ay :;:m5 Ill':'f klltlwII for ha "ii'id/y /llIed. gt'olJlt'friefiIS/lioll. textiles, ami i/lft'rior dl'S-i<;!l/s. ,
3 knn Dn Si/t'n 8rlfl111s's c-1930 carJ't'l is (l'(l¡:'¡'II ill
cartll fOlies. Likt' II/nllY olfla j100r eo,willgs of thc pcriOtf by t1lis, tlle most prolifie o[ Art
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1l1e variet)' of Art Oeco motifs it "'as possible lo reproduce on fabr¡es, textiles, tapestries, (lnd waH hangings cncompassed \'irtually the entire repertoire: floral, figurative, faunal, aguanc, geomeh"ic, and, in America, skyscrapers. Not surprisingly, clIsembliers sueh as RuhlmaIm and Donald Deskey designed fabrics and textiles, but thcre were others known primari1y for their textiJe designs, notably Edouard Bénédictus (187&-1930). Floral forms and more complex figurati\'e designs predominated on the finest fabrics, but Modernist pattems "'ere produced as well, like Eric Bagge's 1929 L'Ornge (the storm), a block-printed Unen ",ith stylized lightning bolts and Q\"erlapping scallop-Iikc clouds. The couturier Paul Poiret's Atelier Martine created attractive floral fabrics, and Paul Iribe designed a printed fabric for André Grolllt in 1911, \Vith masses of stylized roses. Allbusson tapestries, both hangings and coyerings (or fllrniture, \Vere decorated \Vith rich figllranve designs, as \Vere Beauvais factor), \Vorks. Many Raoul Ou.f)' designs \Vere prodllced by both manufactllrers.
ln the United States, some French-inspired fabrics, in rayan as well as silk and other materials, ",ere prodllced by manlúacturers stlch as F. schwnacher and Chency Sros. TIle lattcr's Les Roses was based on Edgar Brandt's ironwork, but other floral designs \Vere livel.ier, less sophisncated, and more I/Iodeme. A wliquely American theme, urban life, appeared on some fabrics, among them Ruth Ree\'es's MnJlllntlnJl of 1930 (see pA13), a printed cotton made by \'\'. & J. SIDa ne. Other indigenotls American motifs fOlmd on fabric5 \Vere plants of thc Sollth,,-est, sUdl as cacti and aloes, and Native American floral and falmal manfs. In Britain, too, a \Vide array of French-inspired, as weH as wholly distincnve and unique, Art Oeco fabrics \Vere made. 5tylized a\'ian themes were depicted on, among other examples, Marion Dom's Aircraft, 1936, a screen-printed linen and rayan whose o\'erlapping pattcrns made by four birds take on a magical look. Other animals and hllmans also figured on a host of British fabric5.
British and Belgian Geometric 1 T/¡i:;. lIiSIJly killt'tic SCI'l'c?II-l'l'illted coffOJl rllld ral(On - .(nllr;e ,{'a:; dcsio,tllt'd VI' H.f. Bl//J IJlld ml1d" b!, Alfml Tt'xti/t's o/ LvI/do/l. i1l1932. U:: ~.
n!pt"llt ol dingolllJf stripe:; nl/d IIIt'nJ¡dl>riJlg ll(/Jlds is I1nrd-ellgt'lf. "¡\Jacllillt'-ASt" Deco. all1!'Í1 ~ft('lll'd by il:: ('nrl11 101U'$ of br¡l¡I'II. rllss('/ mi. l/I/lllwi~t'. , L 2.:n"'fift . -lill. 2 n,e Brit;::!1 ft'xlilt· ¡1¡'$igl/er alld ,¡'/'ntw Alt'c HUIIler des('i{lIt'.i llli::.fal1ric. Brainlree ;'\0. 5, madt-11Y \\lamer & Sal/s 0/8rnilltn'(', [::x'x. OI ¡¡'O<'t'1I co/lOIl. (oUOu giml'. ami ill!t' dalllllsk. tI't' IIIl1teril1lll11:, 11 dl.'lISt? pnftt'm of gl'omt'fric mot!f:'. 3 l\'ifl/11 :,impk s<'Omdric JllIltem I1l1d ::IIMl/l'd pl1/dh'. tlli:, h'xlih' :'tlIllJ'/e il'l1:: dt'~igl/t'dfor Beft.1/ Jod Lttl, (.1930. TI/t' 111111111sk III11tcril11 i;: iCQi:'t'll in lmff .. colloll 'l'ilI1 01"111/'('1' , H'ooll1nd .t'!';/t> ::ifk il'C.(t. L. 1.31111/~fl -lino 4 TJ¡is i:: I1l10tlu'/" A/"I 01'((1 dl1l11l1;:k ftoxfik de:5iglll'lll1l1d il'Oi'l!II for Bdty Jvd LM. (.1930. TI/(' g<'olllelric pl1l/t'm (JlIlf/(' Mm' coftolll1lld yl'110w siJkfl1bric;s /'id,,'r I1lld more cOlI/l'kx t/um t/1I11 oftht'of!/('r Itld Il!xtik L. 2.7-lm/9ft·
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5 Resemblillg n :ig:ng 11117:(', /lIis Be/ginl! rug, Remous (l'ddils), 01" Les Fleurs Irisées sur l'Eau (iridcscenl jlOiI'CrS 011 fhe water) ¡ms by Albert
Valr Huffd. 1925, (lllri
WOI'l'1l
by tlle De 5ncde1eer
-----------------------------_.Mass-Produced Wares and Industrial Design Metalwork, Plastic, Glass, and China
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1 Rockil'cll Kell/ desiglled /11;5 cf¡nlllpngne cooler, llIadl.' by CItase Bmss & Carpa o/ I'\'nterbury, COll!ll!ctiCllt, 19305. Its flllis/¡ is nI! (IIrOlllilllll, ils ¡I/otij n YOIIJlg BI1Cc/l1I5 11111001g
grapes. Ht 23.5clII!9'bll. 2 The Art Deco cocktail slU/ka [!'aS avai/ab!e ill balll sih'er l1!1d illexpeJlsipc meta/s. TIJis si!I'erplated slwkcr, ClIp:;;, nlld trny wt're desiglled ill lhe cady 19305 by Lurelle Gllí/dfor file lntemntíolln/ Sih'er Co. 01 Meriden, COllllecticllt. Cocktail slwker 11/ 40CIII/15'/.,;II. 3 By C/U/se Brass & Capper, this cllrolJledlIIetal, plllstic, ami laminate tour-piece coffee seruice ,!'aS part o/ ti/á,. Specialty Jine, 1930-6. Coffee l/f/1 lIt pcm/12ill.
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4 Tllis pni!1fed meta! typewriter-ribboll box is (/ filie eXl7l11ple 01 mass-produced American Art Oeco. A /caslied grl'yholllld, sYlllvo/ic of speed. appears Oll the lid. Oimll. 6.5clII/l'lill. 1
5 Nlany 1930S [adies' powder compacts ¡¡rere veautifll/ly desiglled (/lid engilleered prodllcts ill lile Arf Oeco style. Tllis enan/el/ed-JIIefa/ e.mlllp/e, by industrial desiglle/" Robert L. Leol/ard for Valltille, is eIIgrm'ed
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esigning for industry readled dizzying proportions in the Art Deco periodo üther than ceramics and metahvare, many types oE mass-produced objects Eeatured Art Deco designs. Decorative po\Vder compacts, Eor example, were made in huge numbers between the \Vars. Fine jewellers such as Cartier and Boucheron created exquisite gold and bejewelled compacts, but there \Vere also cosmetic containers oE base metal- enamelled metal, \Vood, plastic, and other inexpensive materials manufactured in the thousands by makers such as Evans, Volupté, and Elgin (in America), and Stratton (in Britain). Sorne of these, as ,,,'eH as related cigarette cases, were as expertIy produced as the most precious Art Deco objects. Numerous JJlodeme plastic objects, made oE a wide variety oE this relatively new material (Lucite, celluloid, Catalin, Bakelite, and casein, among other types and trademark na mes), ''''ere produced. Radio cases; dressing table, smoking, and desk accessories; and bowls, lnmp bases, tri.nket boxes, and other mostly small useful objects were made oE plastic and featured geometric, stylized
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floral or figurative; or streamline-JJlodeme motifs. In Britain, especially, much early plastic was colourfully mottled, speckled, or streaked. Glass-fronted table radios oE the 19305 are among the most striking and significant examples of American industrial design of the time. Walter Dor\Vin Teague's ModelS17 has a rOlmd front fa~ade ofblue mirrored-gIass and chromium-plated metal. Besides these glass models, mention should be made of the various strearnlined and Modemist designs in plastic, metal- and, less so, wood. These indude Harold van Doren and John Cardan Rideout's Air-King radio, and Norman Bel Geddes's 1940 Pntriot Aristocrnt 400 for Emerson. Then there are those objects whose makers are u.nknown or anonymous; Eor instance, a series oE American drromed-metaL glass, and wooden rectangular trays. These 19305 Jaz: Modern (as a paper label on the back of one reads) trays sport bold geometric designs in deep red, bIack, and cream that have been silk-screened on the reverse of the glass.
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6 Harold pnll Doren muf ,o/m Gordoll Ridl.'oIlf Crt.'llf¡;d this 1930-3 skyscmper-illjlllt'nced radio for Air-Killg Prodllcts of BrooklYIl, N,'lI' York. /linde of Plnskol1, I1Il.'1nl, alld g/as:>. Ht 30(1II/11:;;¡II, 7 Esleclllcd industrial designe,. Walter Dont'ill Tengue crented l'vlodel 517, n bllle mirroredglass, chromil/l11-plnted //Idal, (lnd woad mdio, for the Spartoll CorpomtiO!I, MicJligal1, 1934-6. 8 AII elegnnt plnti/lll111 geol11elric desig!1 mI a Cl"l'all1 gr01/J/d adOnis the C0I1111lHllity ClIi1/a pnUcm Deauville, 1!/fldc íll a Bailaríal1 factor!! for the New York Slafebased 011eida com/l/ul1íly, 19305. Thc l11atc1u"l1g C0I/111111l1ily Plate flnttoare nlso fentll1'C5 a geometric de::;igll, íl1 this case al t!le e11d of ench piece's !1tJl/dle. Di!111e1" plale
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dia1!1.25·5 C1 !1/lOil1. 9 Tlle New York IVorld's Fair of 1939~40 spmi'!1ed t/¡01lsands of prod1lcts cdebmlíllg the exhíbitíOI1 alld its aftmctiolls. Thís dríllkillg glass fea/1Ires a Imllsfer design depiclillg the COl/rl of Slates pm,ilion. Ht 11.5C111/4/'íl1.
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Made íl1 BrooklYIl, New York. t!lis c/II"01l1eplated metal alld reversc-pnillled-g/ass Jazz
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Modern fray, C.1934-j, is un olllsfulldillg
exnll1ple of I1Il1ss-produced "Machille-Age" America/l Arl Drco. L. 45-5CIII/18ill.
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(Inri bll/e COIOll1"S of lIJe 1939-40 Ne¡¡¡ York !'I,'orld's Fair, p/astic 5(/11filld-pepper slIakers lakc fIJe sllnpe5 of lIJe exhibítion's siglUltllre structllres, ¡he Tryloll IJIld Perispllere. Ht 9CI1I!J'!,i,I. ornllge
37
Modernism Furniture 382 European 382
Scandinavian 386
American 388 British 392
Ceramies 396 8rttish 396 European 398 American 400
The theory of modern design was deliberately simple as a response to the growing complexity of the world. Modernist objects look very different to those that came immediately befare them: they have no ornament and no overt reference to historical style and they tend to emphasize materials and processes of constructing. Modernist designers aimed to use industrial processes to create objects with integrity that simplified and dramatized everyday Iife.
Glass 402 British 402
European 404 American 408
Silver and Metalwork 410 Textiles 412 Industrial Design 416 Lighting 418
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he architect Le Corbusier, growmg IIp in Switzerland in the early years of the 20th century, was introduceci to the writings of John Ruskin and held them in considerable reverence, not least beca use of the link they made between art and the moral condition of society. His work passed through él romantic nationalist stage, which infiuenced the villas designed by him around the age of twenty, \vith carved and painted ornament representing the pine crees of the Suisse Romande. Travelling and seeing more of the world, he learnt new v1lays of absorbing the great works of the past, not as tcxt-book examples of historie styles, but as sources of a more generalizcd inspiration. In his knowiedge ;md awareness of history, Le Corbusier was typical of the first generation of modern designers. Even those who consciously declared a break with the past were often in search of a valid equivalent to ancient buildings and objects. Unlike their immediate predecessors, however, they believed that direct imitation produced the husk of the living objects of the past. but lost the lile itself. Many of the pioneers of Modernism had, like Le Corbusier, lived through the periad af Art Nouveau, but found it offered the wrong answer to the long-recognized problems. It was too obtrusive and attention-seeking. The extraordinary technical advances of the late 19th and early 20th centuries provided a challenge to create a ne'" form of Modernism: electric light, telephones, motor cars and, finally, powered flight. These found expression in German industrial design befare 191-1:, as weU as in the Art Deco of the 19205, but the social conditions in Eurape after the First World War added the impulse necessary to the realization of Modernism in its familiar form. Thcre was much that was straightforward about Modernism. In Germany during the Weimar Republic (1918-33), a majar and overdue reconstruction progranune was carried out with the same thorouglmess that had characterizcd thc rise of Gem1an industrialism fifty years earlier. The ghosts of the national past were suppressed - too thorough.ly for the Conservatives, wha
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geometrk/l/ jforms applied lo tite Imll/nll /JOOII- sllOw tlle fllleaS!1rt!l/ltiolls/lip /Jetwl!l!ll 1IU1lllllld II/nl:hille ill Modcmislll, /Jut a sensc of IIIIIIIOI/r /llld joie de v¡vre (1/::0 eDil//' /lcross clea,.I!!.
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2 Modem desigll reflected a CIllt oj Ih" leallmld /wa/tlly body betwt'l'Il ¡IJe ,('(1/"5. Tlle Ma55ngc RooJll ni fin! HOll,;c of Aflnlltis il/ 81"1.'1I1t'11, Gel"llIl1IlY, 1931, 5/1O¡('S Ihe quest jor I/IC body bl.'(llItiflll. 3llldllslria/ Designl!r's OffiCl! by RaYlllolld LOe¡IIY alld Lel.' 5i1ll0l15011, exllibited ni ¡he Metropolitnlllvl//sf!I/II1 o[ Arl, Netl' York. ill 193';'. T/le enr ncts ns n fOClIs for tIJe slEil/il/g strl.'mll/illed flft IIre, 4 Are1liteeture redlleed fo lu.mriOllS cssentia/s: tlle Gemu/II Pm,ilioll, desigl/cd by Mies mil del' RO/le, <1'itlI/JÍs Barcelona cfll1ir al/d stools nI 1111.' 1929 Barcelol/a IutemafiOllal Ex/libitioll (se,'/1 Itere in tlle <'Crsioll recolIslmcled in ti/e 19805).
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brought them back with a vengeance under National Socialism after 1933. The housing prograrnme in Frankfurt showed the rest of the ",orld ha\\' architecture, design research, and a commitment to social improvement could crea te an image cf paradise, although this proved to be short lived. In Swed.en in the 19305, the Co-Operative movement offered a newly urbanized popuJation well-designed material goods at affordable prices, to be placed in hames that may have been small, but which always provided outdoor playing space for adults and children. Modernism's mi5si~n to serve the mass of the population \Vas seldom so simple, however. The correlation between functional-looking design and effective operanon \Vas sometirnes rather loase. Un-designed objects could work just as weU, ",hile design could become selfseeking and purely aesthetic even under the excuse of function. Many objects scarcely needed the attention of a designer, as the early Modernists shO\ved in their CldmirCltion for deck chairs, indushial glassware, and other "found objects." While mClny designers could subscribe in theory to the availability of high-quality products for the greCltest
number, they soon discovered that the materials and craftsmanship needed to sustain quality were too expensive far realizing this aim. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona chair (p.382), originally produced in 1929 as a throne for the King and Queen of Spain visiting the German Pavilion at the Internatianal Exhibition in Barcelona, has never been a cheap object, Cllthough it \Vas adopted in the 1930s and 19605 as one of the earliest icons of Modernism. There \Vas an evangelical aspect to Modernism, promoted by the Museum of Modero Art in Ne\V York and later by the Design Council in Britain, that invited disobedience, ",hile, for many people, the fine distinction between good and bad objects was simply incomprehensible. Modemism had an ambiguous relationship to the professional industrial designer. In the early days of the movement, there \Vere fe\V opporhmities far professional designers to train or practise. They tended to be overbllrdened \vith knowledge of historical styles rather than having a fresh creative vision. It \Vas therefore assumed that outsiders, sllch as architects or artists, might be better able to develop original ideas for products of all kinds. TIlere \Vere plenty of historical precedents for crossing
over from one field to another, but Modernism brought a new fonnal language based on abstract art and a ne\\' sense of socialllrgency in the aftermath of the First World War. TIle Ballhaus schoo1, fOlUlded in 1919, introdllced a re-srructuring of design expertise based on a combination of workshop skills with abstract formal experimcnt, in place of the narrower vocational fraining of the past. lllC role of the architect was re-i!"l! lo l1:-S0cinle desígl1 witll "1I/llSCII/ i /le" Fa IHL'S ol rn 1iOlla 1i ty is SCL'1I íl1 t!lis page frOIll n prolllolionn/ brochul'l.', by úis:::ló Moho/y-Nas!!, lOI" Alal"ce! 8rcut'I"'s IOllg e/mirlor tI!t' lsokoll COmpml}/, 1936. Tlu! lJIo(lt>m /l/mI takt's li1l/('
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él similar ambi\'a1ence, finding some of its most effective manifestations of Modernism in the corporate design style oE the London UndergrOLmd system, the apparently consen'ative re-styling oE TI/e Tillles newspaper in 1932, and a ne'" light-heartedness which entcred the expression of national identity in the British Pavilion at the París Exhibition of 1937. After the war, despite an apparent propaganda \"ictory over reproduction styles, the social mission of Modemism became increasingly lost in the world of capitalist expansion, advertising, élnd obsolescence, fmm which it has never hl11y re-emerged, while the communist countries prodllced only kitsch. The story of modern design llsed to be told in oversimplified lerms, as a search for some promised Jand of platonically perfect forms, where the purificatioll of th.e eyes would achieve a similar purification of the soul. MorC""recently, Modernist design has been presented as a response to specific culhlral and political conditions. Modentist objects that attempted to rid themselves of narrative and :Symbolism have acqllired other values relating to status and what the French sociologlst Pierrc Bomdieu has called "social capital:" the knowledge that by o\Vlting a particular thing, you wi11 present yourself to the ",orld as a superior persono Seen through tltis lens of additional meaning during the last 30 years, the "classic" objects of Modernism have effectively been incorporated within Post-modentism. Modernism's attempt to connect the material and social worlds is l1''IOst apparent today in th.e Green movement, wltich holds that absence of objects can be as valllable to achieving its goals as their presence.
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sl!!t'¡ (lJId tt'GOd, 89, ,¡'aS prodllud by TIIO/lct, 1925-6, fllld by Standard MOl't'1. 1928-9. Ht +4.jCIIl/J¡¡/jll. 2 Brel/er's 7/10IIet sirle clmir 832 of 1928. il'itlt /l/bufor stee/. ,,'OOd (lIld cmll.', i5 Dile o/ tf/c lIIosf iL'idespn'fld fll/lll'lIflllrillg lIlodl'nJ classics. I/sillg thl' Ctlllti/et.'er pri/lcipll'. Afll'r 196o. t/lis 11esigll .t'as markl'led as lIle Cesca cfmir, Iltlmed tlfter Brwer's dallghler. Ht Socm/31/ill. tllVllltlr
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3 BTI."lIer's Club arme/mir. ill tI/biliar MeeJ alld fabric. ei.'oh>ed from afír5t ¡wsioll ill 1925 to ne/¡jet.'e a definitii.'e form in J 927-8. Afier 1960. it lf'ITS II/arkt!fed as the Wassily chair by Gm,jna of Bo/agua. HI 72cm/lSI.iIl. 4 Afies ¡'all der Rohe original/y desígl1ed llie stee! alld katllcr Bmo chaír for I/l/:' TI/gend/mt }101I5e íll 11l/: C:ecll city. in 1930. T/le sliallo¡¡' ClIrl'e 01 t/¡caTnI allo¡:t'f'Ii tlle c1mir lo ll¡;' Pl/l/ed l/p clase to 1111' table. HI 79Ci1I/31ill.
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5 TI1/! MR533 ciUlir by Alies ¡'all der Ro/u!, 1927. ;:; lIotallle jor ti/e ¡l/1I (1m'!? oj t/11! stee! ¡mllle ill ¡rOIl! 01 tlle clmir, (lIId tite clloice oj ,1'OVCI/ calle as {/ s('alil/g ma/erinl. Ht SOCII1/31'!iIl, W. 53CIII12 1 iJl. 6 Tile MR9Q Barcelona cimil" by Mies "mI del" RolIe wa5 cOllct!ir'I.'(/ fOl" t11C Baree/olln Exhibitioll ill1919 fllld IIIflmifac/urt'd nfterwllrds by Tilol/d. The Cl'ossed legs imitate t11l: (Illcicut Cn.'l.'k klismos e/mir. HI 73clII/24'1;11.
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Tubular Steel in France 1 L: Corllllsia ami Clmrlofte Perrin¡¡d's Ffluteuil Grand Confort Le3, 1928-9. is bnsed 01/ picas by lite Britisl¡ fir/ll Mnple's, fllld nrimin.'d for ils cOl/tms! ¡¡lif1l
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3 TIII' Siege Tournante by Le Corbllsier rmd Pt'rrirmd ¡I'IIS for ¡he o..ffice. Le Corbl/sier /¡e/d tlml offia f"misl/illgs it'Crl' I ru/y modl'rJI prodllcts 01 fhe time, il('illg l/1I-seljCOIISciol/s exprt?'SsiOlJ5 DI cfficil'llcy. Ht ilcm/28ilJ.
4 Noil' I1l11ooem c/l1ssic. Ihe Chaise 13asculant Lel. 191¡-8. ClllpI1l15;=6 Ihe SI..¡.mmf.· artiCll/atioll al i/s parts. 1111.' dlroll/cjmll/I.'d rocker cml ll{' positiolll"lf 0/1 t/u.' sled Imse as n:qllircd. HI I3CIll/lS!.ill. /.1.,6111/jft 1 'Iill.
he history of Modernist furniture began with industrialization in the 19th century, particularly \Vith the firm founded in 1819 by Michael Thonet. The bentwood chairs \Vith calle or ply\Vood seats, used in cafés and restaurants, that \Vere produced by his sons after 1850, were d1eap to make and lightweight in use, and un\Vittingly achieved the kind of anonymous look that became popular after 1900 in reaction against the more elaborate kind of Art Nouveau in Europe. ll1e Thonet company went on in the 19205 to make tubular steel furnihlre after thc prototypes of Marcel Breuer (1902-81) and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969), and these designs \Vere imitated and adapted in Britain and America. Breuer was the author of several classics of modern design that are still in production. His first experiments \Vere carried out as a srudent, and then master, at the Bauhaus sehool in Gcnnany in the mid-1920s, where he abandoned a hand-made \Vooden look and got a local craftsman to bend tubing manufactured for bicycles.
Breuer's \'\'nssily arrnchair, 1923, \Vith Ieather seat and arms, is like a skeletal diagram of a chair, ",hile his 8]2 side chair, with \Vood and cane panels, can now be bought in a flat-pack kit. l'vlies van der Rohe's Bnrcelolln chaír, 1929, is equally well known, but was never designed to be cheap. Like much Modernist furniture, it derives from classical antiquity with its klislllos-style crossed legs. It shares a look of relaxed conúort with rus 1927 side chair in tubular steel and leather. Thc Swiss architect Le Corbllsier (1887-1963), an enthllsiast far Thonet furniture in the early 19205, \vanted to escape from the luxury one-off character of French fum..iture exemplified in the 1925 exhibition of Arts Décoratifs. He was influenced bv Breuer and Mies, and " worked \\"ith Charlotte Perriand (1903-99) to produce a range of furniture including the Grnlld COIifort Le] club armchair, 1928-9, based on the well-stuffed masculine furniturc of the English firm Maple's, and thc C"nise BaswlnJlf LC4 recliner, 1927-8.
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De Stijl and its Influence 1 End Table, 1923. ;1/ pnillfé'il u'OOd, by lIJe DI/ldl designa Gerril Ríl'ti.'t'ld. dl'llIOllslmfes
bis gt'OlIIetrical i/H'elltii.'l'lless. Hl 61.jCm/2-ll.ill. 2 Rieh'dd's Red/Blue c1lair
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sfrii'ed fol'. SlIrprisillgly. il is /llore comfortable t/lnll il /ooh. Ht 8¡cm/34-'Iill. 3 Rietl't'ld's Iejt-Jlfllld Berlín Chaie 1923. de.:t'1ops l/Ís forlllul /al/gl/age t/lrollgh Ih", lIS.lflllllldry ol tlle arms. sen!. nlld bnck.
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he phrase '1ess is more" \Vas coined by Mies van der Rohe, and applies to Modernism generally. Gerrit Rietveld (1888-1964), \Vorking in Holland, \Vas inspired by Frank Lloyd Wright's simple straight lines in timber furnitlrre befare 1914 to carry the process further. Timber \Vas his favourite material, and he aimed for simplicity of construction by using sawn sections and nailed joints, at a time \Vhen conventional furniture \Vas abandoning much oE its craft basis, but trying to hide the loss of \Vorkmanship behind "traditional" styling. The overhanging ends at the junctions became the aesthetic signature oE Rietveld's designs for simple household pieces. Most famous was his Red/BllIe chair, first produced in plain ",ood in 1917-18, at a time of great poverty and deprivation in HolJand after the First \Vodd "Var, and la ter painted in primary colours, following the principies of the De Stijl group of artists and designers. Modern designers in the 1920s \Vere inspired by lightweight folding furnihrre made for use on board
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ships, in the army, or on safari. ll1ese pieces could be bought from department stores rather than through the normal furnishing trade, and broke a]] the rules of deconlm and craftsmanship beca use they were meant for use outside the home. The fo]ding deck chair known as él Trnllsnthllltiq//e was the inspiration for the TI"111lsnt chair, 1925-30, by the architect-designer Eileen Gray (1878-1976), \Vith its wooden frame, slung padded seat. and adjustable back. It represents the apparent paradox in Modemism, that less effort produces better design, for it fulfils all its functional requirements while alsa ha\'ing an elegance and personality which are hard to pin down in \\·ords. Eileen Gray's furniture was ne\'er mass produced. Born in Ireland, she spent most of her life in France, developing from producing Art Deco lacquer hUTlihlre to",ards a distinctive form of Modemism in the interiors far which her pieces "'ere originany devised. At the end of her long life, her work \Vas rediscovered and celebratcd, and reproductions of her pieces are "'idely avai]able.
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,('ns II/!i:'cr prod1/ced 111 qumltily dllrillg ¡he designer's lifetiml!, bu/ has become a moden¡ classic o,pillg lo ils visual rllld COI/sI /"l/cf ¡olla1 illgmu i Iy. 2 Gmy's Transat elw;r, 1925-3°, Inkl.'s ils Ilall/e JrOIll ¡he Transatlantique, n forlll of clmir
l/sed 0/1 tlle decks %cenll-goillg liller;;. TJ¡e slrnigllf lilles o/ ¡lIe il'oorieJl ¡mllle coJltrast with 1/¡(' In:y ClIn'l! of lile seat. Ht ]JclII/28I.ill, ;:l'.5'¡'Clllbl~ill.
3 TIIefoldillg block screeJl by Eilcm Grm¡, C.192j, is aH l'.tIlmple 01 n simple iden rigoTollslyapplieli. TlIe facqllered it'OOdell JllIlle/s, n re/11m lo /JeT
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4 TlIe E.1027 laMi', 1926-9, ;¡,as orighm/ly dl'SigIlL>rl Jor Grny's 0<1'11 ¡filia of lIle same /fal/u'. TI,;s desigll l¡as beell wide/y reprodllud sillu lile mfiseOl'C,.y ofCray':; il'Ork ill Ibe J9,05 nI tI/l.' mil of lit'" 10llg Jife. HI 6::!CIII/2.¡.!:ill. 5 Cray's ~fn. ]926-9, i5 '!fllienJ of hel" n/,ility to II/nke a simple ¡'iSlIn/ idl.'a illlo a pert'llllial/y sati~~/illg pil!ee ofjlll"llitllre, ill ¡I'hicll f'metioll i5 lIeitllcr obtyed (1:> a /IIa:;ter, IIVI" dmied as a t!tralll, but plnys n dl/cl
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odem furniture in Scandinavia forms an important strand in inter-war history. AIl the Nordic countries had a strong design culture during this penod, \vith a special knowledge and love of til11ber. COl11pared to the hard sl1100th surfaces of Gerl11an, French, or Dutch Modernism, designers in Sweden, Finland, and Denmark aimed for softer effects in material and colour, although their best pieces \Vere no less rigorous in eliminating visually confusing or redWldant construction. The most famous representative of these trends is the Finnish architeel Alvar Aallo (1898-1976). In 1933 he patented a method for bending plywood. under steam, and developed a senes of chairs, stoo15, and tables whose simple construction belies a precise understanding of visual balance, often enhanced by spray-painted finishes in colour. Aalto's furniture was and still is marketed successfully in many countries by the Artek company that he established in 1935. The Swedish designer Bruno Mathsson (1907-88) was 27 years old when he designcd the Eva chair, vvith its
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4 Aalto's tro/Jey for food 01' dri/lk of 193j--6 show$ I,ow tlle L'llrlier age of domcstic service ¡¡'as givillg way lo a I/ew simplicity of middlee/ass lijesty/e, ¡vltere e/egmlce was still va/ued. Ht 6ocm/23V,itl,
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frame of salid bent beech wood and woven webbing seat, using material that in conventional furniture would be hidden with padding and fabriCo Such simplicity comes \'\'ith inherent hazards, although perhaps accidental drink spills that could ruin th..is chair are less disastrous in ti beer-drinking country than a red-'wine drinking one. Wilh the Dane Kaare Klinl (1888-1954), the perfectionism ofScandinavian design reached a peak. His pieces are simple in appcarance, but most do not aUow for mass production, requiring a careful choice of timber, like his folding lable and beauhfully sculpted folding stool of 1930. Mogens Koeh (1898-1992), trained as an arehitect but became a designer for a wide range of fumiture, textiles, and silver. His folding Sajar; chair of 1938 resembles Klint's stool and is similarly beautifully detailed. K1int also produced a version of the Sajar; chair in 1933, a type originally designed to collapse and pack into a bag for intrepid travellers who \vished to recline in comfort when they set up campo Le Corbusier and Em6 Goldfinger wcre also influenced by tllis original model.
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DI adaptiug IlIlOllYIIlOllS producfs fo a quiet perfectioll fypicnl of Dnllis/l designo Aspects of file Safari chair (cnnvns sllpports alld lenfher arm slraps) are combilled wifJ¡ file idea of Ihe loldillg Direclor's e1mir wil/¡ exquisife atfenlion lo defai/. Hf S7cm/34'!.ill. 10 BrlllIO Mat!lssol/'s Eva e1/(/il~ 1934, s/¡ows file il1dependellce 01 modem Scalldinaviall desigll alld its alfenfioll fo lite p/easures of tOl/e/1 as well as sig!lf.
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L1
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Hf 83.5C111/]21.il1.
11 Matltssoll produced a ligll! callDas I01l!lge versioll
ofEva,
C.1938, ac/úeving t!le same pll1"ity
of visible cOllstrucfioll. NI8¡cm!34'Ü1l·
11
3:
American Furniture Early Exponents of Modernism
2 Deprl!5siol/-be't1liJl:~ desk by Fral/kl. C.1930, ¡l'i111 a red /acqller fluis/J. c/lromillm-pfnled stce! /I{/IIds, fllld brusllcd c/lromilllll /mlldfes. Ht ¡8.5cm/3úll.
2 ~
3 A simple stnlelllelll by Gilbert Rol/de in a cltest o/ dmwers,
::¡¡¡: en
1933-4, empilnsi=.illg asymllletry ill file p/ncillg 01 ¡ile l/{ludles,
-z
c: w
e o ::¡¡¡:
and playi1/g wifll n two-Iolle CO/Ol//'
cOlIll'l1sf. I-If 91.5C111/36ill.
1
1 rile 5kyscraper chest of drtJwl'rs, 1927, by P(11// Fnmkl ,1'115 (l/I car/!! eXf1/11p/e oI AmcricnlJ ¡\ lodemislII, represelltath'c 01 fhe AustrÍfm-
LlQrJ/ desigller's entdlY adapta/ion 01 {/ typiclllly Alllericnll idiolll. Ht 111111/5!1 ¡/ill.
l' ¡\ fter the First Warld "Var," wrote Dianne Pilgrirn in
.L\. rile MacJúIle Age ill AJIlerica (1988), "the decorative arts feU into a deep sleep of ignorance where machine-
made copies of previous styles and periods reigned
388
supreme." Despite the inspiration of Gusta\' Stickley and Frank Lloyd \'Vright from aroll1d 1900, American modern design was re-invented. at the end of the 19205 on the basis of Freneh and Cerman examples. The designer Paul Frankl (1887-1958), who carne to New York from Austria in 1914, saw the importanee of \Vright and was one of the few designers to pioneer Modernism in the 19205, especially with ms Skyscrnper-style fumiture, in wmeh vertical elements of different heights are c1ustered together. Art Deco in concept, the skyseraper style \Vas gradually simplified and refined by Frank.1. It was a proeess similar to the transition in popular musie from the angularity of 1920s jazz to the smoother sOllnd and rhythms of swing. The tréll1sition in design style around 1930, against the baekgrolUld of the Depression, can be seen in the
U.lCreasingly horizontal emphasis of fumiture design, similar to European Modemism, but often w1derscored with lines of chrome, or hmctional elements like the handIes on the chest of drawers of 1933--1 by Gilbert Rohde (1894-19+1). Donald Deskey (1894-1989) made the transition from luxury one-off pieces to designing for mass produetion for eompanies slleh as the Ypsilanti Reed Furniture Ca. in Miehigan, the centre of American huniture produetion. Here, se\"eral business failures in the Depression, combined with a shortage of timber, prompted a rethink of poliey, where pre\'iously reproduction styles had reigned supreme. As Deskey wrote in 1933: "The financial crisis which America is at present experiencing has so reduced the nwnber of new buildings and products that ead1 can receive more eareh¡J eonsideration from c\'ery point of view." The development of Modern..ism against a background oE social questioning was aecompanied by mueh discussion, in \vhich the goals \Vere effieiency, beauty, and economy, rather than "false style stimulation."
4 DOllald Deskey, matchillg cllests of drnwcrs ill ;vIIi/e JlOlly vencer, 193J-j,for Estey Mmlllfactllri'lg, Mielligtln. AIl accomplislled design ill ti popular Modemist mooe of aP1Jlied strip Jml/dles. Ht 82.jCm/pin, l. J .12m/3ft 7'/,ill.
5 RoMe's desk
tlle Troy SI/lls/mde CompallY of Troy, Ollio, i" 193.¡., takil/g IIp ami /l/ixillg Modemist lIIotifs witl, ¡pit al/rl sty/e. Ht iJ.jCm!29ill. 6 Deskey's l/pllols/ered n/lImillium sirle elmir for tlle /Jenllty pnrlollr of tlle Brookly" departmcllt store, Abrnlmm & StrnllS, 1929-3°, mnde bl/ tl,e )'psilallti RlWi FlImitllTl' Co., looks d(-:;.iglled for Itl'flP!fil't'ight l/se. Ht 7'¡'.9C111/29/i1l. 7 5kyscraper ~idc fnble/vmlity I by Kcm Weber, 1928-<). A \ olle-off desigll for a elient, tI,;s strikillg pica sfood ll('l
31
,
Streamlining and Curves
w
-
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:z ce: w
el
o
:lE
1 Beta chair desigl1cd ill 1930 for ¡!le HOiVel/ Company oj GeIlCVI7, /lIinois, by Na/llIlII GeOlge HOl"witt, SllOWillg lhe stllrdy rmd curvnceolls c!rnmcter of tubular sted jllmilllre in America. Ht 6oclII/23'!in.
2 Kt'lII I'Vellt'r's mlli!y alld
slool, 1934,101' tlle Uoyrl Mml1ljnctllrillg Company, MCllomillee, Michig(lI1, ¡lidientes }lOiI' strollgly ¡lIe Arl Deco chnmcterislics of
decomticm persisted iu American ModcmislII. Vnllity /It 1.39111/4/1 7;11;
slool lIt 44. jcm/t ¡'1in.
390
-
Streamlining became a speciality of the newly emerging industrial design profession in America and its prominent practitioners, such as Rayrnond Lo€\\')' and Walter Dorvvin Teague. While the results are enjoyable, they replaced the earnest search fer moral and visual integrity in European design v,rith a more superficial trnderstanding of Modernism. Even Frank Lloyd Wright himself, in his office furnihue for the Johnson 'vVax building at Raci..ne, Wisconsin (1936-9L adopted, with typical origina lity, sorne of the characteristics of streamlining. American streamlined furniture often emphasizes the weight and volume of seat cushion5, even when they are supported by chrome tubing or a wooden frame. This is combined \·vith a preference for raking angles, \",hereas European Modernist furniture more often contains sorne reference to a rectilinear grid. From the mid-1930s onwards, the smooth and reflective surfaces of the Machine Age were gradually replaced by a new concept of organic designo The ward
was used frequently by Wright to express what he believed \·vas typically American, but the realization beyond his own work was inspired by Scandinavian design, with its use of curved wood. Organic design was in many ways a critique of machine-worship, and reflected the attcmpts during thc Deprcssion to renew the spiritual basis of American society by replacing its mechanistic and Darwinist asslmlptions about struggle and survival with a sense of the bOlmty of nature in the NewWorld. The organic trend reflected the development of pl)'\vood moulding in three dimensions, bringing back sorne of the cornfort that had been lost during Modernism, without losing the advantages of visual and physicallightness. A moulded dlair with aluminilU111egs and a wrap-arotrnd of upholstery, designed by Eero Saarinen and Charles Eames for thc 19-11 Organic Design shmv at the Museum of Modern Art in Ne\·v York, exemplifies these trends, and both designers \vere to exert a majar influence in the 19505.
4
3 A tl/bll/ar ellrome mld b/ack fea/her clmir ¡¡'di, C1/Tí.'f.'S Iike a ]9305 CM, by Kem IVel't'r, 1934. lor t}¡e Uoyd A1mll/jactllriJlg CompnllY, ¡'vhe/ligall. Ht 73.jCm!:z9ill. 4 AerodYllalllic forms il/ joil/ted al/d shaped timba charncteri:e the Airline Chair by ¡"eb¡'/', 1934-5, produced by ti/e Airli"e Chai/' Ca. of Los
-
Allgeles. Ht 77.jCIl1/30'/,ill.
IVright. flleforll/deT of American AIoderllislII, mnde n cOl1lplex spatinl gmne frOIll sfrellllllhtillg ill tll/! offtce ¡/lnútllr;, desigl1ed for flte jO!lllSOIl Wax building, 1936-9, mallu[ac/l/red by Slee/cnse of 5 Fmllk Llo!fd
Grnlld Rnpids, ¡\ilicllignll,
6 A I1f'W /ook f'lIIergeif in file In/e 19305 ill fiEis strikillg elm;r by the PittsbHrgll PInte G/as;; ComprlllY, 1939, possibly desiglll'd ill-J¡OIl5e by LOllis Dierra. Ht 73-5CIII/29ill, 7 Amerialll ModemiSIII ac1lÍet'e5 e/as;;ic mntlJrity in 11/1.' c1mir IÍl'siglled by fero Sanrillt'JI nlld OlOr/es fallir:;, l'xlJibited al t1le Organic Design ~JUltl' al file ¡\f1f5tmll
oI Alodem Art ill J 941, (lucÍ slfggestl<'l' of fIJe 195°5 stlf/es fa COl1"', Ht 8'¡.5cm/33ill.
39
--------------------------------------British Furniture European Influences around 1930 • 1 Serge CIJermnyeff's hufjet for Warillg & GiIlow of LOIldoll, 1928, sigllalled tlle IIlOve by I/Jis lOllg-esfablislJed jllnJis/tillg compfl1ly ¡lIfo /IIoden¡ desigl!o lt fOrtlll:d par! of aH ('..lábitiOIl room set Illld has a liftiug lap, felt-lined dramers, nlId sirle cupbonrds for bottles, faccd /11 filie vencers. W. 1.]8m/4ft 6hl.
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e
o
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2 Oell/zalll Mncfl1rell's ellalr 011931 brougll¡ l/le excifemcllt of París fo n cOI/servalive (Inri mllliolls LOlldoll. It was too far nhend of its time fa ~e prodllced ill qU(lllfify. HI 68clII/261.il1.
3 A /¡ri!lirlllf di/ellallfe, Maclaren made ollly n few piec/'s hefore givillg up /tis career. Tltís 1931 fab/e wasfolllld ill seveml impar/aH! illferiors in Britnil1 up fa tlle eI1d 01 tlle decnde. Ht 46cl1I/18ill.
odern design carne latc to Britain, where highquality fumiture \vas either a survival of the Arts and Crafts Movement, or a reproduction of Georgian. Art Oeco styles had created an interest, especially with a large exhibition organized at Waring & Gillow, a famous London fumiture store, by the young Serge Chermayeff (1900-96) in the autumn of 1928, \vith many room sets suggesting a continuity with traditional British values of reticence and comfort. TIle exhibition included some pieces in tubular steet and work by Oenham Maclaren (1903-89), whose few surviving pieces in plate glass and exotic materia1s like zebra 5kin caught the eontemporary mood in Paris without 100king like provincial imitations. Gerald Surnmers (1899-1967) \vas another designer who is remembered fer a few remarkable ideas. His armchair of c.1934, bent from a single piece of plywood, may be a response to the exhibition of Alvar Aalto's furniture in London in 1933, but is even more e1egant in its simplicity of construction and visual formo These hvo designers, and others like
\tVells Coa tes who \vere better known as architects, shO\'ved that there was potential for a native British schoo1 of modern furniture design prior to the anival of Marcel Breuer and other émigrés from Germany, whose names ha ve tended to domina te the history of the periodo TIle finn of Cordon Russell Ltd began in the 19205, making funliture by hand. After the financial crisis of 1929 and the Oepression that followed, Gordon Russell asked his brother Oick (R.O. Russell), \vho had trained as an arcllitect, to make designs for machinc-made fumiture, ofien using ply\vood as a faeing materiaL The designs became eorrespondingly more modern in character. 111is forced adaptation to a wider market was accompallied by a more entrepreneurial approach to selling and advertising, and Russell's london showroom was one of several shops that disp1ayed a range of household goods exemplifying the slightly pallid good tastc of thc periodo Ouring the Seeond World War, Russell was Chairman of a government panel set up tú create and licence "Utility" designs for manufacture from the scaree materia1s availab1e.
M
392
_
Invention and Craftsmanship in British Modernism 1 Cernid SUllllllers desiglled 11Ii5 armellair iJl c.1934 lo be mudefrOIll a single sheet o/ plywood. lUit/, un degunce flm! file /llore
-
celebrated desigllcrs ollhe 19305 COl/Id scarcely mntel,. Ht ¡6.jClllIJO'bIl. 2 OIIJeT pieces by SlIIlllller,:;, Sl/ell as /lIi5 rore CIlri.'Cd-back dillillg e/mir, 1935, are eqllully jn¡>elltive ill tileir IIse o/forms wt O/lt o/ Jl1yil'ood sheet t1lJd bcllf. Ht 91.5cIII/]6ill.
--rJ -1-
2-~
1-
U.
3 Cardon RlIsself Ud provided
:::1:
polite alltf well-crafted ¡l/milI/re for Englisll 110111('5 ill file 193°5, SI/di as tltis bctfroolll sl/íle. TlI(~
desigllt!r ol/lloM of tJ¡e COlllptl1lY's pieces durillg tite periad wns Cardoll'':; brol}¡er R.o. RI/ssell,
-:¡ rJ :2
wlto Irnillcd as 11I1 nrcJúlecf.
Wardrobe Ir¡ 1.88111/6/1 2i1l; Iligllts/rllld IJI llCllI/28ill.
a u.
c::: c:
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3
,
~-----_/ •
-
, 4,5 A tellsioll c:ristcd;1I 8rifis/¡ desigll po/cmic:> bl'f,¡'Cl-'1I the
"plln!"
Modemists Ill1d otl1ers, SI/dI
as 8t.'11y JOI'/, who U'l.'n' /llore iuf/lIenad by Art Deeo nlld :;tn'n1ll1iIlillg. TlJis desk a/ld e!Inir, nlld e!IrOIlll.', g/nss, IlIld mirror oC[(l:;iolla/ t(ible, 1935, <:t'Cl"C 111/ sllpp/ied by Joel for 11 eOlllltl"Y IIOIIse ill Scotlllluf i111937. Dl'sk lit 75clII/:'>'9'/,ill, ¡I'. :.>..13m/6ft 111;'1; taMe lIt 68elll/:.>.6'1ill, dillll!. 76cm/30ill.
5
,
•
1 Arril'illg ;'1 Lol/don as mI éllligré il1 1935, Alareel Bn'l/l'r ,eas cOlllmissiolled by]ack Prildznrd's fsokol/ colI/pallY fo create a mriety 01 p/y¡l'Ood fl/rl/ifllre. Brellt','s lsokoll bell' ply long dzn;r of 1936 ,{'as a eOll/plex adaptafion of f1le redil/;/Ig lorm introducen illto Moderl/;slll ill rile 19205. L. 1.35111/.ift 5ill, 111 83cIII/231i1l. 2,3 TI,is dillillg e/lair and fabl/", 1936, ,¡'ere amollg t1le ligflll'Sf pieas 01 ,¡'OIXit'll fimlilure n'eT made, illfrodl/cillg afnll/;/Y of mnlcJlillg lon/ls. TIle c/ulirs COl/M be slnckt'd. C/lair 1JI 73.5CIII/99il1: fnble /. 67.5clII/26'1.;/I.
2
\
/
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3
w
Cl
o
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4
4 BrcHer's Isokoll l/es/ oj tables, C.1936, folloil'l'd ¡he tllpt'fillg leg /01'111 of fin' diuillg slIíte. lt is scell her/! ill a [{'/lite pail/len persioll. HI (lnrge5l)
3S.5clII/1.lill, 1. 6lClII/14ill. 5 Tlle lsokoll 5/001,1933, ;('as excepliol/olly ligilf'il'eight, 'l'illl (J dislted senl /1m! ;m$ bol/¡ eDII/fartable Ill/d strllcfllmlly rolmsl. HI 45(1II/17/"ill. 6 EgolI Riss. n Gemlall emigré nrdJitect, desigllcd tllt' lsokoll Donkcy iJl 1935, fa hOlls/? books ,md mnga::.ille5. /1 ¡{'flS proll/oted b!! Pellgllill Books, 11 11
394
compoll!' tlm/, fike lsokoll, (limed fa make (jlfnlity producfs (I¡'(/ilflble fa ¡(,ide fII/nimCC' nt mI nIforol/Me prie/'. HI .f3cm/J ¡in. ,/'. 6ocm/23'/.hl.
While Continental influences shaped the development of modem furniture in Britain, the presence cf many émigré designers and architects accelerated the process of change, even though the market for their designs was very small. \Vhen MarceI Breuer carne to Britain in 1933, he \Vas immediately employed by the enterprising lsokon compan)' in London to design a range of wooden fumiture, using bent pl)'wood for a fragile dining table and chair set, and stronger framing for his classic Isokon long chair of 1936. Isokon aIso produced items designed by Walter Gropius and Egon Riss. The use of timber, rather than steel, glass, and leather, \Vas partly a response to a different culture, but aIso a consequence af changing fashion. Natural materials \Vere coming back in modern architecture, a trend that may have been parodied by the Russian-born architect Berthold Lubetkin (1901-90), with his rough wood and cow-hide chairs for his own apartment in 1938. The architect Erno Goldfinger (1902-87) was born in HW1gary and shldied in Paris before moving to London
in 193-1. Being short of architecturaI projccts, he designed
many pieces of fumiture, although onIy a few '\-ere ever made, and then onIy as prototypes for rus o\Vn house. He showed ho\V pIywood couId be made mto runuture which was more solid in form and construction than the h-agile pieces by Breuer. He enjoyed the foundobject aesthetic of surrealism and would use sections of steel girder as supports for sideboards, and macrune-tool bases for table pedestals. SeveraI companies manufactured tubular steel fumiture, most notably the PEL campany and Cox & Ca. Such furniture was supplied to the ne\\' Odeon cinemas, to offices and to restaurants, and covered \\'ith leather or moquette. PLAt'\J Ud, a company which was founded by Serge Chermayeff in 1932, adopted German designs for chairs and storage "w1.its," the latter a ncccssity for those who did not want the usual clutter of chests of drawers and wardrobes, but could not afford the built-in fun1.ihlIe that architccts Iiked most of aH to provide for their domestic clients.
Dther Seat Furniture 1 Emo Goldfil/ger's plyit'ood
r
f"milllre
',t
to exploit tlle mnss mnrket ill stel!1 tl/llt ftmlitl/n' in 193.2 nt
Oldbllry. I/ear Binuingllnm. SriMill. T1/eir c1lt1irs il'l'1"t' fOlllld ill cillemns. sltops, nnd ei't'lI ,ml~ olld
,{"re probnbly desiglled by Olh'tr Bemnrd, (.19)2. HI 77011/30'/.ill.
2 • -
1
3 Tlle Lamda c1Ulir. /lamcd nfter
ti/e Greek letler ~L .., ¡¡'as desiglled by Heill Hl'Ckrot1l, fl Cerlllflll émigré WJIO il'orked nI Dnrtillgfoll Hall. (k't'()/J, fl progressh'f' commmlify im'O/l'cd ill art, educa/iou, (lnd ruml regellemlio/l. It ,ms /linde by tlle Imildillgfirm Iil/ked lo DnrlillgtOlI fllld cot'ered in clol/¡ wo.'e/1 011 Ihe estafe.
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Cf.l Z
HI65·5clII/251.;II,
c: w e
4 T}w fOll11der of tite Bnulul/Is, \'\/a/ter Gl'opius, leJI little /1lnrk
o
ill Britaill dlll'illg !lis ¡ilree yenrs'
residellce. TIJis Inb/e for [sokol!. C.1936, wnsolll'ofllisfew prodllct desiglls. I-lt 80(1II/]1'1:ill.
:E
4
3 5 Berthold LlIlJt!tkil/ I/('l'a iutended !lis lIIo:o:;it'l? cow-!lif/e
cllnirs. 1938,for /IInss prodl/ctioll. TI';$ l·.mmpte litis beell rt'flll"lletf to its originol selting in LlIbetkill's fOrma nlJllrtmellt, TIw Pent//O/I5/', ¡,/ Hig/¡gnte. lIort1l Lolldoll, ¡pI/ere its relnfiol/~lt¡p lo tlle ro/lgltgrnilled imll SI/rfoce nnd broit'1I olld lt!ltitefloor cm/ be //I/11erstood. IV. 76<:III/Joil'.
1
39
British Ceramics Factory Made
-~-~-
•
1
1 Oesign E/297, 1931. Coffee can nlld sal/cer madeJor SI/sic
Cooper Pottery. 1928-<). AlI enrly picce by ti Brit;:;/, desigm:r. Ht 6.;CIII/2;II. 2 SlIsic Cooprr. tl'apot, jl/g.
2'-
-
--'
lllld slIgnr bowl, c.1935. Tropo!
lit 8.;CIIII)'/ill. 3 Truda Cnrler, imse, C.1928, /ulIld-fJn¡IIted pottery. Poole Poltery, o[ w1Jidl Cnrters
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IlJIsbnJld wns n director, was Dile oj lile /llore progn:ssiue
z
Britis/l poUeries in lile 19205. HI27.5CIII/ 8 '/,;II. 4 Kcitll MI/fray, clIgille-lllnlcd
e e :lE
vasc. 1935, Wedgwood.
c: w
Qlle
oj
MUl'ray's II/os/ popular s/mpes. tllis vl1se WI/S nvai/able for 1.2 yenrs ;1111 VfIriety DI CO/OIIl"5 1I11d s;zes. /-/t 2.jCm!lDY,il1.
5 MI/fray. coffee sen/ice, lVedgtl'OOfl. (.1934. MI/rray's II0-l/0llSens/!
slwpl.'S for
fab/eware
¡¡>ere slIited lo cOJlscnw/ive
8rifisJ, fnste. Coffee /JO/ /¡f 18.jcm/¡'I.ill.
396
5 '-
_
---_._----~
Studio Pottery
Bemnrd Lene/¡, bow/, 1924-5, slOl/cwnr/! with Tellllloku g/n:e. Japrlllese illflllellces ill l..eaeh's ¡11Ork reflecI I,is enrly chifdllOod ;11 Japl1l1l11ld ln/er v;sils. TI//? gln:e is prool/ced wilJl oxidi:ed iroll nlld lJ¡e nddiliOll of il'OOd n511 gil'eS a ridl blackfilli:;/l. Ht jCIII/ÚII, rt'. 'j.jclII/6il/. 1
2 Leaeh, eilt·sided ha",/, 1924-j,
slollewnre. uac" flas delibera/ell! leJI tite foot of lile bow//Iugla:ed fo 5110<1' off file IIInterial. Ú'tle/l wrote, "T/¡e 1001 is a 5ymiJo/, /¡el"e lito IOIle/1 enrtJ¡, 011 t/lis 1 stal/d, IIIY frol/il/us." DiaJII. '3.Scm/jYill.
3 Will;'1I11 Stnit/! Murmy, fa/! jnl" Thc Bélther, 1930, stolle,Mn:
decorated iPi//¡ iroll TlIst Oller erenltl. MI/rray saill J¡;IJ/self as nll nr/isl wllo mnde pols. T/¡is large "ieee, lIenrllf 2SCIII/11ill tnl1, is bold lmd illd;¡.'idlln/, tllrotl'JI by MI/rray al lIis 69tll nffempt.
4 Mie/1I1e/ Cnl"dew, f/lree-/mlld/ed
jnr ami bo,!'/, 1931, sliJl·sln:ed ('arlfl/!Ilwarl'. Cnrdew U'ns iJ,sJlired by fmd;tiol/n/ cOlll1try potterie5 il1 tlle w"sf of EI/g/nl/li. lal" lit 2101l!S!.iIl; 11O¡d /tt 7cm!2-!,;1/. 5 lVilJiaJl/ Stnite MIlr/'I1l!, ¡'aSt' ¡l'it/¡ Wlll.-'d of Lifc, '937"""'9. l\.llll"my exllibiled lIi" /1Ot" alollgs;de tlu: pnilltil/gs OI8t'I/ NicliolS
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(J)
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4
n Britain in the 19205, ceramics became one means by whidl a decorati\'€ form of Modernism entered a large Illlmber of homes. It is hard to make a clear distinction between Art Deco and Modernism in the work of famolls designers slIch as Clarice C1iff and SlIsie Cooper, although the restraint of the latter, often expressed throllgh simple lines and stars, meant that her work ~urvi\'ed better the changing fashions of the 19305. Poole potter)" in Dorset, sOllth-west England, fal' from the centres of cel'amic prodllction, aIso specialized in handpainting, with simplified figures and flowers deri\"ed fram Austrian and Swedish models. \"ith strong artistic direction from Harold 5tabler and Truda Cartel', Poole had a leading role in design reforrn mo\'ements of the time. in a search for modemity, \'\'edgwood employed the architect Keith Mllrra)' to design pllre forms that were glazed all-over in a \'ariety of greens and beiges typical of the early thirties, sometimes with incised hnes. At the same time, Wedgwood's late 18th-ccntury QlIeensware bodies were produced in plain colours suitable for modern use.
I
TIle shldio pottery movcmcnt, during this period led by Bernard Leach (1887-1979), and by William Staite Murray (1881-1962) in the 1920~, believed that lhe industrial methods of Staffordshire had taken away the pJeasure of individual craftsmanship whidl had raised son"le ceramics of the past to the level of high art. Leach and his pupil Michael Cardew (1901-83) saw pottery as a means of social regcncration in the countryside, as a valuable forrn of art edllcation, and as a practical means cf producing goods for wide-ranging consumption. llley therefore mixed thc production of one-off specials with long nms of tableware, establishing a tradition in Britain which had much in common with Modernism's acsthetics (particularly its links with japan), while discarding its social and economic assllmptions. They avoided fine porcelain c1ays and lIsed the rough red c1ays cf the south-west of England to make earthcnware and stoneware, usually decorated with yellow and brown slips, loosel)' brushcd el' trailed to preserve a sense of spontaneity.
39
European Ceramics
,
Pioneers in Russia and Germany
-
1
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-z
c:
LLl
e o :E
2 ....
...
~ _ ~
1 Nicolni S/leN", coffee pot, 1926, IU1Jld-
paillted poree/ahl. SlIetill was (I follower of lhe Suprema!ist pnil1/l!r, Knsimir Male"ic/¡, Ex¡stillg factory shapes wcrc o
4 Bog/er, combilllltioll tellpot
WitJl
lllferal
pipe 1/11l/dle, 1923. T1/ij ¡PIIS ol/e 01 Bogler's bt'St~klIOW'1 desiglls. witll 11
rOllgll gln::.e recrellfillg
tlu~
effect 01
J¡IIl1d-III11de pottery. HI 18clII/7ill.
eing such a ductile medium, clay does not impose its own shape on designers as much as other materials. The function of everyday tableware has changed very little over the centuries, even though the hand-thro\Ving process that dictated rOlmdness in pléltes, bowIs, and dishes \Vas largely superseded in the 18th century by casting in mouJds, which tedm.ically can be in other shapes. In ceramics for practical use, therefore, Modemism has tended to be a process of purification and subtraction, reducing faffilal camplexity and amament, while tryi.ng to maintain the highest quality af body and glaze. The c1assic models 01 late 18th-century Wedgwood continued to be highly regarded for their refinement of shape, and many Modernist ceramics, like the pure undecorated pieces of Wilhclm Wagenfeld and Marguerite Friedlander-vVildenhain, resemble simpler Neoclassical work qwte dosely. Both these designers \Vere students at the Ball.haus, where the ceramic \"mrkshop, while less fully integrated in the sehool than some other departments, trained its
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398
students in hand·making, renewing a sense of the behaviour of the materials through the process of produetion, prior to designing prototypcs for massproductian, rather than the idea of " applied Clrt" in ceramics, which during the Art Deco periad had involved designers in the ceramie industry more as deeorators than as "Clrchitects" af formo Wilhelm Kage (1889-1960) of the Gustavsberg faetory in Sweden introduced the "praktika" range in 1933, in which ease of stacking was an important design consideration for the smaller-size modern dwelling, as weU as a useful marketing ploy. Not a11 Modernist eeramics were so pureo More elaborate and exclusively ornamental pieces were produced, in which there was a seareh to re-interpret decoration with a more consci.ous sense of formal integrity. The 1927 tureen by the Nonvegian designer Nora Gulbrandsen 0894--1978) is a delicious but simple formal invention, with its decoration of spiral lines adding a dynamic quality to the shape and unifying the bowl and lid.
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1t 2 t\largl/crite Friedlnllder-l Vi/den/min, pieres from fIJe Burg Giebichenslein 5ert'icc, '930, porce/nin (prodl/ced by tl,e Stllte Porcelaill Faclory. Ber/in. wllO mmllljaclllred IIIflJlY o/ Friedlallder's designsJ fllld n
3 Margare/e Heymmlll-Mnrks LObellstiell, di/mer plate, c.1930. TlIe flSYlllllletry oj tlle decorar;,,/? border ..~il.'es dyllttJJliSIJ/ lo fl simple sJmpe. Dialll. 25cm/Join.
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4 Nom GII/brnlldsell, tl/TeeJl, 1927, porce/aiJl, witl, el/mI/e/ (md gilded decorafioll. PorsgrJllIds
Porse/amsjabrik, Nonl'ny. AH efjectil'e <,er::/oll 01 fIJe !a¡f()llrife Alonemist 101"11/5
o/ file
]9205.
5 ¡'Vi/he/m Káge, Praktika dillllfl' sen'ice, 1933, fnrtlleml'nre, Gl/stm'Sberg. 5wedell. T/lis plnÉI/ sen,ice WilS special/y ensy lo cle/lll flnd
sttlck, /lJld SOOIl became popular.
6 KlIrt Fellerri~el, l'I'lSt', 1932. eJlall/el/ed mefal. Not fl typical madem dl'Sigll, huI/m eXfllllp/e o/ tllt, cOllfillllfltiOJl
of expr~jjollist
dl'Corntil't'¡orll/s ill /lle '9]0:;, ill tI,;s case ¡II a tl'ork made al lile
Desigll ScllOo/at Leip=.ig. Ht 16c1ll/6'/,;1I.
Bog!er OefO IlIld 11 gln=ed terra cvfta cocan poi /'Y afio Lil1dig, C.1922. Tile rrmgh glales 01 f111!St piece:; confmst witll ¡lIe frngile degullce of /l/Ue/I Modemist d('Sigll. Pitcher J¡f 21(111/8'/,;11.
7 Pitc/u!/'
il1
gln=ed stOIlC'iI'are by Tlu:ooor
3t
American Ceramics Exuberance and Eccentricity 1 Rllba Rombic .wse, C.1928. CO/lsolidated Lnmp & G/as:; Co.• Pellllsy14'flJlin. ROlllbic '1'flrt.'S dl.'lIIoI¡slrnted tl/c illJ1I1Cllce 01
(ubis", ;1/ /111.' decora/h'!' IIrfs. Ht 16c1ll/6'1ill.
2 Pal/l Scllreckengost. pitcfler (11111 Cl/IJs. ('1938, Gem C/ay Formillg Co.• Sebrillg, O/lÍo. Americall ccmmics sllo¡o tl
likillg for e:mggl.'rated /orllls. Tt'flpol1lt 19.jcm!¡'l.iIl.
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3 Frederick H. Rlli'nd. Fiesta ,mre, 1936, Hollla Lnuglt/ill C/lilltl Co., l\'e~1 Virgillia. Fj¡sfn lte11lí.'d lo poplI/aró' fhe idl.'a of ti cllilln sel ,{'itIE 3
11laldJillg ~/Jnpe5 nlld 1I/;.n'lt ~lnJIIg colollr5. (ofJi'e JXlt lIt :1OCII//8ill. 4 Frl'derick H. R/¡l'nd, Harlcquin muge. J938, HOII/a Lnllgfllill C/IÍlla
of FiI.'Mn. ti,;" rtmgl' ¡m" sofd ill Iroolimrf/, 510res. Tea 1101 lit l::!cm/.¡/ill.
Co. A lighfl'r mIli c/u'nllí.'r
hen the J\lusewn of J\lodem Art staged its Mncllille Art shQ\\" in 193..1. the purest examples of ceramics it couId find "'ere porcelain jars and bowls intended for use in scientific laboratories, designed apparentl)' \\'ithout an)' thought of being art. The ceramic industries in America "'ere in a state of transformation dttr4"tg this period, with many business failurcs. At the top end of the trade, quality \Vas almost automatically assumed to belong to imported European ceramics. Design had played a small role hitherto in mainstream American production. The yola ti le ccramics trade was disciplined by the National Reco\'ery Act of 1937, part of F. D. Roose\'elt's New Dea!. which insisted that selling prices should not undercut the cost of production and that no new shapes should be introduced for ayear. This was a conunentary on the desperate search for n"larket share through novelty, and stirnulated a greater commitment to investment in design, since there were fewer chances to test the market. A breakthrough ca me with Russel \Nright (190-!-76) and his AlllericalJ
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Modem table",are range (designed 1937, produced 1939-~9
by Steubem'ille Pottery), with streamlined shapes and an all-o"er speckled glaze. These combined aspects of strearnlining ",ith the biomorph.ic character typical of fine artists such as Jean (Hans) Arp, "'ith a quirky sen5e of personality that might owe more to \Valt Disney's Falltasia. The na me of the range emphasized that modeen couId now be claimed as American rather than foreign. Brighter coloured glazes were de\'eloped far Fiesta ware, designed by Frederick Hurten Rhead (1880-1942) for the Horner Laughlin China Ca. in 'Vest Virginia in 1936, with the idea of mixing calours in one table setting. During the first years af the Second \Vorld \Var, Eva Zeisel (b.1906), an im.m..igrant from Budapest, went e\'en further than ''''right in her CUfvaceous, exaggerated, organic forms, which ",ere somewhat reminiscent of Art Nouveau. Her MIISCIJIlI dinncr scr\'icc was designed for sale at Castleton China in New York in 19.J2, although it was not produced lUltil19.J6.
5 RlI5Sd IVrigllt, American Modern lablf?
Steltbe"i'ille PoIten), Ollio. A slreallllilled set o¡¡or11l5 t/U11 c1lflllgt'fi fIJe ¡('ay Americalls l/sed lable¡mre, Witll IIe;:I' l/51'S ¡or disllt'S ¡1'/Jic/l COI/id be lIealed ill lile O¡VIl. PilclIer 1Jt 19cIII/7/';II_
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6 RnLllllOlld LOe;('ll . . !o:/n:t'd
tcnpot. SlIgaT OOw/. mili (".'¡lIIU".
TI/e prafih'$, witIJ t/¡ci,. gCI/CIlJl/5 llfllldJes.lllwí' soJllctlling o/ l/le
q//nlity o[ cartOOIl c/mrtTclCT$. Crellma lit l1cm/.¡./iJl. 7 J. Pnl/lin Tltorley. enrtllClHl'flre refrigerator jl/g ,(,itI,lid. 1940, for 1111.' IWstil/gllollse ElectTic Co. 5trcalllfillillg npplil'd /0 n fin!! deep blllt', SlIggL'stillg Ji,l/gime
lec/mofogy. Ht 19.4C111/9I..ill.
(/11l111l.'i1'
8 [m Zásd, crl/cf set, Towo and Cowllry partall. A qllirky fllld /lIIl/IOmll5 1If.e 01 (J/I orS/lllic s/Jnpt', HI J).jcm/5líJl, tl'·9C11l/;V,in.
9 Em Zcisl'/, i\\useum ¡filma sen'iec. (,1941-6. S/¡ClIIlIIgO Poffery, Pl'Il1l5yl¡'(/llin,
for Cnst/etoll C"¡"n, Ne¡p York. DIe irregular geomefry IlIld c.mggernted s/mpes 01 tln'se pit'ces bccallll' /ypicn/ of file post-¡mr periodo Coff.'c pot Jr! 27cm/lov'ill, 19·5CIII/7'!ill.
....._--------------;;;;:
40
British Glass Coloured Glass 1 Ribbon-Trailed vases, 1935--6, by Bnmnby POiL'efl of Wllilefrinrs GlnssiL'orks, n f//ird-generntion member of tlle olltstnlldillg Britisll glnss jiml. Tlle decoratÍlIt fonll derh'ts from lhe I1Inkillg process. Ht (tnl/est) 25cm/loill. 2 5trenky glnss tl/lllblers, by Art/llIr Mnrriott Powell, C.I930, iL'ere an ellterprisillg ojfslloot of lhe W/litefrinrs stnilled·glnss specinlity. Ht Onllest) 28cm/nill. 3 Bamaby POiL'eff's clnssic desigll was lhe M60 s/lerry sel, 1935, wllic11 gave 1I0t'tl slltlpe to a traditioJlal EJlglisJl drillkillg ritllnl, witll a sl/blle l/se of CO/Ollr. Glnsses lit 7-8CIII/2'1.;Il, decanter ht 19c1II/7'Ü1,.
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he Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain laid the foundation far modem design in glass, with its attention to quality of materials and making. The firm of James PoweU & Sons (Whitefriars Glassworks, est. c.168O) had a distinguished hislory in design and lechnical development. The factory had a number of in-house designers who thoroughly understood the processes, but were a150 aware of intemational trends. Bamaby PoweU (18911939) was ane in a succession cf family members wha contributed fine designs such as the Ribboll-Trailed range 011932 and lhe M60 sherry sel 01 1935, which looks more as if it carne froro the 19505 than the 19305. In parallel with the cera mies industry, there was an attempt to bring artists into glass design, since fev\' professional industrial designers existed. In the case of glass, lhis usually led lo their designing pallems lor cul glass, many 01 lhem lor Sluarl Crystal, a long-eslablished firm al Slourbridge. Artisls employed lhere included Paul Nash, Eric Ravilious, and Graham Sutherland, a11 fameus as painters, whose pattems were mostly abstracto More
T
402
-- ----=
significant was the Czech-born in-house designer, Ludwig Kny (1869-1937), working on shapes designed by Robert Stuart. Keith Murray, more famous for his Wedgwood poltery designs, also produced plain glass shapes and a variety of abstract and figurative pattems for lead crystal for Stevens & Williams. Pressed. glass of similar design character, but much cheaper, was produced by Ravenhead 01 SI Helen's. Engraving, lhe equivalent of hand painting in pottery, was a skilled. process and only appropriate for luxury goods. RobeTl Goodden (1909-2002), who lrained as an architect and also practised. as a silversmith, designed pressed table glass for Chance Brothers, Birrningham, in 1934, a range \vhich was re-launched alter the war. Chance sold their rights on Orlak heat-resisting glass to Pyrex, part of the American Corning company in 1933, which then became the major brand in this field. Chance were one of the main producers of decorative plate glass for architectural use, and in 1939 preduced a short-lived range of Aquafux bowls based on the same textures.
Clear, Engraved, and Pressed Glass 1 Keith Murmy ;:vas {/ versalil"
designer o/ glass l/ud cernmic5. The Cactus vase Jor SIrven:, & Willinl/1s, C.1934, ¡Ilustra/es {/ pian! t/ll1f ;vas poplllar iJl lIIodcl"l1 interiors. Ht 22CIIl/S'/,ill.
2 MI/fray's g/ass vase for Ste-¡JCIlS & WillinlJls, C.1934, s/wws t!le abs/rael side o/ I,is desiS'l persollnlify, closer /0 /tis cernmics. Rafher fhml beillg ens!
iJl {/ mOl/Id, t!lis pieee
C.1934, IIses simple repelí/ive strokes lo droeiop {/ /llore complex effect of 10llnl contras/. Ht 2o.5cm/Bill. 4 Tlle Stuart Oystnl COJllpnllY elllployed well-kllowll artisfs to desigll cllf g/ass iJl ¡!le 1930s. H.R. Piercc, fhe designcr of fllis vnse of 1939, was less fal/1oUS but s/lOwed all ejfective use of rllytlll1l. Ht 20CIII/Bill.
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,5 Rober! Gooddell desiglled fhe Spiderweb rI1J1ge DJ pressed g/nss, ¡vill¡ ils repetí/ive ribbed
II/otij, jor C!u/1lce BrotlIers ;11 1934. Borvl din1ll. 16.jcm/6/Oill.
6 Rnl.'ellhend Glass rell1nillS a
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major British produccrfor tlle I1ms:; I/Inrket. T!lc Ripple pattem, 1938, brougllt tlle 11l0dem look Wit1lill the renc/I oI a
¡lIg ht 28cm/nill.
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--------------------------------European Glass Bauhaus Glass
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1 Gerlmrd Mnrcks tuugllt uf ¡lIe Bnu/wll5 ill ¡he 19205. His Sinlrax coffee perco/ator, CI92j, [¡y Schotl & GellOS5e11 01 Jellllll, has puttem. Ht 31cm/12ill.
3 IVagenfeld desigllcd llis Kubus stackil/g COl/tainet's, 1939,101' direct trnl15ferfrom rejrigerator lo table. The set II1nkes good IISt' of tlle principIe of modlllar ca-ardilla/ioll, whicJ¡ was ad¡'ocnted as a ¡l'll1l" of rntiollali:ill1,? " e
2 1'\'ill1e1111 Wagellfeld's pressed glns5 ten sen:.'ice,
building produclioll. Hf 21(111/8/,;11.
193.2, was dl'l.'elopl.'d ni fIJe Brl1lllllllS aud madI' by SellOft & Ceuossell, J/sing IIm/-resistant
4 \'I/agenfe/d, Heilbroon plates, C.I937-8. Simple l/IIt /Jeautijully mlCIIlated s!mpes ill pressed glass. Dialll. (/mgcst) 34C!!l/J Jl.ill
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ike ceramics, glass does not follow a straight line of development towards Modernism. For similar reasons of tradition and the nature of the material, certain forms, likc the tumbler, the stemmed goblet, or the bow!, are almost outside fashion and periodo TIle basic forms of glass are very carefully nuanced, and small variations from the norm achieve a strong impacto Attempts to develop a modern look therefore tend to be eccentric and quickly dated, more representative of the applied decorabon of Art Deco than the timeless purity of Modernism. As a result, Modemism in glass\vare figures less as an innovative movement than as an agent of reform, casting out the superfluous, adapting machinery to produce work of a more elevated standard, and attending closely to the experience of the user. Glass exemplifies sorne of the basic principIes of Modernism. TIle irnaginative use of transparency in architecture ",vas one defining characteristic. 111e Bauhaus had some influence in this area, with designs such as Gerhard Marcks's (1889-1981) Silltrax coffee percolator, a "Master
L
404
of Form" in the earIy years of the school, and particularIy through the pressed gIass tea service of 1932 designed by one of the most successful Bauhaus students, \lVilhelrn \lVagenfeld (1900-90), which used the heat-resistant glass developed for laboratory use. The architect Adolf Loos (1870-1933) helped to lay the fOill\dations of Modern.isrn, with his search for clarity of form, befare the career of the Bauhaus fowlder, Walter Gropius, had evcn begun. His birthplace in Bmo was absorbed after 1920 into the new nation of Czechoslovakia, where there was a strong Bohemian tradition of glass making. The Harrachov glassworks, where the designer Alois Metalák worked from 1928-30, was fowlded 300 years earlier. ti Ladislav Sutnar's table glass represents Loos's idea of Modemism as refornl, tradition did not detcr other designers from joining in the artistic fernlent of Czech Modernism. Ludvika Srnrcková (1903-91) created tough architechual forms reminiscent of the architectural style Czech Cubism, and also made an important conhibution to glass design after the Second World ''\'ar.
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Czech Glass 1 Lndisfm' SI/fuar's lable glns:; sen'ice oj 193D WflS prodl/ud by lile firlll KráswT
jdm (meall¡ng "II$1!fl/lforlJls~). Forms t/ml follow filllctioll ¡II glass¡l'are call alfoUljor tlll! dassica/ eiegallce ollllese desiglls. Ht (tallest
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2 Vase, C.1933. by Alois Metefák, of 51/1oketf CII! g/as:;, litiS a dramatic j01'1II tlJaI sJlOiPs off ¡lIe benllty of tlle materia/lIl1der diflereJ/t Jig/¡ts. Ht 16cm/6'/JII. 3 TlIe breakfast Sl'rtJice by LlIduikn Smrckoi.'lí,lor A. Riickf GlaSSiL'Orks, U'as desiglled in 1930 but ollfy prodllCed ill 1936. 1'lle pllre geometry is similar to Bnulmlls U'ork. but lbe c111l11/.,:Y Imlldles are more exprt'Ssiollist. Ht (tnllesf Clip) 9cm/3Voill.
4 Tlle AlIsfr;ml arc1tileet Adolf Loos, bort/ ;11 Bmo, ;11 'l'I1flllnter úl!((1we C:ecl1os/ovnkin, ndvocafed forlllaf simp/icity ill desigll ill renclioll lo Art NOIIVf!all. His set 01 jl/g (Inri glasses, 1934, bealltijlllly delllollslrntes !lis principIes. Tnllest g/ass /El 24CI1I/g'¡'¡II. 5 Tire decomlive bow/, 1936, by SlIIrckoviÍ for A. Riickl G/asswol'ks, slIoiUs
l/re l/S 01 (1 Modcmist forlllallmlguage for decorati"e effect. Ht 20CIII/8h¡.
4
----------------------------------------Scandinavian Glass: Classicism Meets Modernism
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1 Vase. 1931, df'Siglled by lacob E.
--= 2 Bowl bySill101I Gnte, 1930.jor OrreJors. Gnte WIlS fnlll01l5 for jigllrnfi¡'1? mgml1crl dC5igll5 íll tlEl? 19205 but, Jike IIInlll{ Scnlldillnpinll desigllers, he COIwcrlcd lo AJodemism ill 1930. wltl?ll Ihís píece ¡¡'as exJlÍbited nI tlEe Stockholm Exllibitioll. Oiam. .pCIIl/l 6'1i1l. 3 Df.'C(llIler nlld glnss by S¡wre Pettersell. 1929,for Haddauds G/assl.wk, /t'<.'IIaker, ¡\-or.my. T11t' dassicalefl'gal/cc of 1920~ Nordic desígll enrries /1Jrollg/1 illfo file Moderní51 /0l"m5. Glnss 11/ 1 :WII/4'/,ill. 4 Pressed-gln5s bnlldcd jug by Aino Anito for fllc KnrJllIln Glnss¡vorks, Fill/nnd, 1932. Tlle wife of the nrc/li/('ct nl1d fl/milllre .1(':;;igl/('I" WOII n compe/itiol1 ,l'ill1 Il1i:;; dc::;igl1 for IIIIlSS pro.1llctioll. HI 16.5(1II/6Iill. 5 Sa"oy pnse by A1par Aalfo, 1936. FOI101:1'illg J¡is t('!{e's Sl/eces:;, Aalto 'it'01I a It~igll competí/íoll nf Knr/lllla wil1t l/lis llIolfld-lIInde píf.'CC, whícIJ bn.'d a falllíly offorms mili litis 1.11.'('11 fn'qllclltly reprodllcc.1. HI 14..jCIII/5I:ill.
Btl/l~fO'
Holmegnar&; G/as¡wk, DCllIllark. The formnl lal/gl/ag!' of file f'lIgrtll'illg COlls;;;t;; elltirely of slrnig1lt fillCS, blll file r611lf is lighl1lf'nrtetf (jlUi e/egnut. Ht 15clII/9Y.;II.
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Glass was Dne of the fields in which Scandinavian faetones and designcrs excelled in the inter-war years. The tendency in the 19205 was tú concentrate on delicate, often historicist, figurative engraving, which \Vas expensive. Engraving continued to be a popular form of decoratiol1, but in 1927 the Nonvegian Hadelw1ds company began to venture into simpler fOTms with the designer Sverre Pettersen 0884-1958). V\'hile the Orrefors company in Sweden had produced good tabJeware of medium price in the 19205, they were best known for elaborate exhibition pieces by Edvard Hald (1883-1980) and Siman Gate (1883-19~3)_ The much more farmally and technically adventurous bowl by Cate for the 1930 Stockholm Exhibition marks an abrupt departure. The Modernist tendency was reinforced by the economic and social changes around 1930, demonstrated in the competition for mass-production glass design held by the Finnish factory, Karhula, in 1932, \vhich was won by Aino Aalto (1894-1949) \'\'ith simple ribbed models that were immediately popular far their strength and elegance.
The ideas of pure form and funchon associated with Modernism might appear to be entirely alien to the historie glass traditions of Murano in the Venetian lagoon, with their reliance on strong eolour, filigree detail, and decorative shape. In faet, Murano designers and makers made a distinctive contribution to the variety and riclU1ess of Modernist designo appearance of Arte Vetraia Muranese in the year of its foundation at the Venice BielU1aIe in 1932, ,,,>ith new designs by Vittario Zeccllin 0878-19-17) was a landmark. The Venini firm has a complex history from 1921, in\'olving sculptors and arehitects among its designers. Tommaso Buzzi (1900-81) was artistic director frem 1932-13, and launched llis Lnglllla series in wllich colour was cased under a layer of white or c1ear glass, with the addition of traces of gold or silver foil. Ercole Barovier (1889-1974), designer for the firm of Bmovier & Toso, created in 1936, pushed tcchnical experiment still further in the direction of decorative effects, and can be linked to the 20th century's rediscovery of the purely expressive power of objects.
n,e
Italian Glass: Murano Embraces Modernism
2
1
1 Stelllmed glnsses by Vittorio Zecc1JiIl, 1932,for Arte Vetraia MllrtlJlese. Desigllcd by tl
pain/er for ti desigll-colIsciolls
col/aborafive o/ g/nss-blowers 011 t/w islmld 01 MUrallo, t}/Cse pieces with smoked glnss IIl1d IlOlIow stems combillt' lile nt/ellllatiol/
t1l1d delicncy o/ ti/e MlIrmlO
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frnditioll witll modem geometry.
2 Zecchill, /nrge
t'fiSt' jor
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Arte
COlllL'j
closer lo tmllspnrellt scu/plllre
l/mil f!lIIc/iolla! objed, wit/J fcxtllred glass cl1c1osed il1 a layer of clcar g/ass.
3
3 TOlllllltlSO Bu::;, Laguna ClIp, 1932.for
of 11 serit'$ nI slmpes Ilmi/ab/e in ca/ollr:; slIggl'stin' of ti/e Vellt-"im¡ /agooll. Ht JO.5cm/IÚI1. 4 Ercofe Bnroo.,ier. Crepuscolo VCIl/lli, ,1'1I$ Ollt'
O,f'i/igllt) mllge, 1935-6./or
Bnroc,ier & Toso.
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bIt iroll tlm'{Ilfs . bUrIlill"1'flit'tllf . il1 file JIIOitCII g/ns:;. TJ¡e lonlls are ba/d, ",ith ti sellse of surrcn/islI1 nllolll t"CIII.
Ht 16.jCIII/6/ill.
I
----------------------------------------American Glass Crisis and Recovery 1 Ruba Rombic, prod/lced by ti/e COl/solidoled LmIlJ' & Glas:> Co., Comopo/is, PellJlsyh'flllin, (.1928, wns described as Nsollletltillg entirely lIeit' ¡JI modem table glass ... so ultra-Slllart l/mi is 05 1If>'was fOl/1orrow's newspnper." lt 50011 wellt oul
offashioll, bu! is
11Oll'
avidly col/ee/ed.
Ht 16.5CII1/61,;I1. 2 Georg!! $akier's block glnss mse, C.1930, a picce tila/ looks good ¡mili ti/e sirle as ¡I'ell
as ¡mm above, s¡'owillg fIEl' desigller's arc/Jitec!lIm! selfse. Ht 13(11I/5/11.
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3 Grollp of m:>es by Sakier, 1II00tlded glnss produCl'd (.1929 b~, Fosforia Glass Co.• IVes! Virgillia. Tlle jll/fed forllls /¡ai'c n dassicnl Jet'! typical af I//e crossover be/iVeell Arl Deco (Inri Modemis!Il, tlIuf nppropriate lo file II11111ufacturillg tecJllliqul.'. Ht (talles!) 25_5C11I/1oill.
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the Mnchille Art show at the Museum of Modern Art in 193-1, there were many examples of glass, but the majority \Vere anonymous designs far laboratory glass fmm large firms like the Corning Glass Works, ,,,,hich could be adapted far use in the horneo SllCh lU1conscious Modemism \Vas aften considered superior even to the best efforts of designers. Pieces in the show by Walter Dorwin Teague, for the Steuben Division of Coming, employed a similar minimal aesthetic, ",hile others fram the Owens illinois Glass Ca. were presented anonyrnously. MnclIine Art was a deliberately extreme statement of a position, but it indicated the pressures on American Glass manufacture during the Depression. Many eompanies went bankrupt around 1931 but one of the fe\\' hopeful signs \Vas the demand for re-equipping restaurants and bars when Prohibition was lifted in 1933, stimulating production of cheap wares. Design and technology offered a hope of reviva!. Steuben, which was nearly closed down in 1933, set up a Fifth Avenue shop in the follmving year, where thick-walled glass of great purity,
1
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408
thanks to the discovery of él new lead-crystal fom1lua by the technicians at Corning, was engraved with figurative designs for whid1 the company became famous, w1der the direcnon OfjOlUl Montcith Gates. By 1938, Stellben had an in·house design team, and also marle tahle glass in plain more-or-Iess Georgian shapes. In 1939, Steuhen laund1ed TWellhj-St;vel1 Artists iJl Crystnl, a set of applied engraved designs by Hemi Matisse, Femand Léger, Salvador Dalí, Georgia Q'Keeffe, and other artists. Steuben dominated the decorative market. Follo\Ving bankruptcy in 1931, the Imperial Glass Ca., Ohia, tllrned exclusiveIy to everyday tableware, launching its longrunning Cnpe Cad and Cmzdlewick ranges, names suggesove of American values. In 1933, the Libbey Glass Co. in Massachusetts tried to compete in the ILL'XUI)' market, with its fascinating and original designs by A. Douglas Nash, but the effort \Vas mistimed and led to a takeo"cr. The Libbey name reappeared at the 1939 vVorld's Fair with the rather mannered ElIlbnssy drinking glasses designed by Walter Dorwin Teague and Edwin Fuerst.
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4 ¡''\falta Donvill Tengue, tml/bler
¡mili
t/Il.'
St Tropcz pince settillg.
Ht 7-jCHI!3ill. 5 Russ!.'/ Wrig!lt, Tanlalus,
(/ re¡uorking oj n tmditiolltl! de1,ice JO/: keepillg spir;ts locked uf in {he home, tmllsforlllcd by 1"-'rig!l! illto nI! e/egnllt geomctric collstructioll. Ht 29CIII/11'/,ill. 6 Wrigllt, wititc glnss ClIp (Inri splIll-nlulllillifllll lIo/der, 192~35. EI'cryday prncticalify
opera!es i¡¡ WriglIl's eombilla/im!
of opaque g/ass I1mi metal JIO/del; with its appealillg dOllgllllut-sty/e IIIJ!ldle. Holder JII.¡..jc/!//1'I'jl1.
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7 COI"dial ginss frolll fhe Embassy mllge by Tengue nnd Ed'll'ill Fuers! fOI" Libbey Glnss Ca., O/liD. This milIer (OIlSeIíNlfi¡,1.' pnttem wns /IIade for ti/e New York 'vVorld's Fai,. i1l1939. Ht nC1I1/S',{ill.
8 Knickerbockcr d('Ctlllter, bowl, (I¡¡(I set of cordial glasses, C.1939, by Fl/asf for Libbey Glass Co. ¡Nif/¡ tlleir I¡eavy l/1allllered bases, tllese are oll/y Iwlfway fo 1I10dem, belollgillg to a wor/d of faste swept mmy afta ¡he Second World War. Decnllter lIt 2.8.jclII/nY;¡I1.
8
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40
Silver and Metalwork Early Innovations 1 Mnritll/llt' Bnmdt, ten ¡u/user
3 LOllis W. Rice, tenpot, °927, si/ver-pln/ed
nlld s/millel~ 1924. brnss, euollY,
copper nl1d brass,jrolll Bemnrd Rice & SOI1S' Apollo 5kyscraper set, a decorntive treatmellt of Ihe tllclIle that AmericallS e'll/nted will¡ ¡\.lodcmislII. Ht 16.jClIl/6ülI.
ami si/¡'cr. Mnde nI tlu: BtllI/WlIS i/'Orksllop by Dile 01 tite Sc1100J'S
it is ti stlldy oi pI/re geometric /0/"1115.
mosl !mJlolfs stlldmts,
Ht ¡cm/:dJII. 2 Frit= Al/gl/st Brf'1l1uTl/s de Croot, ulllrepiece /Jo"'/, c.1930. c/¡rome il'itJ¡ ebolli=ed woodm ¡eet, WMF, Ceislillgm, GewlfIllY.
•
A desigll by mI are/litec! /(/11/0115 for llis sl1ip illteriors. Oil1l11·35·jCIIl/I4 ill .
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4 4 IV. Riisseger (Inri F. Ivlnrby, jug, 192,]-4. sihw (/eft); lVilll('/1II
Wngellfeld, cofJee pot, 1923-4, sílver (right). Tl1ese ¡IJe (mft il1j/lIl!lIce o/ l!le Se/1001'S en"¡y yenr:;.
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410
Bnll}wu~
pieees sl/01I'
oId and silver aTe foreign tú modern conditions, and while a fel" good designers \vork in them the majority prefer tú work in metals \Vhieh have a wider use," wrote the British design critic Anthony Bertram in 1938. Even so, silver's unique quality of reflected light and cololU contributed to the aesthetics of the table in the inter-war years when, despite many social changes, dining \Vas still él formal occasion and its accoutrements important stahls symbols. Though the majority of the sil ver trade tends at all times to concern itself with the reproduction of earlier design styles, the existence of a body of skilled sil versmiths has always been an invitation to designers both inside and outside the trade. "''hile designers of the Art Nouveau and Arts and Crafts Movements enjoyed the ductility of silver when making attenuated shapes, the geometric forms typical of Modernism were less obviously adapted to the working methods of the silver~ smith, even though the simple shapes oE modern design looked especially appropriate \vhen rendered in sil ver or
_
5 \lnlby Bi::ounrd, ten nl1d coffee senlice, ]931, si/ver Witll ¡POry Jltllldles,
for TJtnrd Freres, Pnris. TJJis shows ti/e adapta/ioll ollllodem desigll fOl"llls for /lIe Frmcl/ JI/xllry trades.
similar polished metals. TIle Danish silversmith Georg )ensen, working with the painter )ohan Rohde as a designer, was employing a \\'ork force of about 250 in 1930, in a successful enterprise that moved slowly in the path of the avant-garde. More radical were the faceted forms for coffee pots by the Swedish designer \Niwen 1 ilsson (1897~ 197..0. Elegant simple flatware was made in Germany by Andreas Moritz and Emil Lettré, whiell can be compared. to the angular and eccentrk designs by the American Russel Wright, manufachlred by his own company in 1933. The metal workshops of the Bauhaus and other German art schools produced a radically new look, less concerned with pure function than with the application of pure form, notably in designs by Wilhelm Wagenfeld, wruch match rus designs in glass. British silver was only at the beginning of a long process of design reform that carne to fruition in the post-war period, although against the dominance of re-interpreted classicism, there were occasional pieces of great forolal p\.lfity, like the experimental silver and enamel ware by Jane Barnard of 1939.
New Forms for Familiar Functions
,. 2'~
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1 Hnrold Stabler, tr.'fl 5en'ice, 1936, sif¡>c>r. TIre COlllpnct sqlltlre forll/s lIlark a break in traditioll, jllslijied by tlll' efficiellcy oj packing
1
t]¡em 0/110 a tea fray. Tray /. 32cm!r2V,ill. 2/alle Bnnlard, ooU'/,
1939, sih>er fllld
Edrmrd 8nmard & 50/15. lt iI'!lS rare fa fi"d SUell simplicity ill Britis/l sili.,t:r befare tire imr. Diam 16.5'1II/1O/ill.
CWIlIle/.jor
3 Al/lln Zillkd5ell, IIccklnce, 1935. made bl¡ Cnff,crillc Cockerell tTl1d R,L Sil/lllloJlds. Zil1kl.'Í~{'1I il'flS {I paillter, mul lItis picce H'flS specinlly ulIlrle for exJJibitioll, ill file ¡onu 01 a I/fxk rIIff, ,1'ilJl (f II1ntcllillX ¡mlce/e/. Dinlll 13C111/5;1I.
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4 Four-piece slninless s/re! finfIOnre desiglled nnri mmwjrlctllred by /~IISSel Wrigilt, C.195O-S, i/lllstmthlg ¡Ile nIIglllnr eccclllricity o/ \,\Trigllf's i¡1ork il! eOll/pariso/! Wil/l contemporar!! j1ntwllrl'
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Normandie pitc1lt'r, c. 193 j-¡. chrolllilllll-plated brass. Tllis pilclJer by tlle Gcrmal/-wm bul ¡\Ica' York-based dcsigllcr ,('tlS lItlIlI('d after tlle /al/lolls FreJIc/1 filler, tllld is expr~'$$il'l' o/ a $1IiP'$ protl'.
5 Peter lvfiiller·A1l1llk,
HI30.jCIll/J2ill. 6 I\,i,I'CII ¡\'ilS$Ol" si/¡-er coffee Im/, J9)0. Tire
pot.llarl 01 a coffee service. ll'll5 made i" 5if'edell alld give:> tlllloderll til'ist to tradiliolla! /orms. HI .2IClll/Slill. 7 ElIlmy ROtll, drcssillg-tabie St't, C.J9]0, me/al allo!" glass, al/d r~'d bristh'. Tll{' briglll bri;;tle adds litl'Ct to tite BaIlJlflllS /orms o/ tllis Genlltlll piec/!, 0llllOlIglt tlle /lrllsllCS look d~ffiCllIl to grip, Tray in 33cm!t3ill. 5
8
8 Dirigible cocktail shakel', c. 1930, Ilickel ove/" bmss. Ol'sigll critic:; were sl/spiciOlls ojjorms borroIt'cd /mm Oll{' olljecl, especial/y if 1/¡{',lI (l't'/"e slrenlll/illed. Ht (uprigllt) 30.5CIII/12ill.
41-
Textiles •••••••• •••••••• •••••••• •••••••• •••••••• •••••••• •••••••• •••
... ......... ... ...
••• ••• ••• •• ••• ••• •••
1I
•• .•... ..••• • •• ... .•..••••••••... ...••• ... •••
••• ••• ••••••••• •••••• •• ••••• •••••••• ••••••• ••••• •• •••••
1
1 Imll Dn Silp(¡ Bru/IllS, cnrpet_ TIle Frmc11 desismer ,¡'liS importmll in dei.'eloping file illjlllelltial styfe of geome/ ,ic rIIg for mooem rooms iJl IIlc 19205.
2 Ed,mrd l"lcKlligJ¡f Knllffá, rug, 1929. mnde
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brigl1t1y colol/red 1/11111 IIIDS! colltelllpornry cxamples. 3 Sergc. CIICl'llIflye!f, rug, c.1930, Royal I,\'iltoll enTpel fnclory. Cllefmayejf illc!lIried /'I/gs i1l j¡is enr/y illteriors ill 8rilai1l, oftel! l/sillg seglllwls 01 circ1es as Ilcre, illjlllcJlced
yenl"5, ¡!lis flIg i5 1I101't:'
by lile pnilltillgs (Inri textiles 01 Rober! (lJlri SOllin Dela/may jI! Paris.
3
ooms in modem houses in the 1920s and 1930s tended to be austere, in line with the emphasis on health and purity. One concession to comfort was the use of t100r mgs, which were placed on the permanent hardwood or linoleum surfaces. They could be taken up and cleaned by beating out of doors. Following a style established in France in the 19205, these rugs usually had a non-repeating design on a large scale, more or less abstract, using no more than three or four colours. Designers ofien sought to provide a focus for the room in the rug, which would form part of a co-ordinated colour scheme. It is possible that such unusual attention was given to the floor because women's fashions had for the first time revealed the lower leg, so tha t a rug formed a visual background for displaying shoes and ank.les. Rugs were thus in many ways the pivotal point of a room, and were duly given prominence in interiors rnagazines. The designers of mgs, such as Erie Bagge, Ojo Bourgeois, and Ivan Da Silva Bruhns in France, and their follmvers in Britain such as the famous poster dcsigner
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412
Edward McKnight Kauffer, his partner Marion Dorn (both American by birth), Marian Pepler, and Ronald Grierson, all beeame well-known names, and Dom was even deseribed as the "Architect of Floors." Her work was found not only in private houses, but in hotels, sueh as the Ballroom Suite at Claridge's Hotel, London, 1930. The designs were usually produeed in cut pile, and made up by a number of different faetories, inc1uding the Royal Wilton Carpet Faetory, in Britain, while others were made in China for the designer and entrepreneur, Betty loel. The textile produetion of the Bauhaus behveen 1919 and 1932 concentrated on rugs and hangings, although for slightly different reasons. Hand weaving was considered the best hands-on introduction to textile design, because it dealt so directly with materials and tecluuques, and the results 'were usually too heavy for use as curtains or upholstery. The pattems, by Gunta St6lzl, Anni Albers, and others, were geometric but tively, and were exemplary demonstrations of the transfer of ideas from pure art to applied arto
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4 Mnrirll1 Pepler, kililll, c.193.2, A/e.mnder Morfol1 & SOIl. Fil'st /IIade fol' llu.' 110m/! oj Ilel" brof/lcr-il1-1aw t/Il! fll1'llitlll'e IIInker Gordoll RlIssclL t1Iis design by Peplcr H'ns II1nrketcd t1lrollg1l IJis eompuny.
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5 Mnrinll PCl'ler. Plough, C.1933. Ro~,nl WiltOll Cnrpe'/ Fnelor!!. TI,;s sl/bUe bui sfltisfyillg desigll ei'Okes ti/e pfollgll m01.'illg m::er fl fic{¡t lea"l'illg rklll'roi/tu furroil's. 6 ROllnld GrierSOl/, carpt't, 1935, 'l'OOllell pi/e 0/1 caltoll ¡mrl'. TJ¡i:. colJase-like rlt-sign 01 Olwlnid slm}Jl's ¡ms II/adl! ;1/ ¡"dia. 7 AJaríon Dom, mg. RoyallVilfoJl CU'1Je/
,1'110 like Ilel' Ilar/Her Edimrd AJcKlligJ¡f Km~ffer ,I'ns Alllcricml, /It'cmllf' 1I1t'
Factor,!!. Dom,
besf-kI/Oit'l/ rII,~ designCf o/ l/u' 19305. SI/e prodl/ced abstrael mld/igllrtllkc pnlfcms. 8 Gl/Illn 5tOl:1 ¡I'as file 1¡('(ld of tlle H'l'fl<'illg
il'Orkshop (I( tlle lJmtltnl/S. Tltis Itnlldkllotted cnrp('f, Ibigm'lt ill /hl' 1910S, il'nS ftrst prodl/ú'/1 in 1000 ll.ll the Loudon cnrpe'! gnllery, C1lrislopller Farr.
8
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, Fabrics
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1 Sergei BlIrylill, Traclors, lale 19205, prillted COftOIl, lval/OVO, RlIssia. A strikillg paftern slIpporlillg mec1lflllized farmiug. 2 Phyllis Barran alld Dorothy Lnrc1Jer, Diamond, c.1925, cottoll/lalldblocked in galled ¡ron. Barron and Úlrcller re-diSClTvered trnditiollal prilltillg dyes lmd applied f"em fa abstraet modem desigll. 3 Ellid Marx, Underground, 1933. cotton JUlIld-blocked ill irOIl rl/st.
Marx leonJt printillg teclmiques from Barran and LnrchE!r alld devtloped
more complex repeatillg pattems. 4 Ben NicIJo/solI, Numbers, 1933, collon IUlIld-block prillfed by Nrlllcy Nicho/soll. The faet 1/1lI1 !lis 5i5fer prillted textiles jor a /iv/lIg ellcollrnged ti/e abstracf artist NicIJo/son in ¡he smlle direetio/!. Alld !le desiglled for Jlalld prilltillg, textl/red weaving, (l1ld silk sereen prilltillg.
414
The flat patteming of avant-garde art frorn Cubism onwards was weH adapted for transfer into textile designo In breaking the naturalistic conventions established in the Renaissance, the art rnovernents of the earIy 20th century established a new connection to the purely decorative traditions of lhe past, which included the study of repetitive patterns of the kind that are best suited for the production of textile lengths, whether by printing or by creating the design in the weaving process, with its possibilities of patterning in texture as well as in colour. Modern interior design \·vas, by eontrast, generally inimical to exuberant displays of pattem, so that sorne of the most interesting Modernist fumishing textiles exist at the chronological margins, either in the 19205, when they are often legitimately dassified as Art Deco, or in the later 19305, when lhey anticipate !he great 19305 reviva! of pattem design, in which contemporary art movements were allowed to provide a broader inspiration. Designers in the new Soviet Union expressed their vision of a new soeiety through abstraction and also
through stylized represenlations of tractors and other symbols of modemity, creating designs of great vivacity and chann, in contrast to the physical privations of the time. The leading British textile milis were open to new pattem ideas, although these were nearly always combined in a range with more traditional designs. A few firms specialized in modern design, sueh as Donald Brothers and Old Bleach Linen, with textural weaves and printed patterns. Edinburgh Weavers was known for eornmissioning leading artists Iike Barbara Hepworth and Ben Nieholson to design textiles. Alian Walton, himself a painter, used the relatively new technique of silk-screen printing with large-scale decorative pattems, including designs by !he Bloomsbury artists Vanessa Bell and Duncan Gran!. In America, the block prinls of Ruth Reeves were enjoyable on a pietorial level. For upholstering modern furniture, leather cloth was popular, as well as hand-woven upholslery tweeds by designer-makers including Boris Kroll, Dorothy Liebes, and Dan Coopero
5
5 Hoja Rose, textil/!, 1932, cotrOI! crepe. AJI exampfe 01 ti eDII/mereial design by ti 8nlll/{1II$ sfrldent, IIsillg t'flrielies of Wetlve in tWQ COl0l/T5 01 ynrn. 6 Rita Ben/es, sto/e, c. '937, }ullld-
CrnftswomeJI SUe/1 (15 Rita Bea/es revived old ski/ls like
SPlllllilltll.
Spillllillg ¡¡l1tll (lnd npplied ti/cm
lo l/111killg simple desigll5 wh¡,}¡
sllOwed off the nntuml textil re mld CO/OUT al tite lIIt1ferinl. Her return lo ¡lIe hasic lIIaterials rllld cOlls/rJlctioll o/textiles, n/mlg
witl, o/her sIl/dio textile desigllers like Et}¡el Mlliret. later
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7 Barbara Hepworth, Pillar, 1937, prillted COllOll, Edillbllrgll
Weavers Ud. Hepwortll roas
becoming kJloWII as ti seu/plor ill lIJe 19305, bul n/so believed ill lile cOlltribulioJl tlrUsts cOl/Id /IInke
7
lo fIJe domestic ellviromlllml. 8 Maria" Ma/¡fer, Tree Tops, 1939, screell-prillted rayo/!. A
01
01
portent file posf-
9 RIlt/1 Ree1.'es, Manhattan, 1930, !/{I/ld block-pri/lfed, W. &
J. S/oane, Nt!w York. A
decorafive et'OCafioll
01 indllstry,
speed, olld skyscrapers by o pail/ter who trained Wit11 Femalld Léger in Paris.
8
-41 ! -
Industrial Design Electric Appliances 1 Jolm \ln;;;;o;:, RCA Victor
Slll'cinl portnble l'hOllogmJ'/I, c.1935. nllllllillillm iTlld "(lr;01l5 IIIl.'fa1s, RCA, Xt>
Ht (c/osed) 20.5'111/8;11. 2 l~ndio. Pl1ilco Pcople's Set, ,\Jodel +W, (,1936. I/ItlIllded Bnkc/ite milill!!/ desigllen lo be m(l;:5 prodl/Cl'd. Ht .fJcm/I6ill.
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3 ¡Vnl/er DOIlI'in Tengue, Sparton Bluebird radio, 1933. cobn/t /l/He lIIi,.rol", ¡('ood, I1lld c/II'OIlIÍIIIII slre!, Spnrlol1 Corporalioll, Micllignl1. CirClllnr ¡orll/s DI mdio il'orked il't'1I ¡I'ith n rotatil/g 11millg (lin/. T}¡is is
Ht ljClIIl9iJl. 4 Kem IVdw. fl6k clock. C.'933. lIms;: mili copJk'r.for Ln¡I~'1 Time lile.
tfu' mas! sjJI!ctncu[nr.
Ht 9CIII/;,'III.
lectrical goods were often designed by manufacturers withoLlt employing professional designers, although a successhtl product, having established its idcntity, would probably be re-styled at intcrvals as awareness of industrial design developed. This was especially the case in America, where mudl of the effort of the 19305 generation of industrial designers was directed to\\'ards electrical goods. Many products still followed the familiar shapes of their non-electric predecessors. Hoo\,er's 1916 \'aclltun elcaners, for example, imitated the broom and the carpet sweeper, with a motor on the cnd of a long handle. lll..is long remained a dominant form, although the Swedish Electrolux company produced a cylinder type \\'ith a long hose and separate attachments in 1915, of the type that gradually replaced the upright models after the \\'ar. Electric irons retained the form of old flatirons in their base. On top, designers moulded the shape of the handle to the hlunan hand, and newly de\'eloped plastics \Vere valuable as materials for insulating the hand from heat,
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416
\Vith a safe entry point for the flex and sorne kind of calibrating dial. These elements ha\'e remaineci relatively constant into the present, although the iron as a \Vhole has become lighter in weight. Hand-held electric hairdryers were first introduced in 1925, replacing cllrling tongs. Their design became gradually more sophisticated, with Bakelite replacing metal casings. Radios were a completely new type of object which became increasingly commonplace. Their \'ah·e mechanisms \Vere hea,'y, and the prestige of the radio reqllired a stately hOllsing, although in the best designs this cOltld be prcsented with wit. The architect-designers \Nells Coa tes and Serge Chermayeff worked for the Ekco Compan)' in Britain. The Noctllme radio by \VaIter Donvin Teaglle of 1936 was a large cirele, intended for use in pllblic spaces, and dramatized with its blue mirrored glass. The "irh¡es of portability and compactness began to enter radio design in the later 1930s, ",ith Teague's neat bllt showy Spartoll radio of 1936.
5 lean Puiforcat, si/¡'cred metal n/uf IIInrble dock. A ¡¡¡XII,.y ítem IIsillg ¡!Ie s/nrk genll/e/ríe forllls oflllore IIli/itl1rinn con/emparar!! objecls. Ht 30CIII/11l;ill.
6 Gilba! Rol/de, Z dock, C1933,
plnteri metal alld etclll.'d glr/ss, HermaH Milla C/ock Co, A lighfIl'cigllt approac!1 to lillle. HI 28.5clII/1l/,ill. 7 Baird le1c¡¡isioll reccivcl~ 1936, Britail1. Tele<"isioll ,('as firsl dClllol/slrnll'd in 1926, bul OllfJ¡ beca/lle broadcnsllCII years laler. HI1.°7 111!Jft-6ill. 8 Post Officl' telephol/c, 1938, Britaill. Bascd OlllllOllldcd plastic cnse designs dCl'eloped ill ScnllciiIWl'ia, l!lis exalllple, ¡('/lidl ,{'as supplied as a slandard rellla/ halldsd /1"01/1 193710 Ihe 19605, illc!lIdes a drnwer il1 Ihl' base for holdillg notes o/Ielepholle 1I11l11bt'l"s. I-It l..J..jCIII/j!'ill. (1I1"OIIIilllll
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c: :i!E
desiglll'l"s streallllillcd the pCl1ci/ shllrpcller fo brillg joy iu/o
dmdgl'lY Ht 1./-clII/5;1,ill.
1OClI ,"istia 11 Batilla ¡ 1, e/cctrie fa 11 Jleater. 1938, c!lrOllle and steel, HMV Ca., Middlesex, Sritnin. Oinll1. :19(1II/1'/fl. 11 Maleo/m S. Pnrt 1'IlCUllIII e/calle!", 1938. alumillilllll ¡('itll do//¡ bag, Sil/ger Mnllujl1cturillg Ca., M:w Jersey. A hig!I/Y üpr6sj¡.'(' ,,('rsiall 01 lile stnlldard IIprigllt ¡rn(lI1lIl1, with n headlig/¡I lo st'nrc11 out dusf.
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41
Lighting Lighting Pieces •
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1cctric light \Vas well established as part of domestic life before the First World War, but light fittings tended to reproduce historical features or imitate other objects. Modernism never succeeded in driving out such designs, but lighting offered opportunities to designers and architects. Perhaps the most radical of the designs showll here is also the earliest. Gerrit Rieh'eld's hanging light makes a geometric play with hlbular lights, without any kind oE shade. The other examples mostly involve a light bulb, a shade, a stem, and él base, although in some cases these parts are elided into one another. George Carwadine's AlIglepoise is an example of an engineer's solution to a practica! problcm, with little thought about styling, although it adtieves a considerable aesthetic effect through its direct expression of the mechanism that enables the light to be positioned. It was created for the British company Herbert Terry of Redditch, but the patents \Vere later acquired by a Danish manufachuer, Jacob Jacobscn, é1nd the shélde and square base simplified.
3 Kar/ /. /lIcker lI11d lViii/e/m IVngellfeld, glnss tnble Inmp, 1923-4-. Qlle 01 lile II/ost celebrnled exnmph's o/ /lo'lodernisl indl/slrinl desigll, cr('nleli by sllldeJIls ni tl1t~ Bnl/llal/s. Ht 36cm/l.¡ill.
The Bestlite was designed by R.O. Best. a British manufacturer and, like the AIlglepoise, has enjoyed a long life as a producto The visual form \Vas carefulIy considered, and it was available in various colours and as a standard lamp or wall-mounted bracket lampo Marianne Brandt and Hin Bredendieck's 1929 desk lamp has the innovativc feature of a push-hutton switch in the base, whose off-centre design allows the flexible afm oE the lamp to achieve a ,-vide variety oE positions. Other table lamps, like those by Karl )ucker, Wilhelm Wagenleld, Poul Henningsen, and Cio Ponti, have translucent shades to spread light around a room. "Vagenfeld made poetie use oE the cIear glass of his stem and base, ",hile produeing an almost classical effect oE balance. Henningsen ",as a Oanish architect ",ho designed lighting fram 1927 omvards, culminating in his famous Artichoke hanging lamp of 1958 based, like nearly aH of his designs, on eoneentric rings. ll1e Italian arehiteet Ponti's designs are seldom eonsidered as pure Modemism, and his Bilin lamp has the playful charaeter found in his many other designs.
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1 R.o. Besl, Bestlite desk lalllp, c1930. T/¡is artiwlated lall1p, tullid¡ tua~ prodllced iJl stmu1ard al1d wall-fixiJlgfOI"IIIS, Il'as poplllal" in BrifaiJl ill fIJe 19305 alld has remailled in prodllctío/l eIler sil/ce. Hf 4SCIIllq1,ill.
3 Table lalllp by POIlI Henllingsell alld lIla/lUfactllred by LOllis POll/sell. Tiercd opa/escCIlt gil/ss sJwdes are sllppor/ed with Il pll/Í1wted brass slwff. NI 43cIII/17;1I. 4 CiD POI/ti, Bilia lamp, 1931, FOII/m/(/ Arte, Milml. A hlllllOrollS take 011 Balllwl/s geollletry by olle of ftll/Y's grellfest a/ld 11105/ versatile desigllers. Ht 43CIII/17ill.
2 George Ca/'wadil1e, Anglepoise lalllp, c1934. T/¡e
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lalllp, c. 1930, coppa-plated metal, Lighto/ier. Tllis elegallt America/l lamp cml be tllmed to s/lillc IIp 01" dowlI. Ht 1.S1111Isft. 6 J.J.?' Olld. pimlO lalllp, 1928, l/ícke1-plated brass. A beallt~flll e.mmple of pllre geomef ry l/ya leadiJlg DlIfc/larchitect. W. 30cl!ll11 Íll.
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7 Peter Pfisterer, desk /alllp, C193S-'¡'0, chrollle-ptatcd alld cJlamcllcd sfeel, wit/¡ wllhlllt base. TlI;s America/l lmllp CO/l/illlles /he geollletric pl/rity of carly Modemism. H/16cIll16Y,ill. 8 Cilba/ Rol/de, chrol/le-pllill/ed steel and bmss /able lalllp, c1933, I1Imlllfactured by Mlltl/f/I-SlIllscf Lnlllp Mmlllfllcturillg Co. lile., Brooklljll. L. 35.5clII!l4i/l.
41
Gontemporary Furniture 424 British 424
American 426 ltalian 430
5candinavian 432
Ceramics 434 Glass 438 Silver and Metalwork 442
The 1940s and 1950s were a period of transition between the austerily of the Second World War and its aftermath of rationing and shortages, and the youthful, exuberant design revolution of the 1960s. Impelled by the Modernist principies of functionalism, the Contemporary aesthetic was defined by new materials and the deveopment of technologies to use them effectively, as well as a spirit of optimism and confidence. It was a vigorous period in design, with bold shapes, bright colours, and practical solutions to the needs of daily life.
Textiles 444 Plastics and Appliances 446
ith the 5weeping gesture of a ne\\' coHechan Christian Dior altered the face of fashion design and simultaneollsly gave a ne\\' name to the overall aesthctic that captured the post-\var imagination. Dior's New Look collection too1< the \Vorld by storm. His clIIvaceous creations ""ere the antithesis of \'\'artime dress designo The ne\\' hourglass figure, created with skin-tight tailoring and well-placed padding, was a sh"iking and extravagant change from the austere, unflattering squareshouldered jackets available dtuing the \Var. HO\'vever, Dior's sculptural fantasies required s\vathes of expensive textiles. "Vith severe shortages of ra\V materials in most cOlmtries and rationing still in place in Britain, there \Vas an international outo)' ovcr his ne\V designs, but despite thc critics' reservations, the New Look heralded a fresh start after the austerity of a harsh ",orld war. Dior's 1947 collection represented a turning point for intemational designo There was an aesthetic shift that influcnced e\·erything from the clothes women ",ore to the dishes they placed on the table. Designers worked ",ith a rejuvenated spirit after the war and their designs represented e\'erything that was nel" and optimistic. Materials and technologies that grew out of the ",ar effort influenced contemporary designo Plastics and metals, lam..inated \\'oods, and synthetics all impacted on thc appearance of everyday objects. Foam rubber and stretch fabrics for upholstery allowed for the curving forms that charaeterized so many organic shapes. Castaluminium frames and steel red for fumiture pushed the boundaries of constntction and form, with its combined strength and malleability. The post-war American economy and the resulting consumer boom created expanded markets for new products. American manufacturers also had the wealth to re-invest in quality designo The Italians called the immediate post-war period ricostnl:ioJle, for the regeneration and revitalization of design that transpired there. In Sweden, Demnark and Finland the Scandinavian Madcrn aesthetic that marked so mueh of later 20th-century design took shape. The applied arts
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were also profoundly influenced by abstraet art and seulpture. Nowhere was this relationship more thoroughly represented than in America, where a new cultural identity and hegemony surpassed any of its earlier artistie aehievements. In America d uring the 19305 there was a $fnse of invineibility and optimism and this was reflected in the way that peopIe lived and arranged their homes. Consuming middle..d ass Amerieans emerged after the \'var, as if from a chr1'salis, and this in tum supported the robust econoro1' therc. Teclmolog1' and the cheapness of mass production meant that even urban living couId be c1ean and orderly. New appliances for the kitchen and household cleaning transfonned a woman's role in the home and altered the relationship between the sexes in a domestic contexto Automotive technology following the war meant that caIS were affordable for greater numbers of peopIe. It was the beginning of jetliner travel and thjs blurred intcmational boundaIies, with the result that influences between countries occurred more seamIessly. Design was the catal1'st for a whole new mode of living and international designers took their role in shaping the future very seriously.
/I/uj¡'stic pit'Ct' Ollksigll. (1 Oiam. 6ocm/23ülI.
At the heart of the Contemporary mm"ement was the concept that function should be transparent in design, and that the intendcd purpose of an objeet and its design should be inextricably linked. This overriding theory was carried across mass-produced appliances as weU as objects of limited production. The concept was essentially a continuation of Moderrtism begun before the wa[ and originating in the ethos of the Bauhuas in Europe. The displacement of architects and designers befo re and during the \\lar meant that design ideas and solutions stemming from Modcrnism became far more intemational and \videspread. Not only did enlightened manufacturing firms eHect and encourage good design, but the internationaI exhibitions helped to faster distinctive and dynamic ideas. In Britain, the Britain Can Make It exhibition in 1946 and the Festival of Britain in 1951 jump-started a severely depresscd market far well-designed consumer goods afier the war. The Milan Triennale was a litrnus for new designo Man)' icons of the 19405 and 50s were first exhibited there. The program.me of exhibitions and eompetitions at the Museum of Modern Art in Ne\v York, most notably Organic Design in Hame Furnishing,
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sparked a new aesthetic: Organic Modernism that simply picked up where Modemism left off before the war. The trend-setters for devising thcse new organie shapes in fumihJre and arcrutechue were Charles [ames and [ero Saarinen. Organic biomorphic design was a dominant influence during the Contemporar)' periodo The organic post-war aesthetie of Scandinavia was best expressed in Tapio "Virkkala's Knlltnrelli yases for littala of 19-16, based on the form of chanterelle mushrooms. These and other designs by "Virkkala captured the abstract essence of nature itself. Wirkkala was also championed fer his laminated leaf-shaped bowls, and furniture that expressed a sublime natural beauty in shape and material. The SenSUQllS ctu·ves and dramatic outlines of organic design, whether expressed in Scandinavian ContemporaI)< forros, the more flamboyant pieces of the ltalians, oc the bold assertions by American designers, all influenced a generation of consumers who liyed with and appreciated design in the post-war years. Contemporary sculpture influenced the shapes produced by designers of furnishings. Artists like lean Arp, Constantin Brancusi, Henry Moore, and Barbara Hep\\'orth created sculpture in sublime curving sensuous forms. lllese were studied and often inspired 1950s designers who used the new technologies such as bending and laminating ",oad, manipulating metals into strong, ClU'ving forms and blowing glass into monolithic sweeping shapes. Designers favourcd plain slufaces of natural wood, stainless steel, marble, leélther and \\'001. Decorative OlTlamentation on fumiture was almost nonexistent as almost an)' pattem 01' texhlre was inherent in the material. Abstract painting and sClIlpture influenced
the design of all kinds of fumishings. The flowing shapes of ceramics and glass wece often dictated by the ne\\" organic focus in sClllpture, while the surfaces of ceramic wares, textiles, and \Vallpapers were pattemed with abstract shapes or \'ibrant blocks of colour. The period when Christian Dior's New Look took shape coincided \Vith the time when a new generation of olltstanding designers rose to prominence. Ceramics, glass, metals, textiles, and furnihue were aH inflllenced, and some designcrs worked across different media. Many carne from architectural backgrounds \"hile others \Vere industrial designers first and foremost. But it was not unllsllal fer one designer to be responsible for the look of a novel television élnd then crea te a design for Qlle of Ellrope's most promirlent porcelain manufachlfers. Raymond Loew)' was an exceptional polymath, ex!=elling as a graphic artist as well as a designer of cars, light·fittings, radios, porcelain, textiles, and furnihlre. The 19-10s and SOs \Vere extraordinarv decades fer • design in the applied arts. Growld-breaking objects of this era \Vere of course follo\Ved by dull imitations that biased an entire generation against the interior design of that periodo There were uninspired, lmcomfortable flatslab sofas, the amoeba-shaped coHee tables, the boomerang, and the kidney shapes in abundance. All of this mediocrity has proven the lasting legacy of Contemporar)' design bllt has sometimes obscured what made this period truly inspiring. 5 DC¡TL'!opillg posf-
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n comparison with its European neighbouTS and American allies, Britain was not regarded as a hothouse Df design after the war.1\onetheless, it did generate "'ork cf origina lity and enduring quality. Furniture designers such as the husband-and-wife team Robin and Lucienne Day and Emest Raee de\-eloped British design e\"en with limited resources and the contracted post-war market. The Britain Can Make It exhibition cf 19-16 and the Festi\"al cf Britain cf 19;)1 promoted 8ritish art, design and industry and aspired to raise the nation's spirits after the de\"astation and austerity cf the \Var. Ccrtain pieces of British hlmihue from this periad, objects that are todar pcriod icons, hark back to the design aesthenc uf these t",o exhibitiollS. Designers of fumiture contributed to post-war reconstruction by transforming thc appearance of evervdav , , IHe. Thev , adhered to the Modernist philosophy that ",cll-designed pieces sold at affordable prices would improve the gllality of life of the nCloon. Firms like Parker-Knoll, Hille, Lebus, Kandya, and GPlan produced cheerful, functional hmuh.lre which drew
I
424
1 Eru.osl Rn.·e'j el/flllldkd skt'1 rOt! Antelope (hnir..first il/frod/lct'd nf tllC 1951 Ft'Stim/of BrifaiJl, "'I1S 1/01CI! for ils sJ'idcry¡mm!' 111/11 lwlf .fcl'!. TlI!' c!mir ,I'I1S a/so mad!' ¡I'ith a II/ol/hfl!l! pll1:::tie !'I'!I/, <;i11I ilar l(l t/¡[' dt'::ign c:.l ClUlr/l's Eallles' 1II01l/dt'11 pl.z¡¡l'ood c!mir already ill productioll. Ht i9C11/131ill. 2 /~aCl' I/{Id /lccl/t'xperilllt'lItil1g witll lIIL'fa/fmmcdfllmitl/rl' ~j¡,Ú' 19.J.5, a::: S('<'11 il1ltis ({IS/ 1111llllillilllll al/oy nlllgc vf BA e/lnir:::, Tfll' alll/!/iu;lI!11 t'/ClI/t'II/;:; ¡"('('/'t' Il)"odllct'd IIY prCSSlIl"l' die-ca::fillg, a ft'c/llliqll[, d('¡'l'/0J1,'d dI/dI/S l/le ¡/'{Ir!tlr Ilolllb (a:::iIlSs. Ht nCIII11S/,ill. 3 RO/Jiu DIl!!'::: Hille5t¡¡k clmir ~f 1959 ¡¡'as madI' o! Ol1t' C0I1/;1I110IlS pit'ce ~f prt'Jol"llled CJ/J<'cd p/!"l'ood. Hf 90CIII1351:ill. 4 Basil 5PI.'IICt"5 Allcgro c!lnir dJ.':::igllJ.'d for Alorri::: (lf G/Il:::':Oi/l ,1'110 cllrlll~t'd 111t' fna of /rwzil1atl'lf pJ.¡(¡I'OOd il/ 8rifail/ ,/'itll fhe/r t'_\pt'rhllt'l/t:, ill (I(,I'Op/(f/It' 1'1.1(,,'ood h'c1l1101ogy dllri"s Ilh' ¡mI". HI 95CIll13,lill. 5 TIlefirlll }(nlldya l'IIII'/I)yerl tlll' Dallisll rll'Sigllt'l" Cnrl J(I(o/,,; lo dl'.~iS" ti,;::: illgeuillll::: 1'l.'CI:h ply,nlt"h1 :,1'lCkillg c1mir ¡dlt'l"t'by 11,(' :=t'nt ClII7.'<'d rollllll OH it5í'~f Itl /01"111 tllt' I~Kk. H/ ;'ÓC III/.:;oil/.
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on recent deyelopments in America, ScéU1dina\·ia, and Ital\"• as ,,·eH as more traditional influences. Laminated furniturc that employed aeroplane pl)'\\·ood teclmology as well as umo\'ati\'c designs using the surplus steel and aluminium available after the "·ar tapped into existing Briosh resources, while newly developed synthetic materials such as plastics, fibreglass, and PVC ga\·e unprecedented opportunities for moulded. sculphlral shapes, bright colour, and bold pattem in furnishings. Rubber was also exploited. As webbing it was used as a flexible support material for seating, while foam rubber increasingly replaced upholstery of springs and horschair. Besides these ne'" n1aterials, plate glass, aJong with teak, rosewood, and other tropical timbers were favol1red. Case hmuhlre tended to cmphasize the horizontal, while chairs were sqllare and squat in their proportions; legs werc typically splayed. Coffee tables of irregular boomerClng, cloud, or palcttc shapes were popular, and the three-piece suite of sofa and armchairs bccame the prestige item of the 19505 home.
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42
American Furniture Chairs
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426
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he sudden consumer boom in America immediatclv aftcr thc war had a profound effect on designo This remarkable post-war cconorny of abundance opened new markets for products that looked frcsh and new and a1so satisfied Americans' desire to consume. As a rcsult, manufacturers attracted the best ne", talent and invested in groundbreaking designo Disruptions caused by the war resulted in the emigration to the United States of many displaced European architects and designers who ultimately becarne associated with American design firms. Suddenly, America was a culturallcader. America made its most significant contribution to post-war design in the related fields of furniture and architecturc. Sorne of the most influential furniture designers were architects, such as Charles Eames, the Finnish-bom Eero Saarinen, Florence Schust Knoll and George Nelson. Sculptors also had a profound influence on furniture design; Isamu Noguchi and Harry Bertoia, for example, created sorne lasting icons of mid-ccntl.lry designo The pervasive influence of husband and wife
T
designers Charles and Ray Eames cannot be overestimatcd. Their inspired furniture, film and photography at mid-century created a ne", language of design and had a huge impact both al ha me and abroad. Their work, which continued weH ioto the 19705, was as influentiaI on the use of space within houses as on the design of fumiture. The Modemist aesthetic that had emerged in Europe in the 19205 changed significantly after it becamc lhe predominant infiuence on design in America after the war. Designers embraced the idca of industrialization and mass production and, as a result, their designs beca me more foeused on utilitarianism and the efficieney of the manllfachlTing process. The overriding influenee of functionalism, the idca that form followed fllnction, continued to prevail in this late manifestation of Modernism in America. It was mainJy in America that the use of plasties, fibreglass and polyesters was pioneered, to be taken up ",ith enthusiasm by majar designers sueh as Charles
42
------------------------------------Steel Rod Construction
Lighting 1 TIIe rlt'SÍS" oll::aJl/ll .\'(lX/lclú·::; '9j-l Akari
of (1 1/{1JICr $CI"eCII ::;tretc1le¡i ora a ¡mil/boa¡mll/c an.' /)(/$I.'ri ollIJi::; re/11m tvami /(II11P made
I.'xamillatioJl ol/Jis Ilafi,'e japnl/6c desigllo HI jOcm/T9%in.
2 Tllis combillcd /nlllp anri lab/e by TOlllllli Pnr:illger re/lect::; all I!lIIplUlSis 011 illdipidllnl COW.'I!}¡jI!IICC in J950S illterior sc1Ii.'II/I.'S.
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/ramt'il'ork Jor J¡i,.. mt/lll1t t7lld dlmll/e rockiJlS ::.100/ vf 1953· Sml dialll. 3j·jCII//q.ill. 2 1Vllik dircclllr of lit Hall/aH Af¡ller, GI'O'\'l' • dc~i~1I e e ¡\'c1;;(I1l eren/ed /¡ i,. 0<1'11 li 1/(' (~ffll m i t 11 re ~f ,u/lid, th15 drc;;~illg laMe sloo/ i;; nll cxnlllple. HI 6jclIl/:2j'!iJl.
428
1
Eames, Eero Sarrincn, and George Nelson. Cur\'ing sculptural fonns, slender splayed legs, and 50ft upholstery ",ere aH possible with the newly de\'eloped industrial techniques for \\'orking metal, plywood, plastics, or foaro rubber; imprO\'ed adhesi\"es \Verc also él\"ailable. Fumiture beca me lighter in \\-eight, easy to mO\'e around and more flexible in its uSc.lgc_ It was strong and hard wearing as well as colourful and attracti\'e. Even though furniture manufacturing \Vas dccentralized throughout the countr)', a large proportion of American furniture ca me out of the Grand Rapids, l\Íichigan, area. Finns like Knoll Associates and Herman i\lillcr attracted international and nati,·c talent and in turn dominated the furniture indllstrv• with thcir technical Uu10\·ations. Howe"er, in terms of actual production, these firms only catered to a small proportion of the population_ More mass-produced, less expensi,-e fllrnitllre that ",as based on late Modernist design expanded these ideas to a broader market.
2
Architects working in America created airy, opcn and unclllttered spaces in ,duch to display organic and cleanlined fllmiture to its greatest effect. Good design was not ooly sllpported by enlightened firms like Knoll and Herman i\liller but "'as also championed by cultural institutions Iike the ~\illlSeUm of Modem Art in Ne", York_ In 1940 ?vlO LA held the design competition, Org
- - - - - - - - - - _ . . - - - ------- -
Organic and Geometric Forms
1
1 No otile!" riece (~ffllnJitllre more cknrly dcmollstmfes ¡/ie sC1Ilptuml aspects of ¡Ile orgnl1ic ill coll/emparar}! design ¡ilall [:::111/111
Noguc/¡¡'sglns5 toppcd tablt'. W. 1.27m/tift lin. 2 TlIe opeil, ,¡ir!! init'riO)"j uf /11" 19505 rcqJlircd ,m!Js lo d¡"ide spnec jktibly. C/U1r!es l1J1d nllY EflIl1I!S' Panel scn'('II (GuIri tnmsforllll1 room Ill1d ¡¡[so fil in ;I'il/I ot}¡er orgl1l1;( desiglls ¡oílll ils ll11dll!atillg ClII<'CS. H/l'¡2111/5ft 7'Ü11.
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3 .. 3 Tlús rosl,¡('ood je¡l'ellery cnbinl!f un its /IIda!
stand by George Ne/sal/ gapL' tmdi/iOl/nl II/(/f('rinls IlI1l(ftmlls n distil1ctly COlltclllpomry
degtlllcl'. Ht 1.12111/3ft 7/.ju. 4 TlI!' ESU (Eames Storage Unit) by Clwles I1l1d Rny El1l11csfor Herlll(1!1 Milll'l~ 1950. lVil/¡ prilllanl m/allr::; 01/ tlIc "ides, il ,l'mdd /1IlI'e been file foml poillt vf nn!! iJlfcrior. lt ,I'tIS n/50 flsed ns ti 1"0011/ dil'ider. IV. 1.19m/3ft 11 i/l.
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Italian Furniture Surreal and Oramatic Forms 1 Cnrlo ¡\-Iof/illo's Arabcsquc
table epifomó's Italin" orgal/ie (1t>sigll of t/¡e ]950S. Uke a flalllwyallf $-C/lT<'e, t/lis fnble ¡ksigl1cd ill 1950 has altlhe 1II0t't'I1ICllf (/lId lillearity I!lnt !falial/s displayed
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2 IVood nlld glass dcsk by Fraileo Cm'ntortn, J951. T1Ie form combines the COllfemparary c1lflracf('risfics of I,ori:olltal cmplmsis alld splayed legs witll
tIJe ooldl}/stl'f'CJ1i"g lillt.":> typicnl of Italiall desigll. Ht SJCJII/pill.
1
3 Tlu' pol}/mal11 desigllfr Cio POllti collaoorntro il'if11 Piero
Foma~dfi
fl/milllT¡' desiglls mld il/ferior sellemes ill tlle late J9.¡a:; (llld
011
1950$. Tlti~ cnbilld, 1950, SIIO,!'S file ,:;liglltly slIrrffl] ardlitt'Cfol/ic
possiLJi/ific:: of Fomasi!tfi's ekgallt
desiglls. Ht .!.]Sm/7ft Sil/.
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430
artime techno]ogy had a profound infiuence on the organic sculptural dcsigns produced by Italian designen;. The extreme curvilinear and contortcd forms of desks, chairs and tables somctimes looked like surrca\ three-dimensional arto Aerodynamic streamlining, moulded plywood teclmology as llscd in aeroplane manufacture during the war, and the widesprcad availability of malleable mctals profoundJy infiuenced the ",ork Df Italian furnihtre makers. The Italian furniture ¡ndustrv . \Vas mainlv. centred in Milan, ",hefe the Milan Triennales, founded by Achille and Pier Giacomo Castiglioni, encouraged ne"', progressive designers. A large export market cllsured the dissemination of the Italian style: by the end of the 19505, Italy ",as the world's leading exportcr of modern furniture. As ",ith other furniture manufacturers that revived production after the war, Italian firl11s like Cassina collaborated with leading architects to produce work of striking originality and wide appea\. Much of this
work is notable for the organic shapes and sweeping lines ,,·ith which Italian designers regularly expcrimented. Most notab1y, furniture by Piera Fornasetti demonstrates the clase relatianship between Surrealism and three-dimensiona1 designo \-\'ith his lacquered and screen-printed imagery on thc flat surfaces of chairs, cabinets and desks, Fornasetti created chic, eccentric, and qllirky theatrical effects. Italian designers incorporated dramatic movement and energy into their furniture. more so th.an the Americans ar the Scandinavians: the designs ,,·ere curvilinear and senSUOllS. The contours of chair seats, for exal11ple, emulated the curves of the femaJe bod)' while the attenuatcd shapes of chair arms and legs n-ere equally provocative. Cario Mollina's elaborately structured bentwood furniture stands out as the most deliberately sculptural. From the ArnbesfJue table by Mollino to the Me::ndro 5too1 by the Castiglioni brathers, Ita1ian designs for furnitllre n'ere flamboyant, progrcssive, and radical.
2 Tl1e Antropus clwir !/IiglIt look allead of its tillle, ulli il [{'as actual/y flll cad!! experimcul il1
1 Cio Pon/;':; 5uperleggera e/mil" o[ 1957 possessed lIJe timelcs'5 e/egnl1ce l/m! '50 c/wn7cteri::ed POllti':; (/Iork for
lile polell/in/ 01 Intex fonm by ¡he desigl/a Marco ZtlIIrlSO Sr. fOI" Pird/i JrOIll 1949. Ht 71CII1/2.8il1.
Cassil1f1 fwd OtJll'!" 1IIa1l11lac/un'!":;.
Tllis CXfllI1p/l' is euolli::en whicl¡
g¡¡'c:; the sll1fnce ti 51/1ooth IJlln s[¡illY appenrnllce. HI STCIII/]1iH. 3 AllotJll'rfMlIIlnlex lIpholstery ¡ksign l/Inl A1nrco
Sr. designen for Pirelli ,{'as ¡lIe Lady arme/I/Jir of 1951. Pin!lIi sel Jlp n ZrlllllS0
IIIl1llufacturillg compal!Y called Arflex fo prodllcr! t/lt'se ('nr!y experilllt'Iltnl des(~lls. L 211//~ft 6in.
2
1
4 TIle P-lO rec!iuillg c!misc IOllgllC of 1955 Ims designed by Osvnldo Borsalli to be flexible l/lid adapl lo mriolls n'c!ining posiliolls. Nol ollly c!Jl/ld il !Jpl'1I11l1LÍ e/!Jse fnJII/ lile ú'111J"<.', bid tll<' lIelldrest ami lile fooln.:sl H'ae IIlso lIIobile. HI 78.5(111/31111, l. 1.27111/4fl ¿in.
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5 Tlle I1l11n::illg/y springy Clln'I':; 01 ¡he 1960 San Luca nrlllc/wir by Achil/e nlld Piel'
Gincolllo Castiglio!li exelllplified IlIe cxl/ggemted cun'cs alld pllre ellergy of f1a!!lboyalll /ta/ian desigll. J-lt 96clII/38Iill.
6 TlIe Castiglioni brotllers
prolific desigllas (//¡d IrII/!/c!II.'d tllór rcadY-!I1aM f1lmitllrc ill 1957 witl¡ tlle ;'vlezzadro, or Sharecropper's 51001, ingcniollsly illcorporalillg a traclor scnt. Ht 50cm/J9iill. ;H'IY
7 PiemllloJlio Bonl/cillll (fol/Ilded ill 1889) «'as 11 1IIIIIIlIfllCt lira of lmd it iOlla I wicker fll n 1i l 11 re , /1111 prodllced tf1Ís sJmpcly Margherita armcllair, 1950, - followiu>;< ollIer wrI'ilinear designs of tlle fime. HI 78.5CI1l/31 ill.
4,
Scandinavian Furniture Organic Forms and the Inlluence 01 Handcraft
2 JncobSt'II's e/mir desiglls from /fu' J9505 are //(/St'd 01/ biological orgllllic¡Dril/s. Tlle SWiln chnir eXl.'l/Ip/(fies ¡IJe 1110,'('11/('1115 of ti /urge, gmcefl/l ¡'¡rd 'l'it11 em't'lopillg
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orgmJic forllls
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3 Verl/cr Ptllltol/fir:;t iPorke(1 as 1lI111~sociate o{ Ame Jllcobs('l1l1l1rl collabomlc'd witl¡ /¡illl 011 the Ant
After ('staMisllil/g JIi:=: O¡('II dt'Sigll al/d are]lilretllm] firm 11(' bt'Cflmc famol/:=: for ¡'i:=: illslal/alioll:'>; amollg tllt'lII ¡m:;. ti/(' Komigen [nn (ColI/e AgniJl !1m) Il'!lcrt' PllIltOI1 rlesigm'd aJl nl/-rt'd il/tt'rior mili !lis fllIllO/l':; Cane e/I/Tir. lt n'mt iJlto
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sllbseqllt'1l1 c1miT ¡lesiglls il'l'rt> ¡'tlrinliOIl;; 011 lhi:: Im"ic cOJlcept. HI85(1II/33I:;II.
2_
ontemporary Scandinavian fll.miture is characterized by simple, elegant, and functional dcsigns ",ith a timeless appeal. During the postwar penad Scandinavian design reached its pinnacle. Swcden, Denmark and Finland fed off each other and produced a unified aesthetic, marking the emergence of Scandinavian Modern. It ,,·as a renaissance for the Scandina\'ians, transforming ever)' aspect of the applied arts. Taking the best of handerafted and machine teehniques and combining the two, Seandinavian design ultimately became synonymous wilh good taste and h..igh quality. From the pared-down elemental chairs of Hans \Vegocr to the swollen cgg shapes of Ame jacobsen and the Iighthearted cone-shaped chairs of Vemer Panton, the designs prodllccd in Denmark, S\Veden, and Finland captllred the international urge to consume domestic goads \\-ith an inno\'ative look. Building on their tradition of local hand eraftsmanship, many Scandinavians used woad to manufacture their designs - walnut and bireh pIy were eommon but teak
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432
pn.'IllI1Ctioll ill 1959. Ht SWII/3:Ú1l.
imported from the Philippines beca me the ",oad most closel\' associatcd ",ith Scandina\'ian furniture. The • international use of plastics and metals did not escape the northern Europeans and many ingenio1l5 designs in new materials also carne out of thc region. Scandina\'ian fumiture design inc1uded two parallel strains: bold, industrial \\"ork employing state-of-the-art technology epitomized by Ame jacobscn and Vemer Panton, and craftsmen-designers slleh as Finn JlIhl and Hans vVegner whose work gre\V out of the tradition of small cabinetmaking n-orkshops that had continued to funetion unchecked throllghout th.e \\·ar. This more traditionaJ work in warm tones of ",ood created modern rc-workings of cxisting furnitllrc types lIsing the materials and methods historieally linked to Scandina\'ian craftsmanship. In the 1950s mueh Scandinavian furniture \\'a5 exported to other parts of the ,,-orld in flat-pack form or manufactured abroad undel" lieellec_ Scandinavian ínflllence on interior design was soon e\'ident al1 over the world.
------
4 Hnl/s !'Veguer WflS 0111.' of file
/cadas of 5C1l11rlilJ(wim¡ desigll (lml worked with fhe c/mrtlctcristic
palctte oI slI/ootli warll1-tollcd t
woods. His bece/¡ sm:uback armcluú,. o[ 1951 11'(/5 pelfect/y craften fa Jil {!le collfollrs of ¡he sl'I1fen body.
Hf 81.5CI1I/p.ill.
5 \,\Iegna's stacknble tlzree-Iegged tiillillg chairfrolll tlIe 19505 ¡¡ll1S desigl/ed IIsillg the orgl1!1ie fluid S}1IJPfS
so dOllli!1lJll/ ¡n fhe p051-1I'111"
yen!"s al/ti ¡fillol/red by 5c{IIufill{/l'ÜIll
Moderll desigll!'r;;.
HI72·5clIl/28'!ill. 8 A slool for re/axillg il1 a snlllw /5 per/wps {he /IIas! qllin/es5C!1/inlly
4
Scmrdillm'iall scotillS /01"111 passible. Antti Nunllt'SlliCllli desigl/cn ¡!lis llOrscshoe-s/wped 5100/ fOl" tJu: snlllw al lhe Pa/aee Hotel ill Helsillki ill 1952. Hf 51(1II/20ill.
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c: ('.;: 7 6 Peta H.,¡dt aun Orla Molgaurd Nie/sen designcd tite [mnjl/nlrt! t\X nrmc1mir produced by frit: Hn¡¡~m il1 1950. Al lile Mi/mi Triellimlt', of/ell nll m·/¡iter ofn de~i:\lI's slIccess. ti/(' cllnir ¡1'01l n Diplomn of HmlOlII: HI 75cm/19/ill.
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7111 Fin/mld, 1I111nri Tnpiomnm's Lukki, or daddy IVllg kgs c1mir elllelsed ji"Ul1I n mnjor CO!l/IIÚS:5iOIl for the Teeh Stude/lt Vill/age nI Espoo ill 1951-2. Tnpiomnrn <('mi 011 lo desigll /l/nllY mrinllf:5 of IlIis e/mir. H/ 90ClII/35'1i1l.
8 10 Tllc qlln/i/y of Dmlish jumitllre ,!'aS IIl1pnrnl/el/ed for ils crnftslllnllsllip (lIld thollglltjlll mgillel'ril/g. Fi/lll ¡lIlIl's set/ee JOI" Niels VoMer exelllplifie~ qllalities of . . lile besl iu Scnlldillnuinll desigll. H¡ 90ClII/35'!ill.
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9 rhe extrnordil1nry ¡modelJ crentiolls by FÍlm
}ullf deIllOlls/rn/e ¡lIe /ight¡¡css nlld sClIlpturnf possi/lililie~ thnl ¡euad o(fercd. His Chieit
10
43
Ceramics Elegant Shapes and Progressive Patterns
2
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1 The (lOlIrg/as,;; forlll was !fIi'ollrl!d ill fIJe 19505. TI/e America/ls Riclmrd Lnt1mlll anri RaYlIlo/ld Locrvy crenfed Scrvicc 2000 for ROSl!l1fl1al: Mllrgret Hildebml1d's prilltcd ¡Jaftl'rll. Raffia, dl'corated il. Coffl'l' poI lit 24CIII/9/il1. 2 Stn(fordshire I/ltllllljacfurers jlllllpcd 01/ fhe COlltellll'ormy balldrl'ilgoll. TJ¡e Homemaker fab/eit'lIre desiglled by El/id sl'en!!Jor Ridgtmy depicted objects 01 tlll? tillle like Rvbill Day's armella;'. \ V. fiarse dis/¡) 3SCm/J 5ill.
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;11 file
11 .5clIll.J¡,i11. 3 r1le lal/, ¡ml'ail1g Crass i:'ases d('5;~!I('d hy Toil1i MII01/a il1 1946 for Am/1in l15ed flnmbe gla::es 01/ tal1, attclIllflfed or~(llliclorll/s.
,....= 1 ¡l'5sie Tait wos tl1e head de:;;gller lor Roy lvlidwillter's falllily firm of ¡'V.R. Midwil1fer ¡¡¡IIO crenled Ilfi1~ pattems ill Ihe COlllelllporary abstmct sI.'!le. Capri, like
Mid¡{'illfer's oa,er prodlfCIS, ¡ms lllooml as m'JI as lllarketaL~le. IV. (grnt'Y boa/) 21.jCIII/8/ill.
434
----------
Diverse Inspirations 1 P;ero Fomas/'ff; cOllId t1W'Y 11;:; des;gl/:; lo mr;olls media. illcrlldillS ccr(//Iúcs. His <'ncnllllfnry ml/ged from lIcU'spril// fa nrcJúlecfllrnl drawillgs fa dt'Siglls oJ brighay colol/red <'i'gdabh'" ¡¡,j/1I sl/rn'al
Jan's as 011 tlu'$/.' :;.alad
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1955. Diam. (¡'(/cll elis/l) 24CIll/9,~ill
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1 Tlu' sIl/dio poN"'}! traditioll in Greal 8rifaill ill /lIt' 19505 ¡IYlS IIphdd by /l'tIdillg ceramicists fikt' ¡\ficllfld Cankit' ¡l'ho il'orked ;'1 stOlll7mfl' tl'it11 eh'SIIII! ,;.cmtcl'f'li decora/iOIl. Dimll. :l,cm/1Gbl/.
eramic design in thc post war era demonstrated an unwavering cornmitment to functionalism combined with cutting-edge experimentation with Organic Modernism. Many designers working during the period spread their talcnts across different media furniture, glass, ceramics, plastics and mctalwork while others were still firmlv ensconced in the studio pottery tradition. Ceramic design developed from the prevailing geometric trends of Modemism before the war to the shapes of Organie Modemism that started to emerge with the work of designers sud1 as the Eva Zeisel and Russel \Vright. who were both working in Ameriea after the war. Organic forros ",ere curvilinear and easy to hold evcn though sometimes they bore no handles. Sorne of the most inventive shapcs of thc time took the form of vases, reflecting the period's enthusiasm for Aower arranging. The PooIe Pottery and \Nade in England \Vere noteworthy in this respecto Sorne of these eeramic objects had a striking similarity to the biomorphie forms of
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sculpture by Jean Arp and Henry Moore. This overarching influence on Contemporary ceramic design lent itself perfeetly to the malleable properties of clay. Pattern was as transforming and significant as the innovative shapes that gave ceramics an entirely new appearance. Potter)' design in Creat Britain was 510'" to progress after the war, and most of the large firms eatered for a conservativc market but one designer, Roy Midwinter with rus family's firm, W.R. Midwinter, ereated shapes modelled after what he saw in Ameriea, and he encouragcd his team to devise brighUy colollred patterns in the abstraet style. His cfforts to bring Contemporar)' design in ceramics to Britain were influential and resulted in the rejllvenation of the industry after the dcpressed inter-war years. Ranges sllch as Stylecraft and Fnsllioll, launehed in 1952 and 1954, were eharacterized by rollnded sqllare shapes and either bold abstract patterns or colollrflll plant and animal designs. Jessie Tait and the thcn youthful Terenee Coman were among Midwinter's innovative dcsigncrs.
4:
Eastern Influence
--
3 Bl'mdt Tri/ll'fg. Reptile ¡'cssc/, 1954. Also il/flUL'lIcl'd stnJIIgly
by file
ccml1lics, r ri/lerg·s des/glls ¡1'11i/c ill tI/l' S/Jn¡i6 oj Asirm
GlIstni>;;bf'rg sludio ill S¡I'{'.ií'l/ t11'11lomtmlnllfmt !Jis slrollg (ll'stllefic illjllll'JlCl' ¡¡'as Cltil/l'X
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S/lIIg Dy"nst.ll Cl'rtllJlics.
1 Gerfrrld Vasl'gnard ,PnS n Dllllish sil/dio
pofter i(lltO designed for indtlstry. Ha il'ickl?rIUl/Idlcd 1956 /cn serpice jor Billg & Gronda"l dClllolIstmles lIJe illspiratioll frolll ¡apal! l1utl ill(1l1t'J1ct'd co IIII/dl Dmlisll :;;tl/dio poI/tOril. . d~igll. Ji'npot lIt 21.5CIII/8Iill. 2 lik.. milI/y talel/ted n('$iglll'rs of tlll' pilif-mlT era, RlIs:;e1 \\'ri~/lt ,cork¡'d ill /l/mili - diffl!rt'llf .. fidds. His (amuies Jor fM tf/e lroquois Cllillll Compnll)f il/e/uden /¡js Casual China dillllCnl'nre ml/ge, 194-6, ¡l'llieh culllbilll.'d fhe ¡I/llom/ú'c 50ft shapes olOlglmíe Alodl'mis/// ,"itl'll "'mllg ummie bod!1 fo stalld IIJI ti) t'i:eryriny 1I:5é? DiulJI. ]ocm/n ¡-ill. ~
2
436
Eyen with great emphasis on colour, pattem, and shape, mass-produced by industrial ccramic firms, the studio pottery movement continued to hold sway on ceramics design, especially in Britain. Before the \Val' the prolific Bernard Leach daminatcd the studio movement. Later, potters such as Luc)' Rie and Hans Coper introduced a lightness of form and style of abstract surface decoration that was achieved by sgraffito incised hnes in parallel 01' cross-hatched designs - 01' with interesting glaze effects. 1wo large firms dominated Scandinavian ccramics: the Finnish fum af Arabia and, in Sweden, Gustavsberg. Kaj Franck was head of Arabia's design department fal' utility \Vare and his experience in ceramics as well as glass design made him tmiquely suited for his role. Franck had a profOlmd inflllence on tableware designs in Finland for m·er half a century. Arabia had an enlightened vie\V of ceramic design and prodllction; not only were well-designed products manufactured on a large scale, bllt at Arabia's headquarters on the olltskirts of
Helsinki there were facilities for a group of studio potters to crea te lUlique objects with no obligation to contribute to the industrial product lineo Ihis \Vas distinctly different from ceramic production in S\Veden \Vhere Shldio potters associated \Vith manufacturers \Vere expected to design for production rather than create oneoff studio pieces lmder the patronage of a large firmo Gusta"sberg did not halt production during the war and was airead)' a decade ahead in manllfacturing systems when other countries resumed their tableware business in the la te 19-:1:0s. Also from the studio tradition was Pablo Picasso's work as an artist-ceramicist. Although he was untrained as a potter, his designs were liberating ta an entire generation of southem European ceramicists. In Italy especially~ ceramics ",ere sculptural and painterly and production occurred in small-scale workshops and studios, as opposed to the large manufacturers of Scandina\·ia and America where a more unified aesthetic tended to domina te.
- -
--~
Progressive Manufacturers 2 5tig Lilldbclg, 0111' 01 ¡lIe ¡cadillg designers al GIIstlH'sberg ill tlIe 19405 n/Id 50S, ¡-vas eqllally
illterested ill s/wpe l1J1d f01"1/1 as in pallem {lnd decoratioll. His stollcware Spisa Ribb senJice ¡rolll 1955 S/IOWS his simple blnck fllld whilc desiglls jor ccrtlmics.
Clip ht 6.5clII/2'/,il1.
1 1 Roy Midwil/ler was Ol/e 01 lhe first BritislI lIlamifacturers lo sllpporf ¡he
ncw CIIrvili!1('nr shapes in Amalea. His darillg Fashion nJllge produced 1Il1dll/ntil1g fOl"ll15 I1l1d so/id OIgmIie slwpcs for f!le tableo Clip lIt 7CIII/2'/,ill.
2
e
Mix and Match 1 Tf¡e idm b<'1I1'lIIf Kilta /ablí:¡vare dt'5iXlled by Kaj Fral/ck for Arabia ill 1948 ¡vas tllat fIJe COIlsumer could mix al1d matc/¡ c%llrs: ¡vllite, black, greel1, b/ue alld yellow. lt ftl/ed the post¡var lIeed fo offer illl:xpel1sive fUI/ctional tableware. Casserolt' dialll. 20.5CI1I/8in.
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Vase Forms
-
2 Bernard Leadl illspired mI
el1/ire genera/ion of sfl/dio polters alld yet lIis OWII work remained fresh alld illllOvative roe¡¡ after fhe lVar. His sfOllcwurc vase from 1959 s1l0ws fIJe strol1g illjluellce of Japanese ceramics 011 his work. 3 Tlle star of fhe sfl/dio fraditiol/ ¡,I sOl/filen¡ Europe ¡vas Pablo Picasso. Like mili/Y pnillfers from tllis paiod, ¡le /unled /¡is IUlIld fo ceramÉCs desigll, prodllcillg work 01 grent originnlify sudl as tllis pitcherfrom 1955· Ht j1.5CIII/12V,il1.
1 The porce/aill lIwllufncfIlril1g compnllY Rosent/w/ adopted lhe expressiol1 Ncw Look
fa introduce fl lille 01 poree/aill. Bea/he Kuhn 's New Look vasc, 1955, was Olll.' of 11 nlllge of orgtlllic shapes. Ht 35cm/13;{ill. 3
4
Glass Nature-Based Forms 1 Bt'gillllillg
¡ti
1950, Timo
SnrJI{/IIl'7.'(I'S (Is:'OCinfioll witfl file fiUf/ln glnssit'Orks prDltllced pieres o/ sublime 1't'lIllty /ifa> Il1s Orchid rtISl'
OI1953.
Ollt'
DI llis first
tn:Jmicnl illlltJi.'fltiolls tlIM' il'tlS n stCflJII lJ1¡Jwil/g I/It'II/Od. Glnss llCill~ lile lIIosf /l/tI/ka!ll" of nl/ tI,,' nllplil'd (Ir/s, ji ~Oltld /le
.
trml.1orlllt'11 illto u"Orks of grt'at xl/lplllml /Ts}/lIlllletry.
c/mrflcteristic of cOlltempornry dt'Sigll. HI 35cm/Ijl.ill.
>a:: c:::r: a:: o
3 2 TI/e Bubble ¡'Me~ IIY Kllj Fnmck jol' Nrlll/njiill,i in 1954 I't':'c¡¡¡/,/cd
Q..
:a: L.LI
nlllel' Scmrdilln<,inll/!.mlllp/6 with
/lIól' ~1I11l1)t1I. ~i¡¡¡JlIf.' IlJIIJld slmpes. Dt'sigll ill Scnlldillm'ia il'nS ~o
1Z
o
s/lcú'5~fitl mrd cOllsis/l'1lt that
c.:I
sil1lilaritics appcar ill dcsigl/s by d!(ft'wlt fjrlll~. HI :J.6CIII/loill. 3 /IISd'lll-:;: l.wrdilllil'úgllt'd delimt¡'ll{ t'1I-.:rnn'd -.:ln~~ lb ¡¡vII _. as tllillly /JIOil'lI taNt'if'm,,'jor Orrdol's. Ha l'ól kllf/¡n¡ dl~i-':Il • <
.
iras "1" Apple ¡~1St.' oj '957.
2
ithout question, northern Scandina\'ia constituted the main powerhouse of contemporary glass designo Characterized by its simple, abstract and sometimcs asymmetrical shapes, Scandina\'ian glas5 has become \'irtuaUy synonymous with design of the 19-105 and 50s. E\'en the names of eompanies 511ch as littala, Orrcfors and Kosta hold lasting resonance today, Northern European glass designers sometimes worked for numerous firms, spreading their particular acsthetic across different manufacturers. The dri\'c toward organic forms and abstract masses had an immediate eHect on glass designo Expcrimenting with the abstract organic, as Scandina\'ian designers did with abandon, dovetailed perfectly with the pl'operties of glass itsclf. In its molten forrn glass was the ideal medium to shape into these liquid, innovativc dorncstic rnanifestations, while the material could be infused with brilliant translucent colaur. lt was without a doubt Finnish glass that leapt to the forefront of Contemporary design after the war. The
W
438
Ht 39CIII!ljill.
transformation of this design-led, but nonetheless lirnitcd, industr\, - into an internationall\' , dominant force with "'idespread appcal for the style-eonscious middle classes ",as nothing short of remarkablc. Tapio vVirkkala, originally trained as a scuIptor, began rus carecr as a glass designer in 19-16. Just a fe", shart years later, at the Milan Triennale of 1931, or what became kno",n as the "J\'lilan Miracle" for Finland, \Virkkala exhibited thirty of rus designs for Iittala and \\'on medals for his glass, exhibition design, and for his larninated birch\\'ood bowls. E\'en though sorne of \'Virkkala's \\'ork was supremely practical and inclllded flmctional jugs, bowls and tumblers, his other designs reflected his sClllptural backgrOLmd. Glass in abstract forrns based on natural objects like his Iichen \'essels, leaf-shaped bowls, mushroom \'ases, and bamboo \'essels, dominated his design fol' indllstry and capti\'ated the international scenc, A iittle later Timo Sarpaneva took the lead in Finnish glass design, Taking abstraction in design to él new leve!.
Colour and Invention 1 Nils l.iIJldwl'g .ms ol1e of o
grvllp Uf!fOlIl1g d('Sigl/l'rs 'l'Orkill~ for Omfors just ofier tlle .mr. /11 I/I/! m;d-19.J0S l.iIlldllf'~ dei. 1efo{lt!n •
\
!lis Serpentina mllse ;n ,dlidl o eoloured sJJiml ¡m:; el/cos"Ii (l'itIlill tllE" der1r g/nss of tl'e ol~ect's tlliek. orgnllicnlly sllnpc'¡t ¡mUs. Ht 25clII/1oill. 2 Vaso Fauolc!to, 01' 1k11111kerchilf <'ase 't'flS tlle lIIost populnr d.'Sigl/ prodl1wt by tlEe AJII/11110 firlll of \/t'IIil/i, 19-+9· Pnolo Vel/illi nun Fu/<'io Binllcolli IlOd det'l!lopl.'il tlle desigll t"SrtlEer to i/le/ude ¡'oriol/s iI/IIOi.',lti.... ti"Cfmitjl1i'S I1lOt look('d lih' loce 01' I""()(ld striJ.ICS ¡l'itJ¡ill 011 IIlIdlllntillg glnss l'Oliy of ¡'nryillg si=t'S. Ht :!SclII/nil/.
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1 3 Binlltw'¡ /lIld \ 'milli tLJSl'lill''' (1/'-1.' rit'i.'l.'/olll?d \'etro pezzato
,('hal.' squnrC:5 01 co/OIIn'd Clwmc1$ ¡¡'t'rt' slIs}lt'lldt'd ill (l glnss body fo /{l{lk likt' pntcJw'Ol'k. T1Ii.;. di::! i l1el ¡¡'l.' ,'(1:::<.' (~f 1951 is f1/ 11
> el:
el el:
t:f ¡he cololll' Ill1d IIIO,'t'lII['n/ ll¡nl
c: c. ::2
c/lI7l'ncl<'rb'd Velli/¡i's glns;,
HI33C1l1h3i!1. 4 Kraka ¡'aje iJl file "fjs/lIIc/" fI.'c1miqllc by 5,-'('JI Pnll1llJi'i:5/
for
OI'l't:fOI'S. 1/1
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2.1CIlI/81í!1.
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5 Vicke Lil1lbtmlIli's t'ngl'lli.'ed
dl.'siglls for Kas/a ill ¡pel"t'
ju:;!
OJlt'
SiTl'de/1
nspecl (!f lIÉ:: di¡,t'fSC
rt'pt'rlohl' t1lal iuclmkd figural il'ork. "cll/p/Il1'6, c%llfl'¡1 IIl1lkrlml . ,Rlnss, (llld IlIII11Croll:5
('xpl'riu/I'lIilll ./'ork..". Hi" ~lanhattan ,'fl:5(' ("¡'oh,:;
tI't'
gÚlIlldric jl/lIIMl'll skylil/l'
oI
5
Xl'il' Yl.lrk. Hf 22(11I/8/;11. 6 Flari::: Ak,l/lfnm ¡:m:, 0111' o/ "le d('s('l:Jlt'rs tim! IJroll~lEf DlIte/1 Slo~~ it~ di~tillet¡¡'l!
7 [reo/e 8tJro¡'icr's ~eolitici ¡',/:'l.' of 195-+ illellldes tlu'
q//o/ity of
\
jltlil'iJlg. eOlltrol/ed ,'i"id Ctl/ollrs ill tllick ,('o/Js ofgloss.
dll/nleteristic colnl/r nl/d le.dl/re 1110t 111' l'.\·¡,,'rilllell!l'd Witll tlHVl1glll11lt tllt' '950:5. TIII" 1fnfioll
.firm of Bal'Oi:it., & Toso ,ms Ollt! of
Ht 1&1II/6/ill.
Vt'lIiIli'S.fí.íC rh'oh. Ht :!.1CIII/8I..iIl. 8 TIle Occi r'OSt'S I'y Toltio Scorpn
uf 1959-60 ¡¡'t'/'l' prodllced by Vell;lI; idtll c1lOrnct¡'rislic flnir tllld il/gel/lfity. Tllt' de::ig/l cr.'nll'd n l!ellse 1lI0000ic-lik,' nl'J,,'nr.mCt' bl( lISillg COII.-,; ofeIIlJIllt'/ ill cmss::eclioll. Ht '5ClII/6ill.
8
4,
Bold Shapes and Colours 1 ASYlll11lelrim!¡ooted bmul by Vicke
_.
Limistnllld for Kas/a, (.1950, illtemnlly decomted mil/¡ a gcolllt'fríc pnltem ill red nl/d
•
oc//I'e. H/13cm/j'/,j11.
11IId Milos Pulpitel ¡mili file Hnrrnchov
Glnssworks Ilns nll tlle c!wmcteristics 01 ur! glns:; ¡mili !!le C:ec!los/ovnkin, ¡¡¡!Iere g/ass artists experimented wit{¡ teclllliqllcs thar len fhe ¡{lny after t/II: ¡var. Ht j.jclII/:d;ill. 3 CiD Ponlí al/d Fu/vio Birl1lcolli col/aboraten fo produce tllis flnll1boynl1t g/ass cocktail se/vice, acllieved by InyiJlg dowl1 el/ame! (/l/les fol' n vibrt1llf sftiped pnttem.¡lIg ht 18.5CII1/7;-;il1.
.....-..
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2 TlIe 1955 Harr!il ¡¡sl1lm!! by Mi/mI Metelr'ik
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3
440
Sarpaneva achieved brilliancc and acclaim with rus pure, sculptural designs. \Vith sorne of these he employed a technique \.vhereby he injected air bubbles into the body of the glass. But Sarpaneva's subt1yco1oured utility wares a1so attracted widespread attention. Fifty percent of Finnish contemporary glass was produced by littala, whose star designers were vVirkkala and Sarpaneva. In Scandinavia, the highly developed manufacturing industry provided the impetus and struchIre out of which designers could crea te. There was little scope for the studio glass artist who produced in isolation. However, this was the norm for Czech art glass, \vhich was virtually lU1known lmtil the late 1950s when it received widespread recognition at internabonal exhibitions. Czech glass was unJike Contemporary types produced elsewhere. Instead of the emphasis being on the form, as with the abstraet and liquid shapes of Scandinavian glass design, art glass fram Czechoslovakia focused on decorabon \vith enamelling,
engraving, and etching on the surface of the glass itself. The results sometimes resembled abstract paintings, and there \vas clearly a close affiliation bet\veen painting and designs for studio glass. Italian designers also praduced work oI great originality and widespread appeaJ. Italian glass had been SUdl a dominant historical force that it is no surprise to find designers in Ital)' ereating objeets of outstanding ingenuity in the late 405 and 50s. Like other Halian design of the post 'war era, glass was the most eo1ourful and flamboyant on the intenlational scene. Paolo Venini revived traditional glassmaking techniques, bringing the effects of handmade irregularities, varied colours, and unusual texhIres and shapes to his objects. His fazzo/etto, or hankerchief vase was copied in man)' other countries and became an icon of 19505 designo Other designers \vorking at Murano, one of the historieal centres of Halian glass produetion, also revived historieal tedmiques to create unique objects with a eutting-edge, contemporar)' designo
,
Useful Wares
•
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"
> c:
eQ. 1 Tlle tlllip s}¡ape aras seell 111 c,'crytllillg ¡mm fasJlio!1 lo jllmitllre iJl tlle 19';'05 nlln JOS. Glass "iOns pe/feetl!! slIited fa ¡heforln. m/n Ni!s [nudlJe/g's Tupanglas, or tulip glnsscs 011957 [{'ere st!!lis/¡ exmllples. Ht 45Clllh7~ill.
----. -
4
::;¡¡:
2 Ame JOII JIIII"IIIII, 011/: 01 flu.'ft.'il ' Norwl.'giml glns:; de:.;igners 01 {lIe tillle, u'01'ked ;11 diffat!1I1
3 T/¡i? pnred-dowII aest!/(!tic m/n allllosl
medin bu! 1l'ns bes! knDiI'lI for g/ass. He afien Imrked witll strong ca/ollr:> aun lIIuten I/Ia/t
e/illien! quality DI Kaj Fmllck's llIid-1950S enrafe tllld IlUl/b/er wcre ¡uf/lIeHeen by !lis mon resenrch illto dOll1esfic catillg I/l/uits.
fillis/¡es, as in I/Jis vnse of 1959. Ht .23·5clII/9;I1.
Cumfe ht 23CI1I/81:;II.
LL
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4 Tlle Germnll-uom il1l'Clltor, Petcr 5ch/llmbo/lIl1, i:uorked in Allu:riw in {he enrly 1930S. His JlOlIrglnss-sJwped Chemex coffeelllnker of 1949 wns file bt'st-knowlI of !lis II1nllY prodHc/s fOI" Ihe kilc/leJI. HI 28cJIl!l1ilJ.
5 He main cOI/tribu/ion of Britis/, glass of the 19505 ¡vas cllgnlvil/g, aud David
Peace becnl11e kllOWII for 'lis fluid, l'l1gnlved cnllignlpllic illscriptiolls ns seen 01/ l!lis glass bowl. Dinlll. 35clII/131.ill.
44
Metalwork From Silver-Gilt to Stainless Steel
1 ¡"..
....
..-..,¡
1 GemId Be/mc}/ ¡1'11:, /h.'.{irsl .,i/¡'er"lIIit/¡ fo 1/:;<' n "'(1ft !extuml S1/~ftJCl' fo ¡lt'Comtt' ¡Ji" <','",.c/s, as CIJI 11Í,. gilt e/1Il/ire from 19SS. TJú,. h-clmiql/(' ¡m,. ¡l'ide1.l( copk,j ill tll.' 1960:'. HI ::>.6cm/loill. 2 Roba! ¡rdel!',. rt'lI/arkaNt' "t'i.'t'Jl-/ig/¡f fIJlldt'1abruJlll~f 1958 U'IlS illspirl'd by u "¡,,ir ro o Iock5
sta/llles,. stt't.'1ll/mll~ftl(f1/rt'r,.. 7()Sdhl'l' tcitl!
Dat'id ,\kJlor••/'1/0 dt'úSllt'd tll,' (¡jllt',~" ¡\'ddl lT.'nlt'r.l !¡¡,;.fiT,;t Mili.' nlllgr.'. Campden,
111 1956. Ht 2Scm/l1iJl. 4 TiI,' al t"//lEa/e.1 "IM p.',. Cl.f StHart Dt7.'lill '" ((~(ft.,., ~r¡'ia t~f
1958 com!lillr.'d gkl1lllillg ,,¡/¡-el' ¡t"illl tll,' illlwmti¡'t" II/IIkri1l1 {~f Ilylo/l
fár lile ¡',/:'l':'.
Ct~f/í.'t' po'
mmediatel y follo"'ing \Norld \ Var n there \Vas little demand for IlLxlu'y goods madc of preciolls metals when factories' main initiative was fOCllsed on prodllcing the bare csscntials, As domestic habits d1anged in thc middle of the centurv, so did the materials llsed. No longer were silver and silver platc the most practical materials for serving food and drin.ks. Metals had to be more durable, Stainless steel and steel aliovs became > popular new metals with whid1 to work. AllmUniwn, used extensi\'ely in hlIllihue design, continlled to be used by designcrs of tableware as welL Eating habits ch¡:mgcd ",ith the slldden shifts in the ",a\' ",omen condllcted domestic \\'ork and according to the dwindling a\'ailabilitv of hOllsehold staff. Cutlerv and other metals > > for the tablc were made to accommodate these changcs. ll1e h\'o main centres of striking and umm'ati\'e contemporary metal design were Britain and ScandiJ1a\·ia. ln Sweden and Denmark, and to a lesser extent Finland, the manufactllring s),stem fostered thc talents of a new generation of metalsmiths and designers.
I
>
442
3 Al' ¡¡-dI a" lJi" rmrk (1'; n cn~flslllnl1 silc.'l'r511/ i tll. R(I[¡ert 1\'ddl J'ro;: -¡¡f.'ff dt'';;:; l/S for
ltt 33(11I113/11.
4
n1C sihlation was markedlv different in Britain where new design stcmmed from individual ",orkshops. Superlative teaching of mctalwork at the Royal College of Art produced so me brilliant young designers, and enlightcned pah'onage by the vVorshipfuJ Compan)' of Goldsmiths ensurcd a steady stream of dynamic and original work. Gerald Benney, whose attenllated forms \'irtuaUy defuled British metalwork dcsign of the midcentllry, produced designs U1 sih-er and pewter for the Sheffield firrn Vincrs, while Robert \ Velch and Da\'id Xlellor produced tablewares in stainless steel and sorne fine pieces in sil\·er. Scandina\'ian rnetalwork ",as dorninated bv> the reputation of the Copcnhagen firrn Georg Jensen, where design after the war took on an organic sClllphlral emphasis. A host of artist-crattsrnen were associatcd with Jensen. At the helm was Henning Koppel \\'ho had been trained as a sculptor and applied those methods to metal design, creating day models for pieces to be manllfacturcd in silyer ar a base metal. >
---------- -
Horizontal Emphasis 1 HCllIril1g Koppe/'s work ill metal slwws his dCi'Otioll lo seu/pIure.
His 1947 siltwl" [¡mee/el Jor GeOl~~ lell,;eI/ resclIlbles t!le intcrlockillg bOlles uf IlIe "piIlC. L. l.t Cm!5Y:¡n. 2 PerlUlps ¡lIe qllintesseI1tin/ Sctllldilllwinl1 desigll (~f 1/1(' 19405
muf 50S. Hemlillg Koppel's jI/s for Georg !CIISCI1, 1952, The
Pregnant Duck. iIIuslrales tlle flvil'illg rJlytll1!1 (II/(f IIlldulntil1g CllI7'C;; of Koppe/'s suprcmdy seu/plural 'l'ork. Ht :14CIII/9Y;¡,I.
3 Tití::; o/Jjcel /5 npproprinlely litled nJl Eel di,;!I; i! looks ns if il !!Iiglrt slifl/eI" ncross fhe fnúle. Georg /ensCII prodllced t!lis e/egllllt sih'er desigllllS O/IC of 11 grollp (~{Jis!l disl/es IIY Helllzillg Koppc/, 1954. L. 6Scm/26/ill. 5 Lillo 51llmltilli il'I1S director of designlll tlle FrCllclJ firm (!lris/of/e lit fIJe ClId vf I!le 1950S IlIld prodllced ¡uork ofgrellt oriRilllllill/. HO({leI'er, l/e l/'IlS 110/ e • fmilJed ns 11 sih,t'rslIlit!l. His fluid nppronch to file de::;igll of sih't'I' sten/s from llis early ¡('ork ns n potfer. His f/Oll't'r ct'l/tcrpiece of 1959 is 11 superllllhle e.\"IImple vf fhe degllll!, f/oH'iJlg filies of !lis desi,\;II';. L. 37ClII!L¡./,ill.
1
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4 4 Ame jacobst'JI acllil'7.'ed
~IICCCS~
¡¡lítll hisflWlOlIS c!Inir desigll:' Iml n/so ,{'t.wkl.'d 01/ ligll/inX, metal, /I!.\"tilc::;, ami ¡mil/room fittiugs. ¡CI1SCII'S Ill1lill competitor. A. Alic!lt'lSCII, 1'lIIplo!Jed ]acobscll fo dcsign 'lis slcck Al (lit/ay
t:f 1957; ii rl'm¡¡ÍI¡cd ill prodllctiml IOl/g afta ils ¡!litial poplllarifl/. . . L. 20CIII/8il1.
,
6 SnmúolIe/
fllmily fin/l, tire principnl sfl1iJl/css sted 11I1l!1l~{llcfllrt'l' ill HIl/Y. T!lc -- Jirl!1 dOlllillnlt'd the !!1llrkd fol' clIt/en!. nud cookillRe IIteJlsils 11IlI lIu' desigll by ils director, Rollerfo Sl1l11bonef, .{Ol' 11 . fish kettle, 195.J, 1ms dc.finilely its lIIos1 fllmolls objecl. L. JO.5ClIl/1ÚJI. WIlS 11
44: 6
Metalwork
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1 Fin/nod's textiles firm Mnrimckko grew out of
o
ti/e oilclotlz firm, Pril1/('x. Maija Iso/a, ti lIIaiu
c..:l
di'sigll!!r. 111!/pcd fo tmllsJorlll/lle eDlI/pallY wilh 11I.'.r/mge-scnle bo/d desiglls j'l brigltt miour:;.
Tllis is /ter Kivet or siolles fabric. 2 Dorotlly Uebes was fI/e jirs! Americall fa app/y Imlld teclllliqnes fa mass productio/!, witl,
3 LlIciel1l11! Day mm nll file accolades fOl" /¡l.'r Calyx pnltem 011951.11 was judged Ihe best
tcxtile dt?5igll 01/ tlle Amcricmr IIlnrket in 1952. 4 T1Ie Su't?de 5tig Ulldbt:rg /ot'ed vibrallt de:;iglls ;11 brig1lf (0101/1'5. as in tltís playfJll pal/cm DI
rows o[potteryJor a t('xlile OI19.J7.
bright cofollrs {Inri IlIlcolI<'elltiOllal llllIterials.
TI/ese blil/rls. 1950, llse ha",bao splits, ¡¡'OOdm dowels, rayon, COftOll, and me/allie threads.
hroughout Europc and America large textile manufacturers that ",ere already established before the war picked up production, ",orking closely \Vith leading designers. A burgeoning group of freelance textile artists circulated amongst firrns, including sorne of the trendsetting furniture manufacturers \Vho expanded production to embrace fumishing fabrics. These included Herman Miller and Knoll in the US, and Heal and David Whitehead in lhe UK. Ne\V textile pattems ",ere abstract and linear. Bold and irregular pattems printed in strong blocks of colour exemplified contemporary textiles on the one hand, \-"hile the small and exacting repetition of motiIs \Vas also successhu. Designers also experimented with wcaving technology and designo At the forefront of this aspect of mid-century textiles "'as the American Jack Lenor Larsen, \\Iho successfully combined groupings of natural and synthetic fibres. At one lime the British textile industry was the leader in Europe. By the 1950s it ",as retracting and in decline.
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Despite this the overall quality of textile design ",as on an ups",ing. The leading Briton \Vas Lucienne Day, \Vho often collaborated ",ith her furniture-designer husband, Robin Day. The post-war years a150 saw burgeoning interest in artist-designed textiles. Henri Matisse, Pablo Picasso, Anillé Dérain, Henry Moore, Barbara Hepworth, John Piper, and Graham Sutherland were among many ",ho ",ere persuaded to try their hands at textile designo Even Eduardo Paolozzi, ",hile establisrung rus reputation as a sculptor, provided pattemed coltons for Horrocks during lhe 19505. Marimekko, the ",idel)' known Finnish manufach.t.rer of fumishing and dress textiles, did not become an international force in printed fabrics untilthc 1960s, yet Scandinavian textile design after the war \Vas dynamic, accessible and, most important, nel\' and refreshing. Numerous independent designers \vorked together with manuIacturers, as in other countries, and the dcsigner",eavcr tradition perpetuated even the hand-\Veaving system that had existcd befare the war.
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The Inlluenee 01 Artists and Handweavers
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2
1 1 Alcxmu/er Ca/der's
1Il0biles /U1d a peri.'asá. e il1jlllr'lIee, as iJl Ihis 1954 texli/e dr'Sigll for Heal's by /11111' LyolI. 2 Tlle fl/miture fil"lI/ Hml1all Milla reSlllar/y collllllis5iolled desiglls for fllmi5/IiJlgfabrics. T/¡is pril1ted eoltoll, Rain, 0/1953 is by A/exnJlda Gimrd, all archilect ,pIlO sJleciali:ed ill illterior sr:!l['l!1{'S mili cxhibilioll designo lts p/alles o/ bold calours alld abstnrc/ fOI"!!1S nre Iypicnl of Iris il'ork. 3 Like Herll/an Milla, KllolI produced IIpllOlsf¡'I~1 fabl"ie::. Fimris/¡-bom IHariauJI(' 5lrel1gc/1 H'as 0111' of fll[' In/el1tcd }¡aJld,Fcn<'/.'rs w!lo desigl/t'd lexti/6.ft))· mae/ril/e prodl1ctioll. 1
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1 J\.ftt'1" Clirisliml Dior's 19.J.7 faslriol/ colleeli¡m, otha dcsigJls ,nT/.' cnlitled :'-Jew Look. Fl"iedlillde de Col/lcrla/do's abstnrcl • fllrJIi:=.hilH;< •(nllJ"ic •(01" I!le JI1II JIIlfact I1n'l" Om. id IV}¡ i le}¡end ,ens iJlspir/.'d by a[¡stmel paúlhllg. 1
2 IJI 1959 Nigel HellffersoJl mld
t!le seulplor Edunrdo Pa%::i dt'i.,ised a /Jlaek aJld ¡pllite texti/¡> desigll cnUed Coalface .t0r H HI1 Tmdas. T!lis ,Fas produad as a fu rI Ji:=.1i i /lg fa [¡ric, n'ma rka /l/e for it:=. texluml qualit!!, i/la I¡codilllCJlsionn/ desi,?JI. ,
44
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Plastics and Appliances Plastic Possibilities '4O
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1 Margrethe OOw15, desigl/cd 111 1950, by Pril1ce Sig-,.lI7rd Brmar/off!' n/uf J1eton Bjom, coI/l/m/c fo
be fhe pajee! kitcl1e11 "l'SSelS. Bl!madotte nlso desiglled si"'cr m¡d filmitun:. Ht (bow! il1 foregroulldJ 12·5CIII/5ill.
n lIIeta! de•.>eloped al f!rc begillllillg of ¡he 20th cel/tury, /5 cOII/IJilll:d ¡{'itll {/ IlCW p/nstic, lIIe!mllinc, ;1/ tilis ltnliml Cubo
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rCOI/DII/Y in t!le l/se of plus/ies for general dOlllcstic l/se, bul Cilio Cololllbilli did 110/ compromise OJl good dcsign in (",'ell Ihe IIIOst Imsir ¡IDUS/'IJO/rt iI!lJll!'II/('III, /ikc this plnsfic rtuslbin of 1955. 1"1'n/
n today's world life ,vithout plastics is incomprehensible. Scientific research brought the first plastics to consumers at the beginning of the h"entieth century. By mid-cenhlry, designers in Europe and America were firmly ensconced in the manufacturing process, bringing their knowledge of production techniques and an eagerness to ,vork with new materials. Plastics grew into a major industry affecting almost every aspect of life from providing improved packaging and new textiles, to permitting the production of wondrous products and cutting-edge technologies in such things as televisions, cars, and kitchen appliances. Post-war social changes, particularly in E.urape, led to an emphasis on the kitchen and its equipment. Fitted kitchens ,·"ith colourful Formica-topped work surfaces and streamlined labour-saving devices such as refrigerators, vacuum c1eaners, electric mixers and kettles, and washing machjnes were soon widespread. Pressure on space meant that design ,'vas often focused on compacbless, and many of these new gadgets, made from
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446
5 TI/eH' ,ens
combinations of metal and plastic, were simple and easy to c1ean, sometimes almost clinical in appearance. Furnihlre design was also profoundly inf1uenced by plastic as a new medium for achieving some of the striking abstract shapes that marked the post-war periodo ,",\fhen plastic was used for furnihue in the 1950s it was chosen not just for its amazing malleability but beca use it couJd be moulded into the extreme organic shapes that designers promoted. In addition it could be simply cleaned with a sponge. The furnihlre designer Charles Eames committed himself ta understanding plastics techno]ogy, working dosely with Zenith Plastics to perfect the resin-impregnated fibreglass shell that he wanted to use far his moulded plastic chairs. Additionally, furniture designers found that plastic lamina tes could be used in a similar manller to traditional veneers, except that with plastics the surface could be plain and brightly coloured ar act as a replacement for a painted surface. Synthetic fibres were al so used by textile designers and incorporated into thcir
6 \\'O¡'I.'II vriglltly C!l/Ollfl.'d plastic IIpholslery 0pl'lled IIp eulirdy
IJOssibilifies for outdaor fllmitl/n' as seell ill t1l1'S!.' examp1es frolll tI'l' /l/id 19jOS. Ht 85CII//33/ill. 7 Prolon llllbrMkab1e dillllenl'llTe by George Xc/son brol/glJf ,;/rollg colollrs alld dl/rnbility lo tht' dillller table. Assortt,d Sl::t'S. 8 Rl/sse1IVrig1lt JlOlmlari:ed the moderJI slyfe ill AII/erica llt'ginlling ill tI'I'late 193°S. al/d cOIIIÍ/med lo brillg illspin'd dtosiglls lo f1l1! publk I1lrollg/1 file 19505. He tt'Orked ill /l/milI media. illcJlIIling lIIetals nl/d ceramics, alld .'elltlfred inlo plastic Inb1ctt'flre Wif11 IJis ~Ielmac dillllCrit'are for ;'\'orl1l1.'rJI /I/dl/slria/ Cllemical. L f/argc platlt'r} 3/ClII/q./ill. 1It'it'
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3 IVI,en ArlllT BTmllllllld fli:; /'ToOlel" E"l'ill took Oi'l'/" tlteil"fnllli1.ll radio 1II1I1II!f1lCt IIl"illg fil"lII ill '951. /lIl'Y a,'fIted n IU'it' dei'igll lIl'5tllef ie i'lt'/IImÍllg jrolllfimefiol1alislII. T//Ís Mble mdio, SK1.I1t~ig/1('d by Artul" 81'1I1/11 (lIId Frif::: EicM:r;1I 1955, i511 c!lIImcfai5tic producto Ht 1jcm/6il1. 4 RIIYlllolld LOl.'it'Y·5 <1'ork ¡m:; perm5i¡>e lI!1d prolific. [JI tite 19405 IIIld 50:; 1111 e5/ illla ft'd /llre.. out offOil r A /IIerícm 15 ClIlI1e i 11/0 con/lid wi /ll Ollt' of It íi' produCf$l'tlcll day. Loewy':; l'nr[!! pIl5[I-butloJl te!l'i'i:;ioll ol 1948 ¡¡'liS 011,. of tlll' fi 1"'3/ e.mll/Jlle:; of il;; killd,
lIIac/lillt" K;-'13 of 1957 1I/(1I1t' of l'0/ystyrof llOlISillg. Tln' e/¡'(IJI lilles nnd rnfiollnl desigll /lrollShf ti S('JlS('
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448
weaving, together nrith traditional rnatcrials. And \\'hen woven as uphobtery, plastics wcrc" durable alternative to easilv-\\-orn textiles. \ Vith domestic objects for the table, plastics served lhe post-H'ar household perfectly. Thcy H'ere durable and mar-resistant and, together \\-ith the nenr appliances that H'ere ostensiblv creatcd to make a houseH'ife's H'ork • easiel~ thcy H'ere also intended to streamlinc domestic life. Plastics \\"ere not derided as sorne inferior substance demoted for the kitchen alone: many products made of plastic H'el'e praised fol' fine design as eal'ly as lhe late 1940s. In 19.,1.7, in an article in HOIIse Benlltifllf, Earl Tllpper's amazing containel's H'ilh seals that made them airtight n-ere comparcd to art objects and their material to alabaster and jade. Other milestone objects include Sigvard Bernadotte and ActOll Bjorn's lvlnrgrefhe bOH'ls oi 1930, Cad-Ame Breger's cm-ered buckct of 1939 and Rllssel \\'right's ¡\le/lIlnc dirulen\'are ior .:\orthern Industrial Chemical. Oflcn, designers H'orked hand in hand with the scientists
5
to devise ncw lllaterials but lllore frequently the)' created objects to sllit them. Designers in the post-war era \\'holeheartedly believed in the pOH'er oi dcsign for e\'eryday living. Designers of UniqllC studio pieces created items ior indllstry and industrial designers generated ideas for objects made of glass and porcelain. Contcmporary design was undertaken in the belicf that the appearance of things affects the H'ay that we experience Iife afOlInd us. The first priority for designers of appliances \Vas to shape an object that nrould flllfil its pul'pose. This overarching concern \\'ith fUllctionaJism was the ethos that led the design of everyday things Iike razors, radios, toasters, lamps, television~scts, and even ballpoint pens. The sH'eeping curves of ~Iarcello ~izzoli's Mire/ln seH'ing machinc, the stark simplicity of Braun's radio of 1933, the graphic success oi Raymond Loc\\'Y's pllsh-button television, aJI miraculous in their capabilities, placed function together with form to (reate some oi the most pleasing objects for the home,
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449
The Space Age Furniture 454
Terence Conran, the founder of Habitat, summed up a key aspect of design
Ceramics 462
in the 1960s. "There was a strange moment around the mid-sixties when
Glass 464
people stopped needing and need changed to want. .. Designers became more important in producing 'want' products rather than 'need' products."
Metalwork 400 Fashion and Textiles 468 Industrial Design 474
This fundamental change meant that design was no longer just about function, economy, reliability, and longevity, but equally embraced impact, identity, and stylishness. It became a subject that lascinated the increasingly affluent public with their greater disposable income, extended lelsure time, higher expectations, and an apparently endless craving lar novelty and excitement. he 19605 were about change, which was almost illvariably seen as "progress." Progress vI'as one of the touchstones of the decade and was used to justify a rash of changes in different arenas fram fashion tú technology and morality. lndeed, progress ",.'as seen llot onl)' as desirable but inevitable, and, according to Harold vVilson, the ne\\' Labour leader in the UK, it \Amuld be delivered by the ",¡"hite heat of the technological revolution to (reate a classless, meritocratic society." 111€ spirit of progress was captured in the "space race" which commenced at the ver)' beginning of the decade when the youthful president of the USA, John F. Kennedy announced: "1 believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing aman on the moon and returning hirn safely to earth. No single project in th.is period will be more impressive to mankind." The space age was presented by politicians such as Harold Wilson, as "a time for a brcakthrough to an exciting and wonderful periad in our history, in which all can and must take parto Our young men and women, especially, have in their hands the power to change the world. We want the young of Britain to storm the new frontiers of knowledge ..." The post-war social revolution came to fruition in the 1960s. A society in which everyone knew their place was rapidly being superseded by a progressive, rneritocratic one in \Vhich apportunities for the young \Vere plentiful just so long as they had talent -l,·vhich \Vas now no longer defined by the established standards af the pasto It \Vas a time of great mobility - everyone seemed to be "on the move" both personally and socially. It v·,ras also a time of changing lifestyles and an expansion of moral codes and practices l,-vhich frequently led to friction between traditionalists and the YOW1g and, indeed, to the "war of the generations." Because of the sense that anything was possible, and the sense of unbridled belief in the ruture, the decade was, \vithout doubt, a great time to be YOlIng.
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Left: VenIa Panton, Pan/oll stackíl1g-cJwir, 1960. Tl1e lamoll5 196051ufuristic cJwir 5eelllS fo flow like liqlÚd. lt U'as prodllccd in a
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3 Prt'Side/l1 Kellll(,¡1y dl'Clnml ",\'0 sil/gle projecf i/llthe 196051 .('iJl lit' /llore illllm'Ssh'e fo Illflllkilld" l/Jnnlfllldillg allmll 011 fhe 1/100/1. Tlle qllest illdeed cnptllred file poplllar illlagillatioll, alld propiden n ridl sonrce of ill/agay ¡1'IJidl inflw.'/Iced nesigllt'rs.
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il1 tllt' decade: tlley ,l'ere nssertÍl'e, bmsl1, stylish. al/d il'itty. For one old-fashiol/ed critic, t/It!il' sOl/lid evoked "COIlllota/ioIlS of dil1l1['1' lIIusic for a pack of I11Ulgry call1liba/s.'' SUcfl criticislI1 tl'lIS /I1l1sic to /lIe ear:; of the group's youllg al1diellee. 2 Al1dy ¡'''arl1ol, Soup Can, 1962, After ¡!JI' /n'roie spiritllality of Abstmct ExpressiOl¡jsll1¡ POI' ArI, SUell a5 tllis, s1'1'1I1t'd a dmia! o/ al/ t!tal ¡1'a5 slIJlpo:;ed lo II/aller ill arl. But lo /lle cIJi/drell of 1111' l/1ass /l/edia age ils popll!ar COIISullleri:;t sl/bjecl gm'e it Irl/e re/emnce a/ld appt!n!. 1I0¡,t!I
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In 1959 Vague magazine had noted that "young" was appearing " ...as the persuasive adjective for aH fashions, hairstyles, and ways of life." By 1963, the media had become obsessed with youth's values, trends, and idols. Pop music - whether by the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, the Who, the Beach Boys, or Motown - was youth's rallying eall, and il frequently also beeame ils baltle ery. It was a tool of rebellion and a means of expressing identity. Innumerable records were released, sorne of which became mts, but most of which sank into obscurity. Pop musir aspired to the condition of fashion in which change was the only constant. According to George Melly in 1962, the young demandcd " ... musie as transitory as a packet of cigarettes and expendable as a paper cup." Young peopIe wanted music that was for /lora. Fashion followed suit and quickly became a topie of widespread
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interest and debate in 1963. lt was at this time that the word "pop" became the catehword for any styIe or sound associated \\ith the young - inc1uding the new painting style, Pop Arl. The young became an important consumer market group in the 19605 for hvo reasons. First and foremost \Vas the economic factor: full employment and the increased affluence of their parents meant that teenagers and those in their twenties had disposable income in enticing quantities and so became a much sought~after consmner group. Secondly the 'baby boom" following the Second "\I\'orld War meant that this new generation was a significant part of the population in demographic tenns. The consumer society had also given rise to changed attitudes among young people. 1l1e "children of the age of mass communication" were the first generation who
were boro after the war and who had Iittle memory of post-\\-ar austerity. Thcy had the money to be extravagant and were encouraged by the consumerist society so to be. Design reflected and expressed the decade perfectly. It was not only formed by the social and cultural forces of the time, but also helped to shape thern. The rnood of youthfulness, the spirit of novelt)r, and the ethos of desire were most seductively portrayed in the colour supplements - one of the symbols of the era. 111eir approach to design was epitomized in the first "design for living" feature in the British Sllllday Times colour supplement. It appeared soon after the magazine's latrnch in 1962 and said ''Poor design has become a target for anyone with a brick to throw: good design is treated as a sort of sacred cow. The attitude to function is racing to the same level of absurdity; testing is turning into an obsession. There are times when one longs to buy something plumb ugly and utterly unnUlctional." 111is was an attack on the refined Scandinavian taste of the 19.505, and the supposedly rationa!, objective product design exarnined in consurner-testing magazines. In their place the colour supplements encouraged. an emotionaI and subjective approach to design based on novelty, desirability, and fashionable taste. It was an approach successfully adopted by stores like Habitat - a "shop for
switched-on people" aceording to its founder Terenee Conran - and exploited the aspirations of young, professional, upwardly mobile buyers for an ec1ectic ensemble of design which ranged from the fashionable, through the utilitarian, to design cIassics. Design cIassics - such as Mareel Breuer's "Wassily" chair - were being reproduced in the 19605, and major reevaluations and exhibitions of the Bauhaus and de Stijl took place. By the end of the decade Modemist design was no longer the presenre of a few design proselytizers but \vas accepted by whole tiers of the middle classes and found its way into both the office and the domestic interior. However, a transformation had taken place. Modernism had lost its moral authority: what once had been a moral erusade become merely a style of design, part of a lifestyle of knowing soph..istication. Modern..ist c1assics took their place in the colour-supplemented showroom alongside Italian gadgets, 19th-century "downstairs" eookery equipment, country pine fumiture, disposable plastic cutlery, and Art Nouveau-styled paper earrier bags. lndeed what characterizes 19605 design is not any stylistic unity or shared aesthetic, but an increasing diversity of styles, forrns, and - beyond themdiverse attitudes and values about the role and nature of design in society.
5 •
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4 Dcnys LnSdllll, Natioual TIJeatre, LOl/doll, 1967-76. LOlldoll's SOHtlI Bal/k typijil!d tllC arc!Jitectllra! pl'ofcssioll's love of i¡¡e/l!gnllce, Corb/lsir1ll-illspired mw cOHcrete, al/n - as al/e illlportallt arc!Jitect pul it - "b/oodylIIilldedm'Ss." lt was a renctioll ngnillst tastefu/I/ess al/d "good mtlllJlers." 5 Psyelledelie grnpllies, Viclor Moseoso. The psycl/edelie style express(>¡t tf/e t'llflles of tlle eOlmter-CIIitlfre ill tl,eir "pllrisr~ form alld represellted rebelliol/, eelee/icis"" youtfifll1llesS, SeJlSIIOllSlless, alld a geJIeral Diollysiall outlook ill {{'hiell drugs, IIII/sic, alld sexfrofllred promiJlelllly.
453
Furniture Cult New Chairs 1 enrio 5co1l1ri, Donata D'UTbiIlO, PuDIo Lomn::i, alld GiOl/al/JaIl De Pas. Blo\," Chair, 1967_ TI,;s c1mir q/lickly becalJle ti C1/1t object alld represellfed tlle age of illlllJediacy alld lJOpelty, a/tJ¡oll:~/1 in Tea/i/y its JOTIII ¡cas
HI 83clII/33/1I. 2 riera GnUi, Cesare Paolilli, rmd FrtHlCO Teodoro, The Sacco, 7968. Tire elmir's hvelve millioll granules look tlle slmpe of file sitter's body (lnd 11111:; provided n variely of sil/illg posiliolls. Jt (allle ill a clloice of eigll! CO/Ol/T:;.
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the 1960s, the critic Mario Amaya writing in Tite Spectator argued that contemporary experimental fumiture designers "... parallel our painters and seulp..tors in inventing l1ew shapes and forms through the use of new materials." The origins of this bald age cf furnihlfe experimentation dates back to the mid-19S0s, when new thinking w1th materials and forms produced designs that reflected the affluence and greater individualism of the times. Charles Eames' moulded plywood shell and down-filled leather lounge chair 670 (and the accompanying ottoman), first manufactured in 1956, quickly beca me one, if not the chair most coveted by the design-conscious public, appearing countless times in interior design yearbooks and up-market magazines dwing the 1960s.
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Glass-fibre had become an increasingly corrunonly
454
used material at the experimental, up-market end of chair design in the 19505. In fum.iture, the flowing, organic shape of Eero Saarinen's "Tulip" pedestal chair 01 1936-7 had an enormous influence on younger generations of
chair designers, while Vemer Panton's "Panton" stacking chair of 1960 was the first chair to be manufactured. in a moulded, continuous glass-fibre shell. Chairs by Eames, Saarinen, and Panton may have graced the pages of design annuals in the late 19505 and early 1960s, but they inhabited a very small number of ordinary hornes. Mass taste at this time was still athmed to "colonia!," "rustic," and pseudo-antique styles. The emerging design-conscious young professionals, however, considered this type of popular conventional taste beyond the pale. For their part, the)' sought furniture that was modero and attractive, but not necessarily something \Vruch they \Vould keep for decades. It \Vas commoñ to find Scandinavian fumiture in the hornes of the design-eonscious middle classes of trus periodo This type of fumiture was characterized according to one advertisement of the time as having the oo ••• light, bright look of cool colours, crisp texlures and simple, clear-cut lines." lt appealed because it \'\'a5 elegant, refined, and appeared natural.
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1 Joe Colombo, Additiolla/ 5ystem, '968. Qlle of tlle ideas in good atrrency in lhe /afer .Ifears of ti/e decnde was flexibility nlld adaplability in fllmitllre. eo/ambo's standard componellts permilted (1 greal t'nriefy affor",s.
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2 loe Colombo, Boby stomge, 1968. MallY late-1960s /taliall desigus for
p/as/ic fl/mill/re ,,,ere popular Ilrrollgl/out ti/e 1970s, a/lJ¡olfgll lile fashiollablelless - alld cDsI - of plastic was affected by lIJe ellergy crisis.
ltalían Sculptural Chairs
, 1 Sergio Mnzzfl, Toga cllair, 1968. T/¡e rOlwded s}¡apes of file Toga eombille with fIJe SlIIoot/mess il1lJlflct
o/Joml, perfeelioll o/sl/Iface, (Inri
o/ lile ortmge or '!.v/Ii/e lo express t!le
desigll mood 01 lile late ]9605. Ht 65cm/2 j1:ill. 2 Gaetano Pesce. Up 1 Chair, 1969. Pesa said t/lIIf l/lis sort o/ desigll
finite, blocked, stalic. COllstan!, predictable. progml1ll1led, probable. abw/ute, coherellt, cOlltillllOlIS, Illlifon/l, lllld //lOl/otonDI/S ... ".
'·V.86011/34/1I • 3 Cesare I..eollardi (/lid fnmCfl Stagi. Dondolo rockillg e/mir, 1967. Tllis c1lflir, described as a "semi-il'Ork ofar!," exemp/iftes ti/e seu/pluml lendellcy iI¡ 1960s fl/mill/re. /1 II'as ami/ab/e in t/lreeco/Ol/rs. L. 1.2jlll/4/lúlI.
3
455
The Inlluence 01 Pop Art in the UK
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1 Habitat, illterior oj SllOp, 1960s. ¡'\'ith Ihe opel1illg oj the Jirst Habitat ill 196.;., "Iijest yle"
d!'Sign fid/y arrived. Taellce ComtlJl's tlilll ¡¡ias to I"JI!1 "a 5wil1ging 5/lOp jor switched-Oll peop!e."
But the cultural changes that were occurring in the early 1960s meant that even contemporary Scandinavian design received its share of criticisrn in the ne\·v consumer journalísm of the colour supplements. Priscilla Chaprnan, writing in the SlIllday Telegmph colour supplement in 1965 attacked thin, weedy-looking roorns. Neutral roorns filled \·vith bland leak sideboards, smoolh stain-resistant table taps, and mean chairs, the whale 'brightened' with Swedish glass. Part of the trouble with these roams is lhal !hey're duB," One furniture trend in the the 19605 was connected with the developrnent of corporation culture. The new company headquarters and offices \Vere furnished in a consistent, aesthetically sophisticated way with modular units and Moderníst aesthetics. There was also a boom in building institutional buildings such as universities and hospitals, which often utilized "knockdO\vn" fum..iture. This had interchangeable components which made it economical to produce, and easy and cheap to replace. Such furniture also became JI • • •
456
2 Peta Murdocll, paper jlll"lliture, 1964. TJ¡e papa c!mil" ¡¡¡ay ltave beell more sYlllbolic l/tml jllllctiolla/; it he/d a promise oj tl"u/y disposab/e jllmiture l/mI mas fim. HI 68cll1/261,ill.
3 Robin Day, Polyprop chail~ 1964. Day cmlle
fro¡¡¡ mIoMa gel/emlioll - !lis tlpproacll
available for the domestic market and could be assernbled at home by the purd1aser from a flat-pack kit of parts. Knockdown furniture had some appealing benefits for consurners. Compared with standard furnihlre, it was slightly cheaper, it was more likely to be in stock because it \·..,as easy to sto re, which made instant purchascs possiblc, and it was also easíer for consumers to transport horne. The vast majority of knockdown furnihlre in the mid-1960s was, however, conventional in appearance and had limited appeal for those yearning for "young" and fashionable furniture. As one commentator observed i.n 1965, it \",'as inevitable that the young who bOllght fashionable clothes and went to discos would "want furniture in up-t04e-minute colours, pop shapes and pop, op, or wild floral patterns: stuff whi.ch is d1eap enough to repaint with a[n] ... aerosol spray or tlu·ow away when a new style, pattern, or colour appears. The most complete example of fashionable and disposable furniture in the 19605 was tl1e so-called "paper" chairs, which llsually comprised three different JI
4 Max Clelldi/millg, ~Iaxima mllge, 1966. CleJldilllliJlg aillled ni file YOlIlIgJa,>fJiol1f1b/e II/nrkel (lnd tllO::e ";11 IDI/dl." Nellrly 300 pieces o/ "¡mus/orll/alioll Jl/milllno " could lle aS$embled
mili Ou? 1j sial/dI/Tri par!:; II'1/ir/¡ en/m' jn fllll/lJIber DI ¡acquers.
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6 8erJl(znj Holdmf'ny, Tomotom jllrllitllTe, 1966. Ho!llllimy belit:i.'ed t1U1/ f"rJIitllre s/lOlIfd lit' Ndwnp CI/Dl/gll lo Ix' expclldnble." T/le tt'/lite, red, blllt', .l/ello'I',
grt'/'II or plIrple e/mir sold for aboll! f2, "Witll llu' rabIe rdaiJillg nI jusI I//Irter Ll- Table 1lt 75 C11l/ 2 91,i11.
7 Emest Rnce, foldiug e/mir, 1960s. Tl1e grOi(,t/1 of file pub/ic seclor in tire 19605 crealed a /leed for de5igl1 t!mt COI/Id be mnss pl'Odllced ill keepillg wit/, a spi1"if of lIlodemi::afiOIl. T/lis e/mil' H'ITS
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prodllced for a Se/lOO/ JIlllSt'1/I11 sen,ice. Ht 75clII/29/;ill. 8 AI/ell ¡olle;;, fable scllfptllre, 1969. T/¡is ¡('as parl of a fimiled specially
editioll project by JOlles
tlml
fillked llie subje't lIIafter 01 Pop Art <1'iI11 desigll. 11 sen.'f!5 to ri'lIlilld liS tllal tlle imagen¡ al tllt~ '9605 COl/id bi COlltrOloersial ill ils 5exism. Ht 61CII//2~ill,
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Modernist Simplicity in Scandinavia - New Forms lar New Materials
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1968. Like IIlIlI1y itcms oj plnstic JlIrIlilure. ti/e Pastilli WiTS ami/ab/e ¡II n mllge o/ brigltt (o{O!frs. Beillg so loil' made it stab/e, bu! tlle sitter cOlltd n/so make it rack or roll. Ht )2cm/2o'/.;/I, /. 93'111/361,;11, 2 Eero Anmio, Clahe dmir. 1966. Tlle soft. pndded interior l/al ollly gave nfee/illg o[ almos! womb-Iike pro/ectioll (lIId ca/m: il cOlltrasted
with tl,e spnce-age,
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458
papers to make a board of five laminates, gIV1t1g it a washable finish and the ability tú stand prolonged wear for three to six months. The chairs were stamped out as a piece of flat card, which was decorated in bright Op or Pop patterns. These decorations were printed on to it at the same time as the card was pressed and scored. The most famous paper chair was dcsigned by Peter Murdoch in the UK; it was manufactured in the USA, and received widespread international recognition. Inflatable furniture, usually made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC), upheld the Pop characteristics of youthfulness and Eashionability. Sorne pieces \Vere also designed to be disposable. In the latter part of 1967 inflatable chairs by Quasar Khanh, the French team of Aubert, Jungman, and Stinco, and the Italian design tearn of Scolari. Lomazzi, D'Urbino, and De Pas beca me available in Europe and the USA, and "'ere widely written about. Although it was expensive, the Italian designers' BJow chair (see p.-l56) became the best-kno",n inflatable chair. Khanh's inflatable chairs ,..,'ere slightly
cheaper. The c1airns made for disposable furniture, however, \Vere sometimes as inflated as the furniture itself. For example, one cornmentator - lena Larsson, writing in the joumal Form in 1967 - made the prediction that " ... pretty soon our whole household can be moved in a big bag - when inflatable plastics and folding cardboard have become popular as fumiture materials. The trend to",ards simpler and cheaper fumiture is already under way and cannot be stopped. lt wiIl probably alter our whole attitude towards furniture and furnishings, leading to a freer, less pretentious, less status-conscious milieu." AIso evidence of the trend towards less formal, cheaper forms of furniture"were ''bean bags." These were chairs that contained as many as twelve million plastic granules or polystyrene beads, which adjusted to the shapc oE the sitter's body. The first, and one of the most stylish bean bags, \Vas rile Sacco (see p.-l56). Jt was available in eight colours, and was designed in 1968 by the Italian team of Gatti, Paolini, and Teodoro.
3 POli! KjnerllOllII, Table PK 5.tA, 1963. TII/: silllplicily of 1950S $cnlldinavial1 desigll ,/'aS COlltillllCd illto tlle I/exl decade, rll'lIIollslrntillg l/mf file fl/milllre tmditiol/ cOII/d remnin aUve al/d re/l'i-'all/. 4 HallS ¡.Vegner, The Hoop Chair. 1965, AltllOl/gJlnot pul illlo produclion 111I1il1lle 1980s, I1lis e/mir ci.'okes a period of íJllIOPfltÍ<'t' forlll nl/d nn experímel/tall/se of /IIfllerials. IV. 1.05111/311 5il/. S Alltfi Nurmesniemi, Chais 001, 1968. Nl/rmeslliemi's chaise goes ¡lIrtller t1UlIl mallY 01 ils predecessors iJl being i't'ry Jow alld git'iJlg a stllst of rose, ,{'hile mailllaiJlillg a Alodemist simplicity. Diam. 1.'I'II/.¡-fl 7i1l.
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3 Venler PantOIl, Panton slackillg c1mir, 1960. Tbis lalllol/s desigll it'l'nl beyolld Saarillell's Tulip pedesfal e/mir i1/ makillg tlle e/mir "aU olle lllillg agaill." Ai.'llilab/e iu a muge of c%l/rs, if is lIOt so 1II1/c11 orgallic as liquid ill its eJject. Hf 8J.5cm/JJiJl
1 1 l/lIIari Tapiot'flarn, Wilhclmina e/mir, 1960.
TI/e c1wir looks like SI/c11 a "al/e-off" t1mf it is sllrprisillg lo leam if ,('as designed to be s/ackable. rile desigll was awarded a go/d meda/ at file 1960 Trielllmle ill Mi/m!.
2 Nmma Dil::.el alld Jorge Dit::.e1, Swinging Chair, 1959. AltIlol/gh il1 keepillg ,(lit/¡ tlle "swil1Sil1g sixfies," it was desiglled il/ tile late fifi/es. TIle choice of materia!s COlltrnsts mit!1 Aarllio's Glohe c1wir. Ht 1.2511114ft 1111.
3
45
New Sculplural Forms in lhe USA - a New Approach lo Oflice Furnilure
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1 Ceo/ge NelSOIl, Sling soja, 1964. Nc!sol/'s desigl1s provide n "solter" lvlotiemislII, wlzícJl W(1S IIIl1e/1 fac'ol/red IJI¡ corpomtiolls as n sYlllbol 01 ¡lió,. lIIotfemity mzd sophisticntioll. L. 2.22111/7ft 3in. 2 David R.ow/nlld, -lO-in--l
stnckillg cJwil~ 1964- T}¡e ~.
sfackillg capability oj Rml'lmut's
fine/y detniled al/ti 'UislInlly coo! chail" ;:uns virlllnl/y IIl1equalled4001 ¡!Iese strollg, fireproof cJUlirs COI/tri be pincen ill n stnck ¡ol/rlcet (r.3 lIIetres) hig/¡o
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Ht 76cl/1/30ill.
3 Richard SclllI!t:::, Leisure Collcction c/mir. 1966. There is n conjitfe!1f /umdlillg 01 f01"1II ill l/lis KllO!l productioll. perlwps explnílled by fhe Inci tlm! 5cl1l1l/:: WIIS n sCIIlplor as well as (1 fllmitu,..: de:;iguer. 4 C1mrlcs Eames, ¡mlllgl' dtair, 1958. This 10as 0111.' oj ¡lIefirst mrintiOlls 011 fallll!5' iconie /ol/uge c1mir of 1956. Tec1l11ieolly ÍlmO
2 3
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This was al/otller illlriallt of file 1956 cJl(liI: Tfle lI1ake-over, I/fili=il1g "sojtpad" ellsl1iOl1s, made it appear e,'t'11 II/ore 11I.-rllríolls aud collljorfable. HI 94CIII/37íll.
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6 Corpornte office desigll. The ro/e ol desigll in rcpresCllting efficiellcy
alId 1II0demity ¡¡¡as firl1l1y grnsped ill t/le 19605, alld COlllph:I/1C1lted the illdh,idllalislII and exprcssh,c!/t'ss ol ml/e11 persoual de:iign. 7 Estelle and Eril'ille Lat'eme, Invisible chair CH-l, 1962. TIJe La¡'emcs' c1mir paid homage to 5aarillCll's Tulip e/mil', but lIlarried I!le orgallicislII ¡¡litll lIJe magic alld appeal of Irn!lsparmcy. Ht 1.37I1/l//t 6in 8 \Vmdell Cast!e, Castle anllc/wir, 196¡. Cast/e comlJillcd seu/plurn/ ¡orll/s
Roberlo 5ebastiaJl Matta. Malitte 101ll/ge seatil/g, late 19605. Matfa's desigll ¡i'as a/most il~finitely I'carmllgeab/e to adapl lo differt'llt space~, or /le cOlllbillCd a~ scu/pture <('IJell Jlol in lIse. Ht 7.56111/5ft 1111. 10
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9 O/i<,ier lvlolI/SIII', BouloUlll chair, 1969. Mowguc spccifically
illtcnded t/,C c!wir fo ha"e a distinctiue persoJla/ily, f1Ild I/Jis l/linkilIg /ed lo SOllle of the antIJropolllorp/Iic c!wir dt'Siglls of tIJe 19805. 'iv. 7lC1l1/28ill.
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Derivatives of The Sncco quickly became available and were relatively inexpensive and popular. Italy enjoyed leadership in furniture design throughout the decade. The designers Vico Magistretti, Ioe Colombo, Alfa and Tobia Scarpa, and Mario Bellini, as we11 as others, a11 established or consolidated their rcputatíons for clcgant and increasingly adventurous designs. Their \Vork was often manufactured by Cassina in Italy or Knoll or Herman Miller in the USA. Their work, praised by critic Mario Amaya as "semi-works of art," included forms that were part functíonal chair, and part sculphual object. The majority of trend-setting chairs in particular carne from Europe, and especially from Italy. Sorne, including the sculptor César's chair of 1969, made use of injectionmoulded polyurethane foam. The majority of visuaUy iru10vative dlairs, however, exploited the myriad formal possibilities of various plastics, especially moulded glasstibre. Alberto Rosselli's ¡lIlIlbo chair of 1967 and Moby Dick chaise longue of 1969 both used moulded glass-fibre to
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create a flowing, bulbous but light mass. Eero Aarnío's 1968 Pasfilli chair, offered in a range of six colours, used moulded glass-fibre to crea te a solid and heavy-Iooking fonn that was circular in plan, while Cesare Leonardi and Franca Stagi's DOlldolo rocking chair of 1967 developed the rigid struchlral strength of glass-fibre to create an elegantly twisting plane in space. The sculptural innovation fadcd a'Nay at the beginning of the 19705, partIy beca use of the change of moad created by the energy crisis. However, already in the last years of the 1960s, experimental designers vvere moving away from designing furniture that ,-vas a "semivwrk of art" to being concemed with total environments. In 1969 the British designer Max Clendi.nning arguect that "Followcd to its extreme, huniture would be a series of versatile, interchangeable, multi~ptupose cushjons" and, in the final years of the decade, designers became interested in flexible designs and total environments another innovation in an open-minded decade in which hunihue design flourished.
46
Ceramics Studio Pottery
I
1 Bt'l'IlIll'd LencfJ,
sfol/(w(11'I.'
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Ll'llcil - (lnd all tllal he slood for 111 /crms o/ tri/tI! fa /l/nterial;;, seu;;il ¡¡'ily o/lwl/dliJlg, mili
/01'111 deril'illg from flllleliol/ - cOlltiJlI/t'd lo illJllleuce trnditioJlnlists, bul l,,-,(ame n :.ymool agaillsl whicJ¡ lo rebd by f111 nnti-cstablislllllt'/II, yal/IIS gi'JIl'rafioll o/ Cl'fnmic nrtist,:;.
Ht lfromleft lo right) n.5CIll/S,~iJl, 15CIII/6/1I, 10'5(1II/8ill, 21(1II/8/ill. 2 Oltofllld Gertrlld Nnl:ler, ¡mse, (.J96.2.
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¡\!a/:/ers brollg/lt EIII"OI'(,(lII (('mm;, fmditi0l15
lo tlll' USA w!Il'1l flley cmigrnled l/len' fo escape
¡!le
of ff/e St:colld World \Vnr. T}¡e COIII/Jilllltioll 01 elegllllt /01'/11 (1Ju/ bcauliful tfllWl/S
gln:e gnl't' ¡lid, U'ork CIIOrl1l0llS f1ull1orily
rllld iJljllltmct'. Ht 3-lCIJI!J3;1I. 3 Lllc/e Rit', slOl/fil'an' bottk. J96¡. Tf/e
lil4'rntiOIl of xll/pluml form is appnn:llf i/l Rú"s Hwk nltJ¡ollgh, cOIIIJmred fo fJIl' Flmk IlOlft'r.1f I.'IIImmtillgfmlll file USA, /u'r ¡l'ork is rt'sfmilll.'d 1I1l111mlflllCC11.
y expressing modernity and freedom of expression, ceramics in the 1960s typified their times. Whatever the stylc, dinner",are ",as being modernized on a mass scale. The affluent young sought ceramics that were stvlish, modem, and fashionable such as thc industriall\' , , produced ranges from Scandinavian, Italian, and British companies which made use of bright colours, bold pattems, and graphic dccoration. Here ",ere ¡tems that were functional bul fun. Dinncnvare also acquired a decidedly high art connotation in the decade, with Rosenthal's Studio Linc by a range of artists from lucio Fontana, through \lictor Vasarely, to Eduardo Paolozzi. These ",cre relatively expensivc ranges and indicate that ceramics and art ",ere moving c10ser together. But it ",as in studio potter)' ",here, in typical 1960s fashion, boundaries began to blur. In thc 1950s, studio potter), had enjoyed a revival and traditional potters such as Bernard Leach were highly regarded. But in thc cad)' 19605, initiallv , on the \Vest Coast of the USA, artist-
B
462
potters SLICh as Peter Voulkos created ",ork that departed from ccramic tradition. Flat slabs ",cre joined to ",heelthro"'ll forms ",ith epoxics to create hybrids of ceramics and art that seemed. lo o",e more to Abstract Expressionism and Picasso than to anv of the masters of the mainstream potter), tradition. lhe spirit of so-called "Funk ceramics" was summed up by Robcrt Ameson: there were to be "no academic hierarchics... no worshipful old timers ",hose \Vord \Vas law... everybody \Vorked as they sa\V filo" The new aesthetic of rollghness, polychromy, and anti~ refinement was in kccping with the wider rcbel1iolls aesthetic of the time. The forms emphasizcd the intrinsic propcrtics of material ancl.surface, and took on tUlllsual imagery, from toasters and type",riters to the kitchcn sink.. Pop Art had a profOLUld influence on this generation: for the 1960s avant garde, whether ccramics was craft or art ",as irrelevant. For them, the materials and medium took their place aJongsidc other creative practices such as painting and fibcr art. AH \Vere part of a continuum of possibilitics and a means of personal cxpression.
J
,
4 }e:;sie Tate, Mid\\'inter dilllll!r :>enlice, 1962. As a resl//I of illcrcascd afjll/el/cc alld "dcsigll as/ifest!,Ie." o'l'IIillg a,m~IIiOlmb/e mrd desirab/e dimrer sen'ice lIIaftered lo lIlallY yOlfllg peop/e. 5 Hall:; Copa, slOIl/!ware composife oottle, c. 1962, Coper's fill/!/y balaJlced slmpes fldd I/p lo a SCII/plllm/ re/atioJlsllip offorms IIJal crente al\lodemisl-illjllleJlced bul lmditiollalistderj¡'ed 'l'Ork. HI 20.5C1II/8;1I. 6 Pder Vou/kos, mse, 19H. TI/e gl/m of tlle 1950-69 cernmic Tt'i.'O/rdioJl, VOlflkos Ilelped plll cemlllies 011 mI equa/ foo/illg ;:l'itll ollt"r art forllls, n.>placillg slUlpt'S illfrenled frolll f'meliolla/ l'essels soll, Toaster, 1966. ATllesoll ;:m5 oue of lile /eaders of lile {Vest Coasl FlIllk 1Il0¡'ellleJ/t. His cemllli,~ paml/e/ed Claes O/del/bllrg's 50ft, Pop Art sculplures iJl tmllsformillg f!'i'eryday, ballal objects iJlto ¡orll/s of - accordill~ to om' critic - "bmsl/ • < alld "irl//ell! social cOlI/lI/el/tary." 8 Benlk:; ml/g, C.196.J.. The 19605 saw tire ri;;e of ¡h'~igll epIJemeTll, m/d ,dUlI ,ens lo wcome m('lIlombifia, Sl!l1illg at /lIajor illteTllatiOJlal tll/l:lioll/¡oUSl.'S by ti/e 19805. Ht 8.5cm/3'!i1l.
......
' ~-----'
4
6
9 Eftare SOft;;¡b5, Bunna totl!llI scu/plure', 196.J.. Sott$lfSS' largl' Ct'mlllic alld glll:>s sculptrm'S rt'il/lroduCl'd idea:' aoolll symbol. icollogml'}¡Y' al/d rillltTl ill tlle colllexl of Por alld hlll(l¡'aliClII. Ht 2.08111/6ft Joill.
8
9
46:
Glass New Organic Shapes
1
2
1 Har,yY Lilt1etoll,g/nss alJj('cts, 19,5--6. f.ittlelOIl ,ms key ;1/ tlll' (rl'nti,.. .• d('i:l'1opmcllt ol glns:,. TI/e im't'llt iOIl o/ I/('il' fOrllwltll' /l/mili fJ¡nt ¡he dl!5igl1cr could nl"O I~' n /IInke,.
01111
domestic sen/e. Lit/Ie/oll's il'Ork SllOil'S I!l{' IIl'itl sCIIlptural possi/1i/ities. Ht (fal/est) 33.5C1I1/1Y:ill. 2 Tapio lVirkkaln. Kanttarelli ,'ase, 19+7. In l/JI.' 194°>-505 lVirkknln desig!1l'd n picce tlln! ,1'011 JIÍIIt iJltcmntiOllnl r('cogl/Uiol/. A Il'Ork bt'C(lJ1I1.' ilion' $('/15110115
, \
nemal' later, {,is
a//(1 xuiplum/,
cOlljirmillg lVirkknln's sfnll/lillg. /-Ir S.jcm/31.iIl.
3 GlIIlJInr Cyrél/ nI/a KIlj Frt1l1ck (miIM/e), Pop gob/els, 1965-6. Cyréll rcmemllt'ri'd l/lnl, "111 196j, nfter ¡'/sifiIlS se<'ernf II(~ n'1"nrillllls Witll nll tlll'ir fflllfnstic ('xo/ie jisllcs, 1 bt-gml fa {'II;OY II/y:"t.·~f /¡y doillg tlll'Se go[lfds rcitll IIIl1!ticolollrt'd ~t.'JJI~. Ir.: lII4Id.: lli.:m illlJ J/lmiÍrl?d Il!ífeTlmt CO/Ollr COlJll'¡Ilnfioll:'." Ht (/eft pnir) 16cm/6!ill.
fter the Second ,",Vorld vVar glass design became more organic, with silhouettes often simple and apparently funclional. The "Glass 1959" exhibition al the Corning Museum in New York was a showcase for the dominant tendencies, bul aIso a swansong. For, in 1962, the Toledo Muscum of Art in the USA sponsored two seminars al \'\'hich glass was blown from a new formula that could be melted at a temperature low enough to be workable in the Shldio ar classroom. Very soon it was possible for designcrs to make their OWI1 glass. In the 19605 and '70s there was a Shldio glass reviva!. Designers moved away from farms with a clear outline to more irregular, broken, and occasionally eccentric shapes with uneven colour and texture, and diverse decorations. Glass \Vas treated as a medium of artistic expression, and even the nominallv , ftmctional forms of the 1950s were superseded by decorative or sculptural experiments. Typical of the ncw tendency ",as a rediscovery of Art Nouveau and, in particular, the designs of l.e. Tiffany and Emile Gallé. Art Nouveau, \Vith its sinuous,
A
464
3
sensuous, idiosyncratic shapes and often extreme asvmmetrv, \\'as deemed to cvoke the 19605 mood of , , rebellion and dccadence, Ln glass, the technique of p¡¡te~ de-ix/Te, associated ",ith Art NOllveau, \Vas rcdcployed and the Oallm factol)' isslled works by contemporar)' sculptors including Salvador Dali and César. Scandinavian design flourished in the 19605. Finnish designers Tapio Wirkkala and TUllO Sarpaneva created a free-flo",ing, adventurolls sty1c, reAccting the mood for individualism and experimentatian. At the Kosta ",orks in S\\'eden, Bertil Vallien and Goran and Alln \'Varff exploited the ne"- aesthetic sensibility for colour and flo"'ing farm. But it ",as in the USA ",here a ne", attihlde to glass ",as most pronow1Ced. Sam Herman's work ranged from simple and formal free-blawn lead glass, throllgh abstract, sculptural mirrorcd glass forms, to Pop Art-influenced gIass sculphlTCS. In the 1960s, glass offered many crcative possibilities, and a paper presented at the eighth Intemational Congress of Glass in 1968 Sllms up the era: uArtist-produced gla5s: a modern revollltion."
5 4 Timo Snrpallei'fl, Finlandia Bamboo mse, 196.;_ T/¡e ¡Óllller
oI sCiwnlmajor mmrd:;.
5ar1/fl1/l:.:a de:;igllf'd 1IIt1I1Y dWmmf objt'cts -
--
I
oI
•
4
from mst~iroll cookillg ¡enre lo ¡¡'mppillg papel' -1111/ is pnrfiCl/lnrly n'lJI/.'IIIbr.wd for "is Jligh/y sopl/istimted glns:> o[ flu! 19605. Ht 15(1II/51.ill. 5 Knj Fml1ck. Warlsila-Nuutajarvi oow/. 1967. T/¡e IInlll'(' gfnss as 111/ orgal/ic. allllosl /h'¡IIg eJltily /5 captl/red lIere. Frnllck il'llllted fIJe alljec! fa "sttlJld 0/1 ils OWIl lIIerit:;."
,
6
6 Di,:" Toikkn, Lollipop Isle, 1969. Toikkn, wllo becml1f' nrtistic dirl!c/or of file Ambia I Vorks, desigl1ed domestir iml'eS for /(/(10111 productioll bul Ul50 l/sed glns:;. as n seu/ptlll'«1 medil/lIl for Dile-offa,-tistie creafiOlls. 1/t 38cl1I/15 Í! 1.
I
8
7
7 Snliwdor DnlíJor Dalll1l. paté-de-verre scu/plnre, 1970. JI/slns Rosellt/m/ COlllmissiolled nrtistsfor tI/ár Stl/dio Rnllge. so Dnl/III engnged sculptors il/c/lIdil/g Snlmdor Dnli fo desigll "nrtistic" gfnsswnre. Ht 76cIll/;oill. 8 5nm Hall/n/l, grol/p of mirron'd fOl"/IIs, 1970. TJll'St' flI"t' I!sst'lItinfly sC/llplures. nlld hnI'e n killsllip willl file cxpcrimcl/ls tnkillg plnc!' ill Ihe filie nr!s illllle 19605. Ht 39clII/15;1.il/.
465
Metalwork Slainless Sleel 3 Keitll Tysst'II. si/pt'r
crllldelnhrum. 1966. Lih' tl,!! mace, il tl'115 n/so cOllllllissioJled by ale 1\'orsf'¡J~flll Compal/Y
01 Goldsmitlls, iJl l/lis (nse for Exeter Unipersily. nI/ti eombin!!s !radifioll wirll
(1
cerfai" degr!'!'
ofilllloc'ntiol/. Ht 46cl1I/18ill.
1 SIllar! Dedill. J111Tcd-.~i/f sih'CT Jl/llCt', 1966. COIIIII/issiol/ed b.1( tlle 1\'or;;1I;p/ul Campal/Y o/
dt'sigllers Iike lIilll ill ¡he USA
GoldsmitJ,;; as n .'~m lo Bat1l l/uiras;t.". lbe mace¡l/ses
muí Emt1J'f. ¡¡'<,n' re:.pollsible for p01/1/lnri:iJlg n coIlscn'llth'!'
Imditioll u'itll /l COllllllitml!llt fa
A10demist slyle i{'itllÍl/ file lIliM!l' e/as:; II/nrkel. Colfel! por
tllt' 1II000tcm agt' SOl/gil! by t11O:'(' rt'Spol/siNefor l'xpmllfiJlg Jlight'f edllcnfiOJl iJl fIJe 1960:>. L. 85(1II/35ill.
466
2 Rol>l'rf I\'e/dl, staill/l?5s-s!ee1 fOfft'/? seto (,1966. ¡Ve/e11 (fIld
lit 2jCm/lO/ill.
"The products of the ancient craft of the silversmith, however modem in design, however graciously pursued, will perhaps seem marginal to the mainstream evolution of metalware design and as such wil! assume the character of an essentialIy anachronistic luxury." So wrote the decorative arts expert Philippe Garner, summing up the situation of silverware in the 19605 and 70s. Modern, elegant silverware was, indeed, still produced in the 1960s by lhe likes of lhe Danish finn Jensen or the British Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths. It was seen to its best effect where designed fer traditionaI ceremonial settings - maces or candelabra for modem universities, for example, and bowls or goblets for the Church. Similarl)' as happened in glassware, there was an Art Nouveau influence on silver design in the 19605, but Httle was produced that broke boundaries and conventions as had been happening in ceramics and glass. However, the adoption and development of stainless steel by medium to large manufacturers was to to be an exciting development for designers producing works for
a society characterized by increasing mass affluence and a concem with style related to dai1y living. Although it had been in use since the 19205, stainless steeI was thought of as a "modern" material, and thus appropriate for the technological age. A ne\·v emphasis was given to it through flah,vare competitions SUd1 as the one organizcd by the Museum of ContempOraf)f Crafts in New York in 1960. In the 1960s, designing for companies such as Boda Nova, and Pott and Viners, designers SUd1 as Robert "\'elch, Gerald Benney, David Mellor, Folke Amstom, and Carl Pott brought into currenc)' a modem aesthetic in metahvare designo An undoubted modemity of simplicity and chunkiness was complemented by a range of finishes which were also relativelv , novel, and contrasted with "conservative" silven,\'are. As Carl Pott has stated, a more modem society in which speed and convenience are expected requires materials that are " ... much tougher, [\Vilh] utensils ab!e to stand up to added abuse. StainJess steel, and then also steel mixed with nickel and chrome in special alloys, were introduced to meet thesc nceds."
\\~ I
I I
5
4 Dn<'id ¡\ld/or, staill/eSf.-stee! Thritt cullery. 1965. TI/(' cllth}! iunS COllllllissiolleri by ¡he A1illistn¡ of Puulic 81/i/dill,?s • • al/ti \Vorks nlld t..:stifit':5 fo WltCII
ilIl
tl1l! pub/ic sector
age
,l'IlS
n
sig 11 ~fícn 11 f colI/m iSSielll i Ilg agCI/ t.
TllcfiI'c-piece /'n/1St' il'a:;; desigl1cd jor rdath'ely el/fap 1IIr1!1ufactun:. 5 Tapio IVirkkala, Composition wtler)f, 196;. IVirkknln's Composilion has a moden¡, sClIll'furIll.fi.'rl fo il. ¡'specinlly flu: kllifi', whic/, /'t'scmbh's n el/bisl sCIIlpful"l! 11IId contras!:; ¡('ilfl l/u' rOllllded ¡onl/s of JIu'
6
resl of ti//! CIItlt'r!!. 6 Gl'Org
Acorn cOlldimellt set. J95J. jello;ell's desiglls are cOllsiSft'JItly elegnllt tllr()//gllOl/l t}¡e 19505 (lIld '60S. jl'IlSCII,
Hl' p"T$l/l'¡1 dI/n/ iJlterest:; of SCII/ptltrl.'
mili si/¡wíI'lJrk. {l/Id
mnilltnilled a crtnU¡'l' dialogue bí'tWi'i'1l lile /il'O.
7 Dm'id Mellor, slaiuh'Ss-stI!I!J (capot, 1965, (0111missiolled by file Millistry 01 Pllb/ic Bui/dillgs alld Works. /t il/trodllced 111001'1"11, wel/desiglled fimctiollaf il'af¡? fo tl mllge 01 users ill gOi't!l"Ilmellf cnllteel/S alld prisolls. Ht qcm/5/'ill.
8 Ame /tlCObsell, Cylinda line labfeware, 1967. COlllbillillg fmditiou IlIlli j¡/IIO~'tltiOIl, it il'01l sfi'em/ tlwtlrds illcll/dillg lile Associatioll o/ illdustrial Designas' lntematiOlla/ Desigll Award i/11968. Tetlpol/lf 17CIIl/6!;iIl.
467
Fashion and Textiles Shapes and Styles 1 .\'il/a Ricci dn"Ss, 1962. At the begilllliug o/ ti/e 1960s, haute couture sllOwed littlt l1tt'tlrl'lle55 of t]¡e social (lIld cultllral e/mllges
J
••
• ••
"
tlmf ,i'ere gafhaiJlg mOlllentllm.
~hrist~D~
\ Expon , ···· ·· ••
TflÍs gnrll1l'lIf,frOIl/ tlle Fnl/1962 colfl'ctioll, owes its sfy/e fa fhe precedillg decadt'.
• •
••...•---.-/~
2
1 I
-
3
2 Dt.>siglled by Jollll AIcCollllel1, fI,e Biba lago ¡m,; c1early :>Ollrced fmlll Art NOIfl'etlll, but beCtllJll' mI IlJldel/iabl.1I1960:0 5.'111100/. A ra'tllllpl'd, Art Deco-iJl5pired lago ¡m,; illfml1l1ud ill 1969.
3 A·!tlry QlIIlllt (ul/tr!?) witll mooels il'enrillg her Ginger group e/Otl'l''; 1
-
"W
468
hat does fashion represent?," asked Vogue in 1959, "Decoration? Armour? A mood of society?" Whatever the answer, the magazine thought it beyond doubt that "For millions of working teenagers no"" c1othes... are the biggest pastime in life: a symbol oE independencc, and the fratemity mark oE an age group." Youthfulness was becoming central to fashion as the 19605 began, and sources of fashion inspiraban \Vere beginning lo change, with styles no\\' trickling I1p from the street to mainstream storcs. In this, young fashion buyers rejected "good laste" and high style, and no longer ctid the Parisian hallte colftl/re fashion houses enjo), unrivalled authority. In keeping with the mocd for youthfulness and change, fashion became a topie of national interest and debate in 1963 - the year ",hen "Iegs never had it so good." The emphasis on legs \Vas underlined by the arrival of the mini, ",hile skirts \Vere flared or ",idcly pleated for ease of movement. The significance of this \Vas that it \Vas the first mass fashion truly to belong to youth - it was clearly unsuited to the older generation.
¡1,I,iell mnde l/se
01 simple but dramatic parten/s.
Complf'fl'li
by Vidal
Sassocm's lllick clloppl'd bab, "tlle look" etlllle illto ['e/lIg.
In the public's eyes, Mar)' Quant epitomizcd the nenmood in fashion. Her trip to the USA in 1962 \Vas highly successful and helped to establish British leadership in YO\.U1g fashions. Quant realized that there \Vas no\V a mass market for the type of clothes she \Vas designing: " ... there \-\'as a rcal need fer fashion accessories for young people chosen by peoplc of their own age. The young \Vere tired of \Vearing essentially the same as their mothers." Conditions \Vere ripe for development, and dcsigners blossomed as the market gre\V. Marion Foale and Sally Tuffin \Vere typical of the new young designers ",ho rapidly rose to fame in 1962 and 1963. The pair left London's Royal College of Art with the cry, "\"TC don't want to be chic; \Ve jusr want to be ridiculous." Rather than dictating a new fashion trend to customers, the)' were themselves a part of it - so much so that they were able to say, "\Ve onJy design dothes that \Ve \Vant to "'car." It \Vas not long before Laura Ashley arrived on the scene with her sprigged cottons for clothing and interiors. Her influence \Vas to last for at least two decades.
>< LL.I
z
O
:c
4
4 Bilm !nsltiolls. Barbara HII/allicki f/lld Slep/lell Fi/:sill/l1/01l illitin/ly
5 Mini rires;. By ¡/¡e /IIiM!e 01 lile 19605, tite milli WIIS gettillg
sold "hl a lIypllotic ntmosp/tere 01 POl/l/dl1lg pap lI/l1sic nlrd SWillgillg silor! skirls .. .f01" gir/s {lAIO wrmt lo!s ol"ew, cheap, l/O/ ver!! ,{'e/!-
sllO!"ter alld hecolllillg tite 1I/osI
made clat/t!!:; ... ", nccol'dillg fo olle «lriter ni fIle time.
6
aúuiol/s expressioll 01 tire lleiV age. Fas!lioll deterll1il1ed by e/ass {Inri wenltl, was beillg slIperseded by!ashioll detenllillcd by (lge.
6 Ol/e of tlle
nlIlIrillg eDil/ras/s of tire time
01
(lnd display. Maxi con/s pnrtly dl!rivl'd /1"0111 the fnsllioll for mililnryaltire.
7 COHrreges, Space Age mllge, 1965- COl/rreges was file Jirs!
fas/lioll !lvusc fo rd/lÍllk jashiol1 il1 tllC 1960s, 1lI0vi1lg fo svmetllillg far yOllnger - a "IICW 'way of dressing wilicfl ji/s tlle age," as l/le fOllnder pllf it.
46S
2 Os:.ie C/nrk nI/ti Allln!1dn Pollock, gypsy sl!!le fnsJJiolJ, 1968. Tilae ll'ilS n rediscOlxry of dlluic sly/es in t!1I: Inte 19605. Arar! frOI!! ojferillg
f1nl!lboym/CI.', el/1I1íe StY/6 expresscd SOIllCtflíllS 01 file "global pillage" t1¡¡l/killS of t/w t ;11/(',
1 1 Picrre Cnrdill, fllr-trillllllcd. WOOIlCII, plnid conl ,{'ith ,poallen gnitcl"s, dnrk gloues, mlff dnrk Imi, 1965. (nrdil! ml/ged frolll delllure ami elegan! lo expressilx {lIId st'lIsnliOlln/ist;
frolll l/lis fo
470
space-¡¡~(llleIlCt'd
he/lile/s.
2
"Mod/' lIsed both as a nOlln and an adjeetive, became the blanket term for these young styles. The lnternational Fashion Coutlcil in 1964 acknowledged the youth market as a "style of fashion," and the h'ade journal the Tailor ami Culta said, ", ..for the first time ever, many fashion ínfluenccs are cmanating from the under-23 group." Fashion mar have been breaking down class barriers but it was creating a new condition of membership: age. Energy and movement became an early symbol of YOllthflllness. Vague in 1962 caBed for "space-age clothes that can be latmched to cram into suitcases, crush into narrow spaces for long joumeys, and emerge at the end laboratory-fresh." The quatation caph¡res several aspects of the mood of the time with references to space (with its teclmolagical advennue), jaumeys (the excitement of being "on the move" as opposed to "settled down"), speed of living (no time to pack well), and science (technology was glamorous and progressive). The ne\,,' fashion had to serve today's lifestyle, which did not allow time fer changing into outfits far different occasions in order to
conform to traditians and convcntions. Young females were now told they needed clothes that could be put on IJ".first thing in the morning and still feel right. .. at midnight; clothcs that go happily to the office and eguany happily out to dinner." The pace of contemperary life was, supposedly, hectic; and - certainly if the fashion writers were to be believed - it was fun. Energy and flln were dosel)' related to sexuality. Quant stated "sex appeal has Number Onc prierity" in female fashion designo One of the most extreme examples was the "topless" fad of 196-:1 wbid1 received sensational publicity, but there were also more socially acceptable dresses with sexy cut-away sections, and bikini drcsses with netting panels. The dresses almost invariably revealcd less than at first seemed the case, and were sometimes worn with a flesh-coloured body stocking. It was in male fasbion that the shock of the new had greatest impacto Up to the time of Pop, male clothes were sombre and discreet. Any extrovert display was taken as a snub at decorum and good taste. lf a woman's clothing
Use of Materials
1
4 Dmlid Ht'eMer. plastic ¡1rl?Sst'S. 1966. Hec1Jfer's dress!!s tren'
1 /l'ITJI SJ¡rimptoll II/odeflillg ,cool/m cnrdignll nI/ti matehiu,'? liS"':;. 1965- CJlIlllky textllre re/IIT11ed lo dotf¡illg 111 ¡he '9605. 1t ¡l'n$ particlI/ar/y ¡/Oplllar witJ, tll!' YOllllg [¡ecal/se
01 ils ¡-;SI/n/ Iwd loet¡le appea/. 2 C
•
3 Pnca Rabnlllll.'. metal/ie d,."55, 196j. /11 ¡he 19605 fasll ;011 l/sed 1111 i 1111Ol'n I ¡pe "expn Ilded fidd" ollllateria/s. Metal drcsses colllxyed 1m ¡lI/aS(' of lI1odcl'I1ity. progressÍi,jslII, Imd 11 lnck o/ sojllU.'s:;. perlmps t'qllil'n/el1t fo
Brutnlis/nrcllilec/llrt'.
4
2
sllppo:;ed to bl! disllOsa/lle. COJ~rorlllillg lo I!le Pop dllos 01 "lIIassit,c! illifia/ impact ami slIIa/f sllstaiJlillg pOU'I?r.·' UllfmditiOlw/ fll/Jrics s/to¡¡'ed (Ollllllitlllt'lIt fo Il fllst-cJlIlllgillg tecJm%gicnl age. 5 ElIlIIlllIllle/ Ullgllro, allllllilli1ll11 bm Illld lIIill; :::kirt, 1968. LllIgaro's e/aliJes ,¡'('re pllrt c!Of/¡;l1g. sCl/lpture. lllld body je¡¡'dll!ry. E.rper! lIIell/1l1 iOIl amf c.rl rCIII ;5111 ¡¡'('re acceplcrl as parl o¡'l'/1Il1 flls!/iol1 was about ill Ihe decnrle.
471
Textiles
tr.l
w
...... -><1 w 1-
e
2
z « z o
-
::r:: tr.l
1 Eddie Sqllirt'5, Lunar Rocket prillted COltOll, 1969. Space wns n direct illspimtioll for Olis bold ami cofol/rfll1 desigll wl,;c¡' ¡/'aS ¡l/tended "to celebrttle IJ¡e IlOped-for lnlldillg
01 n mal! 01/ file 1/10011."
1
2 SI/e Thatcller. Space Walk, J969. Eddie Sq//ires snys il ¡¡,as illjlllt'llced "maillly by tlle tl.'c/mologJj im'Ol1.'I.'d ill attl.'lIIpfillg to place a mml 011 file 1110011. 5cimcefictioll, a/so a slrollg illjlllellce ill tlle 19605, 1,1ayed its part as well."
3 8nrbnrn Bro¡¡'II, Expansion, fllmislJillgfabric, 1966. TJJis
Op Art dl'sigll fol' Heals ;11 Loudol/, sholl's hall' tlle Gp Art cmze ;u/he lIIid-196os !Inri moved /1'011/ pnilltillg fa ellCOlllpnS$ /10/ ollly grnpl1ics,
Imt n/so !rlrlIishillg textiles. 4 Maija Iso1n, iv1elooni fabric, 196,3. Iso/nlmd Illllnjor ¡/!Ipad 011 file FillllisJI textile ¡/ldus!I'Y. Tlle ba/dlles:> 01 sea/e nlld briglltly colol/red geomefric pattems cOl/l1fered tlle decorl/III associated ¡¡tit!¡ ScnlldiJlni.1iml desigll in ti/e
prei.,iOl/s decade.
3
4_~
5 Eddie Squires, Archway textile, 1968, Sqlúres lms descrilNd IJOil' tIJe illspirafioll for Archwar mil/e frOJII "1930S cmema archifectllre. tlu' pamter Roy Lie/ltellstólI (tlll/l1 colour blilld fest e/mrts." By 1111.' l"lId of tlle 1960s. tl rl"lro sh¡le based 011 Art Deco ims becoming a key illgrediellt ill textile designo 6 Pierre Cnrdill. ¡1'O01 ctlrpet,
C,J968. Cnrpet desiglll"rs J:l'ere illjlllcnced by Pop c%llrs alld 5Jmpes. Carpets llOW e/a11l0l/red for tlttt'lltioll just tlS mlle/I as lhe fllrJIisllillgs t1mt stQOl.f 011 fhem.
-472
6
8
8 Aun 51111011, ¡{'eai.Jillg, 1969. 511ftoll relates ho,,', ill tlle eady 1960s
"mallY ll'eapers <{'eut to ..t·¡ldly ¡meO/ltrol/ed limits bllt titen beeame /1 key il~(l/letlCl! 011 tite lIIore flexible tllillkillg iu illdustrinl te.dile desigll. ~
7 Peter Collillg¡l'ood, il'l.'apillg,
9 Op flll"lli511illg fabrie, 1966.
1960, Collingil'ood's fexti/es I.'xlJibit /1 sop/rislie/lted 5<:1I5ilh'ily tOil'ard e%lll' /llld /111 exqrlÍsife r/se of maferi/l/s.
Tlús fabric, desigllcd by B/lrb/lrIJ
Bro,"1/ for Hca/s. demOllslmles llOiI' tlll.' Op cm:(' ill the mid19605 1II00'ed ¡mili P/lilltill."-: lO grn}llties /llId fllmisllillg textiles.
was supposed to make her attraetive to the opposite sex, the l11oti\'ation behind men's fashion \Vas, cOI1\'entionally, to denote status. Howe\"er, red denim trousers, purple shirts, green sweaters, and even brightly coloured shoes were to appear, with fashion magazines reporting a wholesale plllnder of ideas from female fashions. One commentator bemoaned the "new concentration on visual impact al' the complete expell5e of quality." But expendability and the condition of continual change were the \'ery essence of Pop. The space race unsurprisingly inflllenccd fashion designo PVC was a material that had to be lIsed in a modem way - as designer 5ally Jess said, "It's a material YOll can't work nostalgically, you ha\'e to make modern shapes," The forms ~ such as see-throllgh visors - often came from the imagery of space. PVC \Vas prodllced in "razzle-dazzle bright COIOlUS," Op and floral patterns, "hygenic white," and see-through. But it \Vas sil ver PVC that mast closely reflected the fashion for space, Courreges brought out "moon girl" silver trousers in 196-1-
and, by 1965, QueeJI contended sil\'er clothing " ... fits into current fashion like an astronaul inlo h.is eapsule." The inexorable rise oí the mini continued and, in 1967, it became the "micro," its length little longer than the le\'el of the Crutel1 indicating, according to Quant, that " ... women are in charge of their sexuallh'es." From 1967 to 1969 there were annual alltumn predictions that the mini would not surYi\'e the winter, but such a utilitarian approach to clothing overlooked the more important hmctions oí c10thing in pop fashian. At the end oí the deeade the maxi became fashionable but did not eclipse the mini. One answer to winter temperanues \Vas the maxi plus mini: a mini skirt wom lU1der a maxi coat. Other solutions \vere trousers wom under mini skirts, and the mini skirt made into eulottes or, later, "hot pants." The historical achie\'ements of pop fashion were olltlined by the design commentators Ken and Kate Baynes. The visual creativity of 1960s fashian was such, they arglled, that "one day 'Camaby Street' could rank with 'Bauhaus' as a descriptive phrase for a design style."
473
Industrial Design
-_.
Clean Modern Unes
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1 Offiel! illferior. TI/e grol/lí1lg mmrellt.'S5 of l/le nppenrnllCl.' of ,,¡'er!ldny ítem5 led fo (/11 ¡nerense il1 corpornli! idl!lltity redesiglls as colllpnllies COllllllllllicnled l!ldl' up-to-dnfl!116S (md sen:;/! of lJIadl'mi/y nl/d J!rogressir.jslII. 2 CnpslIle kitc}¡¡'1I nI ¡lIe Oe:;igll Centre, LOlldoll,
1968. A,¡ jnflllenc/! of ¡he space mee cml be Sf'1!1l ill lllis kilc!J('II, tlll' Sptlct.' age l!quimlellf o/ ¡lIe {itfed kitchl'll. ,j'itlt III00tlden p/astic;; rntIJer fhall ,mod 01' ,'('lIt'!'r;; fo IIIflximb' ('1'l.'I"Y spnce. 3 AfJ Ha/painl Auton1ñtic 1501
"clenIlJilliIlS" il1 t/w tbigll of,l'1/ite goods in file 19605, gi,l/IIS (111 IIp-lo-dnle nppenrtmcc. 4/01.' C%m/'O, milli kit,IJell OH Cfl5ft'rs, 1963-
E¡;:e¡¡ hlcl/el/:, COI/M lit' mobifc ill tIJe 1960:<. COlllpnCtJlt'~s, ifficieney, nllá millillfri:ntioll fmd a dt'ep nppen/ to t}¡e 60s' psycl/~. IV. J J ]cm/++ill. 5 Ke/lllt'tfl Graugi', Egg toMe /igl/ter, 1968. D<'siglle'd for RVII:>OII, tlle' figllter e'pitomi:ed tlm'e nspects of 1960s desigll: it ¡ms madI.' ol p/astic allá ¡ms ¡¡'!Jite ill mlaur - LlOtll
COllllotill/\ , III011emitlf . - ¡¡'!lile its TOlllláeá forlll ¡ms: typicnJ of tlle ¡tecndl!. Ht jcm/llill.
474
4
5
Innovations in Transport 1 ,\JouItOIl /Jic!,c1e. 196.¡. A rndicnl rdllillkof tlt.' llicyr:h> /cd lo tllt.' MOll/tOIl fllld,.fi)/IOiI'¡llg it,
a -sah's of 5I11nJ/-il'll" ..1ed bicycll's ¡¡'j/" -sprillgs. RdJ¡illkillg t1/l~ /liC!fch> - lll/dml/gl'¡f for 60 }/,'nrs - ims t!1piclll ol ti/(, liccad.'. 2 Ford .\Iuslallg. 1966. Thl' ,\ll/slullg o.ffa,'d t.'xcifellll?llt alld nppt'nlat 11ll1~ffof¡fnlJ/1."prict'-
¡lig/¡ spe.'t.'.1 in 1I(,,!1I Sl!,le. 3 ,\Iilli (.Ir, Brdí,,/¡ ¡\Iotor Corpomlioll. 1959. Doi'l:lIt'lt llll Alex I:i--si~ol'¡s Imd prodllCt'lI -(rol/J 1959. tl/l' ¡\¡¡,,¡ h.'c(l¡lIt' (me of file ¡ml/s of /11,. pa;od, Ctllll!lillillS file po:,sil.jlity oIIIIO"(,III"111 ¡ci//¡ /11.. pn'u'¡x' o/fllll. 4 COllconÍl'. dt'siglle,t ¡rt11ll 1956-62. Tl1e ~lIpl'rStl/lic plfllle ¡m:, fmiled as n sYIII/lOl of progn-ss fllT ib s/1t.,,·d. l/lid l't.'TIlted as a ,,!/ml'O! l~f t,'cJmofo;¿icnl /lIlfi-J¡lfIIlmli~1II for it~ Iloi~<," ~.
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he rise of pri\"ate affluence and the subsequent growth of consumerism guaranteed a golden age for industrial design in the 19605" No longer \Vas it a qllestion of whether or not you owned a car, n', oc refrigerator, but rather whether you o\\'ned the right make and model. Rather than competing on lowest cost sorne companics began to pursue a high-profile design strategy in which sophisticated styling ga'"e the product added \"alue and desirability" Bralffi, for example, from the mid-1950s began to transform its ímage through the work of designers such as Dieter Rams. It created prodllcts which "'ere not onl", desired bllt were collccted bv , stvle, conscious individllals and even by aesthetically aware mllsellms, predominant among which was the Museum of Modern Art in New York. The Pop artist Richard Hamilton once perfectly surnmed up this attitude. \Vriting of Rams' ,vork for Bralffi, Hamilton declared that " ... his consumer products have come to occupY the place in my heart and m)' consciousness that the Mont SaintVictoire did in CeZaIUle's."
T
Industrial design occupied a prorninent place in the consumer landscape, and was a recurring motU in the indí\"idual. aesthetic life of the stvle-conscious , Mainstream product design by the likes of companies such as Braun, 18M, and O!i'"etti ma)' not ha,·e been directly influenced by space tra'"el, but it certainly cOtUloted modemity and progress. The \\'idespread use of undisguised plastics, clean-cllt or no'·el shapes, and the absence of omarnent and decora non in industrial design underlined jllst ho\\' rnuch the 19605 was, at the time, ,"iewed as a break wíth the pasto Fonn itself could indicate the image of modemity. On the one haIld, the innO\"ati'"e forms of Italian lighting and objccts appeared progressi,"e because they ",ere a radical break with com·ennons. Less innovative forms al50 appeared very modern when the)' exploited rnaterials and coIour in a certain \\'ay. Kenneth Grange's 1968 Egg Iighter is a case in point, and epitomized threc traits of a strand of later-1960s designo First, although it i5 sophisticated in finish and warm in tactile quality, the
47~
Design lar the Hame
3
4 Brigllf/y coiol/red p!tlstic goods. TlIe sYllflletic cfltlmc-
teristic;; of p/tlstic tI'ere l/O /ollgl'r disgllised 1mt, ill effect, H'ere ce1ebrated Jor tlU!ir modernity, imlJ/editlcy, tllld OOld1ll:ss.
1 EII:o 1\.lari, Pago-Pago t'tlsc.'S. '969. A
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be im>erted, offering tI small COlltnil/!'T al Ol/t' clId, fllld ti Inrger Dile al l/u! Otllt"T. Tite form I?r'Okes 1930~ desigll, but retaills a 19605 appearllllce. Ht 3°(1/1/111,1". 2 Epllellll.'l"I? by Dodo Desigl/s. The eclecticisl1I alld decora/h'l.'lI!'s,:; of epllelllcrnl dl!sigllllrl' ((Iptllred iJl t/lis illlIstrntiOIl of protlllcfs mnde by Dado Desigl/$ Lid. 3 Dmúd Mellor. rl'1Jite disposable po/ystyrellt' clIt/ery for Cr05S Pnpmmre. 1969. Dis/lO:SIlbiJit.1f becaml' /l fentllre of dl'Sigll ill I1lis dI'Clldt'. Jt ims asslIlIIl'lf !fuII IIJere wl're 11/01'1' ;lIten:slil/g (llld CJ/joyable ¡hill:;:s fa do ffml1 e/can 01' il'llSfJ ¡kllls for 1'1.'-115... 4
476
material is not seeking to be anything other than that archetypically 19605 material, plastic. Second, it is ",hite, a "colour" associated prirnarily \Vith space and, by extension, \Vith hygiene, efficiency, purity, and clarity. Third, tile form has the bottom-heavy, rather ,"veighty proportions visible in much plastics design, especially in the hunitl.lre of Lhe time. 5uch forms may ha ve been facilitated by the characteristics of plastic as a material and the technique of injection-moulding, but it \Vas more than technological determinism that accounts for the hea,')' shape. Taking the particular instance of the Egg lighter, the Pop 5ensibility and \Vit of using lhe inappropriate and incongruou5 image of an egg for a lighter obviously appealed to Grange, but the proportions of the objeet evoke a whole periodo The rounded forms are to the later 19605 what rectilinear forms \Vere to the 1920s and the streamlined shape to tile 19305. Al! signify modemity but with different associations. The rectilinear style refened to industrial mass-production and the machine; streamlining to the
fast movement through '\'ater and air; the rolUlded shape to structural strength, completeness, and perfection. Rounded, continuous forms look like teclmology in a fuhrristic sta te. Emphasis \Vas no longcr given to the rational and logical industrial proeesses of production (as it had been \Vith Modernist design) but to a gesta/t form \vhich seems to have been as mysteriously concei"ed and magically produccd as a seamless gown. These rather Marmerist formal tendencies are what now gives this style of 1960s design such a dated appearance. Ho",e"er, the white technologicallook was only one of the main tendencies in product design in the 19605. More evocative of the period were brightly coloured plastics. Plastics in the earlier part of the cenhrry had been largely dark or mottled beca use of the problem of blemishes and colour inconsistencies. In the 19305 lighter tones were used for radios and other consumer goods bui, although bright colours were available in the period between the wars, it was not until the 1950s that they were used w¡dely across a whole range of products. Bright
5 JI/j1n/ah!e ClIshioll witll Pop gmphics by Peta MIlX, late 19605. At file /110ft! ep!lclIll'ml el/ti of desigl1, impllcf ,m' fhe snliellt qua/¡!!!. Pop l/lid Op nrt becnllle jreqJlf.'Jltly E/l/oted styles nl1d ,pae poplllnr witll t!le YOJlllg. 6 Morp/'y Richards, tonstC/", 1961. ¡V1nry QWIIl/ immor/nli=eri t/ie tons/er in 1966 WitJl her rinislj pril1l. 7 Ke11l1eth Gmllge. m=or, 1968. DesiSlled for \Vilki1l5011 Sword, this snfdy m=or ¡/'aS casy lo IIse anri looked good. Like {he Kodak compllc/ cnl11ems by Gn71lge, file' m=or save stylis/l11l'5s a{ Illl10demte priee. L. 13elll/5ill.
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seIIsil ¡¡'e ¡ee/in,'? for formo L 22cm/8üll. 9 ROIISOII, por/able hnirdryer, lJIid-I96os. The ¡lIIager!! olspace witli tlle as/rolll/u!'::; lifesl/ppo!"1 system nlld he/met is C¡ okcd by t/¡is por/ab/e !wirdryer. It sntisfied fhe ycnl"llillgfor design 01/ file 1Il000e. 10 Pmd Clllrk. Pcrspcctive Design dock, lnte19605. FUI/diona/¡Iy collllted li!tlc compnred fo ¡IJe fllshioJlnble ¡//lpad ollhl'se novel/y dock::;, whicJl dreil' 011 Ihe stylistic trcllds ami bold grnphics 01 the day. Ht 23CI/1/9il1. l
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1 f/tore SottSflSS fllld Pt'n~1 Killg. Valentinc por/aMe tYpCil'ritrrfor O/i,-'ctti, 1969. Sott~s;; j,¡tel/ded tlU! Valentine lo for "al/Y plan' exct'J't ¡JI mi o/fiel',
4 "Stmlriard" tdepllOl1l', 1963. FOIJOit'illg l/le illtroductioll in t1le UK 01 STD (Stallliard Trzmk DiallillgJ ill 1959, tllert' ¡m;: a COIl;;ÓOIIS effort to mooemi:t' 111,' ft'1(V/IOIlC ;;y;;.tl.'lll. DI!~igll Jllay..d it;;. par! (I;;;;eell 1Ierv. Ht 12CIII/-1 ~il/.
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amateur poets campal/Y 011 quiet SI/I/days j'l llEe COl/lltry." Ht 35.jcm/qill. 2 Olin'tfj, Tekne 3 IYJ¡e¡l'riter, 196j. Qli¡.'eui eslab/ished itsdj 115 el COlllpllll.lf collllllittt'd lo stylis/1Il1'5S fl5 H'el1 as e.(ficiellcy. 3 ,\farco ZmlllSO nI/ti RicJtnr¡1 511ppa. Grillo tl'ft'P}¡OIIt'. J965- Tlll.' Grillo - JIIl'illlillg "aiá!!/" - cOlllbúti'¡i tedlllologiCllI IIlId mihily :ooJllorpJ¡ic foml;; ¡PitJIOII! sttcr~ficillgfllllctiollalit.lf' L. (opmJ 22(1II18Iill.
478
monochromes became available and suited the appetite of the later part of the 19605 for bold, unsubtle colours. In his ceIebrated My'"o1ogies essay (1957), the phüosopher and cultural commentatar Roland Barthes expressed misgivings about the quality of the calaur of plastic: " ... it seems capable of retaining only the most chernicallaaking [calours). Of yeilow, red, and green, it keeps anly the aggressive quality, and uses them as mere names, being able to display anly cancepts of colour." Yet what for Barthes \vas plastic's "undoing" became a central part of its aesthetic in the 19605. Plastic in a range of bright red, purple, orange, green, yeIlow and other \'i"id colours were used for chairs, occasional tables, television and record-player casings, lamp bases, dinnenvare, tumblers, jeweilery, and many other things. The bright colours perfectly expressed the mood of the decade. Polyurethane - either wC't-look or foaro - glossy ABS, shiny and/or transparent acrylic, and PVC were not only used undisguised but seemed to flaunt their very "plasticness." This trend went beyond
3
•
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the Modemist "truth to materials" principie to a stage at which the associations of plastic became part of the "meaning" of the product: plastic was, in a way, both form and content. This had come about beca use of the nvo-way exchange of Pop culture. Na langer l,vas it a case af popular artifacts being influenced by high culture; in Pop culture, "high culture" drel,v heavily on "Iow culture." The most obvious examples were in art: Lichtenstein made use of the comic strip, while Andy \,\rarhol plundered the supermarket sheh'es for inspiration. During the 19505 plastic had been used in all manner of "cheap and nasty" ways to make toys and trinkets. Consequently it had becóme discredited in the eyes of disceming consumers who associated it with poorly made, easily broken, and v¡suaUy ta\vdry goods manufactured in the Far East. However, views were to change. Consumers began to value expendability over durability in the mid-1960s. Especially when a selfconscious campness and tongue-in-the-cheek kitsch
Eclectic Lghting Design
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2 Ac/lilll' Casligliolll', Toio.f7oor lamp, 1965. Tllere is mil/l/comprolII;sillg tecJmologicn/look fo tite Toio. /t ¡ms to becollle ala<'OlIrile all/ollg /ligJ¡·lecJl dei'Olees il/ file late 19705 alld carll, 'Sos. Ht J.6j/ll/jft 4;11 3 Cae Al//ellli. spnce agl'-il~(I/II?IIced lIIetal lamp, 1969. DL'5igners SI/dI as A,tlellli appnxiated lile ligIJI rt'eiglll. strellgl1l. a"d d!fl/si/lg c1mract"islics of plastic;:. Tlu.'y COl/id be lI/oulde¡1 fo prodllCt' complex and scl/lptural fonlls. Hf :q.7cIII/nill. 4 Ac1Ii1/e al/d Pi" GiaCOII/O Cnsligfiolle, Snoopy lamp_ 1967_ malll~facll/rrd by Fler.. Achille Cnstigliolli admifted fll~ i/lterest ol lile ti11/~ ilYlS "UI/tred l/al so /l/udl 011 soli.'illg file problellls of lightillg ill its fit/lesl sellse as 011 t'mp/msi:illg tlle decoratit'C rjllality offixl/l res il'//l!ll t/lt'Y are i{'itl/out lig/lf. Ht 4ocm/1jY.ill. 5 Brullo MUllan, Falkland llnllgillg Iml/p, 1964. A metal fmllle sllpporls mI r.'!asticaled fabric lo create all idiosYllcratic mrd scu/plum/ forlll, wllicJl dmws altl'l/lioll lo itsdfas t1 dl":3igllcd olljl'cf. Hll.6m/sff Ji//. ff
4
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Transistor Radios and Televisions
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1 ¡\Iarco Zmlllso alld Ricl/tlrd Sapper, radio, 1965. TI/e il/gel/ious desigl/ of t/Jis radio meml/ l//tll if cal/Id be folded up fo make a oox, alld I1l11s it il'flS ideal for tlle IIIml or 't'Omml Oll tlJe mo,'e. Ht 13cm/5ill. 2 PlIillips. PlIi/italla lrallsistor radio, 1963. TI/e "trmmie" jHfS olle 01 tlu'
symools 01 tlle age: if gm'f' COIl5t'lItillg fl'L'l/tlgers .ml1-to-i:mf1 pop mI/sic alld disselltillg adulls a JIt'(ldaclle. IV. :!.o.jcm/8ill. 3 ¡\Jarco Zmwso alld Ricl/tll'd Sapprr, fe1et.,jsioll, 1966. Here is fhe pI/re, teclmologiCtT/ black oox, II/(' }orcrllllllcr o} mal1Y Sllllilar dcsiglls 11I file 19705. alld an importau! iufll/cllce olllligll redl dl'sigll .
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. became fashionable in the latter part of the decarle, plastic's otha associations "'ere eagerly embraced. Plastic ",as inexpensivc and was associated ",ith a feeling of
impennanence, and - mast importantI)' - a sense of immediacy, youth, lack cf subtlety, and fun. The result was aH sorts of gimmicky, eye-catching, attentiongrabbing nm"elLics made in plashc. These ranged from
plastic-coated paper dresses to inflatable PVC cushions
480
emblazoned with the legend "Pop" - all of which "'ere likely to end up being thrown away into a plastic-coated \vastepaper basket. A ",hole range of objects was stylcd for youth's aUaction lifestyle of energy and movement in the 19605. Two ¡tems of industrial design in particular, howe\'er, typify the Pop spirit of the decade. One was Ettore Sottsass' Valellti/le portable typewriter for Olivetti wllich, with its style·conscious form and bright-red colour (and orange spools), looked more like a weekend case for the spaceage boll vivel/I" than a piece of mundane workaday equipment. The other great symbol of movement and
freedorn was the transistor radio. As transistors became widely and cheaply available, the "trann.ie" changed radio-listening habits among the young. The image of the hornogeneous nuclear family huddled around the piece of fumih.ue that was the wireless beca me as anachronistic a concept as rationing. The trannie's essential portability meant that pop fans could listen to music in any room in the house: they need never be away from the Top 20 and need never be aurally isolated in an alicn environment of nature or silence. The styling of sorne transistor radios, often in plastic, underlined their associations \Vith portability. Radios often borro\Ved the imagery of the walkie-talkie or the arrny combat radio. So, by the early 197Ds, there was a wide range of product aesthetics for industrial design, deri\-ing, at one extreme, from Modemist principies of "less is more," with connotations of purity, efficiency, and hygiene, to, at the other, the Pop sensibility, which sub\'erted principies and com"entions of "good taste" in fa\'our of impact, novell)', youth, and flln.
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Postmodernism Furniture 486 British 488
European and Japanese 490
Originally meaning "Iater than Modern," the word "Postmodern" has been subject to many interpretations. The term has at its heart a distrust 01 Modernist theories and approaches to design as being impoverished in terms 01 visual
Ceramies 494
language and restrictive in terms 01 meaning. Postmodernist architect Glass 496 Silver and Metalwork 498 Textiles and Rugs 500
Robert Venturi, lar example, argued lar artists to work in an idiom that was readily intelligible rather than esoteric, in tune with the values 01 popular culture. Stylistic eclecticism is a key leature 01 the movement, and so is a deliberate incorporation 01 images relating to late-2üth-century consumerism.
Industrial Design 502 he term Postmodern has been taken up in many disciplines, including sociology, film, music, communications, literature, and culhlral theorv, where " influential \\'riters sllch as Jean Baudrillard and JeanFran<;ois Lyotard have explored its meanings. In his book TJ¡c Post-i\t1oriem COllditiolJ (1981), Lyotard saw the "Püstlvlodern" as a rejection of the uni\'ersai certainties uf the Modernist \Vorld in fm"onr uf the loccd and proYisional. Other ",riters, sllch as the Marxist Frederic ]anleson, ha ve seen Postmodernism as a form uf American culhlral imperialism, 01' an expression uf l1lultinational and consumer capitalismo Perhaps appropriately for the pluralist \\'orld of Postmodernism, it is e\"ident that the term is one that has been adopted in many different ways and contexts and has a range of resonanccs and mcanings. In the field uf design, definitions of Postmodernism ha ve \'aried in their usefulness. An earlv use of the \\'ord " can be found in the work of [he British design and architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner, author of thc widely read Piollccl"s of ¡v1odcr¡¡ Dcsi~¡¡ (1949). ln a 1961 . . e essa\' entitled "The Return of Historicism" he detected wh<1t he \'icH'cd as an unH'elcome, but in.creasi..ngly visible "Poshnodern" trend tOH'ards stvlistic eclecticism, " a feature that H'as to beco me one of the defining charactcristics of Postmodernist architecture and designo Ayear latee the American architect and designer Robert Venhlri articulated many additional gualities associated with Postmodernism in his seminal text COlllpll'xily ni/ti COlltmdiclioll in Architectlll"l' (1966). The book has subseguently given him a prominent position in Postmodernist practice and debate in the visual arts. He admired "elements \Vhich are hybrid rather than 'pure', compromising rather than 'clean', distorted rather than 'straightfonvard', ambiguous rather than 'articul<1tcd', ..~. inconsistent and eguivocal rather than 'direct and clear'," This firm rejection of the tenets of Modernism \Vas taken further in his 1972 book, Lmmillgfrolll Ln5 \1egns, written with fello\\' architects Denise Scott Brown and Steven lzenour. Taking exemplars drawn fram the neon-rich, eclectic, and everyday language used in the visual
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artieulation of the fa\ades of leisure and entertaiJUllent buildings in Las Vegas, Venturi argucd for architeets to H'ork in an idiom that was readi1y intelligible and in keeping with the ,'aIues of popular culture, In faet, much of the genesis of definitions of Postmodemist design lay in the hands of architects and architectural writers, historians, and theorists, Charles ]eneks, like Venturi an American architect and \vriter, for example, has been él defining ,'oice in diseussions of Postmodemism, He has elaborated his ,"iews in "arious articles and books, including Tl1e Lnllgllage 01 Postlllolfe1'll Arcllifecfllre (1977) and Posfl1lolfel'1l ClassicislIl (1983), and has also been iJwoh'ed in the design of many Postmodem buildings, interiors, hrrniture, and other products, Seen by many of its exponents as a radical current that opened up new expressi,"e possibilities in architectural and industrial design practice, Postmodern.ism was also bound tIp with notions of the ephemeral and fashionable in graphics, clothing, and retail design, Geoff HoUington, a leading British industrial designer, saw it in the late 19705 as "a breathless eclecticism that encompassed mass-merua imagery, arts and efafts, Art Nouveau and Oeco, popular iconography and drug experience,"
•
Howe\'er, by tile 19805 there \Vere increasing doubts about the usefulness of the ne'" termo Perhaps predictably, in his 1983 critique of the Modernist architectural aesthetic FI'OJ11 Bnullnl/s lo OU1' HOllse, the American ",riter Tom \"olfe extended the focus of rus trenchant opprobrium to Postmodernism, 5uggesting that the term had "caught on as the name for aH de\'elopments since the general exhaustion of Modemism itself, As Jencks ~elf remarked ,\'ith sorne felicity, Postmodemism \,'as perhaps too conúorting a term, Jt told you ",hat you \Vere lea\'ing without cornmitting )'Olt to a particular destinatiol1, He \\"as right. The oc\\' terrn itself tended to crea te the impression that Modernism \Vas moer beca use it had been superseded by something ne",," For se\'eral decades prior to the Jater 19605 Modemism had been the predominant form of expression in a"antgarde design, Howe,'er, if had evolved from its origins as an emphatically 20th-century a\'ant-garde international aesthetic embracing new materials and teclmologies, ",edded to él spirit of social utopianism, to being increasingly associated with the implied efficiency of muItinational corporations. In an era of expanding global markets, these included sueh eompanies as 18M, ",hose
corporate identity was made visible in produets and cornmunication design by Eliot Noyes and Paul Rand, Modernism had been increasingly equated with notions of "good design" as seen in design coUections at the Museum of 'Iodern Art in New York or in the outlook of official bodies promoting "better" standards of design in industry - such as the COlmcil of Industrial Design in Britain and the Rat für Forrngebung in Germany, From the late 19505, however, this essentially puritanical outlook was lmdermined by an increasingly consumerist sacie!)': people had plen!)' of disposable income and an increasing appetite for rapid change and the wider cultural horizons offered by television and the growth of foreign h"avel. Furthermore, the advent of Pop Art in design, the Anti-Design movement in Italy and a growing interest in semiotics and the signifieanee of popular culture also undermined the tenets of Modernism, \'\'riters sud1 as GiJIo Dorfles and Roland Barthes did rnuch to d1allenge the restricted syntax of the ?\.lodemist visual dictionary, They apened up entieing ,"istas of colour, pattem, and omament, and offered popular, exotic, and occasionally erudite culhual referenees ,,-hich \Vere increasingly attractive to architects and designers, Although the history of Postmodemist design has often centred on the output of a number of American architect-designers - such as Robert Venturi and Michael Graves - or leading Italian designers - including Ettore Sottsass and Alessandro Mendini - it aIso found expression in many other design-eonseious countries. ll1ese included Spain and the Czech Republic, where the rid1 colorns, exotic rcferences, and freedom of cultural expression of Postmodemism in many ways vividJy
symbolized the democratic freedoms that had been so constrained lmder Fascist and Cornmunist regimes, It aIso prO\"ed attraetive to a,'ant-garde designers in Japan and Australia where it provided a radical departure from pre,'alent eommereial styles, Further in\"igorated by the iconoclasm of Punk, Poshnodernist possibilities \Vere explored across the full range of visual and design media, from fashion to hmliture, interiors to graphic design, and cutlery to kettles, Howe"er, the initially radical, yet aeeessible fashion outlook of designers such as Vivienne vVeshvood or the graphic llwentiveness of !)rpographers such as Neville Brody, whose \Vork \Vas seen in the magazll1e Tite Fnce, were soon absorbed into the more conservative world of museum collections and exhibitions, In the later 20th eentury, a \Vorld more and more dominated by the mass-media \Vas opened up further by the panoramas afforded by the Internet. In addition, an incrcasingly pre,'alent first-hand familiarity with di\"erse cultures and styles brought about by the tremendous growth in foreign travel led to a climate in which cultural eclecticism and visual quotation were perhaps as rife as they had been in V¡etorian designo Howe"er, the difference in the eclecticism of late-2Oth-century Postmodemist design la)' in the faet that it \Vas - at its most effecti\'e - a knowing and occasionally ironic or \Vitty meeting of oJd and ne\\", traditional and etlm.ic, esoterie and popular, and cheap and expensive styles and materials, 4 Hmls Hollcill, illferior of /!I(' AlIst1"inll Tr(/l'e/ CPII/re, 1975' Tlw illlcrior's fUHelion is cmbrnccd by r~fel"l:Hces lo í'xotic tr(/l'c/ il/c1uding pn/m /1"l!es, mI r,W1l11pk of Itow tite Posllllodemists sOHg1t1 /alin/.: desigll nlld IIIcnllillg.
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an y of the ideas most cornmonly associated with Postmodern furniture deri ved from the experiments of American architect-designers who increasingly turned their hands to de5ign in the la ter 19705 and 19805. EguaUy significant were ltalian designers such as Alessandro Mendini, Ettore Sottsass, and Michele De Lucchi who emerged fram the experimental activities of the Milan-based Studio A1chymia and Memphis Group. lhe latter aligned themselves with the term "New Design," seen by Andrea Branzi as being "able to influence both the world of production and theoretical development," as wel1 as breaking down what he described as "the barrier" that had separated mainstream design fram avant-garde experimentation. Designers such as Borek Sípek - who studied fumiture design in Prague and architechtre in Hamburg and Delft - also explored the possibilities of Postmodemism in Eastem EltrOpe. Sottsass felt that Postmodernism vI/as essentially American, academic, and restricted in the range of
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cultural differences upon which it drew. Nonethc1ess, it5 characteristic ability to draw upon both refined and popular cultural sources, to embrace kitsch, the everyday and the banal, and to exhibit gualities of wit, irony, and playflllness meant that it became a shared international language of designo Expensive materials and finishes were blended by Postmodernist designers with cheaper lamina tes and plastics, industrial techniques ,,"vere combined with inspiration drawn from the craft5, while the mingling of references as diverse as African and Aboriginal, Baroglle and Biedermeier, or Classical and coffec bars offered nevv aesthetic prospects. Bolstered by its increasÍJlg appearance in mllsellm collections, exhibition galreries, and style magazines and by its association with designer-celebrities, Postmodernism was explored as an increasingly fa5hionable commodity in much of the industrialized world. Appearing ÍJl cOlUltries as geographically dispersed as the USA, ]apan, and Australia, Postmodemism brallght abollt a radical change in the appearance of many everyday domestic funuhtre designs.
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he 19705 and 'SOs sal\' the emergence of a number of fumjture designers ",ho reinvigorated the British design landscape through an incorporation of fresh ideas and a striking exploration of materials, form, and calour wmch challenged many conceptions of fumiture-making. Significant among the new group of designers was Israeli-born Ron Arad who, with Caroline lhorman, founded One-Qff Ud in 1981 in London. Arad's earl)' work was typified by the use of "found" materials, as seen in his ROi'l!r chair (1981) and Aerinl light (1981) in which he utilized redundant car seating and a discarded car-radio antenna. Such objects may be seen as critiques of industrial mass-production and Modernist affinities with new materials and technological sophistication. Lndeed, the name of Arad's company, One-Qff, indicated opposition to Modemist and conveyor-belt modes of production. Arad's 1986 COlle chairs in steel, glass, and aluminium defy conventional expectations of seating whid1 make cornfort and ergonomics a priorit)'. Instead they seem to be an independent, sculptural - almost
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totemic - archaeological remnant from the decay of urban society. Similarly, the COlle table eontradiets everyday hmetional expectations, its implicit \veight counteraeted. by its support on finely pointed legs. Arad Jater became interested in exploring the possibilities of mass-production, and he designed products for eompanies such as Driade, Alessi, Vitra, and Kartell, as well as producing a number of striking interiors. A seeond British designer who was interested in using "fOW1d objects" in fumiture design and who also worked with serap metal was Tom Dixon. His work beeame increasingly widely known in the la ter 19805. In common with other designers of the period, including Danny Lane, Dixon cxplored the aesthetie possibilities of craft as an antithesis to the more polished forms of mass-produetion and the mainstream forrns produced by the manufaeturing industry. l11.is could be scen in his S ehair from 1986, a witty post-industrial critique of Vemer Panton's celebrated injection-moulded plastic ehair designed in 1960 and put into mass-production by Vih'a for Herman Miller.
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6 Dmll1yl.alll'. Etruscan chair. 1992, p!nlt' glnss. TIle l/se of c/'lldely sllnpcd sllel't~ ,!(glass nlld Irg~ Iltnl nl111os1 dr:.~{ Iltór
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fab/e, 199';. Far ft'lIIo¡'ed frolll the c(l('l. c1eml g¡'omdric al/sftorit~, 01 ¡\lode",ist drsigll. LnIlt"S dt'comth'e, st'el1'¡llgly casua/ l/se ofglnss r~f/ccts mI idiosYllcmfic, illdj¡,idllal interpretatioll 01 tlEc lIa/urc alld COllstructioll 01 ordillnry t/¡illgs. Ht .¡.ocm/l5,:ill. 8 Carf Halm, Fat Ladyelmir, (.1992. AII nlltitllesis of the slcek "l/1ac/¡ille nest/¡dic" a:5:;Q(iatclf ¡l'if1II'.-IOlfl'rllislII nI/Ji HigJ¡·T¿.ell, tl,is dtosigll exJtibits IIUlIly oj tlle nttrilllllt'S implied by /lle title nlld lIIay W seell as n wilty l't!nctiOIl lo tllt' "dt.'Sigl1l!r" ctllOS oj lite periodo
489
European and Japanese Furniture Aeslhelic and Polilical Freedoms
1 HIlI/:' Hol/ein. Mitzi :,(:fa. 1981. A/ade hl th<'
Ua/ia/! CUlllplln.ll Po/tmnum. tl1i:, :'o}n ¡l'Il:' Dile uf 11 series ¡'!! Holleil/ ¡('lIie/¡ dre,l' on t!le :'tl¡/i:'tic 11t'1'itll~e l/lid e~/I/!!lollr (lf ,~/ittcril/~ < . e . Art Oectl Ill/d Holly,cood. \ V. 2m/6ft bin.
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any designers represented here reflect thc cthnic diversity, cosmopolitan spmt and cultural eclecticism that characterized this periodo For instance, Japanese designer Tosruyuki Kita established offices in both Osaka and Milan, and Czech-born Borek Sípek, after studying in Prague, Hamburg, Stuttgart, and Delft, set up rus practice in .the Netherlands. Designers dre'" fram many different sources and influenced each other: Sípek for example, \,\,as closel)' associatcd with the reemergence of avant-garde design in the "New Eluape" that emerged with the thawing of relationsh..ips between the former Eastern and vVesten1 European blocs. In 1988 the Czech group Atika (inc1uding Jirí Pelci) attacked the ftmctionalist, conservative ethos of socialist design in their Gallery Dilo exhibition \",hich featured a number of semantically charged Postrnodern objects. TI1ey were influenccd by Sípek who, although he had left Czechoslovakia in the political hlrmoil of 1968, began to establish contacts once more in bis homeland from the mid-1980s onwards.
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2 Philippt' S/nrck, e/mir:,. c. 198j. Tllis 'l'illy nlld illl/om/i<'e 1I.l111rid dC:'igll IIInk6 11"1' (!( "e,'cm! slyl6 nlld mn/crin/". Ht 83C¡¡¡/ploill. 3 Tos/¡iYllki Kitn, \ Vink e/lnÍJ~ 1980. Kitn dn!i!' 011 n lUid!' l'Ilug!' (:f "Ol/ríeS, i IIcflld i liS 1\ lickey j\;10llse for tlle en 1'-/ ike Ilend rests. L. 1.2311I/4ft Ji11. 4 Tnkc!1obu 19l1l'n"hi. Zao stoo/. C.1990. Ocfyillg nssfll1lptiol/s IlVOllt forlll. I he orgl1llic s1IJfncc nppl.'llrs too fragilc lo SI (pport tlIe si fiel: lIt .¡.6clII/l8i1/.
Following the death of the Fascist dictator General franco in 1976 a similar invigorating new design vocabulary had developed in Spain, typilied in the work and outlook of Javier Mariscal, bascd in Barcelona. In France, Philippe Starck emerged as a leading intemational designer in the 1980s. Although bis \·vork does not always fit easily into any straightforward design category, his prioritization of intuition and feeling over function, together with bis insanable stylistic, symbolic, and cultural eclecticism, align him \·vith many key aspects of Postmodem designo TI1e way in which diverse influences may be embraced by a single Postmodern praduct may be seen in Kita's versatile Willk seating for Cassina. It is highly versatile, easily convertible fram armchair to chaise longue, and in common with many other Postmodernist ",orks draws on a \Vide range of SOluces. In its 10\'" configmation there are allusions to the Japanese tradition of sitting on the fioar, \",hile in its chaise longue reclining variant it draws on the sophistication of Western urban living. It also alludes to
New Frontiers
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3 7(mll!;: Tm't'im. Syh"ia d¡,¡;rfrolll tI/t' Tr<1nsfigllralion .'-I.'rit':" 1990. In tlli:i- c1l1lir tlit' ('¡'III j¡',' PIlrt 1I~II<~t' arclJift'(f -dt';;io..:lll'r , c!l,T!h'IlSI'S tra.ú f itllw/ ¡'XP¡'dlltiolls t~/f¡lrlll. fUl1aitm, (oftmr. alltl ;;ltap... HI -;'¡CIII/J9iJl.
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Iconoclasm 1 Forre:;;t ¡'Ayas, The Pink Chair,
c.1995. FOTm I1l1dftmctiolllm¡'l! di::soh'cd ill /f/ICOII<'i.'lltiOlla/ COIl;;tnlftiOIl, comp1emcllted ll!! //It' 1IJ1t'.\]/t'CIl'III/$l' CO/Ol/T. lt ;5 a "isllo! sfalClJ/t'IIll1/flf njh'cls titefilie or/5 background of Ifl;s AIII('ricolI
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492
tra\"el, as seen in its adjustable headrests and ability to recline, which are reminiscent Df aircraft and automobile seating. Reference is made to the exuberance ofPop in the vibrant colours of the almost casual, zip-fastened slipover cover5, and al50 to Mickey MOllse, seen in the amusing eal"-tike forms of the head rests. Until the 19705, Scandinavian design \Vas \Videly associated ",ith an aspect of Modernism that blended the manipulation of c1ean, elegant forms ",ith a respect for traditional crafts and a strong sense of social democracy. Howevcr, in the 19705 design in Scandinavia was affected by industrial and economic uncertainties, and individualistic designers such as lonas Bohlin and Mats Theselius in Sweden, and Stefan Lindfors in Finland, began to emerge. From the early 19805, Bohlin's rumiture proved to be a significant challenge to Swedish traditíons of elegance in design, as his background in the contrasting worlds of civil engineering and interior design led to an adventurous exploratíon of contrasting materials. Kallemo, a Swedish company fowlded by Sven Lundh in
1963, manufactured a number of Bohlin's designs. Its launch of the COllcre/e C"nil' in 1982 reflected the firm's
embrace of individualistic, often fine-art-driven designs in limited editions, which caused considerable disquiet in conservative manufacturing circles. Theselius, another designer associated with Kallemo, also exhibited an iconoc1astic streak in the way in which he used traditional materials as, for example, in his 1roH PInte Ensy Chair of 199-1 in which the material. rather than the form, questioned notions of function. Stefan Lindfors, an internationally recognized and often controversial Finnish designer, explored expressi,-e, a-functional, and rather un-Scandinavian design possibilities in rus insectlike Scarngoo table lamp for Ingo Maurer in 1987. Even large companies associated worldwide with the muted, affordable elegance of Scandinavian Modem were not impervious to international developments and sought to exhibit a more progressive face. Ikea's PS (Postscript) collectíon of -10 pieces, for example, which \Vas not designed fer mass-production, was launched at the Milan Fum.ihlIe Fair of 1995.
New Scandinavian Design
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ostmodernism fOLmd a particularly potent iorm of
\'isual e'-pression in what \\"as sometimes r~ferred to as micro-architecture - glass, ceramic, and metal prodllcts dcstincd far the dining table or kitchen \\'ork-~urface, sites of con:;lImption that beca me ahnost the afflllent domestic cOllnterparts of the spot-lit mllseum plinth. As architect and historian Paolo Portoghesi remarked, "the objccts \\-hich embellish él hOllse and \\'hich \\'e use in e\-eryday life are like architechlral details, they gi\'c a feeling in a room in \\'hich \\'e Ji,·e. And that cxpands the means o{ communícation." In thc late 19705 and ear1\- 19805 the cOIl\'entional outlook of many manllfacturers was increasingly confronted by the experimentation and frcsh thinking of a\'ant-gardc designers and collecti\·es such as the i\lemphis Group in Milan. In their \\·ake, uU1O\'ati,'e companies such as S",id PO\\'el! Ul the Unitcd Slatcs
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The commissioning by eommercial compélnies of celebrclted architects and designers made the designs of Robert "enhlri, .\lichael Gra"es, é1nd other internationall~ recognized indi\'iduals financially accessible to a much wider dcsign-consciolls consumer c1ientele. Postmodemist designer~ celebrated their entrée to the domestic ell\'ironment \dth the design of colourful, decorated, and "isualIy sophisticated products that ",ere intcnded to be seen as mueh as to be lI~ed. These threedimensional objecb often assumed él role eqlli"alent to the painted cOIl\'ersation pieces of carlicr periods at the dUU1er tables of afl1l1enl, stylc·conscious urban d\\'ellers. r-.lany celebrity designers such as Arata isosaki, Richard .r.leier, Paolo Portoghesi, Ettore Sottsass, Philippe Starck, and Frank Geruy . \\'ere commissioned to satisfv , the "oraciolls appetites of this ne", audience. The latter group enjoyed usulg - and being seen to use - prodllcts that \Vere also to be fOllnd in the display cases of many museums and in the pages of lifcstyle magazines feahlring latc-20th-century designo
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3 Borek Sípek. glnss.mrl!for '\!o<''Y 80r nud Ajeto. $UcJl dt,:;iglls s¡'ow how illd¡t'¡.111t1fity, idiosYllcmcy. (Inri nrtis/ie e.\pressioll iJlform Pos/moden! dcsign ill fas/cm El/rope mld ¡s typiml o[ Sípl!k's
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rogressive glass designers began to break away fram the domination of traditional and Modemist pattems and forms in the Pop era of the 19605, The possibilities of strong colour, for examplc, were seen in Gunnar Cyrén's "Pop" glasses produced by Orrefors in Sweden from 1966. Such ad\-enturous approaches were taken much hlrther by Postrnodemist designers, Their work, which included large and small-scale pieces, ranged fram dccorative objects for fashion-conscious domestic enviranments, collectors, and muselU11S to Í1ulO\'ative furniturc designs (sllch as those by Danny Lane), Small-scale designs included the colourful blo",n glass bowls, drinking \-essels, and containers by J\ lemphis Group designers sllch as Ettore Sottsass and Marco Zanini; these ",ere produced by Toso Vetri d' Arte Í11 Murano in the earl)' 19805, More prevalcnt, though, were the exotic glass, metal-corseted perfume bottles by thc French fashion designer Jean Paul Gaultier in the 1990s. Glass \\"as explored in the extra\'agant fantasies by the \-('rsatile CLech Borck Sípek, cornmissioned by man}'
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manufacturers and organizations, includÍllg the Centre lnternational de Recherche sur la Verre in Marseilles, Following collaboration for several )'ears from the earl)' 19805, Sípek together ",ith tlle highJ)' taleoted )'OLUlg Czech glassblolVer Petr NO\'otny, founded the Ajcto glasslVorks in 1989. l1Us adventurolls campan), sOllght to extend the technical and imaginative possibilities of glass fabrication, specializing in series of limited editions for eompanies such as Driade in Haly and the Steltman Galleries in the Netherlands and the United Sta tes. Similar initiah\'es \Vere tmdertaken by companies such as Daurn in Franee, which in\'itcd leading designers, Í11cluding Philippe Starck and the American stylist Hilton MCCOlUlico, to work on ncH' ideas for its crystal products. Scandina\"ia also salV sorne shifts aH'ny fram its eharacteristie Modernist c1arity of form, brought about through explorntion of greater freedoms associated with the art glass mo\'ement and an increased k.nowledge of American shldio glass which impacted on \\"ork at Kosta Boda and other Scandina"ian glass manufacturers,
Stretching the Boundaries
1
2
1 Hans Godo Frnbel, Hammer. 1980. Frnllt'l's gla:>s Imll/lller (/lid nai/:; rmcap$ltlate tlu.. Postmorie",is/ rejeclioll of '¡On"
jol/ou's fimetioll," T!Je fi'agilily of ¡he lIIeditllll rellde!'5 file hammer':; fUl/c/iall illlpossible ill tJ¡is pit'Ce of
<'iS/fal.!'it. IV. 30.jCm/l,2ill.
2 Jnlllcs Hnnlloll, Rodeo bowl from fIJe l3adger and Snake .;enes. 1981. n,is AIIIL'Ticall gltlss dt'Siglll'r stretcf,i'S tlle 1II{'(Illing alld fimctioll afbowl dcsigll. Expai· mellfa/iOIl in l/U! cmjls providl'd ti
llOt J¡0I1jt> ofI/e'i!' gmerntioll dcsigll possibili/ies. Ht 56clII/22ill.
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3 Oitw Toikkn, Visil oí Old Lady, 1995. Toikka, n Fimli:;1E desiglll'l" ofgtass, textiles. nlld (1!I"lIulÍcs ¡I'ílll a Jh'íii:~rcl' 111 Ilu' Ambia, Rorstmlld, fllld A-lnrimckko companles, Ims become '¡'Í1tr.'1y k1101l'11 Jor ¡'¡s origillnlily, 11;SI/{/{
:,opJzistimtioll, alld metap/¡orj.
4¡\ltlrkku Salo, Joumey to Tray. (,1988. TI/ese ¡dioslflleralie, tlll/llropomorpflic. fllld decora/h't'
picCl's exude ¡!le jlal'ol/r of ardmt'Ologicnl discorwies frOIll
4
::;O/lle dis/(lJIt cm nlld ex/libit SOI1lI.'
6 }t'(/II Palll CtllIflier, Corset P('1"l11l' bol/k prOliuced by
of file
Venaies roe/u'f 011
201/1 celltllry.
eDil/Tal for
TItí:; cofolfrfllf J'h'Ct'. il'fiÍcll U'as
Parfllllls. 1991. CJmlll'lIgiJlg COlI'L'elltioIlS il/ l/lis, (Dllfimúng
produml 111 Fin/ami,
$t'ries of corse/l'd pafi/lIle bolllr:;,
5 1\ Jarkku Salo, Colossus, '989. ec1I()('S
ti/e
fasllioll dcsigller Galllticr dreil' for illspirafioll 01/ !lis 0,1'11
ideas of micrD-nrclJilt'cfllrc muf "tabit' lnlldscapes" tlwl iUl.'n' be¡IIg e.tplorl.'d iJl Ita/y ami ¡lit.' USA. TlIe "(01055115" is in ~ffl'cl
COllfllre colh'ction5, in 'I'Jlich ltigll fashioJl Illld 'S/n'I.'/ cul11m' mergt'lt ill f/¡e mll'l-¡Ject('d alld lIot't'1lf::'t'
a micro-sculf/flln'.
of IIlldenl'i'fIr as
5
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ollfer gal"lIIC11fs.
497
Silver and Metalwork Steam Icons 1 Pllilippc Starck, 1101 Bertaa kett/e Jor Alessi, 1989. n,¡s scu/pluml aJI/IJli1li1l1ll kdlfe 111I5 becoll/e somellliJlg of (1 desigll ¡con, nif1cctill.~ ti
Postmooemist cOl/fliet betweell form t1lld fimctioll. T/¡,. desigll 'qmsellts fIJe metnmorp/losis of tlle f!t'crYday iJlto ti fnshiol/ statemt'lIt. NI 2jCm!roitl.
2 Frtmk Ge1/ry, Pilo ketl1e for
3 Afie/ulel Gnlt'L'S. Bird kettfefor
AIt'Ssi, 1992. Olle of ti St'ries of
Afessi, 1985.
l"1u~
clase corrt'spolldellce belil'eell form and mem';lIg illllle PostlllOl.Il.'rllisl arma/In} /l/ay be St'I!II ill Grm.'cs· ¡I'itty l/se of 11Ic bird-slUlped w/listfe alld file higl/-pilclled soul/d it gi<.'t'S off wlu'lI lile slaill/ess·sleel kettle i5 boi/illg. Hf 26c1ll/1O'l.ill.
Alessi kellks llml are as ml/e/I
cou<'ersatiOll pieus as IItensi/s for boilillg il'tlter, il is ti PI/U 01/ /lle ji.:;/¡ kett/e Witll ils l/st of ti flyiug jish for a w/¡jstfe. Form foJlOiL'S style mtlu:r tlU/Il fimclioll. H/18·5(1I//71.;II.
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ust as they had in the media of cera mies and glass, Postmodem designers found opportunities in silver and metalwork to further their exploration of the domestic landscape in small-scale lighting and table-top micro-architechrre. A notable instance of this \Vas the Alessi company's Tea alld Coffee Pia:=n series, launched in 1983. Under the guidance of Alessandro Mendini, 12 prominent intemational designers including Graves, Hollein, ]encks, Portoghesi, Tusquets Blanca, Thun, Tigerman, and Yamashita \Vere cornrnissioned to design a tea and coffee sen'ice inspired by arcrutecture. In true Posbnodemist fashion the resulting series dre\V on a variety of stylistic and culhlIal sources and, in keeping with the designer celebrity ethos of the decade, were initiaUy produced in limited editions of 100 (Iargely destined for collectors and museums) and launched simultaneously in intemational centres of designo Table lights, SUdl as those in painted steel and glass designed by Malteo Thun for Bieffeplast in the mid19805, explored similar small-scaJe architectonie ideas.
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11le aesthetic boundaries of other domestic artifacts were also stretched further, notably in the field of domestic kettles, where Richard Sapper, Michael Graves, Philippe Starck, frank Gehry, and others designed for Alessi. E\'en refrigerators took on architectonie forms, as with Roberto Pezetta's 1987 Wi:nrd designs for Zanussi (see p. 50-1). Many other previously mlU1dane domestic items also received. attention from designers from the 19805 onwards. These included door fumiture, \Vhere eompanies sllch as the Gerrnan manllfacturer Franz Schneider Brakel (FSB) comrnissioned designers sllch as Alessandro Mendini, Mario Botta, Hans Hollein, and Arato Isozaki to focus their attention 011 handles and knobs. Of CQlIISe, fresh th.inkÍng revivified many other fields of silver and metalwork design activity, as, for example, in the jewellery of Spanish designer Ramón PlÚg Cuyás, "vho often blended valllable materials such as silver with more mlmdane materials SUdl as Coloreore. In the same design field Nonvegian designer Tone Vigeland also maniplllated materials in fresh and witty "vays.
From Microarchitecture to Madonna 1 raolo Por/aglles;, Tea and CaHee Piazza servicc for Alessi, 1983. Tl1is six-piece limitcd cditioll rejlected preocCIlpntiolls witl! lI1icroarchitecture and ecJlOed ¡he decomtive slyles 01 Ihe early 2.otll-cclltllry Wiener 'vVerkstiiUe. 2 Mattco T//lm, Hornmage a Madonna cllt/ay, l.J¡ Ga/erin Desi~"'lI ¡¡¡tema/ional serie:; 1986. Black polyamide n¡ uf gilded decora/ioll
-
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are l/sed lo ('uoke ¡he g/amoral/s
3 Ramón PlIíg ClIytis, ¡/ie Charal Mermaid broocll, 1989. COlllbillilIg silper, ColorCore, alld paillt, Spallis!r desigl/eI" Cllyás explores f/u.' (ellsiol! bcttl'ecll t!Je poetry
of Ihe
fit/e alld
¡he eOlltms!s 01101"11/, CO/Ol/T, nl1d /I/n/erinls, rállforcillg t/U! Iiybrid natllre o[ tlle II/cl"mnid lierself, J/lllf-lIllIlWIl, /wlf-fish. L 15'5clII/6il1,
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4 Talle Vigclfilul, Necklace of Nails, 1982.. Vigelal1d embraces lite 1I11expected ill lIis use of illdustrial e/emcllfs, fml1sfol"lllillg jUllcfiol1al illlo dccorati"l'f' compol/t'Ilts, (/lid exploril1g file acsfl1etic possibilities ofcom/Jinil/g f'7.'eryday al/d 11/01'1' expensÍ1.'e II/aterials. Oial/l. 2.1 cm/8'/,i1/.
5 TOII/ 5addil1gtoll, jewellery, lafe 1970s. /11
COIllI1IOI1 ¡vifll a l1umber of experimental jewellers of t!le period, 5addingtol/ explores II/aferials, fillishes, a!1d "isl/al refi.'rellCi's ill a gmpl1ic lllfilmcr far removed fmm fhe clega!1l, polisllCd ¡onus of lIIail/sf realll jewellery desigll.
6 Osear Tusqllets Blanca, Salvador cnlldlestick5, mmlllfacfllred by Oriade, early 19905. Tllese nSYllletrieal ealldlcstick5 Iwue a crude, allllos! are/mcologieal c!w/"{/cter al1d appear as iffaslúoned frOJII drippiug wax gatllerillg ill a pool. Hf 46clII/18il/.
499
Textiles and Rugs Cultural Diversification , .\'at/m/ic 01/ P(1~ll/it'r, Gabon tl'xli/e/or ,\lemphi:;, 198.2. T/ú:; priJltl'lj cofto" lt'xti/c l/mil':' 011
Dl/ Po:.>quicr's CX1It'riL'llCt' 01 ti/e ridl/Y pnttt'rlll'lt, gt'IJ/IIt'fric
desigll:!, o/ n i'nridy o/ (U1111n':'. TI/(' lwiglzt, 1m:'!! jlllfna I'l!flects lite lvklllp/lis cOIlIllJi/¡¡¡ellllo im.'is.orntill~ /he
di':,i[{1I o/
¡·(1cl"ydaylfli!1gs.
I
/JI
EcCt'l/tric,:, Gaudí, 1985, prillted ji/k. Tlu' eo/fng¡'-lik 1m::'!! sl/r/aee ol t1¡j:; dc:.>igJl rt'1kct::. COlllclIlJ'orary iJltert'S/ ¡JI qlla/nfioll t1l1d Tc'illh'Tprt'lnlioll
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jrolll ffle pajI. 4 fiomeó senrJ. Elio Fiol"lleci opellt'd !lp lInlinu desigll relnilillg
to tite slrat styks of 1960s LOlldol1, explllldil1g frolll a sillgle Alilallese store fo /1{,COII/l' 171/ i 11 tentat iO/1I7/ fas/¡ iO/1I701(' (·lIferprise. Tl/is ('c/ecHc mix of colollr, ¡/I7th'l"II, alld Sl,lIIr({' material t}fI1{fit'S the l'J'hl!lIu'ml lfll"llst of PO:'lmtldt'l"IIi~l/I.
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extiles and ntgs provided signifieant opportunities to explore the often brightl)' colollred, riehly decorative, and cllltllral1y diverse references associated with the Postmodemist olltlook. Barbara Radice, a key chronicler of Memphis design, described the textile designs of one of the grollp'S fOlUlding members, Nathalie Oll Pasqllicr, as embracing "A frica, Cubism, FlItllrism and Art Deco; India, graffiti, jtUlgles and town; science fiction, caricature and Japanese comics," The bringing together of di\'erse visual and cultural rderences, which was seen in much a\'ant-garde design m Italy ;', the 19705 and 19805, had al50 been a hallmark of many of those ",orking in the fashion arena. This was typified by the influential work of British designer Vi\'ienne \Vestwood who, in her irnmediate post-Plmk. phase, drew on imagery associated with buccaneering and patterns drawn from ethnic cultures and the Appalachian mountains for her fashion coUections of the earl)' 19805, British companies such as Bodymap, e5tabli5hed in 1982, The Cloth, establishcd in 1983, and
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2 Alell1phis 1"lIg, 1986. :;Ilmple IViltoll cnrpt'lillg. J\lkmplJis Jlflrticipnllts dn'¡¡' 011 (l ;:{'idl' ¡'nridy of S(Jllrct'$. H¡'rt' tllt' gari:.>11 cOII/m:.>/:; ;;tmdd/t' file oordcrlillf'S oI kil:;clt rmd progn':':'Íl'1.' taste. 3 He/f'II Litlllfll/ll for fngfis/l
English Eccentrics, established in 198-t aIso explored fresh decorative possibilities in textile designo Surface pattern was also explored by graphic desjgners, jncluding the iniluential Neville Brod)', known for his umovative layouts for the British style magazule TIJe face, The rapidly changing \Vorld of printed ephemera provided designers with a considerable range of opportunitjes to explore new ideas, whether for record sleeves, magazine covers and layouts, or ad\'ertising, Similarly, in the United States, CalHornian New Wa\'e graphics did much to influence and enrich the \'¡sual voeabulary of two-dimensionaI surfaees. lndeed, other intemationaliy celebrate
•
Quote Unquote 1 AlesSlIl/liro Akllrlilli. •mll
l/al/gingfor ¡\JlISt'O Alcl¡ymin. 198os. C/osely (Issocintillg l¡jlllse~f ¡¡-itll ti/e COl/ce/JI of" RcDl'Sigll" ill lile 1970:>, Melldilli expn"Ssed tJie ¡'il'1l' 11ll1t il U'ns ¡·irtl/nl/y impossiMe fa desigJl
eomp/elely /le'l' forlll5. 1Jere tht.'n' are strollg ecllOt's botll of ti/(,
gt.'OlIIdric ¡onl/s of Art Dl.'co {/lId file f1ntllC:>s of IIII/eh Pop dl!sigll. 2 Robe,-! le Héros, Le Pilleur d'Epa\'e, IIIm11l!aClllred by No/Jilis FOII/lIIl, Fnmce. Inte
19805, upllo/st!!,.!! fauríc/wnll /lIwgillg. Tlle gmpilic illforl/lnlity (Inri ...¡slIa/ eDil/mi o/ t/¡is fexiile
dt"Sig/J l/lIderlillt'S tll(' ¡/IIporlmlú' of /larra/IPe ill /l/1Ie/1
1
COIlfl>mpomry desigll.
3 He/ell Yllrdley, rug, J985. AUhollg/¡ Yard/ey's tl'Qrk recn/ls {f
IlIll1/ber
01 tlll' elt'lIIl'llts al
Modemist desigll tllrol/gll
flt~r
use ol triallglt's. rectnllgks, (lIld Illllutt'd pakttc, tf/(· slmpt':; an° loosely, aflllost casllally drai¡'II. alld eXlIde a persollallallguagc far relllO¡'ed ¡rolll Machilll,'Ase olijecti"Uily.
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FOi¡,!t-r'S 1151.' offragmclltl'd moti/s drnwlI from al/cient Rome fOrlJ/5 a dccoratil'l.' pastiche in 111i:; collage of bllsts.
5/a¡,ier AInriscal. Munecos fal/ric mrlllllfaclllr!!d by Trafica de MDl.tas. Spaill. earJy '99°5. Mariscal flflrJIesSl'd ¡IOJlufar C1//trlre in flll? IISt' of cmddy drail'1I cartoon c1lf1rflcfel's Iv at'at!! a li¡'dy, fas/¡ivl1abh' h'xti/f.'.
50·
Industrial Design
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in teme';,...' t"1ectrollic '0.1/ i:: cOllcerJIed ,l'itll tI'l' can' of ti "irtllnl pet, or "cybt·'11f!1.¡\ InlllljactllTt'lt ¡" casing of IIIfIIlY cofol/rs n/Id palfl'TII'5, il sofd 40 /JIillion world,l'id(' 'l'iIIlill lil'O Yt'nr,;, of ils IIInrket [mlllcll. Ht 501l/21-ill. TI';:;
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of I//l/IIY
COl/tcllIpomry nI/dio prodllc1s, ti/e II/TIltnbfe, tllllplifia. mlfl spt-Ylkas
are::;el in "disfrt'Sx>¡I," reil/forero ml/at'It'. Tite c.\'JJOS('¡f ¡¡'ire
II/t':;/I
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indicalj¡,c of ft:c1moJogi((l/ /mllsíellce. IV. 50CIII/19Y,;1I
3 Daniel Wt'il, Bag Radio, dcsigllcd 1981, IIInlllljnc/llred 1983. Higltly visible througil 11//: tn1lls/ucCII/ plnstic decom/ed ('I/pelope, lile rndio's ,mrf:; are set'lIIillgly mlldolll/Y, y,'t pocticallyarmllged. Ht Jocm/lll,ill.
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4lall/es Dysoll, DC02 De Stijl l'flCI/IIIII c/{:r/JIcr /mmched ill 1996. Usillg primary cofOlm; illsfead of ti/e 1/I';¡lCfS/l1 aestfu·tic, Dysoll Imllsformed lile l'flCIII/ll1 cleal/er from IItilitarial/ objecllo slyle icolI. Ht (approx.) 5OCIII!l9!,i1l.
5 Roberto Pr...elta. \\'lZarcl rtfrigemtor,
ZnIll/SSi,
1986. Pce/ta's desigllllloPcs iltt'l1y frolll tlle fargdy filllcliollal jonlls of IIIl11ly kile/tell appliallccs, becolllillg 1111 arcflileclllm/ me/apllor topped by 1111 idiosYllcmfic flag. Hf 2m/6ft 6ill.
5
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Functional Fantasies 1 jOl/uthall Ive alld J\pp/e Uesign Temll, i-mac cOlI/puter, 1998. Tl1e i-mac rt'presmled u desigll
SOlllliol1 tlml Jl1IlImllized u J¡i/IIertv fl/I/chol/a/ vbjecl. lt Inmsforll/ed the gel1emliy blllky desktop colI/puta illto a fashiollab/e icon /hrollgh the iJl traductiOIl of st reaml i lIed forlll alld a clIoice of c%l/r. MOl/itor J¡¡ 30.5cIII/1 2ill. 2 Masas/úto Taka511110, lzumi rSpring) kitc}¡ell, lI1allllfactllred by TosJúba, early 1990s. 1c:iiiOiiiii
3 Oml-B, Squash grip tootlI-
bTIIsh, ¡¡TOdl/ced ill ¡JIe 1980s alld '90S. AI/hougll crgolloll/ic in /mus of /IIe jloruil1g "S" forlll of it:; ¡mJldle al/d ulIgled Ilend, l/le use of c%ur elldows /JlÍs flll1ctiol1a/ implemellt witII a p[ayful, fasJ¡ioJlable, alld epllcllleml appeu/. Ht nCIII/8ÜIl. 4 PJ¡i/ippc S/arck, Fluoc
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olJmving a series of tedmological developments after the Second World War, industrial designers were increasingly freed fram the Modemist constraints of "form follO\'\'s function." The appearance of the transistor, followed by significant developments in microelectronics and the advent of the silicon dl..ip allowed designcrs thc freedom to explore forms that no longcr nccdcd to hOllse cumbersome working parts. While Japanese designers at 50ny responded in terms uf innovative, miniahtrized products such as pocket transistor radios (far cxamplc Modcl 610, 1958), portable televisions (including Model 80 301, 1960) and the ubiquitous Walkman (launched in 1979), Postmodemist designers were able to explore very different qualities in contemporary product designo Daniel Weil's Bag Radio, initially conceived in 1981, poeticaliy revealed its component parts in a transparent but decorative PVC envelope. Witty, and an implicit critique of Modernist convcntions, it cmbraced the csscncc of a fashionable consumer producto Ron Arad's Concrete Stereo was another design that attacked the
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rectilinear clarity of the modular black box units that comprised contemporary hi-fi systems. Il had ils electronic components set in rough, seemingly disintegrating concrete. A seeming archaeological relic of the Fordist production era, it embraced many of the charactcristics associated with Postmodern design such as ambiguity, irony, and ephemerality. Such experimentation had coincided with the publication and impact of theoretical and critical design texts on both sides of thc Atlantic by Barthes, Venturi, Eco, DorAes, and others interested in the culhtral significance of visuallanguage. The pO\ver of a design vocabulary that embraced popular culture both as a revitalizing force and a rejcction of the Modernist canon proved attractive to many designers and consumers. Indeed, Postmodernist industrial design couId be found throughout the domestic environment, \vhether in the bathroom (\,vhere such interventions included Philippe Starck's Ffllocnril toothbrush) or the kitchen (the Italian Alessi company \vere quick to recognize the kitchen's cultural significance
-50:
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Fashioning Function
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2 fuliml Browl/, Vercingetorige Il/arlll dock for Rexifc, lta/y, 1994. Tili:; dock was desiglled wit/¡ referellce fa ¡lIe I1l1ciellf Gallic cIlieftaill Vercillgetorix WJIO rose IIp agaiust juJius enesar - al/IISiol! fo Ihe (Uarrior is seell ;1/ ¡lIe lie/lllel-like¡OJ"llI of file casiug. HI 901l/31,ill. 3 & 4 George f. Sowdcn (/lid Nat/wlie Ou Pasqllier, Neos docks, 1986-7. Tf¡c allllosl totcmic appcal"flllce of ¡hese docks parallcls the aval1f-garde explorafioll of lIIicro-arc!litcctllrc alld tablc /al1dscapcs, Thc l/se of calour mld decoralion for I/le stl'1lcll/l'e al1d dock faces is typica/ of the Mcmphis desigllel's. Dimll·34·5 cm /IJ'ÜII.
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1 $watch 1/IntcIJes in fitted cases: Eggsdream, Magic Spell, Hollywood Dream, Hocus Pocus, LeaL (/lid Encantador. Tite faet tllnl ¡he llame Swatch is a !lybrid crea/ioll, tlIlIalglllllated frOIll t!le words StO;ss alld wate/l, lel1ds il {/ certaill Pos/moJerllis! cachet. Frolll lile later 19805 lile $watch becmlll.' a higlily poplllar!ashioll nccessory throllg}¡ ils varidy of pa/temed faces (lI1d sfmps.
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504
as a domestic gallery in the homes of an increasingly affluent urban elite). In the lattel~ in many courttries of the industrialized world, were displayed often brightly coloured and playhil gas lighters, egg-cups, corkscrews, and other domestic equipment that complemented Alessi's range of designer kettles (see p. 500). Even everyday cleaning equipment, such as vacuum cleaners, were increasingly seen as objects ,,·úth style status and v,'ere designed as decorative items in their O\\'n right rather than necessarily stored out of sight when not in use. The British designer James Dyson, whose technologically irulovative designs did much to boost trus trend across a wider social spectrum, played with Postmodernist styles to decorative effect in his De Stijlinspired "Edition" vacuUffi cleaner. The surfaces of many other domestic products became bearers of rieh and varied decorations. Iconic in this field has been the SwatcJI ,""atch, launched in 1983. By the beginning of the 21st century, the Swatcll had become the best-selling watch ever with sales of over 200 million.
Cheap enough to throw away rather than repalr, each watch has the same mechanisms, thus rendering it capable of differentiation only through the design of its face and strap. From the late 1980s onwards the Swatch became a fasruon accessory, with the Swatch Design Lab in Milan produeing more than 70 designs per year, often using well-known designers such as Matteo Thun and Alessandro Mendlni. SImilar ideas have been explored in other product fields as, for example, in the deeorative, brightly coloured, and pattemed interchangeable covers for mobile phones produced by Nokia and others. Such an interest in pattern had characterlzed the ,,,'ork of a number of avant-garde designers in the 19705 and 1980s in the United States and ltaly, particularly those assoclated with Studio Alchymia and the Memphis Group. The design freedoms established by the ltalian avant-garde in the 19705, however, have ereated aclimate today where almost anything goes and pattem, eolour, and novelty tend to be used for for their own sake and lack the Postmodernist cultural depth of 20 years ago.
Decorative Domesticity 1 Emesto Spicciolnto mJd DIIII/(' DOlIl.'gmJi, m:or, madI! by Crea:Olli Cm:",i, 1987. RiltJ/er like Stnrck's Fluocarilloot1Jbmsh, tI,is m:or 1ms Inkl'lI 0/1 a siel'k, sCII/pll/rallook, rel/deáng ir ti 5tyled cOII/II/lJ¡1ily mlller t/mll n merefy
fl/llctiolll1l desigll SO/lItiOIl for allei'eryday task. form folfows !osflioll. L 19CII//7'Ü1I. 1
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The Contributors The Publisher would like lo thank the foUowing expert contTihutors to TlIe Elemen/s 01 Desigll.
NoiH RiJey, lhe General Editor of Tlle ffemell/s of Desigll, is a specialist writer and lecturer on the decorativc arts. A part-time tutor al Sothcby's lnstitute of Arl, Londan, and a lecturer fer the Workers' Educational Association, she contrihutes a regular (olumo to Historie HOIl5e, the joumal of the Historie Houscs Association. Her books include Ti/e Art, Tlie Victorinll Oesigll SOl/rec Book, Cifts Jor Good C/lildrell: TI,e History DI ClliIdren's Olllla 1790-189D, and Stanes' Pocket GlIide fa Ten CMdies. She was a contributor to Sotlleby's COllcise EllC.lIclopedin 01 Flfmilllr" and Miller's Al/fiques Ellcyc1opedin.
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Patricia Bayer, the Consultant Editor and contributor for the Early Modernism and Art Deco chapters, is a specialist in 19thand 20th-century European and American decorative arts and designo Among her books are Ar/ Oeco /lIferiors, Art Orco
Archilrctllre, TlIe Arl Oeco SOllree Book, Lnliqlle Perfllllle Botfles, TI/e Art o/ Rellé Ln/iqllc, and the Sotheby's Co/leetor's ClIide lo Arf NOllveall and Arl Oeco. She has contributed to Sotheby's COl/cise Ellcyc/opedin of Si/ver and T1Ie HOl/se of Líber/y. Since] 993 shc has been the Arts Editor of Ellcyc/opcdin Alllcricnlla.
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Helen Clifford (Neodassical silver and metalwork) studied History at Cambridge, follo\\'cd by a PhO at the Royal College of Art. 5he has worked as a Course Director at the University of Essex, as a Leverhulme Research Fellow at Balliol College, Oxford, a Research Fello\\' at Warwick University, and is presently Course Tutor at the Victoria and Albert Museum and the Royal College of Art in London.
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18th-century Decorative Arts course at Sotheby's lnstitute; she is now a Senior Lecturer. 5he is a member of se\'eral societics including !he French Porcelain Society, the 5ociet)' of Court Historians, and the Fumiture History Society. Mary Greensted (Arts and Crafts Movement) has a postgraduate diploma in gallery studies and beca me an Associate of the Museums Association in 1976. She has curated a number of touring exhibitions, including Alan Pelers, Fl/mif//re Maker and A1fred aud Loltise Powe/l, Happy Workmanship willI Cood TllOlIg1lt. She is now Decorative Arts Curator and Visitar Sen'ices Manager at Cheltenham Art Caller)' and Museum. Sally Kevill-Davies CBaroque, Rococo, and Neoclassical ceramics and porcelain) is a freelance writer and researcher based in London. 5he has been responsible for the recataloguing of English porcelain at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, srnce ]991, and a resident expert on the BBC Al/tiques Roadshotu since 1997. Rachel Layton Elwes (Contemporary) is a curator in Mcdicval and Modem Europe at the British MlIseum, and curatorial assistant at The Gilbert Collection, London. She was formerly assistant curator in lhe department of decorative arts at the Camegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh. Her exhibitions theTe inclllded Three COllfemporary Metafsmit/ls: /nlimale TrndiliOlls and fn PlIrsuit of Objecfs: ATribule to Deeorntive Arfs Col/eefors. Prior lo this she held rcsearch assistant posts at the i\tctropolitan Museum of Art and lhe Philadelphia Museum of Art. She lectures widely on !he decorative arts.
Max Dannelly (The Aesthetic Movement> gained an MA in Fine and Oecorative Art from Sotheby's Institute in London in 1988. He is now Registrar and 19th-
J.R. Liefkes (Renaissance and Baroque glass) gained a masters degree in art histor)' from Leyden University in 1986. Cmatar of Glass and Metalwork at the Haglle Municipal Museum from 1990--2, he is now acting Chicf Curator of the ceramics and glass deparhnent at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. He has been president of the ICOM lntemational Glass Committee since 1995 and editorial adviscr of the Coming Museum of Glass /ollrnaf ofGlass Stlldies smce 1998. He is a regular contributor to Vormen "it VlIllr (a Dutch quarterly magazine on ceramics and glass) and is a speaker at intemationaJ seminars on Renaissancc glass and pottery.
Jane Gardiner (Renaissance, Baroque, and Rococa pottery) is a specialist in early European ceramics and glass, 17th- and 18th·century architecture and design, the caurt art of Louis xrv and Chinese export porcelain; she teaches and lectures \Videly. 5he began her career at the Victoria and Albert Museum in Londoo, latcr bccoming a tutor 00 the 17th- aod
Andy McConnell (Rococo and Neoclassical glass) is a professional writer, researcher, and leclurer specializing in antique glass. He owns a large callection and writes regularly for magazines on both sides of the Atlantic. His book, Tlle Decallter, AH I1Il1slrnled Hisfonj, is published by the Antique Collectors' Club.
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Dr. Alan Powers (Modernism) studied history of art at the University of Cambridge, completing his PhO in 1983. He was Vice-President of the Twentieth Century Saciety from 1995-9. He has curated maoy exhibitions including Modcl'll Brifaill, 1929-39 (Design Museum, consultant curator), Sir Albert Ric/1tlrdsOI1 1880-1964 (RIBA Heinz Gallery), and Serge CJtermayeff (Kettle's Yard, Cambridge and the De La Warr Pavilion, BexhiU); and he has ",riHen for magaLines such as Apollo, Voglle, RIBA ¡ol/mal, and l'Vorld oI'Jlteriors. Dr Powers has been a senior lecturer at the Universitv , of Greenwich since 1999,
Decorative Arts course at Sothcby's Institute in London, spccializing in furniture and designo
Daru Rooke (Historical Revivals) specializes in Victorian arts, industry, and social rusto!")'. He has a postgraduate degree in Art Gallery and Museum Studics from the Uni\·ersity of Manchesler and has been Ihe Senior Curator at the Leeds lndustrial Museum since 1996. He has given radio presentatians far BBC Radio -:1, contributed to the BBC programme Home FroJlt, and curated and prcscnted the Channel-:1 documentary 1900 HOl/sc.
Nigel Whiteley (Space Age) is a professor in the Department of Art at Lancaster Uni\'ersity and has recently rcturned from a period at the Gett)' lnstitute in Los Angeles. He has been a visiting professor at the Nationallnstitute of Oesign in Ahmedabad, the Indian Institute of Technology in Bombay, and the Central Academy oE Art and Design in Beijing.
Mary Sehoeser (Renaissance, Baroque, Rocoeo, and Neoclassical textiles) studied design at the University of California and completed a post-graduate course in Museum Studies at California State University befare gaining an MA in Histo!")' of Art at the CaurtauJd lnstitule of Art. A textile specialist, she is consultant archh·ist and curator at thc Landon lnstitute and Liberty of London Prints. Her most recent exhibition was Makillg Tlieir Mark (1896-1966) at Central St l\.larhns, London, where she is also a research fellow. 5he is a member of the RAE Art and Design panel and an examiner fer various uni\·ersities in the UK. She is textile adviser lo the Biltmore Estate, North Carolina, English Heritage and The National Trust. Timothy Schroder
Lisa White (British Rococo and Neoclassical furniture) read Modern History at Oxford and later worked at the Victoria and Albert Museum in Landan, specializing in English furniturc and upholstery; later she taught History of Decorative Art at Bristol University. Since 199-1 she has \\'orked in Bath, at the Building of Bath Museum and is currently Curator of Decorati\'e Art at the Holburne Museum of Art, Bath.
Jonathan M Woodham (Postmadernism) studied Fine Art at Edinbllrgh College of Art before lIndertaking postgraduate studies at the Courtauld Institute of Art in London. He has been an editorial board member on the internationally· renowned ¡ol/mal 01 Desigl1 History since its launch in 1987 and also serves on the intemational ad\"isory board of a number of leading periodicals induding Desigll IsslIe5. He lectures frequently and and is currently Professor of History of Design and Director of the Design History Research Centre at the Uni\"ersity of Brighton.
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Ghislaine Wood (Art Nouveau) attained her MA from Birkbcck CoUege, University of Londan. A spccialist on Art Nouveau and Art Deco, she has lectured at the Oslo School of Architecture and The Royal Academy as well as the Victoria and Albert Museum in London where she has been a curator in the research department since 1993. 5he is thc Curatar for the Art Deco Exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum.
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Sources The following is a lisl oí the contemperary publications menlioned as SOlUCes in 7711: Elemmts of Dt.>sigll, logether ",¡Ih page refcrcnccs. A nwnber in italics indicates Ihal lhe citation accompanies an illustratian. Renaissance Ov¡d, Mellllllorplloses, Ven ice, 1-1:97; p.20 Pellegrino, Francesco, Ln F/ellr de /n Sch'I1Ct' de POllrtmictllre, Venice, 1530; p.IO Picolpasso, Cipriano, Tlm:e Books of ¡he Potta's Arl, Ital}'. ,.1557; p.22, p..?]. p.24 Sambin, Hugues, Oelwre de /11 dil'ersité des termes, Burgundy. 1572; p.J6
Vasan, Giorgio. tÍl'('S of tlle Arfists, Italy, 1550; p.12
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Baroqu€ Chippendale, Thomas, TI//' Gel1/1Clllnll & Cnvillet-A1nker's Direclor, England, 175-1 (further eds 1755 al1d 1762); p.9-J., P.95, p.98, P·98, P.99 Gribelin, Simon, New Book of Ol'llallJ.:JIts, London, 17O-i; JI.71 Marot, Daniel, NOI/l'eall Upre d'Orf(!'l'rerh', The Hague, 1712; P.73 Mocldcr, C. de, Proper Orllalllt'llts to bt ElIgrm:''1'd (lll Pinte, London, 169-1; p./3 Rabel, Daniel, (arlouc!le:> dt' d!ffirentes illPCllliol/s, c.1625; P.IO Stalkcr, John and Parker, George, Treatise of }apmll1illg and Vamisllillg, England, 1688; p.S8 Vianen, Christian van, !vIoddli Artificiosi, Utrecht, 1650; JJ.7o Rococo Blande!, Jaeques-Franc;ois, De fa dislriblltioll dt'S maiSOI/S de plaiSllllec et de la déeorfl/ioll des édifict'Sl.'ll géllt'rfll, Franee, 1737; IJ.81 Darly, I\latthias and Edwards, George, A Ne'il' Book of Chil1/?S(' DeSig¡IS, London, 175-1; P.95
508
Decker, Paulus, C/¡i"est' Arclliftoctllre, Ch,il alld OnlallJelllal and Cotfúe Architectllrl' Decomted, London, 1759; p.108
Germain, Pierre, Elémellfs d'OrflÓf.'rerk, Franee, 17.t8;P.lJl
Cochin, Charles-:\lieolas, Slt11;Jlicnlioll al/x OrflÓf.'res, París, 175-1; p.l91
loee, William and ~Iayhe\\', John, Tlll' Ullh'l'rSllI 5ysll'1lI of HO/lsflOfd Fumitllrl', Londoll, 1762; p.9-J., P·94, P.97
Delia Bella, Slcfano, Rnceoftll di \/asi Dh'l'rsi, Paris, 1639-18; p.J88
Johnson, Thomas Olle HlIIufred Imd Fifty Ncw Desiglls, London, 1761; P.95 Loek, Matth.ias, Six SeOllees, London, 17-J.-.l.; P.94 Manwaring, Robert, Tlu: Clmir-!vIah'r's G/lidl', London, 1766; P.96 Mariette, Jean, Arehill'C/llrl' Frflll(ais, Paris, 1727; p.&l Mcissonnier, Juste-Aurele, G'II'<,n', Franee, 17-J.8; p.l U, P.115, p.116 Roubo, Andrc-Jaeob, I'Arl dl/ Mellltisil'r, Paris, 1772.; p.85 Rudolph, Christian Friedrieh, Eillige Vases, Augsburg, p.118 Saint-Auban, Charles Gerrnail1 de, CArt dll Bl'odeur, Franee, 1770; p.125 Sayer, Robert, Tfu: Lndieio' AIIIIISt'lIIell/ 01', tllt' IVhole Arl of /appmmil/g I//odt' Easy, London, 1762; p.1lO Upholslerers, Society oL C('II/eel HOl/s/lOld Fllrnitllre, London, 1760-2; p.9-l Vardy, John, SOllle Dl'Siglls of Mr llligo /Olle:> tUld Mr IVilliam Kmt, London, 17-J...i; p.121 Neoclassicism Aekennann, Rudolph, RelKl$ilory of Arts, London, 1809-28; P.139, p. H2, p.156 Adam, Robert and James, '1'lle Works ill Al'ehiteetllre, London, 1773-1822; p.HO, ".14°, p.I77, P.177, ¡;'189 l3eunat, Joseph, Dt'Si.f;lIs fol' Al'ciJift'ctlll'fll Omallll'lIts, París, c.1813; 1J.103; 1'·108, P.109 Carter, J., Tlle BlIilder's I\lngn:im', England, 177-1-78; p.qo
Cntalago degli Alltichi MOIlI/IIICllti, Italy, 1759; p.l-J.9 Chambers, Willíam, A Trt'aliSl' 01/ O"i/ Architectllre, London, 1759; p.l77
Delafosse, Jean Charles, N01/l'clle leol/ologic Historique, Paris, 1768; p.130
Del/e Al/tidJitll di Ercolrmo Esposle, ital)', 1755-92; P,152 Denon, Vi"ant, Voyage dalls In t3l1sse el /11 Hall/e Egyp/t', Paris, 1802; p.161 Diderot, Denis, Elleydopidie 01/ Didiolllwir,' Rnisol/Ilé dt'S Sciellees, Paris, 1771; P.159 Dugoure, Jean-Démostht'l1e, d'AI'flWsqIlt'S, Franee, 1782; p.206 Hepplewhite, A. (Gcorge Hepplewhile), Tlu: Cabillcl-Alakn's alld UpllO/sll'l'I:r's Guid,', George Hepplewhite, England, 1788 (first edition); p.1 H, p.HO, P·141, p.1.J.1, 1'.143, P.145, p.15-1 Hope, Thomas, HOllsellOld FlImitul't' (/lid [l/feriar Dccvmfioll, London, 1807; p.129, p.I-l2,p·J43, p.156,; p.183, P.183 Hugues, Pierre Fran¡;:ois, Baron d'Hanearville, AlltiqJlilés Elrusqu('S, Grecqlll's el ROlllaille:>, Naples, 1766-67; p.l77
Mrcll :1( gt'sc1mlaeh'Ollm A-liiL'l'IIl, Leípzig, 1805, p.H7' Laugier, Abbe, Essai sllr I'Archih'Ctllre, Paris, 1753; p.126 l\lcissonnier, Juste-Aurele, Oellt're (Upre des Lt'gulI1¡':;), Franee, c.175O; p.l88 Mésangerc, Pierre La, Cul/ectioll de Meublt'S et Objels de Colit, Franee, 1802-35; p.136, p.156 Neufforge, Jean Fran¡;:ois, Reeeui/ ElélllCIIlnire d'Arc1litt'clllre, Paris, 1757-80; p.126 Pastorini, B., A Nt"w Book ofof Desi,~115 for Girtllldo/es alld Glass Frfllllt'S, England, 1775; p.l.l0 •
Perder, Charles and Fontainc, PierreFranc;:ois-Léonard, Recueil de dt'coratiollS illtéricurt's, Paris, 1801; p.128, p. 1)5, P.193 PiranesL Giovanni Battista, Le AI/lic/ú/il ROlllflll" and \/('dute di ROllla, Italy, 1756 and 17-18-78; p.126
Richardson, George, .\Jt"I' Dl'Sigll~ for Va:
¡ol/mal oj Dt~igll, London, 1S-l9-52; p.2lO
Grassct, Eugene, Plmlfs (/lId tllór AppJiCdtiolls to Orunllll'/If, Landon, 1897; JI. JOT
Klligllt's Vas/,,,, mld Omallll'l/ts, c.1833; p.2..J2
Sheratan, Thamas, Cabilll!l Dictiollary, Londan, 1803; p.1-I2
Haeckel, Emsl, Kl/Ils~forl/l del' Nall/r, LeipzIg and Vienna, 1898; P.301
Rickman, Thamas, AII Attl.'lIIpt to Discrimillate the Styles oj EI/g/is/¡
Sheraton, Thomas, rile Ca/lille!-!vIaker nlld llpllOlstefef's DmwillS Bnok, Landan, 1791--l; p.I-!2, Jl.14 3, p. T45, p.15-!
Al'cIJifectllre, London, 1817; p.21O
jl/gt'lld, Die.l\lunich, 1896-1920; p.301
Sh
¡vloser, Kolomon, Dit' Que/le, Germany, 1901;p.J'6
Viollet-Ie-Duc, Eugene, DictiOlll/{lirl.' dll Alobi/il.'r Fmll(aise, ParlS, 1858-75; p.2H
Pall, Berlin, 1895; p.301
Smilh, George, i\ Colh'ctioll of OC5iglls for HOIIscllOld Fumilllft' alld !l1!cl'ior Dl'comtioll,
Landon, 1808; p.l.lT, p.1-I2
\ler 5aerlllJl, Vienna, 1898-1903,; p.301
Tatham, CH.,
EtcllillS~ oj Allciellt
OTl/a-
1II1'1Itn/ Arcllitccfl/rt', England, 1799; P.139
Tatham, CH., Dl.':'igmfor OmfllllCllto/ Plate, England, 1806; p.t91, P.191· Vien, Jaseph~~ tarie, SI/itl! dI! Vo:.'(';;. Paris, 1760; P.192 'Vinckdmann, Johann Jaachim, HistOlY oj A/lcit'llt Arl, Rarne, 176-l; p.126
The Aesthetie Movement Booth, Charles, MOlfall SII/farl.' Omallll'lIl, :\'cw Yark, 1877; 1'.269 Bt'twt~f/l/
and
l\'Ital SltaJl \Ve Do I\'itll 0/11' 1\'alls1,
~e\\'
Cook, Clarence, T/le HOll5<'
York, 1878 and 1880; 1'.250, p.253; p.250 Easllake, Charles Lockc, Hillts 011 f IO/lsl.'1lOliI Tastl', London, 1868; Boston, "-2,p._:::J.. ,- , 1_; p._:::J 18-"
Modemism Pilgrim, Dianne, Tltl' Maellilll' A~¡' ill Aml'rica, C.5., 1988; p.388 The Space Age 5/11/1in.II Tilllt':' Ca/ollr SI/PI/1elllt'/II, Britain, launched 1962; pA53, p.-l56 SI/t'ctator, TIt¡,. Britain; pA5--! Tailar a¡¡d CHIII'r; Britain, pA70
\\Iood, Robert and Dawkins, James, Ruills nj Pallllym and R1/ills of 8alllbt'ck, London, 1753 and 1757; p.126
Historie Revivals Arrowsmith, A. and H.W., HOl/s(' Decomto,;; alld Painll'r';; CI/ide, Landon, 1S-W; p.210 Bridgens, Richard, Fumitun' ,l'illl Calldl'1abra alld fnlaior Deconltioll, Landan, 1838 (2nd ed); JI.:H3 Canner, Robert, Cnbillt'/-Arnkl.'r's r\5sistalll, U.$., 1S---!2; p.21-1 Dolmetsch, Heinrich, Ol'/lCIlJ/l'IIfellsc1Ult::., Stultgart, 1887; p.213
Edis, Robert W., Dl.'ComtiOJl mtd Fllmit¡¡rt' of Tow!1 HOl/SI'S, London, 1881; P.256 Talbert, 13ruce, Cotllie Farllls al'plil'd lo FI/mitlln:, Birmingham, 1867; Boston, 1873; .,-., _J"<, ')=, p.2j-1 p._:)_, "'att, WilIiam, Elrt FlImit/lI't', London, 1877; p.25S, ".259 Arts and Crafts Cnbmt't Alaka ami Art FllrlllsJ¡er, Tllt', England, 1S80-S9; p.2S-l
Cobdcn-Sanderson, A.T.]., fue Allllldl/s: IlIlfll;;lrilll {¡fea/;; a/Jli tl/e BOllk Bt'auf!fu!, England, 190-l; P.276 CI'(/ftSIl/(/II, Tite US, 1901-1916; p.28-l
Downlng, A.J., Tlle Arc/liteclllre ojCol/lltry HOIlSCS, New York, 1850, p.210 Gleason, Pietorial Dm¡¡oi¡¡g-RoolII C11ll/1fl1l iOll, U.$., 185-l; JI.2 1 2 Jones, OH'en, TI't' Gmllllllflr (!f Ommlll'lll, London, 1856; p.213, p.250
SIl/dio, '1'111'. England, establbhcd 1893; p.28-l Art Nouveau CArt düoraW, Paris, 1898-191-l; p.301
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Pasbnodernism FaCt', Tltt', Britaln; p.500 ]encks, Charles, Arc/litccll/rc, TlIe umgllnge al Postmodml Arc/¡ilccture and Postmodem ClnS5icislII, 19n and 1983; p.--!&I l\'otard, Jean-Frafl';ais, T1Jt' Posi-AIOlieru COIllfitiall, France, 19S---!; pA82 Pe\"sncr, i\ikolaus, Piolll'l'r:: ¡~f ¡\ Ifldt'm D.·sigll, 19-19; pA8::! Ventllri, R., CO/llplexily alld COJltmdictiOIl ill Arc!litl'cll/I'l', U.S., 1966; pA82 Venturi, R., Seott Brown, Dcnise, ,md lzenour, Stc\"cn L('al'llillg fl'Ol!1 Lns \I('~n::, U.$.; pA82 "'olfe, Tom, frolll Bnlllwu;; lo Ollr H01l5t', V.5.; pAs.J
Art 1'/ Decoratioll, Paris, 1897-1938; p.301
King, Thomas, TI", A1od.'m Slyh' o/CalJillt'l I\'ork E;rempl!fit'd, Landan, 1829; p.220,
CArt lIIodertlt', Brussels, 1881-191-i; p.30l
p.no
Ckkomtj¡y KIIlIsl, \Iunlch, 1897-1927; p.301 L'Emulatiml, Bmssels, 187-l;. p.29-l
Loudon, lC., EIIC},cf0pfll'dia ofCottagl', FarlJ/ mili \filia Arc1litt'ftllrl' al/d F/lTl/itllr.:, London, 1833, p.21O
\/08'1/1', U$.; pA52, pA70
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1898-192-l; p.30S
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Glossary • see separate cntTy
Abstract Expressionism a painting movement fusing abstrae!
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cenrury Neoclassicism, introduced by the Scoltish ardútects, Robee! and James Adam in lhe second half of lhe 18th century. Ae5thetic Movemeot a development of lhe de5ign reform movcment during the 18605 and 1870s in whkh "Art for Arts sake" \\,,15 the ehief impulse. The style \Vas mueh influenced by Japancsc decoration, late 17th- and early 18th-
alI'autica fram the ltalian for "after lhe antique," decoration derived frum c1assical inspiration. alpaca an alloy of slerling sil\'er \\"ith nickel added for strength.
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amaranth also known as purpleheart or palisander, a fine-Iextured tropical timber from Cenlral and South Ameriea used
for vencers and marquetry since lhe 18th eentury. Purplish in eolour when first cul, it becomes a rich dark brown when seasoned. amphora a type of two-handlcd vase with a spreading mouth and foot. narrow neck, and roundcd bodv used to store wine or oli\'e oil in andent Greece and Rome; the form. is imitatcd in Neoclassidsm. anthemion a stvliLcd floral motif based on the honeysllckle, secn in dassical design and much llsed in lhe Neoclassical period, usuaUy as a repeating ornamen!. The term is often used, interchangeably. for the paLmette which it closely resembles. appliqué from the French for "applied," omamentation made scparately and then applied lo an objed. On fabrics, decoratú'e sntching or seams are llSually llscd to bide the edges around the appLiqué. aproo the "skirt'· of wood joined lo the bottom of ., picce of case fumiture, tabletop, or seat rail oi a chair. It may be shaped and dccorated or a simple bando arabesque originating in the Near East, a pattem of intricate and stylized interh"ining lea\'es and scrolls. popular in 16th- and 17th-
artificial porcelain another term for softpaste· or imitation porcelain. Art Nouveau poplJ!ar in Ellrope from the 1890s to (,1910, a decora ti ve arts slyle based on sinuous CUl"\'es, fio\\'ing lines, asymmetry, and organic forms, often incorporating flower, leaL and ioseet monfs. Arts and Crafts Movement led bv the 8ritish designer William !\Iorris, a 19thand earl)' 20th-
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such as putti, and other motifs set in curvaceous shapes, oÑen making use uf slrongly contra~ting Iones and colours_
BaroqlleHo a style in Ital)' based on Ihe Rococo but influenced by the Baroque. bas armoire a type of lo'" bookcase or cabinet, introduced in the early 18th centur)'. base metal an)' non-prccious metal such as brass, bronzc, iran, and sleeL bas·relief (or low-relief)" a sculptural form thal projects onl)' slightl), from the surface, with none of the design being undercut (see also high relieí). Bauhaus foundcd by Walter Gropius in 1919, a Gcrman school of architecture and applied arts that aimed to crea te prototype designs for mass-produced e\"Cryda)' items, using austere, geometrie forms, and modern materials such as tubular steel and plastics. lis funtlonalist approélCh grew out of the Arts and Crélfts l\lovement~ and led tu Modernism*. bead and reel a c1assieal border ornamenl formed from alternating groups of beads and oblong spindles or reels. beading a decorative border of cast and applied or embossed beads of the samc or graduatcd sizc, uscd c~pcciaJ1)' on 1Sthand 19th-ccnturv ccramies and metal\\-ork. beaker a cylinderical d rinking ,-essel sornetimes tapered or with an everled rim, withoul a handle or stem, afien with a fool rimo bellflowu see husk bentwood a proccs~ of fumituremaking, by bcnding lightweight, solid, or laminatcd* wood with steam_ It was developed by Ihe Auslrian l\lichael Thonet during Ihe 18305 and 18405. Earlier, the American Samuel Gragg of Boslon had patenled a method of bending solid wood for the frames of chairs, and, later 1ahn Ilenry Beher explaited a lamin
bergere a term deri,-ed from Ihe French word ber~eric, meaning sheep fold, to describe a type of deep-seated armchair wjth back and
Berlin woolwork popuJar in Europe and the US during Ihe 19th cenlury, a type of can\'as embroidery using coloured wools and designs originaJ1y imported from Berlin; manufacturers prO\·ided the pattems, which ",ere then transferrcd to cam·as, as a way of marketing Ihe "'0015. Biedenneier a bourgeois style of decorati\'e art practised in Austria, German)~ and olher parts of Eastem Eurape c.181O lo 1850, characleri7ed by bold, classical shapes with reslraineci, well-executed decoration. The style was influential on laler design, especially in the early 20lh ccntury_ biscuit <1 ccramic bcxi\- Ihat has becn fired but not glazed. Biscuil porcelain, used for statllettcs and SClllplllres, has a nisp, dry matl appearance.
blauc·de-Clúue a type of white Chinese porcetain, uSllally in the farm of figures, left lInp
bocage from Ihe French \Vord meaning "Ihicket," used to describe the tTees or foliage surrounding or supporting a figure made of parcelain or pottery. bombé a French ",ord meaning "bulging," used to describe the swelling com·ex shape found in furniture made during the Rococo periad, escpecialJy on conunodes and chests of drawers. A similar shapc in the US is known as "kettlc shapc." bone china a durable Bntish porcelain consisting of kaolin (china day), petuntse (china slone), and dried bone. The Spode faclo~' beg
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BouJlework a lype of marquctry, named after André-Charles Boulle (16-12-1732) who de,·eloped it, which was used to decorate high-quality fumitur€' from the late 17th century onw
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briJliant cut a teml deri\'ed from a Ie<:hnique of diamond culting and used to describe Ihe complex, deep, and high.ly polishcd cutting of glass de\'eloped in the enited Stales during Ihe sccond half of Ihe 19th ccntury. ~C\\' lI.."Chniqucs and malerials, as well as skillOO immigrants from Europe, allo\\-OO the development of cul-glass techniques that crealed a material known for its clarit)' and brilliance, while ncw te<:hnology enablOO CUI....ed lines to be madc in a cut-glass patlem. Bl"itannia metal a typc af pewter conlaining a relati\'ely high amount of tin with added antimany and copper bul no lead; de\'eloped in lhe la le 18th cenlury il \\'as a harder and slmnger pel\'ler Ihan had been used previously.
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Britanni3 standard from 1697 to 1720, Ihe compulsory amount of sikcr uscd in making sih'crware, which was 95.8 pcr cent pllre (sterllng sih-er IS 92.5 per cent pure); Ihe higher standard was set lo pre\'ent the melting down of sterling silvcr coins to make silver",are for the dOlllcstic markct. brocatelle a17th-century Frcnch term, l
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pigeonholes and drawers, and usually wilh drawers below.
technique \\'as kno\\'n in anlquity and re\'i\'cd in thc 19th centurv.
b"reau ¡, cylilldre (or S<'cr8nir,,· iI c~ffilldr") a type of bureau with a slatted cylinder top that roUs up lo e'pose a flat writing surfacc, Probably first designed by JeanFr,lm;ob Deben (c.1721-63) it became a popular form in England as well as Francc later in the 18th cenhuy.
carease (carcass in the L:S) the basic slructure of a piece of case furniture, often a foundation for \·eneering.
bureau cabinet a bureau (see abo\'e) \\'ith a c,lbinet enclosed ,,'ith doors abm'e Ihe wriling section,
bureall Ma::ari" !lamed in the 19th cenlury afler Cardinal i\!aLarin, chid minisler lo Louis XI\', a Iype of late 17thcenlury \\'riting desk wilh eight legs joined by slretchers and decorated in boulle· marquetry. bureall plat French term for a flat-top writing desk, afien cO\'cred with lealher, wilh a drawer in the fricLe belo\\'. cabochon i'l gemstone in a srnooth domed shape; i'llso él raised circuli'lr- or Q\'alshaped motif, cabriole typc of leg found on European furniture from the late 171h ccnturv that has a gcntly cur\'ing, i'ltlenuating S-shilped profile, wider al the top and tapering towards (he bollom.
cartouche from the French for "scroll," a dccorativc motif in the shape of a sheet of papcr with scrolling ends, bearing a monogram, inscriplion, or picture in lhe centre; it ma~ takc lhe form of a shield or 'ablel wilh a decorated frame and was especially popular in 'he Rococo periodo caryatid of Greek clas<;ical origin, a draped femaJe figure acling as a column supporl, found on :\'eoclassical and Empire-style fmniture. cased glass glass of one colour co\'ercd with il layer or layers of a differenl colom; the smface could then be engra\'ed or parlly cut away to re\'eallhe layers bcneéllh, The technique was de\'eloped in Bohemiil in Ihe carl)' 19th centmy and later copicd elscwhere, case furniture pieccs with a box-like carcase slruclure which mav be fitted ",ith drawers, shelvcs, or doors, Examples include chests of dr,lwers, cupboards, bookcases, and bllreaux.
caddya de<:orati\'e \\'ood, metal, ceramic, or ¡;Iass cont
caSS01Je an Itilliiln chest from Ihe Renaissance period, often incorporating claborate car"ing, painling. or inlays. They were oflen made in pairs ilS \\"edding pr<;"s.;'nb.
calcedonia firsl produced in ltaly in Ihe 15th cenlury,.l type of glass imitating Ihe colour and \'eining of chalcedony (or agate) and olher semi·preciolls slones. It \\'a5 popular during lhe RenaisS
Celtic style a de<:orated 5tyle associated wilh Celtic peoples, who spread fmm central Europe to Spain, Italy, and Britain c.250oc, incoprorating curdlinear patterns, espeeially intcrlacing knots, with stylized sinllous animal and human forms; it \\'as the inspiraUon for much Arl ~ou\"eau design, espeeially al the Glasgow School.
camaie", en a Frcnch term for dcscribing a p,linling oi lhe samc colour bul lIsing different Iones, simulating a carneo.
centennial see Colonial Revi\'al centrepiece ilem designed to decorate Ihe centre of a dining table; scc epergne.
bunting a lighh\cighl, loosely \\'o\-cn collon fabric, usually used for m
carneo a c1assic,ll omamenl re\'i\'OO in the Ren,lisS
ceramics from the Greek for "cla~/' the term u~ lo describe c1ily·based products hardened by heating al high lemperatures, inclllding earthenware, porcelain, stoneware, and bone china.
bureau made from lhe earlv . 18th centurv, . i"l typl..' of wrlting desk ",ith a sloping fa]] fronl, l..'Ilclosing a filted interior \\'ith
cameo glass cased glilss, consisling oi Iwo or more layers, in conlr'lsling colours, wilh a c
chamfered the surfac<..' crcated by cutting or pl<1ning ,lJ) edge al an angle, especia]]), in wood and stone\\'ork.
chair en cabriolet (or JaHleui! en cabriolel) armchair with a padded and cun'ed back.
champlevé an enamelling technique where areas of metal are hollowcd or etched out and filled with an enamcl paste, then fired in a kiln before being polished down to the le"el of the metaL chasing a technique for ereatiog relief decoration in metal, cspeciaUy silver, by using hammers and punches to push the metal into a paHern; unlike engraving, no metal is removed, Embossing and repoussé are forms of chasing, cherub an tlrehitectural motif used fram the 15th century onwards consisting of a winged child or child's head; it was a popular motif on furniture, silver, and ceramies, especially in the B..,roque periodo chevron a zigzag pattern.
cJ¡iarosclIro from the Italia n meaning "Iight" and "dark," the plaeement of lights and shades in a pictoritll work of art. chiffonier from the French term chiffolllliere, for a small chest of drawers, or side eabinet inlroduced in the carly 19th century, with one or more sheh'es abO\'e a sidcboard, usually a drawer in the frieze and a cupboard below, chinoiserie the fanciful Westem interprelation of Crunese ornamen!, consisting of figures and motifs such as pagodas, birds, dragons, and frehvork applied to aH kinds of decorative art fram the 17th ccntury onwards and particularly popular in the Rococo perioe\.
cire-perdlle see lost-wax casting. c1assical see Neoclassicism dois01U1é an enameIling lechnique where fme metal wire 15 attached lo metal, forming a neh\'ork of cfoisiolls (compartments), which are then fil1ed with enamel paste before the object is fired in a kiln. coffee can a cylindrical, straight-sided cup for drinking coffee, made during the lale 18th and earl" 19th centudes. Colonial Revival also known as Centennial in the US, a period 100 years after the signing of the Declaration of lndependence in 11/6 in which American furniture was made as an authentic
reproduction of high-quality colonial-style furniture; patriotic motifs inelude buffalo heads and American eagles. Centennial may also refer to items made especially for the celebrations that took place in 1876.
crewelwork embroidcry with twoply erewel wools, usually on a linen background, popular especially for bed curtains in the 17th and 18th centuries, and rcvi ved in the 19th.
Colonial style a furniture st)'le found in Ihe American colonies from c.1600 to 1780, charaeterized by tumed baluster decoration, surface carving, and painting; also the 18th-
cristallo a soda glass de\'eloped in Veniee in the 1-1t.h centur)' that remained malleable long after healing, allowing il to be formed into elabarate shapes¡ it eouid be decorated with enamelling, gilding, trailing, or engraving but was too brittle for eutting.
eQmmedia dell'arte Jively, sometimes ribald characters (rom the !talian folk theatre, including Harlequin, Columbine, Pantalone, PuJcinella, and Pierrot, modclled in porcelain at r-.leissen, Nymphenburg, and other European faclones. cornrnode a Freneh tcrm for a chest~f dra"'ers, especially a grand or decorati\'e one; aiso, a piece of fumiture made for storing a chamber poL composition an inexpensive plaster-like material made of whiting (chalk) and size or gllle (or [(.'Sin, sawdust, or ground rags), osed to make rclief mouJdings and can'ed effects on fumiture. Consu1ate style a French style of Neoclassicism pre\'alent during the political Consulate period (1799-18().1) and leading into the Empire slyle~.
eoqllille d'oellfthe rrench term meaning "eggshell"; see eggshell porcelain. crack.ling/crazing describing the eHect on glass when its temperature is abruptly reduccd during tiring, crealing an o\"cr-all decoration of fine cracks; or a similar result on ceramics caused by differences in lhe expansion and conlraction of body and glaze during firing. cranberry glass (also known as ruby glass) a 19th-cenlury Brilish or American glass with a pink hue created by adding copper oxide or gold chloride to thc glass. credenza thc Italian term for a sideboard¡ in the 19th century it was often used to refer lo a side eabincl with a central cupboard and open sheh'es on eaeh side.
cretotme a type of hea\'~~ unglazcd cotton or Iinen fabric wilh a slightly ribbed surface and prinled designs, used for curtains and fumiture.
crizzling a defect consisting of a network of fine erélcks, resulting from deterioration in old glass. crocket an ornament shaped like a curled or bent leaf or cusp projecting from a gable or spire in gothic archilccture and used in fumiture and metalwork in the Gothic sh·le. crystal glass a type of eolourless, lransparenl Icad glass, also known as "quart7. cryslal" because of ils lightrefleeting property; it is often heavily cut and engraved. cup and cover a type of bulbous tuming, resembling a deep bowled cup and domcd lid, found on fumilure supports from the mid·16th centun:.
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cut-card decoration a lechnique used on sil\'er, in whieh !lat sheets of metal are cut into a pattem such as lea\"es or s\\"irls, then ::>oldcrcd to the body or cover of a piecc to form rcHef decoration; the techn.ique was popular among Huguenot silversmiths in England é1nd France in the late 17th and earl\" 18th centurics. cut glass decoration made into glassware by cutting groo\'es and faeels by hand or w¡th a wheel. First developed in ancient Egypt. it was employed by Bohemian glassmakers in the 16th and 171h cenluries. The de\"elopment oE soft lead glass led lo its popularity in England and lreland in the 18th and 19th centuries. Styles include blazes, fluting, splits, hobnail, and diamonds. "Brilliant" cut* glass was developed in the US in the 19th century. Czech Cubism an early 20lh-century archilcctural style de"eloped by architecls and designers in Prague \\'ho \\'ere influenced by the gl-'ometric arrangcments, angularity, and distortion of Cub15m; some of the designers experimenlcd with the use of prisms, triangles, and pyramids.
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damask a reversable wo\'en patterned fabric, usuall}' of silk or li.nen.
ebonized wood tha+ has bccn staincd blaek to simulatc cbony.
damascening a decorative metal working teclmique where fine metal wire made of gold, sil ver, or copper was inserted into grooves cut into a brass, bronze, or iron body, then flattened by hammering; originally developed in the Middle East, the technique spread to Europe in the 16th century.
ecleetidsm the indiscriminate use of historical re\'ival styles during the 19th century.
dauphin the cidest son of the king of France. dentil from the Latin del/s (tooth), a decorative ornament found in Classical architecture undemeath comices, consisting of a rol\' of small rectangles that give the appearance of teeth.
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De 5tij1 from the Dutch for "the style," an cad)' 20th-century group of radical Dutch artists and architecls, linked with lhe Gennan Bauhaus school, who rejected the excessive Art Nouveau style in favour of a simple style with an emphasis on logical function and construction; forms were asymmetrical, using strong lines, squares, and rectangles, in pure primary colours,
dinatlderie originally brassware from Dinant, near Lieges, but during the Art Deco period a term used for hammered and chased ornamental metalwork, whether silver, copper, pewter, or stee!. Directoire style a Ncocla~~ical French style, c~pecially in fumihue, rcflceting the political Directoire periad (1793-99) and recognized by austere dassical forms, sometimes deeorated with revolutionar)' s)'mbols sueh as the fasces (an axe bound by a bundle of rods) and the cap of liberty.
dllclzesse a type of long upholstered armchair with a roundcd baek - an eady \'ersion of the ehaise longue, ha\·ing evolved from the daybed; the type with a separale part which can be used as a seat on ¡ts awn is called a duc!¡e55C brisé. earthenware pottery mOlde of a da)' body and fired in a hIn at low tcmpcraturcs, creating a porous objcct that requires a glazc to make it waterproof.
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ébéniste a term derived from the word for ebony, denoting a Freneh cabinehnaker specializing in veneered furniture.
eggshell poreelain a type of thin, delicate Chinese porcciain imitated in Japan, England (Minton), and Ireland (Belleek) in the 19th century. electroplating a method patenled in 18~0 in which sih'er is plated onto a base metal, such as copper or niekel (EPNS), lIsing an electric curren!. to produce a Illodestly priced item with the look of a more expensive metaL Elizabethan Reviva! a st)'le popular in England between the 18205 and 18505, inspired by the so-called Elizabethan style*. Elizabethan style the name sometimes given to the architectural and furniture style predominant in 8ritain during Elizabcth 1'5 reign (1558-1603); it was actuallv a continuabon of the Renaissance style, and eharacterized by symmetrical facades, arcaded friezes, strapwork, grotesques, arabesques, heraldic motifs, and bulbous supports.
engraving a teclulique to decorate metal or glass by cutting fine lines or dols into the surface using a sharp tool such as a diamond point or rotating wheel. l\llaking a print il1\'olves a similar process of engraving on a metal plate before transferring the design to papero
ellsemblier the Freneh term for an interior designer. epergne an elaborate centrepiece for a dining table, made of silver or glass, with a central bowl and branching arms that support remO\'able bowls, used from the mid-18th century for fruit, sweetrneats, and condiments,
étagere the Freneh word for a type of table with hvo or three tiers llsed to sen'e food or display objeets, similar to the English and American whatnot*. Etrusean style the Neoclassical style of c.1760-1800, based on the decoration of dassical Greek vases, at the time thought to be Etrusean in origino
étui a small decorative case made of silver, gold, ename!, lacquer, tortoishell, or other material and often of tapering form with a hinged lid, designed to carry uscful personal items,
embossing the technique of creating raised designs on metal (or leathcr), by means of machine or hand work; it can be carved, chased, or repoussé"".
fal;on de Boheme from the French, meaning "in the style of Bohemia," referring to glass made in the 130hemian style, often brightly eoloured.
Empire style the na me gi\'en to late Neoclassieism in Franee, mllch influenced b)' Napolean's designers Percier and Fontaine, and, in turn, influential on styles in the rest of Europe and America.
faienee French term for tin-glazed earthenware. The word is derived from Faem:a, whcrc much eady ltalian maioliea (tin-glazed earthenware was made). TIle German term is Fayence; the Dutch, Delft; the British, de](tware.
enamel a type of decoration that involves fusing a glassy substance coloured with melallic oxides to a metal surfaee bv means of heat; techniques include c/wmp leve, and C!Oi55011I1é*. enamel colours pigment~ made from metallic oxides mixcd with powdcred glass and used for decorating porcelain, potter)', glass, and meta!. TIley are fixed by firing in a low-temperature or muffle-kiln. encaustic tile a clay tile decorated with inlays of a contrasting coloured clay; ti Medieval technigue revived in the mid19th cenhlTY not
faIl-front secrétaire a door or closure for a eabinet, desk, or bureau which is hinged at the bottom and drops down to form the writing surface, supportcd in one of several ways: by cords at the sides, lopers or struts pulled out from the carease or metal guadrants attached to the si des.
fatltellil the French term for an armehair introduced in the ead)' 18th century. Federal style the American Neod
ferronier French craflsman working with wrought iron.
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festoon looped ornament consisting of themes such as a flo\\"ers, ffuit, ¡eaves or d,aperv_ o "'cocrallv . ' wilh suspended cnds ' and sometimes punctuated ",ilh lion masks, bucr(lnia~, rosettes, or other dassical motifs. filigree fine silver or gold wire twisted lo form lace-like decorative openwork. finía! a dccoran\'e knob faund on furniture, metalIVork, ccramics, aod glass, sometimes used as a handle. Popular shapes inc1ude Ihe acorn, pinecone, and um or more ('labarate forms such as animals, ffui!s, aod flon'ers. fIame stitch see bargello. flashed glass Ihe techniquc, den:-lopcd in Bohemia in Ihe cad)' 19th (enlur)', of applying a thin film of coloured glass lo a \'e55el, by dipping, and Ihen decorating il wilh [ight engraving. Ruby red was lhe usual colour but amber and green are also fOWld.
garniture usually \'C1ses, but sometimes other ornaments used for display, made in sets of three, five, or se\·en. gasolier a decorati\·e fixture fur gas lighti.ng, lIsed from the 1820s until the introdllction of electric lighting in the 18805. UsuCllIy made of brass, it resembled a chandelier, \\"ith a central shaft, through which the gas travelled, with branches which supported plain or coloured lampshades covering the gas burners.
getlre pittoresqlle the fully de\·e1oped Rococo style from c.1730, characterized by exaggerated ilsymmetry and scrolling ornament incorporating nilturalistic themes such as shells, rockwork, the seasons, or Aesop's fables.
slraighl or gently curving lines, and were especially infiuelllial in Europe. glaze a glassy coating applied to porous ceramic bodies to waterproof them, creating a 5mooth shiny surface; alead glaze is transparent, while tin glazc is opaque. Decorati\·e effects can be produced with the addition of other Sllbstances such as wood ash, saIt, or metallic oxides, and by \'arying the kiln temperature during firing. gold leaf wafer-thin sheets of gold used for gilding. Gothic a stvle based on Medieval architecture, characlerized by pointed and ogee* arche.:;, tracery*, pinnac!es*, cusps, crockets*, trefoils*, and gllatrefoils*.
Georgian a largely meaningless term referring to hlmihlre ¡md other decorati\'e arts during the reigns of the four kings of England of that name, George 1 (17H.....27), George TI (1727-60), George rn (l76o-1820), and George IV (182o-1830).
Gothick a decorati\'e strand of the 18thcentury Rococo style, inspired by Goth.ic* architecture but without concem for historical aCCllracv.
flint glass the name gi\·cn to English lead glass, developed by George Ra\'enscroft in the 16705, wruch was made \\"itl1 ground flinls or sand with the addition of lead oxide.
gesso a mixture of plaster of Paris or chalk and glue size, applied to create a smooth surface fur painted decoration and gilding or, bllilt up in layers and sometimes car\'ed, for relief ornament.
Gothic RevivaI (also known as NeoGothic) a rebirth of the Gothic* style re\'i\'ed in Europe in the 1820s and in the US in the 1840s. The \'arietv known as Rcformed Gothic, led by A.\·V.N Pugin, was infillcntial on the Arts and Crafts lvIO\'ement.
fluting the opposite of reeding, a pattern of \'ertical conca\'e groO\'es on a column or othcr surfan." 50metime5 painted or inlaid in trompe l'oei}* style.
giallo antico from the Halian meaning "antigue yellow," a marble-like substance containing calcite or aragonite found in cavcs or near springs; iron oxide gi\'es it thc yello\\' colour. It was used for the tops of commodcs and tables in thc 18th and 19th centuries¡ l'erde nl1fico is a green type.
fretwork pierced geometric decoration with intersecting lines, usually repeated to create a band or border. If the H'ork is not pierced, it is known as "blind" fretwork. frieze specifically the horizontal band found belo\\' the comicc on a piece of case furniture or, more generally~ any horizontal strip of decoration on hnnitlnc, sil\'er, or ceramics.
gilding the application of a gold finish to metal, ceramics, n'ood, or glass. The methods are: water gilding and oil gilding for furniture¡ acid gilding and size gilding for ceramics; honey gilding for ceramics and glass; and mercury or fire gilding, matt gilding¡ and clcctrogilding for metaJs.
gadrooning a continllous pattem of \·ertical or diagonal convex curves or lobes, fOWld on furniture, sil\'er, and ceramics; an irregular form i5 known as knulling.
girandole from the Halian for Catherine wheel, a calldelabrum, elabora te \Val! sconce"", or can'ed bracket with a mirrored back.
Galmzteriewarell derived from the German word for "courteous," small, preóous accessories mClde for personal use such as scent bottles and é/¡¡is*.
Glasgow school a late 19th- and early 20th-century group of architects alld designers led by Charlcs Rennic Mackintosh and his wife Margaret Macdonald based at the Glasgow Seool of Art. Thev \Vere known for their version of Art Nouveau, which inc!uded Celtic ornament and stylized fioral motifs, using
galuchat the French term for shagreen*, named "her M. Galuchat, who used it in the 18th century for covering sheaths.
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Gout Grec from the French "Greek taste," the contemporary term used in France in the 1760s to describe the early Neoc!assical style, with emphasis on geometric forms and decoration based on the ancient architecturc of Greece; motifs include \·olutes*, bay leaf swags, vitw\·ian scrolls*, palmettes*, ilnd guilloche"". Sometimes known as Louis XVI stvle. Grand Tour a tour of Europe, and sometimes further afield, usually lasting one or two years, made by afflllent British men on completion of their formal edllcation, allowing them to ab50rb the culture and history of the major European cities, especially those in Italy, as \Vell as to collecl works of ilrt and antiquities; these tours were al their most popular in the 18th centurv. Great Exhibition, TIte shortened version of "Tbe Great Exhibition of the Works of lndllstry of AH Nations:' the (irst international exhibition, held in the Crystal Palace, London, (rom ¡vlay to October 1851, to indude manufactured items from arOllnd the \Vorld. The goal
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of the cxhibition was to promote trade and imprO\'e public taste. Greek key a pattem based on ancient Greek decoratíon consisting of inter locking right-angled lines; it was olten used in a continuou$ band in classically inspired omament.
griffin or gryphon a popular Neoclassical motu consisting of a mythicaJ animal with the head, wings, and claws of an eagle with the body of a lion; it originatcd in the ancient East and was associated with ApoUo, god of the sun, wmch is \\'hy it often appears on Iighting forms such as candelabra. grisailIe a type of painted decoranon with a calour palatte restricted to black, while, and gre)~ creating the impression of a sculpted stone reHef or carneo. (1)
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gros point trom Ihe French (poilll meaning "stitch"), cross-stitch embroidery, usually on canvas. grotesque an elaborate type of ornamenl consisting of linked figures of humans, animals, mythical beasts, or birds among intertwining scrolls and foliage, often in a vertical structurc incorporating candelabra forms; based on ancienl Roman painted decoranon found in Italian grottt', or subterranean ruins, The decoranon was first popular during the Renaissance.
glléridon a small table or stand on a pedestal foot for holding a candelabrum, tray, or basket, introduced in France in the 17th century, Louis XIV forms were somenmcs can'ed in Ihe shape of an African figure bearing a round tray. guilloche a patlern of continuous twisting bands forming interlacing circles, sometimes enc10sing rosettes or other monfs; derived from classicaJ architecture, this omament was revived in the Renaissancc and was widespread in the Neoclassical periodo guttae a decorative elernent representing stylized drops of water, usually taking the form of a row of triangular beads occasionaUy used in Ncodassical fumiture.
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gutta-peccha a trpe of cubbery malerial dC\'cloped from the resin of a J\lalaysian trC'C in the mid 191h century. It was moulded to make fumiture decoranons as a substitute for carving, as well as for
dolls' heads and golf balls, hard-paste porcelain (or true porcelain). the high-fired lranslucenl ccramic body used by the Chínese from lhe 81h cenlury AO and rediscovered at Mcissen, c,1709. hacdstone see pietce dure,
Hausmaler the German term for "home decocator," a freelance porcelain or faience painter who worked in his own studio independentl), of a factor),. hecaldic decoration ornament representing elernents of heraldry such as coats of arms, sheilds, emblems, and crests. hessian (burlap in US) used in the upholslery of seat fumiture. highboy an American variant of the chest-on-sland or tallboy, uSllally with cabriole- legs and a broken pedimentmade throughout the 181h centur),. The form consisting of a side table fitted with drawers and similarl)' supported on legs is known ilS a lowboy, high rclief decoration that protrudes from the surfilce of the work with wldercutting. Historicism the recreation of historic styles in a spiril of scholarship and a search for authenlicily, Holzshnittblumen from the German for "woodcut flowers," a type of floral decora non used bv , lhe Miessen facton' frorn c,17.,10, with indi\'idual f10wers copied from botanical engra\'ings.
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I,ótel a French term for a mansion,
Huguenots French Protestants, many of whom f1ed after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, which had allowcd freedam of worship, in 1685. Huguenot refugees were oftcn highly skilled craftsmcn, and the)' were influential in other countcies such as Britain, especíalIy in the fields of sih'ersmithing and textiles. husk (or bellflower'") a Neoclassical monf based on a stvlized husk of coro oc a bell-shaped flower llsed in bands, swags, or \'ertical drops, sametimes wilh ahemating beads. Byalith glass a type of opaque Bohemjan glass made in scarlet or black, developed in the earl)' 19th century.
incised decocation a pattem or inscription created by scratching a surface wilh a sharp 1001. Indiennes floral embroidered and printed cottons from India popular in 17th-century France and England which continued lo influence European lextile design in the18th, Flowers with stylized paltcrning n the petals and splaying femlike ¡ea ves were t)'pical elements. inlay"a decoratin technique in which one type of material such as bone, horn, ivory, marble, metal, mother-of-pearl, tortoiseshell, or coloured wood is set into recesses made in the surface of another, usually the salid \\'ooden surface of a piece of furniture. intaglio an Italian lerm for inciscd decoration in wmch the design is cut iota ¡he surface being decoratcd, as opposed lo carneo, in which thc decoration protrudes; intaglio dccoration can be faund on glass, ceramics, metalwork and hardstones, The Ccrman term fol' this type of decoration is fiefsclmilt, meaning "deep cut." intacsia an Italian term for a type of inl¡¡id decoration oc an earl)' form of marquetry in which \\'oods of different colours and sometirnes other materials form a realistic architcctural picture oc stilllife; il is fOllnd on panelling and fumiture from lhe 15th and 16th centuries.
istorinto lhe ltaUan \\'ord mcaning "with a stocy in it," referring to the painted decora non of mythical, biblical, or genre scenes found on Ilalian rnaiolica. japanesque term l'eferring to the decorative style popular in Europe, c.1862 to 1900, inspired by japanese arto $ce also japonisme. japanning the European technique developed in Ihe 17th century of decortlting case furruture or small objects sllch as boxes oc trays with coats of vamish in imilation of Chinese and japanese lacquer-, usuaUy in black, grecn, or scarlet bUI occasíonallv white, Unlike lroe or~entallacquer,the \'amish used \\'as made of sheUac, gum-lac, or seed-Iac (from the COCC/lS lacea insect); relief decoranon was achie\'ed with a cornposition of $3wdust and gum arabic and parts "'ere often gilded.
]apanisme (or lapoJlaiserie) a style inspired by japanese art and design that f10urished in Europe and the US from the 18605, encouraged by the renewed tTading beh,'een the West and Japan and the display of japanese wares at intemational exhibitions. Designcrs of thc Acsthctic :\to\'emcnt were particularly infIuenced by the style, using japonese motifs sueh as birds, sunflowers, chrysanthemums, prunus blossom, bamboo, fans, and 1ll0'IS~ on fumiture, ceramics, and metalwork. jugendstilliterally meaning uyouth style," the German and Austrian term for Art i\'ouveau, wmeh was adopted from the Munich-based art publication /Ilgelld (first published 1896). Kakiemon deri\'ed from the name of a 17th-century japanese potter, fine white porcelain sparingly and asyrnrnetrically decorated with flowering branches, birds, and rockwork, in a distincti"c palettc including iron red, blue, turquoise, yellow, and black. The imported japanese \Vares weTe much copied in Europe in the first half of the 18th centur)'. kas from the Dutch word kast, a large cupboard or wardrobe for storing c1othes, originating in Holh:md in the 17th ccntury, and introduced by immigrants America, particularly New York and New jersey, in the 171h and 18th centuries.. kettle shape US term; see bombé.
kilim a tapestry WO\'en rug without apile with c1ear colours and bold pattems. klismos a type of chair de\'eloped in
Ancient Greece, with a conca\'e back and inward-curving splayed, or sabre legs. The form was adopted in the early-19th(enlury i\'eoclassical periad. knop a decorati\'e knob on a lid, often used as a handle, or the finial" at thc end of a spoon handle. The term also refers to the dccorati\'e buJge on the stem of a drinking glass. kneehole desk a writíng desk with a with a central recess for the user's legs, usually f1anked by drawers; the recess is sometimes fined with a shallow cupboord. Komai a japanese techn.ique for decorating combinations of different metals in geometric shapes with various scale, frel. and other pattems to fonn a
patehwork effect. It was imitated in Britain and America from the 1870s, al the height of the Aesthetic Movcment. kratee a two-handled pottery \'essel with a wide mouth used for mixing wine and water in Andent Greece, and adopted in the 18th eentury as a suitable classical shape.
exploited by Michacl Thonet, jOt'Ul Henry Belter, Charles Eames, and Al\'ar Aalto. lapis lazuli a type of semi·precious, opaque blue stone with flecks of pyrite (or fool's gold), used in pietre dure",
kylix an Andent Greek pottery h\'o-
laNici"o frem the Italian InH/? (milk), a type of elear glass wilh an embedded pattem of opaque white threads of glass; it was made from the 16th century.
handled drinking \'cssel with a shallow bowl and a stcm. The form \Vas used as part of the Neodassical decorati\'e \'ocabulary in ¡he 18th and 19th eenturies.
laNima known as Afitdlglns in German, a type of opaque white glass, or an objecl decorated with i1.
lacea pavera from the Italian meaning "poor man's laquer," a type of decoupage (also known as arte povera, or "poor man's art" and lacea contra/alta or eounterfeit laquer) that originated in Venice in the 17505. Contemporary artists could not meet the demand for lacquered work, so printers made sheets of engravings that were coloured, cut, then pasted onto the prepared fumiture befare numerous layers of vamish were applied to re-create the high gloss found on lacquer decoration. The technique was copied in France, where it was renamed decoupage, from the French cOllpa, meaning "to cut." lacquerwoek a Chinese and )apanese process using a "amish made from the sap of the lacquer tree, or Rlll/s t>erllíCifllla, to form a hard, smooth,lustrous surface to protect and decora le objccts made of woad and fabric. The lacquer b appüed in as man)' as 100 thin layers, \Vmch may be of different colours, especially red and black, and ma)' inelude designs of figures, from nature, or with emblems. European imitations are known as japanning and vemis ~Iartin~. Iadder-back term describing a chair with a series of horizontal bars on the back. Iambrequin from the French for pelmet, originallya heraldic term for the scarf or mantle on a knight's helmet The wore! has come to describe a lace·(jke scalloped border pattem of swags" and tassels, often used in grotesquc~ dccoratíon and also popular in thc carly 18th eentu.ry. lamination the process of sandwiching thin strips of \Vood togelher, wilh the graio running in lhe same directíon, to form a stronger material for making furniture; Thomas Sheraton was aware of the technique, and it was most successfully
Laub-u"d Batldelwerk the Ccrman term for "Ieaf and strapwork," a popuJar early 18th-century decoration of interwining leaves and strapwork, often surrounding a cartouche. leather papee as the na me suggests, a paper \Vith the texture and gloss of leather. The japanese are renowncd for thei.r paper, or wlls/zi. Thcy called leather paper yookl1J1shi and fl1keYI1 sl/ibori, and thcsc were strong enollgh to be used for making pOllches and lining boxes. ]apanese paper was sometimes lacquered to strengthen it, and during the Edo period japan exported leather paper to Europe where it was hung on walls likc wallpaper.
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Jemon squeezer lhe shape of a pedeslal foot on glassware resembling a kitchen tool far squeezing lemons. lion's-paw foot a fool can'ed or cast in the shape of a lion's paw, found on fumiture, metalwork, and other warcs especiallr in the 18th and 19th centuries. linenfold a t)'pe of woodcan'ing, resembling folds oE hanging fabric, afien found on room panelling and fumiture in northem Europe from the 15th and 16th centuries. lithyalin an opaque marbled glass madc in imitation of predous stones, developed by the Bohemian glassmaker Friedrich Egcrmann c.1830.
lit en biitea" from the Freneh meaning "boat bed," an early 19th-century Empire-style bed with cur:ing foot and headboards, often in S-shaped scroll form. The bed \Vas designcd to be :.cet lcngthwise against a wall, with the cxposed side claborately decorated.
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loggia an open-sidcd gallery \\'ith a roof, usually o\"crlooking a courtyard; a loggetta is a small versl0n.
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lost-wax casting a method of casting to form objects made of glass or metal such as sil\'er and bronze, using a \\'ax model encased in a clay mould. The wax is melted, and escapes, or is "Iost," through holes made in the mould, allowing room for mol ten metal or glass. Once the meta! or glass has cooled and hardened, the mould is separaled to remove the object. The technigue is kno\\"n as cirt! perdlle in French.
Mannerist style from lhe Halian mmlÍt'ra meaning virhlosity or sophistication, the late Renaissance decoralive style deyeloped in the 161h century, making much use of perspective and attenllated forms, and incorporiJling exaggerated, twisted, and fantastical animals, sea crealures, and birds ensnared by grolesques and slrapwork. TIlis type of improYization on c!assical com·entions was seen at its most highl), dcvcloped in Florence and Fontainebleu. The st)'le evoh·ed into the Auricular and led to the Baroque.
Louis XIV style architectural and decoriJti\·c arts stvle fashionable in France during Louis XIV's rcign (16-13-1715), emphasizing grandeur, symmelry, formality, and luxury, using molifs inspired by classical art.
marquetry decorative vcneers on furniturc, comprising different coloured timbers and sometimes olher malerials such as i\'ory, metal, or mother-of-pearl, arranged to form pattems, motifs sllch as flowers, or pictorial subjects.
Louis xv style archilectural and decorative arts slvle fashionable in France during Louis XV 's reign (1715-7-1), including the Régence period (1715-23) when Ihe king \\'as a minar, characterized by smaller, lighler forms \\·ith naturalistic molifs such as shells and rockwork and progressing to the full-blown Rococo ·taste.
Mary Gregory glass called after a glass decorator at the Boston & Sandwich Class Co., to describe at type of 19th-century coloured glass painled with designs of children, using a white or pink-white palelte. Jt originated in Bohemia and was a!so produced in the US and Britain.
Louis XVI style see Coút Cree.
meullisier the French term for a joiner
maiolica Italian tin-glazed earthenware, de\·eJoped from lhe 1-llh cenlury and reaching ils peak in lhe lat", 15lh and early 16th century. The term was first coincd in Italy in the l-lth cenhifY from Hispano.\Ioresque lustrewares imported lo Italy from ¡'"Iajorca; these wares were an inspiratian for lhe Halian pottcrs.
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especially in the 181h century.
meander in textiles, a wave-like pattern.
or maker of furníhlre in solid wood; distinct from an ébéllistc", who made veneered furniture.
mellble a detlx corps French lerm for a cllpboard with llpper and lower sections, sometimes called an (mI/vire" (¡ dcux wrps.
majolica a corruption of the lerm "maiolica," 19th-century British and American lead-glazed earthenwares that \\'ere elaboratelv modelled and decorated in the strong, rich colours found on maiolica.
micromosaic a type of pietre dure" decoration made up with minute segmenls or tesserae of coloured stone, popular in the 19th century for Halian souvenirs ranging from small brooches to whole table tops depicting \'ie\\,s in Rome. The term is also applied to Ihe wood mosaic techniqe used in Tunbridge ware.
maki-e from the JiJpanese for "sprinkled
rnillefiori from the ltalian for "thousand
illustration," a dCCüriJtivc technique in which gold powder or coloured filings Me sprinkled onlo a design in wet lacquer".
flowers," a glassmaking teclmique in which glass canes of differenl colours are embedded into a glass bod)' in such a way that their cross section forms a pattem. The technique originated in ancient Rome and was reYived in 16th century Haly, but it is often iJssocialed with glass paperweighls made since the 191h century.
marchand mercier a member of a separate Parisian gild combining the roles of dealer in furniture and works of art and interior decorator, cxcrting grciJt influencc on taste and fashion through his patronage of designers and craftsmen,
Moderne conlemporary French term for
\\·hal is now (since Ihe 1960s) kno\\"[l as Art Deco". Modernism inspired by a need lo escape from past excessi\·e decoration, a style of the early 20th century that cmbraccd machinc tcchnology and fa\'oured geometric forms and smooth lmclutlered surfaces. Modernismo a Spanish term for Art Nou\'eau. a ]apanese heraldic badge, originaJly fur identifiCiJtion on the battleficld or to distinguish famílies, but later uscd as decoration on export wares and adopled as a motif in Ihe Aesthetic slvle. mOl1
monteith a large ceramic, glass, or sil\·er vessel with a scalloped or notched rim to hold the slems of wine glasses while suspending their bowls in cold water to keep them coo!. Moresque decoration see arabesque. moulé en TJleiu pressure-moulding
technique for French Decoratiye glasswares produced from the eady 19th century. Nancy School the group of Frcnch artists, hcadcd by Émile Calleé, Louis Majorelle, and Victor Prouvé, dominating French Arl NOll\'eaU al the end of the 191h cenlurv. navetle fmm the French word for shuttle, but Llsually translated as boat-shaped: a horizontal form wlth pointed ends. Neodassism the style biJscd on the forms and ornamentation of ancient CrecCl:' and Rome which lasled, with varlalion5 in emphasis, fmm c.1760-c.1830. niello a compound consisting of sih-er, lead, copper, and sulphur, in la id into metaL usually silver, and heated to form a design on the surfiJce. The technique \\'iJS devcloped in Renaissance Italy and was ver)' popular in 19lh-century Russia. nymph in classical rnythology, one of Ihe minor divinities of nature represented by a beautih:.l maiden living in a mountain, tree, forest, or body of water. ogee a shallow S-shaped curye such iJS that fOlmd in a moulding profile; also used to form a Golh.ic-style poinled arch with reversed curves on either side of the apex.
Omega Workshops a London-based design enterprise led by Ihe art critic Roger J-ry (1866-193-1) from 1913 to 1920, with the aim of encouraging yollOg artists and improdng Ihe quality of design gencrally. It \\'as strongly infIueneed by Fauvism and Cubism and by Afriean art, and although eommercially unsuceessful, it lec! the way in the application of abstract design to fumiture, ceramics, and textiles. opaline a type of translucent while, or coloured, glass opaeificd with tin oxidc or bonc ash. It was developed in Franee in Ihc 1820s and later made also in Bohemia and Brilain. Opaline glass was produeed in a range of novel eolours and was often decoraled wilh painting or gilding. openwork a generallenn for pierced deeoration. ormolu a dcrivative of the Freneh or 11/011/11, meaning "ground gold," mereurygilt brOI17e, used for decoralive furniture mounls and items sueh as clocks in the 18th and 191h centmies.
grand wilh considerable use of gilding, especially for chairs, pier lables, and mirrar frames. palmette a c1assical ornamenlal motU deri,'ed from a stylized palm leaf, c10sely resembling lhe anlhemion'" and much used in Ihe .~eoclassical periodo papier-maché a substance made fram paper pulp which could be pressed lo from panels or mouldee! into shapes and decoraled wilh paint, japanning, gilding, or inlays of mother·of·pearL It "'as used for small domestic items such as tra"s and lea caddies from the 1770s, and also for fumilure in Ihe 19th centun.'. pareel gilding or partial gilding, furnitllre or silver gilded in parts to conlrast with Ihe ungilded areas of decoralion. parian a grainy \\"hite porcelain named aher the Greek island of Paros (famed for it·s white marble), llsed for busts and figures in the 19th ccntury, also known as statuary porcelain. marqlletry~ of
Pennsylvania Dutch the American folk-arl style of a community of Germans (Dutch is a corrupton of Dellts<:ll, or Gennan) and other northern European immigrants who settled in Pennsyh'ania and produced. colourful decoration with \\'ith slylized , motifs from nature such as tulips, birds, and the spiralling rosctte (or pinwhcd). penwork a 19th-<:entu~' painling technique llscd for decorating fumiture and small items such as boxes ",ilh designs in black or colours, original1y lo imitate in la id i,·o~' or lacquer work. petit point tent stitch embroidery on eanvas. pier the section of wall found bet"'een t",o windo"'s on the same wal!. A pier glass is a lall, n
overlay glass see cased glass.
parquetry
oyster marquetry a type oí veneer created with wood from the branehes of trees slieed across to form cireles or ovals.
piite-de-verre from the French, meaning
pietre dI/re from the Italian fur
"glass paste," a translucent glass made fram powdered glass mixed with colour and fired in a mould. The technigue \Vas used in ancient Eg)'pt and rcvi,'cd by the French in Ihe late 19th cenhu)' for decorali\·e relieEs, slatueHes, and
"hard stones," a form oí inlaid decoration with semi-prccious stones and marble such as agate, chakedony, onyx, jaspar, lapis iazuli, and malachite, The i\ledici workshops in Florence were famous for piclorial forms but it was also produced in Rome. The kchnique was used mostly for table tops and for panels sel into cabinels. comprising of individaully shapcd slh·ers of semiprecious stoncs such as agate, ehakedony, jasper, and lapis lazuli.
paktong an allo)' of copper, zinc, and nickel used in China for small domestic items such as bells and door hinge:. ':lIld in Britain Jurin~ Ihe 18th and early 191h century as a replacement for silver in candlesticks, sah'ers, and fireplace ornamenls. It ceased to be used when the less expens¡"e niekel sih'er was developed. palisander see amaranth. Pa1Iadian style inspire
geometric formo
pembroke table a small square, o\·al, or round lable wilh h,'O drop lea,'es, and a central frieze drawer, Ihought to ha"e been named after the countess of Pembroke; produced from the mid·18th century.
ornam~nlal 'e:.:.eb.
patera a decorath·e c1assical me
piite-sllr-piite from Ihe French, rneaning "paste on pasle," the rncthod denloped at senes c.lS.50 in which 10\V-reUef dccoration \\"as created on ceramies b,' building up ¡ayers of slip, sometimes in different colours, and Ihen carving the design into the surface. patina (also patinalion) Ihe fine surface sheen on furniture, crealed when age and use builds up a layer of dirt and polish, and 00 melal such as bronze Ihrollgh oxidizatioll. pediment lhe lriangular gable surmounting case furniture such as cabinets, bookcases, and long-case c1ocks; it may be "broken" with a gap at the apex, or "swan-necked" \\'ilh opposing S·scrolls.
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piggin a small ",ood, ceramic, sil\'er, or glass "essel wilh a rod·like handle, originally for transferring cream or milk from a larger container. pinnacle a slender upright structure found on top of a buttress, gable, or 10"'er, usually ending in aspire; often found in Gothic architecture. plate items made of gold or sih'er for domestic or ceremonial purposes.
pliqlle ti jOllr an enamelling technique similar to c1oisonné* but without a metal backing, allowing lhe enamels to appear transparent.
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plush stitch a type of needle",ork sntch popular in the 19th century for creating a raised design by cutting the stitch to seulpt an animal. flowcr, or othcr subject" pomegranate a \\'idely use
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Pop Art a style thal emerged. in Britain in the mid·1950s but reached. its peak in ;\le'" York in the 19605, ""here the c\"cryday and the mass·produccd \Vas gi\"en the same rceogninon as the tmique" Ad\"ertisements, producl packaging, and coOlie slrips part of the aesthetic. porphyry derived from the Greek word porpllyros, meaning "purple," a hard \'o1canic rock usually of red.dish colour and used. for the tops af tables and commodcs"
portiere a French lerm for
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PorUand vase a blue-and-wrute Roman cameo~ glass vase, C.lOOBC, once awned by the duchess af Partland; it was the inspiration for Wedg",ood's jaspar warc, as well as for imitations by 19th-century glass and ceramics manufacturers_ Post-Modernism a 19705 and 1980s movemenl that slarted as a reactian against Modem.ism, il promoted the use of bright colours and decoratin elements from both the past and presenl. pressed glass a mass-production glassmaking techn.ique that m\"Oh"es pressing molten glass in a pattemed mould; il first carne inlo use in the US from the mid1820s and in Europe from the 18305" prie-diell from the French "pray God/' a
10\\' upholsterOO kneeting chair with thc back fonning a padded desk or annrest. printie decoration on glass consisting of a shallow, conca\"e o\"al. or circular cut. prunt a decorative blob ol molten glass applied to a glass vesse!. purpleheart see amaranth"
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putto (plural putti) either a eherub or a winged inlant's head, a popular ornamental motil from the 15th-century onwards and often seen amid scrolling
foliage bearing of grotcsqucs....
fesloons~ or
in panels
made by hammering from the back so that Ihe design projecls from the fronl surface"
p""to in aria from the Halian "stitch in the air," an early type of needlepoinl lace ",ith the pattem built up from tiny buttonhole stitches.
reserve an area ol a design, usually on ceramics, that is leH frce of O\'cr-all decoration, to be fillcd with a choicc motif or scene.
quatrefoil a lour-Iob<.."CI. shapc secn in Gothic tracen',
Restoration style also kno\\'n as Carolean style, the decorati\"e arls style linked lo Ihe reign ol Charles 11 (1660-85), after his resloration to the throne. In contrast to the previous austere Crom\\'ellian style, it reflected ataste for opulcncc wilh French, Dutch, and Portuguese influences"
Queen Anne styJe !he restrained form of the Baroque c1assical style seen in domestic design during !he earl)' 18th century, and re\"i\"ed as par! of!he Aesthetic ~IO\"ement in Ihe later 19th centun: , raiJ a horizontal membcr in a piccc ol lumiturc dcsigncd to support the vertical mcmbers, sllch as a rail in the lramework of a piece of case lllrnilure or the seat rail in a chair. redware a type al rustic American 17thand 18th-century stoneware with a red day body and covered with lc.,d glazcs" Régence the Frcnch style of c.172D-30, during the regency ol Philippe duc d'Orléans (1715-23) for the young Louis XV style~; the eady period of Rococo". Regeney style named alter the British Prince Regent, who ruled for his lather 1811-20 before becoming Gcorge IV, a generk term lor the Neoclassical style in Brilain c.1800-3O. relief any decoralion Ihat is raised abo\"e Ihe background surface; see bas relief or high relief. Renaissanee from the Italian, mcaning "rebirth," the re\'ival of dassical Greek and Roman art and ideas that began in Florence in the l-lth century and e\'entually spread throughout Europe. The style is based on syrnmetrical architectural and seulpturaJ forms wilh dassical motifs such as troprues, acanthus~ leaves, and human and ffiythological creatures and grotesques~" repeat a continuous pattern designed so !hat the pattern along the edges on a section of fabric or wallpaper will match up with Ihe pattem on a neighbouring section, allowing lhe pattem to continue seamlessly" repoussé a French term, meaning "pushed back," lor cmbossed deeoration on metal
retieeUa glass from Ihe halian for "network" a type ol fntticillO· glass in which the opague threads form a fine pattern of crossing or reticulated threads. reticuJation a net or \\'eb-like pattern created by lozenge-shaped, pierccd, interlaced, ar inlcrwo\"cn dccoration. rinceau the French terOl for a conlinuous scrolling 1110Iif, usually consisting of acanthllS~ or vine lea ves; used in carved, moulded, and painted Neoclassical decoration.
roeaille from the Frcnch, mcaning "rockwork," asymmetrical decoration deri\"ed from rock and shell forms originall}' used in grotto decoration, especially popular during the Roeoeo periodo rock erystal a mineral consisting ol pure silica and found worldwide, it has been used as a dccorati\"c material for man}' centurics, and was imitaled. in the 19th century in a lorm ol high-reJief glass engraving. rockwork see rocnilfe. Rococo lhe st"le , which e\'oh"oo lrom a lightening of Baroque formalil)' in early 18th-century Francc, to cmbrace more naturalistic and non-c1assical decoratian characterized. by asymmetry, scroll,,"ork, exoticism (for example chinoiserie~) romilfe~ aod pale colours; it alfecled all the decorati\"e arts in Europe and America at leasl until the 1770s" Rocoeo Revival (also known as NcoRococo) a revival of thc Rococo~ style" Roemer (or fomer) a type of German drinking glass with a wide hollow slem which was often decorated with prunts"
usually made of waldglas·, praduced. from lhe 15th century onwards and was the inspiration for the Bcitish rummer·. roundel a flat, circular shape used as a motif. nunmer a Briti:;h short-stemmed drinking glass with a wide bowl and solid, :;ometimes square, foot, made from c.1780.
rya rug or ryijy rug, from the Finnish, meaning "coorse" oc "rough," a type of thick rug will a shaggy pile from Scandina,·ía; traditionally parl of a bride's dO\\TY. sabre leg a chair leg shaped like the cun·cd blade of a sabre, with a conca,·e cun·e, popular on late 18th-eentury Empire and Regene)" style chaies in Eurape and eady 19th-eentury Federal style· chaies in lhe USo Scc 'lIso klismos. salor! French \\'ord meaning "drawing room" or "parlour."
Samian ware or lerrn sigillntn a type of red glossy Roman poner), whidl was imitated in Silesia in the early 17th centur)' and by \-\'edgwoad in the 18th.
satlg-de-boeujfrom lhe French term "ox blooe!." a plum-red glaze for ceramies, de,·elopcd in China in the eael)' 18th centur)' and imitaled in Europe in the 19th. satiné or boi,; 5tltiJlé. A tropical timbcr from Gu)'ana and Guadeloupe ranging in colour from greyish red to ruddr brown, and with a fine-grained. satiny finish, much used in 18th--<:entury Frcnch furniture. scagliola a type of polished imitation marble made from powdered or chipped stones mixed with plasler of paris and colouring malter, Hrst used in ancent Rome and de\'eloped in 16th century Italy; used extensi\'el)' in the 18th centuey to simulate pietre dure· dL'Coration for table IOps and pancls.
Schulz codex lhe design skelchbook creatcd by Johann Gregor Horldt (1696-1775), a ;"1eissen decorator noted for chinoiserie-style designs and pattems; it ",as the primary' source for Meissen's chinoiserie decoratíons c.I72Q-lO and was used at lhe factof)' until the end oí the 19th centun'.
Schwarlzlot írom the German "black lead," a type of decoration on glass and
ceramics in black or brown enamels; popular c.1650-175O and re\"i\"ed at the end of lhe 19th centurr sconce a candleholder designed lo be hung on the walt consisting of a bracket or arm "'ith a socket to hold the candle and a backplate to magnify and reflect the light; sometimes called a girandole'" in the Rococo periodo secrétaire French term for a writing desk, also used in English for a cabinet with a desk section hidden bchind a drawer front. serpentine an undulaling curved fonn seen on case furnihtre, lables, and chairs especiaUy in the Rococo periodo settle an early form of seating for two or more people, consisting of a bcnch tdth a back and arms; used from the Medieval period to the 19th century, especiaUy in farmhouses and taverns and re\,j\,ed as a household piece by the Arts and Crafts designers. Sezessionstil see Vienna Secession.
sgabello a type of chair originating in Renaissance Ital)' wilh a salid car,·ed. back and board supports instead of ¡egs. shagreen Ihe granular skins of sharks, rays, and olher fish, usually died greeo and used to cm·er small items of furniture such as boxes and tea caddies or !he "'riting surfaces of desks; me material \\<1:> u~ to great effect in the Art Deco· periodo
orating monkeys found in most areas of Ihe decorati\"e arts in the 18th centur)". snuffbox a smal!. liddcd box made of gold, silver, porcelain, i,·ory, tortoiseshelL or other precious material, oflen finel)' decoratcd, for keeping snuff - a finel)' ground, sccnted tobacco - fresh and dry. soapstone or soaprock. Smooth, carvable, steartite with a slightly wax)' appearance; a component of sorne 181hcentur}' English porcclains. sofa table designed to complement a sofa, a long. narrow lable made from the early 19th centuf)~ usually with two frieLe drawees and a flap at each end; eady trpes had decorati,'e end supports, laler styles pedestals. soft-paste porcelain also known as imitation porcelain (or in French ptite telldre). Made in Europe as a substitute foc hard'paste porcelain before the secret of hard-paste was widely known. sphinx a mythological creatu re of Egyplian origin, with a woman's head and a lion's body, sometimes with wings; used in classical ornarnent.
en O
en w
-Z
c..:l Q
W
eL. eL.
ce
squab cushion a loose flat shtffed cushion used on a seat. steartite scc soapstone.
Sheffield plate a thin laycr of sih·er thal has been fused to a sheet of copper (or copper sandwiched between 1\\"0 layers of silver) before being construcled into a useful object; it was made in Britain bct\\"ccn c.17-12 and c.I8-10 as a less expensi\"e substitute for solid sil\"cr, until il was replaced by electroplating, which required less skill and labour.
stoneware a hard, non-porous pollery body made of clay mixed with stone.
singerie an ornamental theme incorp-
ce J)
spiU vase a cylindrical "ase for holding spills, slivees of ",oad for lighting candles; sometimes made in paies for lhe mantelpiece.
Shaker a style of furniture made in the American Shaker community from the 18th century, based on simplicity, functionalism, sound craftsmanship 3l1d economic use of materials withoulornament.
side chair a chair without arms, originally placed against a ",all when not in use, often part of a sel.
> cr
stipple engraving a technique for decorating glass by means of tiny dots made with a diamond or olher hard point, producing Iight and shade effccts.
strapwork a decorati\"e feature based on ribbons or strips of leather, consisting of interlacing slraps and scrolls, sometimes with grolesques· or incorporated into Lnllb IIlld BnlldelwerJ.'"", much used from the Renaissance on",ards, especiall)' in northem Europe. stretcher the horizontal rail or bar between Ihe legs of chairs, stools, tables, and cabinets, designed to add strenglh; it Ola)' be car\"ed, tumed or plain.
521
stria a stripe or line; striations are irregular parallel or swirling lioes that occur in glass for c,ample when being manipulated by shaping tools.
architecture and fumiture during the Gothic Re,-i\"al in the 19th eentur\'.
de table a French term for an epergne~ or centrepiece for the tablc"
SllrlOllt
swag a festoon~ of imitabon drapery or garlaod of flowers, fruit, ar lea'"es" A popular Neoclassical ornamento
él
sweetmeat dish a shallow dish for holding candied fruits, prcsen"es, and pastries, made of sih-er, glass, or ceramies. ta.zza a shallow bowl on a stemmed fool, made from the 16th to 19th eenturies of glass, sih-er,
en w
-ez
t.,)
w
Q. Q.
temmoku an iron-brown glaze used on oriental polter-y sinec carly limes, and by 20th-century European ::.tudio potters. teot stiteh (also known as petit point~) a plain diagonal stiteh going oyer one or more threads of the ground fabric, which is usually caovas" term a male or fcmalc bust or half statlle surmounting a tapering pillar to form a sllpport or simply as applied dccomtion; used from the Renaissance onwards_ terracotta from the Italian, meaning "bakcd earth," a type of 10w-fired unglazed earthcn",are, using an iron-rich c1ay thal pro,"id~ a rcddi!'h colour_ tete-a-tefe (also known as a cabaret) a
French lerm for a lea or coffee sen-ice made for Iwo people, consisling of a pair of eups and S<"lucers, a teapot, suerier, eream jug, aod a tray; also a type of sofa with eun-ed ends, or a ]9th-eentury "loye seat," in the form of two armehilirs joined side by side but faeing in opposite direetions_ thyrsus a rod with pinecone terminals often entwined wilh ribbons of \"ine lea,·cs; an attribule of bacchus, used as a N"eoclassieal molif. tole from Ihe Frcneh tole IJeiJlte, meaning "painted iron," japanncd~ or painted metah\-ares, usually smal1 items sueh as tra\"s and boxes_
522
-
tracery delicate laUice shapes \\-ith interlacing lines deri"ed from Gothic architeeture
transfer printing a mcthod de,-eloped in the mid-18th centur~~ in whieh a ceramie objcct is decoratcd by co,-ering an engra"ed copper plate with ink, transferring the inked design to a sheet of p
Sc~,:,:,i(lllstil is
the Austrian \"ersion of
Art :\"ou,-eau_ vitruvian seroll a wa'"e--like palier of repeating \"olutes", mueh used in c1assicalomamen!. volute a spiral $Cro11 or coiL supposedly inspired by Ihe shape of a ram's horns, as on nn Ion k eapitnl; a common classical tnotif. Waltglas or forest glass, an eMly type of glass wilh a greenish tinge de,'eloped in easlern Europe during lhe :\lcdie,"al period_ whatnot (freneh elagere~l a displa~ stand eonsisling of open shelves and somctimes a dra,,"er or t""o, popular in the 19th ccntun'_
Troubadour style the Freneh '-ersion of the Gothic Re,"i,-al", but more in keeping with the Gothick~ slyle, popular from c.1815 into the 18-l0s"
wheel engraving a tcchnique known since Roman times for decorilting glass, using a small rolating ,,-heel filted ,,"ith a disc of stone or copper and an abrash"e paste,
trllmeall a Freneh term for a pier~ or pier glass; also thc HaE
Wiener Werkstatte The Secessionist \\'orkshops (1903-32) founded by Josef Hoffmann, Koloman Moser, and Frit7 Warndorfer with the
veillellse 'he Freneh term for a tea or food warmer kept on a bedside lable" vencer a thin la\'er of a decoralh-e wood or other material applied to
vemis Martin named after Guillaume l-.Iarlín ;;md his brolhers, Ihe French technique for japarming~.
verre eglomisé named aftcr
worktable a smillltablc fittcd "'ith shallo", drawers or sheln:s ,lnd a pouch below for sewing eqllipmcnt_ zoomorphic ornament bilsed on animal forms. Zwischengoldglas from the Germ¡m for "gold between glass," i1n andent teehnique de\'cloped by Bohemian glassmakers in lhe ]8th ccnhlry, eonsisting of engra\'ed gold leaf sandwiehcd between t\\'o layers of glass_
•
Index Page numbers in it,l/iC refcr lo the il\ustrations and captions A Aallo, Aína -.106, ';06
Aaho, Ah-ar 353, 358, 386, 386-" 392, ':06 ,\amia, Eero .¡jS, 461 Abbiati 151 Abildgaard, :\.:\. lj.:! Abraham & Strauss ]89 "bstracl MI 422,-!-lO
Abstrae! Expressionism 462 Académle St. Luc, Rome 126 acanthus motlf .p., H <1Cid e!ched gla<;<; 238-40, 139 Acier, :\Iichel Victor 162, 163 Ackermann, Rudolph 139.1.,12,156 Adilm, J.lffil'S 138. 1-10. 1.+°, q.l, 177 Adam, !
188-9.198,198-100.200.222,258 Aclam Rc,"¡,-aill2• .:!.:!.:!. 258 Adam~ue slyle. glass 1;6-;, 1u Adler, Christian 165 Adler. Friedrich 323. 32';. 325 AEG 3-15. :;.l6
Acstl1ctic \lm"ement 213. 250-73, 217, 300, 350 ceramics 262-7, 262-;fumihlIT' 25+-60, 25.¡.-61 glass 266-,. 267 siker élnd melah,-ork 268, 268 9 textiles 270, li0-1 wallpaper 272, 2i2-3 Aftleck, Thomas 98, 98, 99 Africa 33,36,352, 357, -186 Air-King 376, 377 aircraft .¡-n, .Ji) Airline Chair Ca" 39J Airstream -P3 Aitken, John 15-1 Ajelo -196, .J96 Albers, Anni -112 Albert, Fritz 31i Albert, Prince Conc;orl219 Alberti, loon Batti<;t.l 30 _\Iessi -!SS, -19-1, -198, +98, .J99, 503-1. 505 AIC5Sio 5
39, 128,206 Arabia 315, JI;;, .;;+' -136, .;;;, .;65 Arild, Ron -188, .JS8, 502, 503 Arilnjuez, Royal Pa1é1ce 01128 architecture Art :':ou\"eau 298 Baroqlll' -10 Early ~¡odemism 330, 332-3 influence on textiles and \\'illlpaper 202, 202 ~eoclassicism 128---9 Postmodernism -l82-i, -186 Renaissance 10, 30 Rococo8o-3 Arend, Jacob 56 Arflcx .Jjl Argentan 10-!Argy-RousSC,lll, Gabriel 36." 36:; Aristotle 10 lITm()in-s- (cupboards) 16, J6 Arnl?"on, Robert 462, -!-6; Arnou" Léon 218 :\mstrom, Folke-l66 .\rp, Je.1n (Hans) -100, -123, ..135 Arrowsmith, H"\\'. and A. :!10 Art Dcco 350-11, 3jo-;; cer.lmies 360-2, 360-}, };; fumiture 3jO, 353, 3S4-9, "..¡-<), 392 glass J52, 36-1-6, 36.+-; mass-produced wares .md industrial design 376, 3;6-; sih-er and mctalwork 36S-/1, }68-;1 textiles 372--1, 372-5 CAr! Dl;ClJmlif301, 333 Al't ('f Décoralioll 301 Art et Industrie "¡91 Art Fllmiture 15-1, 260 Art Fumiture Alliance 1:;9 L'Arl A1odeT11t' 301 ,,--. _1/, ,,- _"98-3'9 3-''' JJ\J, -':n ,..." rt . .,ou.-eau _:JJ, _ , 330,J_, 353,378 cera mies 31-1-15, .';1 5-J; · 10' .. _-1"J,301-J3 fu mlhlre glass 318---20, ]l8-n,-I6-I siker and metalwork 322-:;, 322-5 textiles 326--8, 32H '\',lllpa~r 326. 328 art pottery 287 Art PotterY 5tudio 262, 261, 16J ..l,rt \\'orkers' Guild 2/-1, 28S Arte Vetr,lia ~ luranese -106, '¡0i Artek 3S6 Artel Cooperilti\"e 3-10 ,\rts and Crafts ~IO\"ement 213, 27-1-9/, 298, ", 3« <3 7 <9' 300,;);)-, ceramics 262, 186-i, 287 furníture 2¡8-S5, 279-8-1, 313 glass 288, lSS-I), -102 sih-er and metalwork 290-2, 290-3 tC:l.tiles 29--1-6, 19.f...() \\",lllpaper 29-l, 296, 296-i Arts and Crilfts Exhibilion Socieh- 27-1 .\shbee, CR. 276, 279, 282, 183, 2S-.. 288, 290, 290-3,292,325,330 Ashle~~ G" 358 Ash\\"in, Frederick 166 Assoc:iated Artists 260 ,lstrallamps 18¡ Atelier ~Iartine 374 Atika -190• .J91 ..\u Bon \Ii1rché 356 ..\ubl'rt, Felix 316 Aubcrt, Jungman and Stinco-l.58 .-\ubusson 374 Audran, C1audc III SO,82 Augsburg 17, lS, 37, ji, 5S, ¡5, 116, lIS Auguste, Heno 191, 192, J93 ~~,~
"~-
August, Prmce J.f; Auguste, Robert Joseph 188, 192, 191 AUgll-.;tus the 5trong, King of Poland 6-1 Aulenti, Cae .,79 ..\lImont duc d' 116 Auricular st\le -12, 50. 51, 70-2, ¡O Australia -185,-186 Austria Art Deco ceramics 361 Art NoU\"eall glass 320 metal\\"ork 32-!-, 325 textiles P7 \\"allpilper 326 :"'rts imd Crilfts glass 2:S9 bentwood furnitufC 226 Earh- ~Iodernism ceramics 3-10, 3-+1 fumiture 3:H, 33-+-5 gla<;<; :H2, J-J-2-J -.;ih-er ,lod metalwork 3-1+-6, 3-H-; Ic\tiles 3-l$, J~8-9 Jugcnd~til rumiture JO,.,>, 309 ;\coclas~icism
fumihlfC 1-18, qS glass tS-t 18.J-j porcelain 16-1 sil\"Cr J9J Ren,1i~5
B Baccarat 182, JS1, 236, 2:36, 238, 138, 2·m, 240, 141. 266, J51, 36-l Bacchu5, George & Sons 13.1 Baciocchi, Elis.l 151 BilCkh,lu<;en, Johann & SOhne 3-18, 3-l8 backslools 1.1 B.lCkslrom, Olof 4¡; Bagge, Eric 374, 412 Baier, Frcd +88 Baillie Seott. ~I.H. 276, 217, 281, 282, 1.."1-1, 18:;, 296 Baird teleúsion .+J; Bakaloh'its, E. & $ohne 320,:H2 Bakclite 359, 316, -116, .J16, +1; Bakcr, Olh'er 290, 193 Bakc\\"cll, Pilge and Bake\\"ell ISO Ballcts Russcs 352, J51 Ballin, C1audc i.J BalEn, C1audc 11117 Ballimore 15-1-6, 19-1, 195 B.1ndai 501 Bang, Jacob E. 406 Bannister Hall 205-7 Barbcrir,i family-l--l B<1Tbct. lcan -J-2 Barbicri, Gillscppe 150 Barbizet 230 Barcelona 28, 311 Barcelona ¡n(emational Exhibition (1929) 380, 3S0 Barman, Christian ~J¡ Barnard, BI<;hop & Bamard 168 Bamard, Ed\\'ard 191,191 Bamard, EdwilTd & $ons.J11 B.'1mard, Jane -110, -!-1 T Barnsle\~ Emest 1¡6 B.'1msley, Sidney 2;8, 1S0, 281 Baroque -10-79, 82,-186 cerilmics 62--1, 61-5 furniture -1--1-61, 61, 92
523
glass 66-9, 66--9 sih"er and metalwork 70-5, 70--5 textiles 76-8, 76-8 \\"allpaper 76, 76. 77. 78, 79 Baroqlletro 92 Barm"¡er, Angdo 26 Sarader, Ercole 366, ·106, 407• .B9 Barovier & Toso 366, -106, 4°7. 439 Barr, Flight & 83rT 168 Barron, Phyllis 296, 296, .P4 8arry, Sir Charles 214 Barr)', Joseph 157 Barthes, Roland -178, -t8S, 503 Bnrtmmlllkrug (jug) l-i, 25 Basile, Ernesto ]10, 311 bat-printing, (eramies 168
Sateman, Hesler 190 Sateman family 191, 19-1
bath chairs 223 Bathurst, Lord 159
Batley, H.W. 258 Battam, Thomas nS
Baudisch, Gudmn 362 Baudrillard. Jean 482 Bauer, leopold 28; 8auhaus 277, 353. ;79, 3St -122, -153, ..Ji3 ceramies 398. 398 fumiture ;82, 383 glass 367• ..JO-J, 40.¡. lighting .pS sih-er and metalwork ·no, .po. 41I textiles 412, 41]. 415
Baumgartncr, ,"ldchior 57 Baumhauer. Joscph 86. 86, 132 BaLlr. Johann n8 Baynes, Ken and Kate ~73 Beach 13o\'s ~52 Beales, Rita ~1~, 415 bean bags 454, 458 Beardsler, Aubrer 298, ]00 The Beatles 452, 452, -16] Beau'·ais 374 bedhangings 77, 79
be
524
Angel, 49, 6r Art i\.:ou\"eau ]02, 306 Baroque 6L 61 brass 226, 227 couch 1-l-l Elizabethan re\"i'-al 216 exhibition fumitun.' 22] four-posI19, 61, 214 Gothic re,"i\'al 2I.¡. Neoclassicism 136, 139, %4], l-l-l papier maché :3.25 Poshnodemism 486, 492 Reformed Gothic 255 Renaissance 1-l, 14, 17, 79 Rococo 96, 96 beechwood furniture 33·l, 33-1 Beert, Osias 28 Behrens, Peter 282, 283, 288, 308, 31-l, 316, 333,338,3]9,345,346,349,353 Beilby, \ViIliam and l>.lary JJ2, 113 Bel Geddes, Norman 353, 376 Bélanger, Fram;ois-Joseph 126, 128, 132 Belgian Congo 300, 323 Belgium Art Deco ceramics 362 textiles 373, 375 Art ~ou\"€au 300, 302 fumiture J06, 307 glass 318 metal"'ork 322-3, 32J textiles 327 waUpaper 326
carh· \Iodemist fumiture 338, 339 Bell, Solomon 174 &11, Vanessa 333, 336, -ll-l /Jt>lIt dOllm' dishes 12, 22 Belleek 2jJ Belli. Valerio 30 Bellini, l>.lario.t61 Bcltcr, John Henry 213, 220, 22-i-6, 227 Bcncdetlo, J\'laestro 22 BCnédictus, Edollard 372, 37-l Bcnham & Froud 268 13enneman, Jean Guillilllme /33, 135 13ennett, Jolm 26~, 265 13enney, Gerald -W2, 442, -l66 Benou\'ille, Louis 304 Benson, \V,AS 274, 27), 276, 279, 288, 289, 290,292 bcntwood furniture 156, 225. '''6, 334, ]3'¡'-j, 383,HO Bérain, Jean -l6, -17, -18, 52, 53, 61, 61, 6-1, 74, 80, 82, 86, 89, lOÓ, lOS, 110, !lO, 1J.I, 117 Beran, Otlo 3Jo Bergc, Henri 318 Berkeley House, "'otton-undcr-Edgc 113 8l'Tkclllt'1«'r (beaker) 29, 29 Berke,· & Ga\" Co. 219 , , Berlage, H.P. 307, JO; Bcrlepsch-Valendas, Hans Eduard ,·on 323, 3-l0, ]41 I3erlin glass 108 japanned furniture 58, 59 Neoclassical architechITe 129, 147 porcelain 163-5, 16-l. 170 Rococo 83, 88 Wiener Werkstatte 332 woolIVork 2-l5, 245, 29-l BcTnadotte, Sig\'ard 446, +l8 Bernardi, Gio'"anni 10 Bernini, Gianlorenzo -l-l, 45, 72, 82 13errr, duchesse du 82 13ertoia, Harry 426, -l27 Bcrlram, Anlhony-110 Best, R.O. .119 Beunat, Joscph 203, 2oS, 209 Be\"an, Charles 255 Biagio di Antonio 15 Bianconi, Fuh'io -1-39, 4-.f0 Biba 468, 469 ,-bicn-:les • ..1> Biedermeier sirle 1-l8, 14S, 1&1, 184,308,.JS6 Bieffeplast 498 Bielefeld, Charles 225 Biennais, r-.lartin-Guillaumc 192, 193 Bigby, P. 199 Bigclo\\', Erastus 2+l Bigot, Alexandre 3H I3indesboll, Thor\'ald 315, 315 13ing, Siegfried 298, 300, 301, 304, 305 13ing & Grondahl315, 31j, 436 Birler, Samuel 226 Birmingham 191, 198, 200, 201 Bissardon, Cousin & Bony 209 Bizouard, Valéry 410 Bjom, Acton 446, 4.JS black basaltes 166, 167 blacksmiths 291 Blades, John 183 B1adwell, John 95 b/llIlC-dl'-clJillt' 6-1 Blois 7-l Blomfield, Reginald 280 Blande!, Jacques-Fran,ois 82, &1, 84 Bloomsbury set 333, 336, 348, 41-l Blount, Godfrey 294 bluc·and-while ceramics 62,106 bluejohn 199
Blue Papcr \ \'archouse lÓ Boc.h Freres Keramis 362, 363 Bóck,Josef340,3~1
Boda :'\O"a -l66 Bodendkk, Jacob 7-l Bodymap 500 Boehme, Charles L. 195 Boffrand, Germain 8z Bogler, Theodor 39S, 399 Bohemian glass 66, 66, lOS, 108-10, 182, 18·l, 184-5, 23-l, 236, 236, 237, 2-l0, 240, 318-20, )20, 343, -l0-l Bohlin, Jonas -492 Bohm, August 239 BoUeau, Jean Jacques 189, 191 Boizot, Louis-Simon 160 Bolek, Hans 345, 3--l-6 Bol5O\'er, Thomas 196 Bonacina, Pierantonio-nl Bonaparlc, Jérome 1-l7 Bonfils, Robert 352 bo"II.'lIf dll joUT &1, 86, 132 Bonomi, Joseph 129 Bony, Jean.Fran,ois 207 Bonzanigo, Giuseppe :\Iaria 150, 151 bookcases S6, 97, 99, 1Jl, J 45, 155, 214, 2J 7, 254,359 Boole, T. & R. 263 8001h, ChilTles 267, 261 Borghesc family-l-l Borromini, Carlo 11-l Borsani, Os\'aldo 431 Borsalo, Giuseppe 151 Bos, Cornelis 13 Bossard, Johann Karl 243 Bosse, Abraham .¡.6 Bossi, Antonio 83 Bnston 5-l, 55, 98, 15·l, 202,277 Boston & 5.'ndwich Glass Co. 237 Bostwick, Zalmon 142 botanical paintings 206-8 Botta, \'Iario -198 Bóttger, Johann Friedrich 6-1, 64 Bouchardon, Edmé 100 Boucher, Franl;ois 80-2, St, Sl, 102, 229 Boucheron 376 Boulle, .\ndré Charles -l6, .;" 56, ScI, 86, S;, SS, 13 1 ,220 boullc\\'ork -l6, 47, 51, 52.131, 220 Boulton, ~latthe\\' 183, J90, 191, 1%, 1'}6, 198,
,.,s
Boulton & Fothergill 180, 199 Bourbon, Ouc de 1]..l, 1I.¡. Bourdieu, Pierre 3S1 BOllrgeois, Ojo -l12 Bou\"al, ;vlaurice 322 Bou\"ier, GLlsta\'llS Arthllr 252 Bol\' porcelain 104, 105, 105 BOY"in, Rcné 33, 36-7 Bracqllcmond, Félix 262, 263 Bramante, Oonato di Angelo 10-12 Brancusi. Constantin 423, 503 Brandenburg J 92 Brandenburg, Elector of 67 Brandt, Edgar 352, 368, 368, 369, 372, 374 Brandt, i\larianne 353, olIO, 418, 41S. -IJ9 Bran.. i, Andrca .JS6, +87 brass Arts and Crafts 290 brass beds 226, 227 Ear1y i\lodernism 34-.f, 34j, 346, 3+7 " ....eoc 1aSSlClsm ' · ' 0 _0,200 Renaissance 3.,\ Braun -HS, -1-18, -l75, 477 Braun, Artur-1-l8 Braun, Frwin HS Bredendicck. Hin -l18, "p8, 419
Brcgcr, Carl-Arne "'46, 4-18 Breuer, ~larceI353. 358. 382, 383, 392, 39-1. 394,-153 I3reuhaus dc Groot, Frilz August 410 I3ridgens, Richard 213,216,216 Briot, Fran~ois 37 Brístoll13,I68 Britain Aesthetic ~tO\-emenl 252 ceramics 262, 262-; furniture 256-8, 256-9 glass 266--;, 267 sih·cr and metalwork 268 textiles 270, 270-1 \\"allpaper 272, 2;2-3 Arl Deco 352 ceramics 360, 360-1 fumilure 358, 358 glac;s 366 siker and metah,"ork ;68, 370, 371 textiles 3;2-5. 373, 37-1 Art 2'XQlweau ceramics 315, 316 sih'cr and metalwork 325. 325 textiles 328, 329 wallpaper 328 Arts and Crafts 27-1-7 ceramics 286-7, 287 furnitme 278-82. 279-82 gl
glass 112-13, 112-13 porceli'lin 104-j, 105 pollery 107, 107 sil\"er and metalwork 112, 119-20, ng-21 texliles 1l2, J23. I2j 16th centur\" fumiture 18. 19 glass 28 gold and síh-er 31.}-l, 3i textiles 39 Space Age .ISO ceramics 462 fashion -168 sih-er and metalwork 466 Britain Can \Iake It exhibition (19-16) --l12,.J.2-1 British \Iotor Corporation 4-7; Bro.ldwood, John & Sons 282 broc,lde 38, ;7, ¡8, 122-4, 206, 209 Brody, ;'I.:e,·iIIc 484. -185, 500 broncit \\'are 3-12, 3.,.2 Brongniart, A.T_ 160 bronze37,116-19 Broome, Isaac 233, 265 BroSilmer, Hans 3J Brosse, Saloman de 46 Broll"n, Barbara 472, 473 Broll"n, F. Gn.'gory 373 Bro\\'n, Ford ~Iado:o.. 256. 274, 279 Brown, Julian 504 BrÜhl. Count 100, 100 Brunelleschi. Filippo JO Brunet, l\leunié & Oe 372 Bmns\\'ick, Dllke of 89 Brllssa, Os\'aldo 109 Brusscls 79, J22, 298, 326, 331, 332-3 I3russels carpets 2-1"¡, 244 I3rustolon, Andrea +-l, 4j buckles 200, 201 Budapest 301 Buen Retiro 173 Buffalo Potlery Company 286 buffets 259, 30-l. 307. 30S, 392 Bugatti, Cario 310, 311 Bull. H_J_ 375 Bullock, George 145. lI6 Buquoy, Count Georg \-on 18-1, J8.,.. 185.311 ll/lr.','1I/ ,i (-"U¡¡,I!".. 130 bureau cabinels -18. 5l. 56, SS. 89, 91 bllunll Jllnt -16, 84, 86. 130 Burges, \\'¡lIiam 2.15, 25-1, 279 Burgkmair, Hans 19 Burlington, Lord 120 Bume-Jones. Edward 266, 267. 27-1, 281 Burylin, Sergei .P4 Bussicre. Emest 318 Bustelli, FranL Anton 100 busts 62, 63 Bute. Earl of 140 Buthaud, René 362. 362 Butterfield, Lindsay ]29 Butterfield, \\'¡lIiam :5-1 BlItt~~ Francis Il J Buzó, Tommaso -106, 40; Byrdcliffe Colony 276, 2&:1
e T/I/! Cal'¡IIct ¡\Iah" ami Art FlIrnis//l'r 2&:1 cabinets Aesthetic l\lo'·ement 252, 253, 256, 257-<], 258,261 Art Deco 354,356 Art Nou\'eau 303, 308-1] Arts and Crafl'i 279-81. 183, l84 Baroque +-l, 45, 46, 46, 48, 50, 50. 52., 53, 53, 5 6,57 Early l\lodernism 333, 334, 335, 336, 336 exhibition fmniture 222
Gothic re\·i\·al 214 lacquered 58, 59 2'Xeoclassicism 131 Üld French Style 210, 221 Postmodemism 487 Reformed Gothic J.55 Renaissance 1-1, 15, 16, 17.1;,18 Renaissance re"i\·al 219 Rococo 97 Caffilglolo 23 Caffiéri, Jacques 84-,119,130 Caffieri. Philippe 131 Caillon -.:47 mlcer/ollio glass 26, 27, 66 Calder. Alexander 44; California 277, lS-l, 333 Callot, Jacques 6-l carneo glass 13-1. 237. 138, 239. 240, 318, 319 cameras 481 C.1meron, Charles 152 campaigo furniture 14-1 candelabr.l ¡l. Jl5, 116, 17i. 18;,32], ;2-l-. 325. ]4--4,345.3-1-6,"'4 2,4 66 candelabrum motif 10,12,17 candlest,md 84, 94 candlesticks 32, 112-14, 120. J83, 186, 189. 190, 193. 196,196,199,200,200.3/1,499 cane
525
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J31, 152, 160, 160, 166, 170, J;'O Cattea\!, Ch.ules 362, 363 Ca\'.llort.l, Fr.lneo .¡.30 Caylus, Comte de 100 Cellini, BenwnulO 13,32,3-1.37 Celtie re\"i\'aI260, 313 CenITal 5chool of Arts and Craft:;., London 277 Centre Internation¡¡l de Rcrhcrchc sur la Verre, lvlarscil1e~ .,\96 Centurv Guild 27.,\ cer.1mlCS Aesthetic :-"Io\'ement 262-7. 262-, Art Deco 360-2, 360-], ]¡¡ Art Nou\'eau 31+-15, ]J,-J¡ Arts and Cr,lftS 262, 2S6-¡, 287 Conlemporary styl~ H"\-6, n.;-¡ E.ul\· :-"Iooernism 3-10, 3,¡,o-I " re\"!\ "1 a ~ 'I~ _ ~, """'3" __ Ir'" :J,22 S-33 " tone h 15 \lodemism J96-'¡'01, 397-WO Postrnodcmism "\9"\, .¡.9.¡.-j Spaee Age -Kl2, .;63 :'t'"t' nlso porcelam; pottery César .,\61, .,\6.,\ chairs Aesthetic \IO\'ement 2),-Q illa mtllMmk 215 illn rÓIlt' S, Art Deco 3,0, 35"\, ],.;-" J,7 Art :'loU\'cau ;0;-10, jT2-1; Arts and Cr.1fts 2iS-SO, 282, 282-5 Baroql1e "\6, "\8, .¡.S• .;9. 50, 53, 5]. 59 /¡0SCrc 8-t 142 cmpcal/ 2.;.6 CIIntle 157 dllc!lcsst' 8-1
526
Eadv i\'lodernisrn 33-1. J]'¡'-" 337, 337---9,338 Elilabethan w\'i\'aI21Ó-J7 fh' 221 Gothic !"€'\'i\'al 215 India-backed -I8.'¡'9 klislllO:' 13·'¡' 1]4. 1],. I.IS. 1,2. Jj6, 15, \Iodcmism 3,9, 380. ]S2-" 383. 38-1, 38']-95 :\:eoclassicism 132, 1)3-5. 13.,\, 136, 1 ]S. 1-ID. 1';::', 1~3, l+.¡. J.;6-9, 151. ljl-.,.. 156-5 Üld French St\"lc 221 Postmodemism 48;-93, '¡SS, .,\90-2 Rcformcd Golhic 2H, 255 Renaissanee 16. J; Rococo &l-6, S5, 89. 91. 92, 92. 9-1-6, 95-6. 9S, gS sgllbt'l/o l'¡', lS, -lS. 4S silloH de ¡mi/e 16, 1i Space Age .¡.,O. "\5"\, .¡.,.¡-61, "\56-S, .,\61 upholstered 60,61 ch<1ise longuC's 358, '¡'3J Ch
Charleston, Susse\. 336 Charpentier. Ale\.andrc 303. 30; Cha~ Bra:>,; & Copper ]i6 Cha\\-ner, Hcnry ISO Chcbea-Dcrb\' 166 Chclse.l Kcramic Art \\'orks 26.,\,265 Chclsea porcelain 10'¡', 103 Chene\' Bros, 372, 37.,\ Chermayeff, Serge 338, 37';, 392, 392, 39.,1, '¡12 Chesapeake PoUery 26.¡. chests 18, 19, 356 chests of dra\\"l'rs 55, 279, 388, 38S-g Ch~urel, Albert 368, 371 Chicago 277. 18.,\ Chic.lgO \\'orld Fair OS93) 301 chiffoniers ]" Chigi f.1mily +l Child, Robert l.f2 chlmne\-pieces 21g China 352 and Aeslhetic :-"Io\-ement 230-2 fumituf'{' -lB porec1.1in 22. ';2, 62. 62, 6.,\ Chini 31.,\, ]16 d,ilwix'ril' -12. 6-1, 64. 6;, S2. 92. 9;, 9" 105. JOj, 111. 1"--1 __ .log " chintl- 76. 202, 205-7. 2.¡.6 Chippendale. Thomas 9"\, 95-.), 96, 9S. l3S. J38, 1.¡.2-4, 1,9 Chippendale style 213 Christian V of Saxom' lS Christiansen, H. __ ,2J2 el aSSlClsm ~i, ,11:'<) :\:e
Colberlaldo, Friccllinde de ++~ Cole, Henn' 2]5 Coleman, \\'illiam Stephcn 263 Colenbrander, Thoodor Christi,ln 314 Coll.lerl, Adriaen 3';,]; ColJcutl, Thomas Edward 256, 25;, 258 conector's c..bincls 57 Collingwood, Peter .¡¡; CollillS, \\'illiam 18; Collinson & Lock 219, 2j;, 158. 25g, 2;'1 Cologl1e 2-1, 25, 62 Colombini, Gino '¡'-I6 Colombo, Joe ';5'¡', .¡.55, --J.61, i7'¡ Colonial Re\ÍI-.. I 233, 260 COIOllll
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Counter Reformanon ~O Couper, James & Soos 26¡ Courn~ges 469, 4i1, 473 court cupboards 19 Courtauld, Louisa Iqo CO\'enlry, Lord LU Cowan Pollerv Stlldio 360, ;61 Co\\"les, George 190 Cox & Co. 39~ Cox & Sons 157 crackle glass 2..1-0 craft production 213, ..132 TlIl' Craft~mnl1 284 "Craftsman" strle 28~ Craftsman Workshops 28.;. Cranhrook Academv of Art 373 Crane, \\'alter 151, 253, 262, 270, 272, 1;;, 281, 282, 296, 307 crcam,,"are 162, 166, 166 Creazoni Ca"ari 505 Cf<'dCJ1::n~ (sideboards) H, 15 Creil 162 Crespin, Paul119 Cressent. Charles 80, S:J., 86. 86 Creusot 182 CR'\\-e1,,"ork -" 8; Cri.lerd, ~lathieu cristnl/o glass 26 Crompton, Rehccca ;7; Cross Papem"MC ';'76 Crozat, Pierrc S5 Cruikshank, Georgc IS; "crystal" glass In Cn·stal Palace, LOI,don 213, 2.,1,8, 2';'9 Cubism 352, ;5;, 363, ';'00, 4l-t Cllbism, Ceeh 331, 333, 338, 3-10, 3';'1, 359,
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Cucd, Domenico ~6 cup and co\"cr motif '9 cupboards 1;, 18, 19, 50, 51,136,336,357 Curling, R.B. and Sans 18, curlains Ji. 2-16, 2+6 Curtis, Jacopo 56 cut glass 1//, 178-81, ISO, 23-1, 23+, 235, 237, 238,238-9,288, 189 cutlen" :,<,,' flalwarc Cuúlli~", Fran..;ui" 83, SS, as, S9, 116 Cuyás. Ramón Puig ~98, +99 Cyrén, Gunnar +6~, -196 Czech Cubism 331, 333, 338, 3-10, 3"P. 359,-IO..J Czech Republic/CzcchosIO\'akia -tS5 furniture -190, 49J, +93 glass 341. 36;, -IO..J, ';'05, -1--10, '¡'40 üeschka, Cad atto 34-i, 3+-1, 3';'5, 3-18 D
Da Sih"a Bnlhns, h-an 373,374-, -H2, 4U Dagly, Gerhard 58, 59 Daguerre 132 Dahlin, Nils 91 Dalí, Sah-ador -lOS, 46-1, .;.65 Dalpayral, Pierre-Adrii'ln 31-1, 314 Daly, \laUhe'" A. 26.;. dólmask 38, 39, 79, In, 123, 204, 10S, .209, N; D.1DUnouse, A. P9 Danasc \Iilano +-+6 Danhauscr, Joscf 1-18. q8 Darh", \latthi.1S 95, 201 Darmstadt 287, 333, 34';', J.l6, 31-9 Darras. André 305 Dartington Hall 395 Dar,,"in, Charles 301 Dasson, Henri 111 Daum, Auguste and Antoine 318 Daum Freres 318, P9, 322, 350, 365, ]65, 369, -164,465,-196, .;.96 Dawnport 168
Daúd, Jacques Louis 12" n8, lH D.wid-.\ndersen 371 D.widson, George & Co. 135 Da\'is, Alexander Jackson 111, 21-1 Dawkins, Jólmcs 126 D,lY, Le,,"is F. 270, 272, 2;1 Day, Lucienne .,l24, ++-1, 4';'4 Da~~ Robin -12-1, .f:J.';', ';'15, ';'3.J., 4-1--1, .;..;.+' -j';'9, ';'5 6
d .. ybcds 5-+, 8-1, 135, 15; Oc Lucchi, \¡ichele 486, .;.86 Dc .\lorgan, William 274, 275, 276, 286, 287 De Pas, Gionalhóln 45';', 458 De Saedeleer 373, 375 De Stijl 363, 38-1, -153, 504 Dearle, J.H. 195 Decai:-., Alexis 198, 199 Deck, Joseph-Théodore 150, 262 IX'Cker, Paulus 108 Dccocur, Emile 362 Décoration Inlérieure .\Iaderne (DJ ..\!.) 35+-6 Décorchemenl, Fróln\ois-Émile 365, 365 Deerfield, ~laSSclchusetls 29-1 Dehmel, Richard 339 D.:kora/in: KilI/sI 301
Delafosse. Jean-Charles 130, 130 Delaherche, Auguste 31-1, 314, 362 Dclauna\', 'ícholas ¡;, 75 Dcli'lunay, Roherl4J2 Del,luna,', Sonia -j12 DelalUle, [t¡enne 33 Delft ';'1, 62 DeHa l3ella, Stefano 66, 72, 74, 188, 188 Dcnmark Art Nom-eau 315, 328 Contemporary style -120, -132, +33, 436,..J.1-2 ~Iodernism 386, 406, -110, -118, ';'19 'coclassicism 170, 1,0, li1 Rococo 91, 91 Space Age-l66 Denon 161 Depression 388, 390• .ros "Depression'· gl'lSS 366 Derbv 166, 16" 168, 170 Derb,"shire 226 Deruta 22, n Dé:><1mond-Charpentier, ~ladamc ;'3;Dcsfonlaines, Henri Bellery 304Dcsfossé el Karth 1.+8 Design Centre, London 4i4 Design Council 3SO desk sets ;68 Deskey, Donald 353, 359, 359, 372, 373, 37--1, 388,3 89 desks Aesthetic Mo\'ement 255 Art Deco 35+, 358 Art Nou\"eau 303, 306, 311 Arts ólnd Crólfts 278, 184 Baroque 56 Contemporary styk no Early ~Iodernism 338 :-'Iodemism 389, 391, 393 :\eoclassicism 131, lj:J., 137, 139, 145, 1-18, 1.;.8,151,15+,155, J5; Postmodemism 48¡ Rcnaissance 19 Rococo 86, 97 Després, Jcan 370 Desprez, Barthélemy 182, 183 Deutscher Werkbund 18;, 333 De\"lin, Stuart +-11, 466 De\"On 226 Diamond Glass Company 366 diamond-point engra,"ing, glass 27. 68, 69. 69 Diderot, Denis 126, 159 Dicderich, Wilhelm Hunt 369, 371
Dierra, Louis 391 Dijck, Floris \·an.p Dijssclhoff, Cerril \ \ ~Lilem 307 dimllldt'rÍt' 356 dinncrwarc -162 Dior, Christii'ln -i20, .pl, H3, +/.5 Directoire st\"le 128, 13-1, lJ.¡., 192 Disney, \Val! ~OO disposable fumiture 458 Ditze!, Jorge +59 Dit;>e!, Nanna 459, ';'93 Dixon, James & Sons 152, 268 Oixon, Torn 48S, .¡.89 Dobson, Frank 372 , -)-, '"' ?33 Doc,·" '"" ,-, 1--)' , '6' )Dodd, Jane Porler 164 Dado Designs .;.;6 dolls' houses 5:J. Dolmetsch, Heinrich 213 Domin, André 356 Dominique 355. 356 Domus Aured, Rome 12 Donald Brothers -Il~ Donatello 10 Donegi'lni, D.mtl' 505 Dordrecht 69 Dorfles, Cilio -l-S5, 503 Dorn, ~Iarion 351, 373, 313, 37-1, -112, '¡13 Ooucet, Jacqlles 352,355,356 DollIIO., 262, 287, 315. 316 DO\"l'S Prl><;s 276 Do\\"ning, Andre\\" Jackson 210, 214, 216 Dresdcn 18,64,88,90, lOS Dresdner \\'crkstiitten für Handwerkskunst 333,338,33 8 Dresser, Christopher 250, 152, 253, 159, 260, 160,262,162,267,267,268,268,270,17°, _,_, ?7') , 1 - ') ''9' - ) ' 33' _, 3'3 dressers 16, 281, 181, 183 dressing tdbles 55. 336, 358, 359, 389 Driólde -188, ~96, 496, 499 Drouais 130 Dryad \\orkshops 282 Du Cercea u, Jacques Androuet 16, J6, 33, 37 du Paquier, Claudius lnnoc~ntius 6-l, 6.¡, 65 Du Pasquier. :\athalie 481, .¡9.;., ::;ro, 500, 504 Dublin l;'S Duboic;, Femand 322 Dubois, René 131 Dm"'Shury, Wi1Iiam 166 Dufrcne, ~Iauric~ 314 Dufy, Jei'ln 362 Dufy, Raoul362, 374 Dugourc, Je.ln D¿mosthene 128, 131, 132, 13-1, 1-19, 149, 206, 107 Dunand, lean 355, 356, 359, 368 Dundas, Sir Lall"rence 1.;.2 Duplessis, Jean-Claude 131 Duprc, Da\"id 47 D'Urhino, Donato 45';', --158 Dürer, AlbfL'Cht 10, 30,]1.33 Dutillieu i'lnd Théileyre 109 Du\'inage, F. 169 Dll\'iúer, Claude Jl5 D\\"ight, John 61, 63, 107 dyes 2-15, 270, 294 D,sart, E1isabeth 59 D\'son, James 502, 50--! J
E Eames, Charles 390, 391, H3, 41';', ';'26, 427-8, 429, -146,-15-1,4 60 Eames, Rav ~17, ';'29 Earlv ~Iodernism ceramics 3-10, 3-:0-1 furniture 332, 333, 333-9, 3:H-8 glass 3-12, 3P-3
527
528
silver and metalwork 3-W-6, 344-7 textiles 348, 348---9 earthenware Art Deeo 360, 362 Early Modemism 332 Neoclassicism 166 Roeoeo 106-7, 107 studio polter), 397 Iin-glazed 20-2, 20-1, 2-l, 24, 62, 62, 3-10 East Indies 53, 158 Eastlake, Charles Loeke 215, 252, 25.l, 256 Eastlakc style fumihue 260, 260-1 ébénistes .J6, 56 Eberlein, Johann Friedrich 100, 100 ebony fumiture 53, 53, 56 Ecclesiological Society 254 Eekmann, Olto 328, 328 ecleetieism -182 Eco 503 Edinburgh \Veawrs ..O-l, .J15 Edis, Robert \\l. 256 Effner, Joseph 83 Egermann, Friedrieh 18-l, 185,236,236,311 Egremont, Lord 96 Egyptian st)'le 13-1, 135, 136,137,1-12,208, 209,256 Eiehler, Fritz 448 Eissler, Caspar Gottlieb 116, 118 Ekeo -l16 clcetrieal applianecs -116-18, 416-19, -122, -H8, .J48-9, P7, -l98 Elcetrolux -l16 Elgin 376 Elizabeth, Empress of Russia 120 EJizabethan revival212, 216, 216-17, 22-1, 2+f Elkington & Ca. 2-l2, 243, 268, 268, 269 Elkington Brothers 196 Ellis, Harvey 28-l, 284 Elmslic, George Grant 325 E!ton, Edmllnd 287 embroidery 39, 39, 76, 78, 79, 245, 29-1, 29.J, 327 Emerson 376 Emes, Rebeeeah 191, 291 Empire State Building, New York 352 Empire style 129 eeramies 160, 162, 16-1, 168, 170-2, 233 fllrniture 136, 137, 1-17, 1.f7, 1-18, 151, 153, 156, 1 >7 glass 177, 180, 182, 183, 183, 18.f ormolu 198 silver 191, 192, 195 Emulation 29-1 enamel 3-1, 7-1, 120, 268, 269 enamelling glass 27, 28, 23-1, 235 eneaustie teehnique 228, 228 end grain mosaie 22-l, n5 Endelein, Caspar 37 Endell, August 308, 308 Engelhardt, Knud Valdcmar 315 England see Britain English delft 62, 63 English Eeeentries 500, 500 engra\"lng eopperplate 76-8, 77 glass 67, 67, 69, 69, 110, 110-11, 239, -l06, 44 1 silver 72, 120 Enlightenment 126 e115embliers 350, 35-1 Erbrieh, Adolf 34.J Erdmannsdorff, Friedrieh \Nilhelm \·on 1-l7 Erost Ludwig, Duke of Hesse 282, 333 Este, ¡sabella d' 20 Estey Manufacturing 389 etehed glass 238-10, 239 Etrusean style 128, 129, 13-l, 134, 160-2, 172 Etrusean ware n8
Eugene, Prinee of Savo)' 83 Eugénie, Empress 230 Evans 376 Evans rurniture 425 Evelyn, John 44 exhibitions 213, 218, 222, 222-3, 252, 301, -l22-3,-l28 F Fabbriea Reale Ferdinandea 172 fabrics see textiles rile Faee 484, -l85, 500 Faenza 20, 21, 22, 23 faienee 62, 62, 106, 107, 170,341 Faienee l'vlanufaeturing Co. 26-1, 265 Faleonet, Etienne-Mauriee 102 Fallingwater, Pennsylvanja 337 Far East -12, 56 Faragó, 0d6n 313, 313 Farnese, Cardinal Alessandro 10, 15 Famese family 1-1 Farqllharson, Clyne 288 Farr, Christopher .J13 Farrel!, Edward 2.J-3 Farroil, Josep Pey i 311 Faseism -185, -190 fashion Contemporary slyle -120, 421 Space Age 46&-73, 468-71 Fauré, Camille 368, 371 Fallvism 342, 352 Favre Petipíerre & Cíe 203 Featherstonhallgh, Sir Mauhew 95 Federal Glass Company 366 Federal style 15-1, 156, 156 Fehér, Pau1368, 371 Fenton, Malthew & Co. 196, 196 Fentons 233 rcrdinandu IV, King uf Naples 172, 172 Fereday, J.T. 239 Ferrara 15 Ferro Toso-Barovier & C. 366 Festi\·al of Brittlin (1951) -l22, -l2-l, 424 Feuillátre 320 Feure, Georges De 305, 322, 326, 326 Feuerrieger, Kurt 399 Fiammingo, Jacopo 56 fibrt'glcl:>:> fumilurl;' -l27--8, 4-l6, -l5'¡, '¡ól Fiedler, Johann Christian H7 Fiedlcr, Johann Goulob q6 Field, ErastllS 244 Field of the Cloth of Gold (1520) 3J--l. figures, eeramie 64-, 65, lOO, 100,1°3-5,105, 160,162,163,166,267,171-2,34°,352,360 figurines, Art Nouveall 322, 322 Fildes, George 216 filigree glass 26, 27 Finland Art NOllVC
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Fisher, Alexander 292, 293, 29.J Fiskars 477 Fitzsimmon, 5tephen 469 flame-stiteh pattem 76, 76 flashed glass 2-l0 flat-paek fumiture -l32 flatware (eutlery) 118,3-15,347,371,411, +12, 443,4 67,476,499 Flaxman, John 191, 191 Flemish art 13, 42 F1emish furniture 16-17, 17 F1eteher, Benjamin 282 Fleteher, Thomas 195 Flight Woreester 168 Flindt, Paul 35 F1agl, Mathilde 3-!1, 342, 3-18 F10renee Baroque -l-l, 44, 45, 57, 6-1, 66, 66 historie rev¡vals 233 Neoclassicism 151, 151 Renaissanee H, 20, 33 Roeoeo 92 Florenee eathedral 10,3° Floris, Comelis 12, 13, 3.J, 37 Flos 479 Flatner, Peter 18, 33 flower molifs Art Deea 372 Baroque -\'2-3, 71, 76 historie re\'ivals 247, 249 flower paintings 206-8 Foale, "'-'Iarion -l68 Foerg, J. 20g Fogelbert, Andrew 190 Foggini, Giambattista 44, 44 folk art 277, 296, 300 Follot, Paul )22, 356, 356, 373 Fontaine, Pierre-Frano:;ois-Léonard 126,128, 128,129,135-7,136, 1.l7, I.f7, 150, 151, 156, 183,192,193 Fontaincblcau 13, 13, 16,24,33,36,129,133, 218 Fonttlna, Carlo-l-l Fontana, Lucio cl62 Fontana, Orazio 21 Fontana Arte 419 Fontes, Marquis de 45 ForJ j',lutor CM:> .J75 For1l1 -158
rormica Coloreare 487 Fomasetti, Picro -130, 430, 435 Forsyth, James 254, 257 Fostoria Glass Co. .J08 found objeets cl88 fountains 71 Fauquet 322 Foxton, W. Ud 373 Frabel, Hans Godo 497 trames, Baroque 44 Franee Aesthetie Movement eeramies 263 glass 266 metalwork 268 Art Deeo 350, 352 cera mies 362, 362-3 furniture 35+-6, 354-7 glass 364-5, 365 sil\'cr and mctalwork 368, 370-1 textiles 372, 373, 374Art Nouveau 300, 330, 332 eeramies 314, 314 furniture 302-5, 302-5 glass 318, 318-19 sih·er and metalwork 322, 322 textiles 326,)26 Arts and Crafts 287, 287
Baroque -lO,-l3 furniture -16, -16-7, 56, 60-1 marquetry 57 pottery 62 siher ;1, 7~5, ;.¡. textiles ¡;.;9 historic re"i\"als 212 ccramics 230, :']0-1 fllrniture 21-1, 216. 218, :'18, 220 wallpaper 2-18, :,.¡.8~ Huguenots -13, 75 ](Ipo,¡j$/II" 252 \Iodernism furniture 383, 383 industrial design ,p i sih'cr and metalwork _po textiles -112, .J 1J. '\:eoc:lassicism 12&-8 fumiture 130--6, 1]0-6 glass 182, 182 porcelain 160-2, 160-:' sih'er 192, 19:'-] textiles :'0:'--9 wallpaper :'06 Poshnodernism fumiture -190 glass -196 Renaissance 13 furniture 16, 16 glclSS 28 pottery 2-1, :!.J, 25 sih'er ]1, 33---l,]3 Romeo 80-2 furniture 8+--6, 8.J-/ porcc1,lin 102, 102-3 pottery 106, 107 s¡h'er and metalwork 11~16, 11.J, 11/ textiles 122-], I2j Francis L King nI' Franee 13, 16.33-4,36 Francis &. Cronk :'0] francis W. Little HOllse, lll1110is ]3; Franck, Kaj -B6, .J]/. -1]8, .J.Jl, .J65 Francken. Fraos 50 Franeo, General -190 Franglais Empire glass 183, 18] Frank, }can-\ liche! 356. 35, FrankeL S- ]-+9 Frilnkcnth
bentwood 1;6, 226, 33-t JJ-l-5, 383,-130 car\"Íng 9-1, 224, 2:'4 cast-iron 226, :,:,6, :'27 Conlempor.uy :.Iyle -l2~32•.p.J-jj."¡"'¡6 Earh' ~Iodemism 332, 333, 333-9, 33+-8 Elizabclhan re"i\-aI216, :'16-J;. 22-! exhibition furnilure 222, 222-] glass 2j8 Gothic rC\'i\-al21-!, :'1.J-15. 22-1, 25-1, :'54. 279 laminatecl \\"ood 226,22,. -12-1, .P4. 416 ~~"o, me ta I funu-tu re "6 _ , __ " -'·S'_, 3S":1, o")"9'_ , :I:>-t, -i 28
'\lodemism 353. 358-9, 358-9. ]81--9;. 383-9-1, .J2-1 Neoclassicism 130-58,130-59 üld Freneh Style "')"')0, :'20--1 p'lpier m,icM :':';, 226 Postmodcmism -!S6-9:!, .;.S6-qJ Renaissance 1~18, 1';-19 Renaissance re\'i"al 218, :'J8-IO RococoS-!-98, 8.J~99, 220 Space Age -15-1-61. -154-61 '-eneers ?'J-I, 21; Fumiture Shop, s..,n Franci:
J"
metalwork 323-5. ]:!-I textilcs ]:'7 \\"i\llpaper 326 Arts and erafts 282, 28] ceramics :!86, 287 metal\\"ork 293 Baroque furniture 52, 53, 56, 59 glass 66, 66, 67, 67 marquetry 57 porcelain 64-5 pottery 62, 63 s.il\'Cr 7-1, /5 Earl" .\Iodemism 333 fLlrniture 338, 338-9 J¡¡~<'I1d~/i/ 30S, ]08, 330 sih-er and mclal\\"ork 34.J, 3-16 texllles 3-18, 3-19 historie re,i\'als 218, 233 \Iodernis.m 378-80, 3,9, 380 ccramics 398, 399 furnilure 3S2, 3R3 industrial design .JI, sih'er and metal\\'ork -110, -110-11 tl'xtiles "¡'15 :\\"'OC1,hsieism 129 furniture q6-¡. 1-17 gl;¡~s 18-1, 184-5 pc\\"ter :'00 porcelain 162-t 16]-.J Renaiss.,nce furniture ¡7-18, J8 gl'lSS"19,29 gold 37 poltery 2-1. 25 "" 35-6 S\-, "er ]1, :1:1, Rococo furniture ,S8-9o porcelain 100, 100-1, 105 sih-er and metaJ\\'ork 116, nS textiles u.J, 1:'j CC511I11tk¡¡¡¡s/¡¡1,'rk 300. 307. 326 Chiberti, Lorenzo 30 Giambologna /1 Gi,lTdini, GiO\'anni 72. 116 gilding -18. -19, 5S, 58,98, 102.1°3, 136.1 ..10. J.fl, 151. 160, 16J. 16;, 172. 1/6 <,.;iles, James 113, 113, 176-7 gilt-brom'e decoration 201 Gimson, Emesl 277. :'/8. 279, 281, 282. 282, 2S],.291.292,336.]56 Giorgio, \laestro.22 Gir(lrd, Alexander +.J~ gilt"I"iP,'rk (Iattice\\'ork) 3"¡"'¡, 3-17 Glasgo\\· 300 Clasgol\" School 28]. 308, 325, 32;, 330 Glasgo\\' School 01' Art 2'S. 328. )29 glass Aesthetic \lowment :'66-" 267 Arl Dt..'Cu ],.2, 36-\-6, 364-/ Art NOU\'cau 318-20, 3J8-:'1,-I6-I :\rts
529
•
flambé 3I·!, 3q Icad 24, 25 lustre 20. la, 22, .21, 276, 287, 31-1, 31:i, 316 sal! 24, 25. 62. 63. ]16 1'111111-"/1 ~SVh_ / . ;'9){ tin 20-2, 20-J, 24, 2~, 61, 62, 3..10 R.~I.Y. ]68, 212
Gleadowe.
Gleason
371
Glomme Si Gmelin, Loopold 308 Coaj]
Gobelins facton' 41, 46, 74 Godwin, E.\\'. 250, 256-8, 258. 259. 260, 261, ,-, .-'-.-{;I.-' '7., .-~ 179 2"0 • --1 Goether. Eosander \'00 gold Baroque 70-2, 70-]
¡j
Renaissance 30-2, j I - l , 34, 35-7. 36-7 Rococo 116. lIÓ, 120, 1.21 Goldeo House of :\:ero 22 Goldfinger. Emo 386. 394, 395 Goldfinger, :\ick 395
Goldman, Paul ,p6 Goldscheíder Faclory 362, 362 Goldsmiths & Silversmiths Ce. ]68 Gole, Pierre 46, 46, +7. 38, 59 Goodden, Raber! -102, .jO] Goode, Thomas & Ca. .262
Gorham :vlanufacturing Ca. 325, ]25, 370, 371 Golhic ]0, Gothic rcd\'al 9-1, 142,210
530
cera mies 228, 2.28, 230, 233 fmniturc 21-1, 214-15, 22-1, 234, 25';-5, 279 n1USeulM Gothie style 23-1, 254 textiles 2-1-1, 2-16, 246 wallpaper 202, 2-18, 248 Golhic sil ver 35 Goulden, Jean 368, 371 Guupil Laburatories 503 Goupv, ~...lareel 365 " Gout Etrusquc 13-1, 13'; Gout Gree 120, 126, 130, 130, q6, 132, 153, 192,192 Gouthiere, Pierre 126, 132, 198 Grad!, Hermann 31-1, 316 Gragg, Samuel156 Granehet 86 Grand Raplds, ~hehlgan -Ub Grand Tour 126, 157, 177 Grange, Kenneth 474, ·U~, ';77, 481 Grant, Dunean 333, 336, 336, -I1-l graphic design 500 Grasset, Eugcne 301, 326,]26 Grassi, Anton 16-1 Gratzen 18-1 Gra\"es, \liehael ~5, 486, -19-1, ';9';, -I9B, -:98, 500 Gray, Eileen 350, 353, 355, 356, 357. 359. 373. 378 ,38-1,3 8 5 Gray's Potter)' 360 Great Exhibition, London (lB51) 211, 213, 214, 218. 221,221,222.224, 2~, 23';, 244 Greatbateh, Daniel 174 Greek style 126, 1-12, 144, 188, 191, 352, 356 Green, Arthur Romney 279 Greenah'ay, Kate 263 Greene, Charles Sumner 28-1, 285. 337. 337 Greene. Henrr :\Iather 28-1. 285. 337. 337 Grcene & Greene 281, 333 Greenwood. Frans 110, 111 Gregorr. \'Iary 237 Gregory. Waylande 352 Grenzhausen 3-10 Gribelin, Siman 72 Gricci, Giuseppe 103 Grierson. Ronald -112, 4013 Grill, Anlhony 91
Grimani. Pietro 65 ('11 griStlilk painting. porcelain 161, 162, 168. 168,170,173 Grohé, Guillaume 218 Gropius, \\'alter 358. 39-1, 395.-lO4 Grossmann. Karl Auguste 146 grotcsque omament 12, 13, 1-1, 16. 22. 24. 3-:. H, -J6, ~, SO, 129, 206. 207 grottoes 2-1 Groult. André 355. 356, 3,2. 37-1 The Gro\'e, Harbome, near Birmingharn 2jj Gruber. jaeques 303, 318, 319 Grueb\" Faienee 313, 31, Gubbio 22, 22 GI/trilloll 84. 13-1 Gucrlain 352 Gugelot, Hans 448 Guibcrt. J"hilip 60 Guild, Lurelle 3,6 Guild of Handicraft 276, 290. 291. 292. 330 Guild of St George 276 guild system 37, 13-1 Guimard, Hector 304, 305. 31-1, 322. 322 Gulbrandsen, :\"or.l 398. 399 Gustadan Si de 152 Gust.l\'sberg 315, 361,362,398.399, H6. 436. n7, 4-14, -146 Gusta\'us 11[. King of S\\'l'
Habit.lt -150, -153, 456, 479 Hadelands Glass\"erk -106, 406 Haeekel, Erost 301, 301 Hafncr, Dorothy 495 Haga Pa\"ilion, Sweden 152 The Haguc 326 Hahn. Carl 489 Haines, Ephrain, 15-1 hairdr)'ers ·H6 Haité, George 2il Hald, Ed\'ard 366, 36" -106 Hall China 401 Hall-in-the-Tirol 28. 28 Hallesche Form 399 Ilals. frans 111 Iiam House, England 59 Hamada. ShoJi 267 Hamburg 301 Hamilton, Richard -175, 4;; Hamilton, Sir \\'illiam 177 Hamplon Court -18, 49, 75. ,9 Hanean·iIIe. Baron d' 177 Haneock, Joseph 196 Hanka. PaulJ06 Hanseatie lcaguc 7-1 Hansen. Frida 328. ]28 Hansen, Fritz 433 Hapsburg Empire 38, 108, 1&1 Haraehe. Pierre 72. i-l Hardman, John 2-12, 2:p hardslones 1-1.44,45,57,5,,151.226 Hardwick. Philip 221 Harcwood. 1st Earl of 143 Harewood House, Yorkshire 128 Harleman, Carl 91 Harmon, James 497 Harracho\" glassworks 185, -lQ..l. 440 Harris. Kale 325 Harris, Thomas 257, 238 Harrison. James 200 Harrison, John 233 Harrold. Robert 99 Haslcmcre Pcasant Industries 276 HaLlpt, Georg 152, 15.3 Haupt, Josef 148 Hauré, Jean 133
Haun', Henri 209 Hflll~m<1/er decoration, glass 109 Haussmalm 209 Ila\"iland 263, 362 Heal, Ambrose 280. 281, 281, 358 Heal's +45. 472, 413 Heath, James 223 Hechter, DameI4,] Heckmth, Hein 395 Heemskerk, \\íllem \'an 69. 69 Hciglein, johann Erhard ;5 Hcinkcl. Gusta\' 363 Helsinki -l36 Heming. Thom.ls 121, 1 ,189 Hemphill. Joseph 1;5 Hendersen. Da\"id 1,4 Henderson, :\"igel 445 Henningsen. Poul-l18, 419, 422 Henri Deu' ware 228, 229 Henry VII, King of England 26 Henry VIII. King of England 19.31.33--1 Hcnry, Hippolytc 249 Hepplewhite, Gcorgc 1-10, 141-3, 145, 1-17, 15-l Hepplewhite style 213 Hepworth. Barbara -II-l. 415, -l23, -I+l Herbert Terry -l18 HereulaneLlm 126, D8, 152. 162, 162, 172, 172 Herilage, Roberl 425 Herman. Sam -1M, 465 Hermsdorf 67 Heme, lewis 121 ¡ ¡errara, Juan 37 Herter Brothcrs 218, 253, 260, 261 Hen"é 133 Hesse 52 Heslaux, Louis 302, 303 Hell'etson & ~li1ner 257 Hewson, john 20-1 Heywood, Higginbottom & Smith 2409 Hevwood Sumner. G.M, 289 highboys 98, 99 Hildebrand. ~largrcl434 Hildebrandt, Luki'is \"on 83 HiUe -12-1, 425 HiUiard. :'\ieholas 30 Hirst. R.\l. 196 Hispano-\Ioresque potter~' 20. 22 historie re\"i\'ab 21D--l9 eeramics 228-33, 228-33 fumiture 21-1-26. 214-:q glass 23-l-10, 234-41 silwr and mctalwork 242, 242-3 textiles 2++-6, 2';'; 7 wallpaper 2~, 248-g HK Fumiture 425 H\[V Co" 417 Hoc1lsc1l11ifl glass 67, 6; H6chst 103 Hoentschel, Georges .3 J 4 Hoffmann, Josef 290, 308, 309. 320. 320. 32';', 326.3.30,33°, 331, 332. 33-1. 335, 3-10. 3-12, 3';'2,343,3-I4,34 6-g,348 Hofman, Vlatisla\" 333 Hogarth, \\'illiam 119. 120, 120 H6hr Grenzhausen 31-1 Hokusai 258 Holbein, Hans 30, 31, 3-1. 36, 289 Holdaway, Bernard 45, Holland ;;el! '\etheriands Holland, Henry 129. 1-12 Holland & Sons 219, 2j4 Hollein, Hans 485, 490, -198 Hollington, Geoff -l8-l Holmegaards Glas\"erk ';'06 Hol)' Roman Empire 83 Homar, Gaspar 3 Tt Home Arts and Industries Association 1.77
,
Ilomenkollen ]l2 Homer, \ \"inslo\\' 2M Hamer Laughlin China Ca. -100,';00 Hooch, Pieter de 51 HoO\"er -116
Hope, nloma~ 129, J ..p. I·n, l.l3, 156, 183, 18],198,199 Hoppenhaupt. Johann Christian 83, 88, 89 Hoppcnhaupt, Johano :-'lichael 83, SS, 88, 89 Hopps. J.H. 28; Horejee, Jarosla\" 333
I lome, Henry 296 Horoldt, Johann Gregor fH, 6./ Harríx, :Vlatthijs 151, 153 Harta, Victor 298,299,306,307,322, ]23 Horti, Pal]l] Horton, Charles Ed"'ard 25; HOfwitt, :'\athan George 390 Hotel Soh'a~~ Bruss~ls JOb Hotel Soubise, París SI Hotpoint .J''; hound-handlcd jugo:; 1;'; Houston, ~lary 290 Howard & Son 1.11 Howell Comp.-my 390 Ho,,"ell & James 25; Hra7dil, Casp.u 3;5 HubbiUd, Elbert J.86
Huocner, George li5 Hueck, Eduard 3';-1, 3-16
Huet, Christoph 82 Iluguenots .l), 70, ¡.J, 75, 105, 119 J-1ukin & Heath 268 Hulanieki, Barbara ~69 Hull Traders ~~5 Hungary Art :'\ou\-eau 313, ]1), 315, )16, 328 Arts and Crafts 277, 282 Hunt, \\'illiam Ilolman 256 HlInter, Alee 3,5 HlInter, Dard 2S5 Hunzinger, George 260 H\'ass, ="'eils .J.93 H,-idt , Peler ..yy ,~~ H!m/it/i glass 1&J, 18.;, lS5
1 18\1 .J75,-!8-!-5 Igar.1shi, Takenobu .J.90 litt.1la .1 T 3, H8, nS, +10 Ike.1 .J91, ';93 Imhoff famih' 35 Imperial Glass Co. ~OS Imperial Hotel. Tokyo 360, )61 lmpressionism 333 lnee & ~Iadlew 9-1, 9';, 97, 138, 1.f5 India 58, ]·n fumihlre 53, 53 textiles 38, 76, 7S, 12-1, 125, 208, 209, 270 lndicnne motifs 12-1 Indonesia 53, 300, 307, 31-1, 326 industrial design 212-13 Art Deco 376, 376-7 \1odemism 380-1, -116-18, ,P6-19 Postmodernism 502-5, 503---4 Spaee Age -17+-80, ';7.;-8J Industrial Re,-olution 210, 212 inAatable fumiture -158 intarsia 1-1, 15, 17, 19, 2J, inlerlaeed omament 21, 11, 22, 2-1, 25 Intemational Fashion Council-l70 Inlemational Sih'er Co. )76 Inlemel--185 lreland 178, 1;8-9, 23-1, 277, 282 Iribe, Paul 355, 356, 372, 37-1 irideseent glass 320, 320 "Irish" embroidery 76
Irminger, Johann Jakob 6-1, 6.; iron X'l' casi iron; wrought iron irons -116 Iroquois China Company .J.36 lsasaki, :'\fata -l9-l Islamic arl lO, Tl, 277 lsokon 358, 39-1, 39+, 395 lsola, Maija m, +72 lsozaki, Arato -l98 Issigonis, Alex +75 istol'illto wares 20-2, 20, 62 Ital)' Art Oeco eeramies 362, 362 glilSS 366, 367 sih-er and metalwork ]71 Art i\"oll'-eau cemmics 31-1 furniture ]10, 311 Baroque 40, 80 fumiture +1, +-1-5, 92 glass 66 metah"ork 72 Jlidn' dI/U 57 poreelain 6--l pottery 62 te,tiles ,6, ,s, ,9 Conlemporary s~'le -l10 applianees +~9 ceramics -B6 fmniture Ha, +.50'-1 gla55 +39, -1-10 historie re"i,'als eeramies .2]2, 233 fumitme 218 glass 237 ¡"Iodernism glass -106, .fo, lighting -liS, .f19 Neoclassieism fumitme 1'>0-1, 151 parcela in 171, 1,2-3 Postmodemism --185 eeramies -I9-l fumiture --l86• .;86-; industrial design 5O-l te'\liles 5CXl. ;;:00 ReniliS5anee 10-13 fumiture Icl, 1+-15 glass 26-8, 26-, pottery 20-2 sih'er and metal\\"ork 30, ]2, 33, 36. 37 lexliles 38----g Rocoeo 82-3 fumihm~ 92,9.2-] poreclain 10; Sp.KC Age eeramies 462 fumiture +55, -158-61 lighting --l75 I\'e, Jonathan 50; i"ory 57, 7..1, 300, 323 Izenollr, Ste"en --l82
J Jackson, TE. 289 Jackson & Graham 222, 257 Jacob, Georges 132, 13-l, 13.J., J)5. 1.52 Jacob-Desmalter 13-!-6, 1]6 Jacob Freres 1]+. 135 Jacobs, Carl .J.2..J Jacobsen, Ame --B2, +32, ..J.Jj, +6, Jacobsen, Jaeob --lI8 Jacquard, Joseph-\Iarie 2MJ Jallol, Léon 35-1, 356, 359 Jallot, \lauriee 3.5-1 James 1, King of England 60
James 11, King of England 61 Jam~on, Frederie--l82 jamnit/er, \Ven/el 35. 37 ~l. p-"'1..'_1 Y3_.,Uj,j 4 ~ ~~4 ~3S "0 • .339,.;HV,y4J Ja n u"', japan 352 ¡md Al'Sthelie \ lm'emenl 250-2 furniture 58. -190-2, +90-1 industri.11 dcsign 502-3, 503 inAuenee of 256-8, 260, 26-1, 268, 270, 277, 300, 3D/, 397 porecl;¡in 6-1 Postm\ldernisrn -lS5, -l86 jilpal1t1l'd furnilure -lS, 55, 58, 59, SS, 1]1, q], I ~S Jal~lIIi~lIIl' 252, 2(;2, 262, 26] jardinil.'rl~ 34-1, _H'; jaspcr\\'arc 166, 16; Jcekyll, Thom,l:> 256, .256, 26.."). 268 Jcffrcy & Co. .2;'.2, .2;-} Jeliff, John 260 Jencks, ChMlt.'S -1&1, .J98 Jennen'i & Bctlridgt.-' 225, 'n6 Jensen, Gl'Org 292, 369, 371, ],1, -lID, -1-12, 4.J.3, +l6,-l66, +6¡ Jensen, Gerrit 56, 58, 59 )l-:;.s, 5.11ly 473 Jcsscr, Ililda 3-l2, ].J.2 JesiI, Rome 72 ¡ewellen· .J.ll, +99 Joe!. Beny 358, 358, 373, 3;'5, ]93, -l12 Johnson, Thomas 9-l, 95 Johnson \\7", building, Racinc, \\'isc(\nsin 390 Jolm510n, Fdward 276 Jones, Alletl +57 Jones, lni~o +2, -18, +8 Junes, O\\'cn 213, 248, .2+8, 250, 256, .25i, 270 Jordólll, TB. 22+ Joseph 1, King of Portuga192, 116 Joséphine, EmprCS5 13_', 136, 161 Jouberl, Rcné 35-1 jOllrl/a! (Ir Dl·~i~" :!1O . journals 301 Jueker, K.ul J. ~lS jllgl'lld 301 111gl'lId~ti1 298, 308, 3Dq, 330, 33S, 339, 3.J6, 350 Juhl. finn -132,':;] Julill c \', I'(\re l.J Jully, Lalh'e de 130, 130 jungnickel, Ludwig 3.J2, ]';2 jutrum, Ame jon ":';1 jU\·Mr.1, Filippo 82-3, 92,11-1
-
K
Kabarelt Fkderm.lus, Vienna 33-l, 335 Kaendlcr, Johann Joaehim M, 65, 100. lOO, 101 Kilgc, Wilhelm ]61, 362, 398, 399 KakiemOI\ ware 6-l, lO';, 105 Kiillemo -192, 492 KaIlenborn, Joseph 3]6 Kambli, ~lelchior 88, J.¡6 K.1ndem Co. +IS K.1ndinsk~~ \\'assily 36, Kandler, Charles 119 Kandy.1 -12-1, 42+ Kann, LOOn 31-l Karhul.1 Glassworks --lO6, ';06 Karlsruhe j6] Ka rtell -lSS Kashmir shawls 2 Kassel67 Kauffer. Edward \IcKnight373, -112, 4J2, .P3 Kauffmann, :\ngelica 1M, 16" J69 Kayscr, J.l~ & Sohn 323-5 Keith. How<1Td +25 Ke1mscou Press 276 Kendall, TH_ 22-l Kennedy, John F. -ISO, +52
531
Kent, Rockwdl 360, ;60, 3;6 Kent, WiIliam 120, 12] Kenton & Co. 250 kettles 290, j';5, 3-16, -198, ';95 Khanh, Quasar -158 Kilburn, \\'illi.lm .202, 208, 205 Kimbell & Cabus .260 King, Perry .;,5 King, Thomas 220, 220 Kingston, 2nd Duke of 11'; Kinsardck, Lars 31.2 Kirehner, Johann Cottlicb 60l Kirk, Samuel 210, 2';3 Kila, Toshiyuki -190-2, .;90 kitehens -l-l2, -l-l6, .;i.;, 503--1 kitehenware -l-l6-S, .;.;6 Kitschdt, A. ni Kjaerholm, Poul ';59 Klagmann, J.8.J. 2-12 Klcnzc, Leo "on 129 Klimt, Gust.1\" 330, 3j1, 332 Klinl, Kaare 386 Knobelsdorff, Georg \-on 83 knockdown fumiture-l56 Knoll ';26, .Pi, 428, 4-+5• .;60, 461, .;S, Knoll, Florence 5chuSI -127, ';.2, Knowles, Charles 29, Knox, Arehibald 292, 293, 325. 325 Kny, Ludwig -102 Koblenz 1.;6 Koch, ~Iogens 386, 3S, Kod.lk 477, .;Sl Koepping, Karl 320,]20 Kohn, Jacob & Josef 33-1, 33.; Kok, J.J. 31-l Küniglieh-Bayerische Pon~ellan-M anufaktur, Nymphenburg 3-10, 3';1 Koppd, Hcnning +U, .;.;3 Kosta -1.3S, ';39, ';';0,-16-1 Kosta BOO.l -196 Kothgasser, Anlon 18-1, lS.;, ISS Krásná Jizba ';0S KmlllMnll/ck (beaker) 29, 29 Krenek, Carl ;';S Krug, DieboH j6 Krug, Ludwig 3 1, 33 Kuhn. Bcalhe ";j, Kümmcl, ~larlin SS Kunckel, Johann 67 Kunstgewerbcschulc, Vicnna 332,).10 Kuramata, 5hiro '¡9I L
La Farge, John 267, 320, pI L.l Granja lS.; La ~Iésangere, Pierre 136. 156 {l/cm pOl'era 92, 93 lace 39, 76, 76, 77, 78, 79, 122, 125, 20'; Lacostat, ).1'. & Cic 20.¡ lacquered fumiturc ..J2, -18, 58, 59, 97, 137, 158, 355,356,357 Lajoue, Jaeques de 11, R · -21,3.22, 350, .J:l.J, --- 36';-5, 36-:l . La ,¡que, ene.J Lalique, 5uzanne 36.¡ Lallemanl, Roberl 363 Lamb, James 25;, 258 Lambcth Faienee Ca. 262 Lamerie, Paul de ¡j, ;.;.119,119-20 laminated wood fumiture 226, -12-1, ';2-1, -126 lampas 20; lampwork glass 320, 320 Landais, CJ. 230, .2;1 Landberg, Sils 439, 4-+1 Landseer, Ed\dn 2-6 Landueei, Antonio 150 Lanc, D.lnn\· -188, .;89, -196
n"
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532
L.lnglois (upholsterer) 2.;6 Li'mglois, Pierre % Lannuier, Charles Ilonoré 156, 15, Lan\"in, Jeanne j5j Laplerre, Franeis 61 Larche, Raoul 322, 322 Larcher, Dorothy 296, 296, ';1'; Larscn, Jack Lenor.J-..l-.f Larsson, Carl 283 Larsson, Lena --l58 Las Vegas --l8-1 Lasdun, Denys ';5j Jatex foam upholstery ';;1 Latham, Richard 43'; Lalrobe, Benjamin Henrr 15; 1nlticillo glass 237 1oltimo glass 26, 2; Lall., Jean-Pierre Si L.lugicr. Abbé 116 Lauren,in, ~laric 3,2 Lauro, Agostino 311 La\eme, Estelle and Erwinc .;61 Lawson lime lne. ';16 le Brun, Charles -/-l. S" 7-1, SO Le Corbusier 353. 378, 353. )83. 386• .;93 Le Cear, Jean Laurent 129 le Héros, Robert 501 Le Lorr.lin 1]0 Le ~o\·e 172 Le Pautre, Jean )2,,1 Le Pautre. Pierre 80 Lea, ~Iary 5. j51 Leileh, Bemard 28" 397, 397, -136, ';;7, -162, .;62 Icad glass 69 k'athcr 33, 53, 356, 356 Lcbcau, Chris 326, 327 Lebrun, Charles--ló Ledoux, Claudc ::\"ícolas 196 Leeds, Thomas Osbom. 1st Du ke of 60 Leeds pollery lO;, 166 Lefe\-re, Robert 19j Léger, Femand 373, Ji3, -l08, .;15 I.egrain, Pierre 356. 35; I ehmann, C.E 91, 91 lehmann, Casp.lr 67. 6;, 110 Leiden 69 Leipzig Desigo $chaol 399 Leistler & Son 21'; Lejambre, A. & H. 260, 261 Leleu, Jean Fram;ois 130, 131, 155 Leleu, Jules 35-1 Lelong. Lueien 365 Leloy 231 Leman, James In Lcman, John 79 Lenoblc, Émile 362, 36; Leonard, Agathon 31'; Leonard, Robert 376 Leonardi, Cesare '¡55, --l61 Leonardo da Vinci 13, 30l Leopold JI, Emperor of Austria lSS Lesourd 206 Lespagnandelle, ~lathieu.¡; LClhaby, \V.K. 2S1 Lettr¿', Emil -l1O Le\"asscur, Etienne 13 J Lewis \\'\"11dham ~~~ '-'-'--' Leyland. Frederick 256 Libbey Co. -IDS, ';09 L,·be-I'· ~-- '90,_--,. '9' . & Co. 250,_JU,_'60,_'61'_11'_ 301. 325, 329 Libisch, ]oseph 366 La Libre ESlhelique, Brussels 326 Lichlenstein, Roy '¡;2, -178 Licbes -12-1 Liebcs, Dorothv .;.¡.¡
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Lieulaud. B.llth.lzar 131 Liger. Isaac ;2 lighting Art Deco 35i, 365, 365, j69 Arl ::\"oU\-eau 322 Contemporary slyle ';22, .pS, .¡.¡q Early i\lodernism 3';5 ~lodcrnism -l18, ';lS-19 Ncoclassieism 18, Postmodcrnism 493, --l98 Space Age -175, .179 tille 326 Limbert, Charles P. CO. 281, 2S5 Limoges 102, 230, 230, 2;1, 26;, 362, 368 linerusta·Walton 272 Lind, Jenm' 21, • Lindberg, 51i8 '¡;" +.J--..I Linder, AJf .;93 Lindfors, Sldan -192, .,l9j Lindstrand. \'ieke 366, 366, 439• .¡.¡O linen 39, ;6. 12';, 205. '¡15 linenfoJd panelling 16 Linnell, John 138, 1-12 LinneU. \\ll1iam 138 Linthorpe Pottery 262 Lion, Eugene 287, 2B, Lion e'chet, Carel Adolphe 307, 30; Lisbon 92 /it1l.I/o1m glass 18-1, 236, 236 Litmann, Hclcn 500 Littleton, Han·e,· .;6.; Lh'erpool Corporation 183 Lloyd ~tanllfaeturing Company 390, 391 L6ben<;lein, l\largarete Heymann.. ~larks 399 Lobrneyr, j, & L. 318-20, 3-12, 3.P Lock, i\latthias 9-1, 94-, 95 Loctz"\\'itwe 3·n, ;';2, ;.;; LoeI\"Y, Raymond 3.53, ;80, 390, '¡J" -123, ';3';, -1-18• .;.;8 Lamer, Berlold 332, 3-10, 3.,l0, 3';1. 3-18 Lomazzi, Paolo '¡5.;,-158 Lombard\· 151 London 301 Camab\" Slreet -t51 foreign craftsmen 13 glass 28, 28, 68 ,o"old and <:ih-er . ...' po tier\"- 6~ silwr 3 I textiles ;9 London delft 6.2 London Intemational Exhibition (1862) 222,
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'-ondon lnternational Exhibition (187-1) 25, London I;ndergrollnd 381 Longton Hall 10';, 26; Longwy 269 Loos, Adolf 33-1, -10-1, 405 Loos, Pieter de 51 Loosdrech li3 Lord & Taylor 359 I05t wax easting 276, 290 Lotlo. Lorenzo 12 Lotl...\\'itwe 318-20, 320 Loudon, J.e. 210 Louis XIII, King of Franee-l8 Louis XIV. King of Franee ';J, -16, 56, 55. 59, ,;, 74, SO, 221 Louis X\'t King of France SO. 102, 1101, 11';, 132 Louis XVI. King of Fr.mce 132 "Louis Quatorze" re,·h-al style 220 lo\\ O, & J.G.) Art TIle \\'orks 26-1, 26" 260 LO\\ Countries pottery 2-1. 62 X't' nlw Belgium; f\:etherlands Lllbclkin, Berthold 39-1, j95 Llldo\'isi famik..w
lud\\-ig II, King of B.l'-aria 1]1 lundh, S,"en -l92 lundin, Ingeborg -l]S lustre""are 20, 10, 12, 11, li6, 3H bceu, Edward 165 b"un, June -l-l5 lyons 1";', ,9, 111, 113, 101', 2-l6, 1";'i, 316 l,·otard, Jc.ln-Fralll;ois -l82 lysle, Anthony de 28, 18 M 1\1cArthur. \Varren 353, 359 1\IcConnell, John ..;.68 :-'IcConnico, Hilton -l96, ";'96 \lacdonald, \largarelj15, 319 \ lacé, Jean ..;.6 \Iachinc Age 359, 390 "\Iachine .\rt" -lOS \ lc1ntne, 5.1.mucl 15-1\Iackintosh, Charles Rennie 2¡S, 279, 150, >8> >S- 30S ''>-7';)-)' ~nn ~~- 330 - - , - J' \Iackmurdo, AH. 2i·1, 28-1, 2B..;. \ laclaren, Denham 392, 392 \lclaughlin, :\1. Louise 1&] \1c\lullin, John 19-1, 195 :\ladonna ..;.99 \Iadrid, ROYill Palace 83, 92 \Iaes, :"icholas O] \laffezzoli, GiO\·.lnni 150 magazines ..;.8..;., -l9.-I, 500 :\(ilggiolini, Giuscppc I.J9, 15(1, 15] 1\lagistrctti, Vico 461 \ lagnus, E.e. 226 1\lagnussen, Erik 370, 371 \lahcr, George \Vashington 18..;. :\lahlcr, \larian ";'15 mahogany 158 muiSelL'i11 (drinking glas,;) 29 \Iainz 53, 89 malO __,10-1,_... - 1-Ka 'O-' " \lairet, Elhel-lH, ";'J5 La \Iaison \lodeme 301 \ laita, Aki 50':! maJo _ ,219, '6' __ - 1-Ka "S \Iajorca 20 \Iajorelle, louis 301, 302, 303, 319, 3",]11 \lakepeace, John '¡b9 \Iale\"ich, !Casimir 398 \lallet-Sten2'l\s, Robert 350, 353, 356, 35..;. \Ialta 39 \ langiarotti, .-\ngelo ";'1'1' l1Iimiml (style) 12, 104 1\lannerism 17,30, 31, 3]-j, 36, 37, 3¡, 70, 72, ¡5,-l76 \Iansard, Fran~ois -l6 "-'lanship, Palll 353 1\lantua, DlIkcs of 21,31 i\lan",aring, Roberl 96 i\laple's 383, 353 marble, in la id furniturc 199, 226, n6 :-'Iarb\", F ';10 :\Iarchand 199 I1/nrc111711d lIIuch'r 86. 132 \ larcks. Gerhard -IDl \larcolini, Count Camillo 162, 163 :\1.1TC, ,,\ndré 350, 35.1 :\lari, Enzo ..;.¡6 \Iaria Fcodoro\'na, Empress lj3 \laria Theres.1, Empress 83 \Iarie Antoinettc, Quccn of France 126. 129,
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:'I.1.uioni, Dante ";'96 :'I.lariscal, Ja\'ier -.190. ";'9J, 500, ~01 :'I.larks, Henry Stacy 26.:l :\Iarlborough, Duke of 188 :\I.lronune Printworks j':9 \IMot, Daniel.p. -l8, ':9, 50, 61, 61, ;-3, 75, 78. i9. 11 -l,ln,21¡ marqllctr~
Art Dcco 3;¡ Art NOll'·eau 302 Baroqlle -.16, ,¡6, ..¡¡, .18, ';9, 50, 53, 56, 56, 57 Earl\' l\lodernism 3]6 Neoclassicism 130, HO, 7..¡.j, J..¡:6, 147, 151, 1;3,158.159 Renaissance 17, 18, 15, 19 Rococo 86. SI'. 88. 91. 93 \Iarquis. Richard ";'96 \IMselHes 106 .\IMSh & Jones 251, 155 \Iarsh & Tatham 139 :\Iartin, Robert \\allacc 287 :\Iartin Brothers 2¡5, 186, 28i \Iarlitz, \\Ilhelm Gottlicb 90 \Iarx, Enid ";'1"¡ \lary 11, Queen of Engl.lnd ";'9, SO, 5.1, 58, 61. 6!, ¡1 \Iarv of \Iodena 61 :\Iary Grl'gory glass T;7, 131' ~ lasbro StO\"C Grate Company 226 Mfl~dlil/l.'l1Il1jj¡,d fumitllrc 338 1\ lason, 1\ Iiles 168 1\lason's ironstone 169 i\lasreliez, Louis 152 mass-prodúced \\"ares se.' industrial design Massanetz. Karl 3-+3 I\lassier, Clement 31-l i\lathclIn et BoU\"ard 2"¡:1 \lathews, Arthur 333, 337 :\lathcws, lucia 3J!, 333, 337 :'\ lathilde, Princcsse 211 :'\lathildenhijhe 282, 333, ~6 \Iathsson, Bruno 386. jS¡ :\l.lhsse, Henri ]66, -lOS, +H \ latsys, Comelis 13 \Ialt :\lorgan .-\.1"t Pottery !6..;. \Iillta, Roberto Sebastian ..;.6J :-.t.ltt~rn, c.:\l. 9¡J \latusch, Johann 53, 8S i\1.lufe, Edward 358, 358 :\Iaugham, Syric 358 :\ laurer, Ingo -l91 :\1.1" Peter .:¡-¡ 1\lax Emanuel, Elector of 8.1\'<1fia 83 \laybeck, Bemard 155 \Iayer, Alfred 3..;.6 I\layodon, Jean 361 i\lazza, Sergio "¡:55 mcandcr dcsigns In, 115,106 i\ledici. Cosimo I de' 1.1, 15 I\ledici, Francesco de' U i\ledici, Lorenzo the \Iagnificent 10 :\Iedici, Piero de' 10, 30 :\Iedici family -H, 6-l, 66, 218 \ leier, Richard -.l9--l \Ieigh, Charles 1!5 \lcissen 6--l, 6..¡:, 65,100. JOO, 101, 10";', 105, J05, ' 6-;),_ "8,_;)_,.:.:1 ~.~ '~3,,) '1'-.,J1 "O 16_.1 \Ieissonnier, Juste-Aun?le SO, 102, 106, 11+-16, lI";'-lj. 18S, 2-l2 :'\lekeren, Jan Y.1I1 56 :\Iellor, Da\"id -Hl, ';.j!, -l66, ..¡:6" ..¡:;-ó \Iell}", George -l52 \leh-iUe, George, 1st Earl 61 11Il.'lIIt'/lli lIIori (ruined $Cenes) 18 \lemphis Group 338, ,¡S-l, 0486, ..¡:56, 451', -19-1, ';9";',";'95,-l96. 500, JOO, 50-l,50'¡ ~Icndini, Alessandm ..¡:5.¡, -l85, -lS6, ..¡:8¡, -l98,
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\lcnnl'CY 102, 10] \lcnzcL Joh.1nn Sigi::.mund 1&1-, JS5 \ lerch.lndisc \Iolft of Chicago -l2S \ lerder, Philip 6S \lere, C1ément 356, 356 ~Ieridcn Flint Glass Co. 169 \lerkelbach, Reinhold 3-l0 l>.kSopot.lmia 352 :\ lessenger & Phipson 18; llH"'tal f\,1rnitllre 226, 127, 35!, 383, 392, 39-l, 012 S :-'I~lal¡ik,
"lois 404, ";'05 \lctal"k, :-'lilan 440 mct,ll\\"ork Acsthctic :\IO\"Clllcnl 268, :l65-q Arl Dcco J6S-71, j65-¡1 Art \.:ou\"('au 322-5, 3l!-~ Arb .1Ild Cr.lib 290-2, 190-3 BaTUque i0-5, ;-o-~ ContL'mporolfY style -H2, ..;..;.1-3 EMly \Iodl'mi~m 330. J.I--l-il. 3'¡";'-1' historic T('\-j,·.lb 2-l2, 142-; \Iodembm -lIO, ';Hl-Tl :"eod.lssicism 1&';-200, lSS-!¡J/ Postmodemism -l98. ';91)-'1 Ren.li~s.lnc(' 3O-i, jo-¡ RocoIc ¡, del/X fllrp" 16, 16 1II':1I1'ló d'11PI'Jli 136 i\le\·dam, Floris ..;.3'1 Me~·er, Christian l52 \'lever, F.E. 100 i\le\'r's Ncffe J.l2 :-'lichelangc1o 10, 12, l-l, 30 \IichclSt!n, A. ";''';'3 micrOl1lo~aic lj I \Iiddle East, influencc of 300, 311 \Iid\\'inter, Roy -+3';. H5, "¡:3;-, ..¡:6j \lies \'an der Rohe, Ludwig 353, 380. 3S0, 382, 383,38-1 \liIan 37, '1] :\liIan Fumilure F.1ir (]995) -192 \1ilan Triennale -l"', -l30, "13], H .."l \1il.1O lVorld Fair (1906) 301 \Iil.mi, Giacomo 172 :\Iildner, Johann 18-1-, 155 lIIi/it'fiori glass 16. 27, 136, 237, 2-10, 14J :\liIl('r. Herman "¡:2¡-, -l2S, ";'28. ";'J9, ..¡:..;.5, -l-I-;-, -.161, o4SS 1\lillcr (Ilcrm,m) Clock Co. ";'I¡ \Iiller, Ilo\\".lTd po i\liller,Samuel 178. 1¡9 i\lilnc, Os\\"ald P.351 i\ling porcelain 61 i\lillistry of Public Buildings
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\linton China lVorks 163 \Iiro(fsky, \\'enzeslaus 5S mirrors 33, ..¡:5. 50, 5" 92. 9..¡:, 95, 136, qo, 1.p, l-H, J50 \Ii<;"ion furniture 2&1-, j]¡ \Iitelli, Agostino.;-; \Iodernism 277, 298, 37S--H8, ;¡-8-';19, -l20, -l22• .¡g5 ccr.lmics 396--';01, 39i-lOO furniturt' 353, 358-9, j58-íJ. 351-íJj, 383-904, -l2-l
glass -102-8, ";'02-9 industrial dcsign -.1]6-18, ';16--J9 melah\'ork -llO, .po-lI and Space Age -l53 te-.:tiles -l12-1-l, ";'11-15
53:
n/;;o Early ~Iodernism \Iodemismo (Spanish Arl :\"oU\'cau) 311 Alll
l\lolitor, Bemard 13-1, 135. '37 ~lollino, Cilrlo . 130, -l30 i\lonart \\'are 366 }"loncrieff's Glass n'orks 366 Ivlonlagll, Ralph, Dukc of .J9 monteith /3.197 }, [ool(',-ser, \Villcm 69 \ loore, Albert 253, 262 ;.. loare, Bcmard 287
\Ioore, Ed\\'ard Chandler 268. \Ioore, Henry -U3, US. +H
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}, loore Brolhers .263 \Ioorish rcd,-al 256-8. 260 \Ioresque motifs 10, 16 \Ioritz, Andreas ·no \Iorris, \1.1\" 294, .295
\Iorris, :"eil.pj \torris, Robcrt 112 .\1 orns, - "'-11I lam '13'::" _ ,_....... _U"lt, "1'" "-0 _1 .2,0, m _/_, 27-1,276, 27i, l7S, 219, 281, 282, 28-t, 294, .. -'9J' -'%, '9' - , 300')JJ \Iorris & Co. 252, 253, 256, 266, 267, 270. 272, ~7' -/), ~-- 28' -'""". -, -'8' \Iorris of Glasgol\' 424, 425 ~Iorris, )'...Iarshall, F-t ""0,J1_. "., J1"1t. -, •••>..... " )' 1...-~, ~~_, :H6, :HS. 349 \Ioser, Lud\\ig & SOhnc:H2 \Iosle\', A. 203 \Ioto\\"n .J52 mouldcd glass 186 \Ioulton ';'75 mounts. fumiturc 86, 86, 158 \Iourgue. Oli"ier 46J \Ioyr Smith.lohn 2,;. 262, 26; \Iueha, Alphonse 326. p6 \lueller, Karl 233 \Iulhouse 326 \Iüller, Albin 293, 346 \Iiiller, Gcrd Alfred 448 ~Iüller, Karl L.H. 264 ~Iuller Freres 318, 319 ¡\lüller-Mllnk, Pcter 411 i\llln
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<66
534
\luseum of \lodC'm Art (\10\IA). :\"e\\" York 380.390,391, -lOO, -108.422-3,--128.--175,485 mllseums 301 mllsi( stands 158.30,,307, 48S ~h"ers, Forrest 492
N :\'abis 326 :-.!ahl.lohann August 83 ~ancy 302, 318, 350 :\'antes, Edict of.J3 :\'aplcs n,.56, 56, 126, 151, 172. Ii2 N,'polcon 1, Emperor 12i, 128, 129,13-1, 136, 1]6,160--2,161,182,18-1, 1S4, 192, 198, 212 Nnpoleonic \Vars 183, 184,216,233 Nnpper, Harry 297, 329 Nnppcr & On\'enport 370, 371 Nnsh, A. Oouglas -lOS Na"h, P
,60
:\'eo-Gothic 237, 2--l2 '\eo-Renaissance 218 '\co-Rococo 212, 212, 220, nI, 237 :\eoclassicism 126-209,353 ceramies 160-72, 160-7}, 3-1°, 398 furniture nO-58, 130-59, 356 glass 176-87, 176-8( sih"er and metal,,"ork 7}, 188-200, lS8-201, 34-1 textiles 202-8, 202-9 wnllpnpcr 202--8, 202-
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i\"ewlyn 290 ~ewport, Rhode Island 5--1, 98 Nicholson, Ben 397, 41-1, 414 Nkholson, Nancy 414
:\'ideryiller 162 nidIo :H :\,ielsen, Harald 371, 37' :\,ielsen, Orla \lolgaard';]3 :\'iemeyer, Adelbcrt 3-Rl. ).j1 :\'ieuhoff 58 ;"'it'lIil'e KUI1SI 307
Nicu\\"cnhuis, Theodor 307, 307 Nigg, Joseph 164, 164 Nilsson, Wh,'en -110,-+11 Nimes 24 Nizzoli, Ivlarcello 4-l8, 448 Nobilis Fontan 501 Noguchi, lsamu .J27, 428, 429 Nokia 5{)..l :\'onsuch chcsts 18, 19 :\'urgaard, Bjom 492 :\'oritnkC' 360 :\'orman & \\'hittle 96 ,\-OrllUllldi(, SS 3.50 i'\orth Africa, influence of 300, 311 ?\orth Carolina 55 :\"orthern Industrial Chemical./4i, ++S :\'orthumbt!rland, Duke of 180 :\'orthwood, John 239, 2..KJ :\'orwa\" Art Deco ]69, 371 Art :\'oU\·eau fumiture 313 glass 320, ]20 textiles 328, 32S Contemporary style -+41 ~lodern¡sm
cerarnics 398, ]99 gl
'\urmesniemi, Antti .f33, -+59 :\lIutajarn 4]li :\'ymphenburg 100, 165.2].1, 3-10,34 1 l'\ymphenburg Palace 83 :\'yon Ji]
Tn, 31-1, 316,
o ook fumitllre 18, .J8, 51 Obcrkampf 202 Obrist, Ilermann 308, 308, 323, 326, 32j Octo group 49J Odeon cinemas 394 Odiot, lean Baptiste-Claude 192,193 Oeben, Jean·Franc;ois Si, 130, 130, J32, 13; Oeder, Georg Chrishan 170 Oertel,loh" & Co" ]42. 343 office fumiture .:60-1,-l7-f Ogl'l' designs 39 Ohr, George E. 287 Ohrmark, Erie Jjl oillamps JS; O'Keeffe, Georgia--lOS Olbrich, J~ph l\laria 282, 293, JOS, ]09, ]24, 330,333,334,~,34-l,3.J6
Old Bleaeh Linen Ca" 3ij, .Jl--1 Old French St)'le no, 220-1 Old Hall Earthenware Co. 262 Oldenburg, Claes 463 OhC'tti 4-18, -175, -liS,.JSO Omega "'orkshops 296, 333, 333, 336, 3]6, 3-10, J41, 3.J8, 349
One-Off Ud -!SS, .f88 O':'\eale, Jeffreyes Hammel lO.f, lOS Oneida Communily 3i7 Op Art ~5S, 4,2, .f¡j, ';7;opaline glass 182, 182, 2J6, 238, 2';0 Opificio delle Pietre Dure, Florence 1ol,-H Oppenord, Gilles ~ larie 50, 8~ Oral-B 505 Organic design 390, .129, ~30, ol32, .f]2, 434 Organic Design in Home Fumishings, New York (19~0) ~22-3, ol28 Organic ~vlodemism -l23, 435, ~38 Orléans, duc d' SO, lH Orloff, Prince 192 Orlo\', Count Grigory Gri\'ozo\'ich 170 ormolu 75, 11&-19, 136, 198, 198-9 Orrcfors 288, 366, J66, 36" -106, .f06, ~3S, 438, n9,~%
Ortmann, \Ialhias 91 Osbome House, Isle oí \\'ight 2';1 Osbourne, Arthur 265 Osler, F. & C. m, 2j.1, 238 Oslo 301 Osterreichische Postsparkasse, Vienna 334 Olt & Brewer 233, 235, 26-1, 265 Ottoman texliles 38 Oud,J.j.P·';J9 Oudry, jean-Baptistc 85 O\'e\~ Richard 206,20, O"id 20,20 O\\"ens Illinois Glass Co. ~08 o\'ster "eneer 57 P P&O 425 Pabst, Daniel 255, 260, 260, 261 Paimio Sanatorium, Finland 386 painted decoration, furniture -lB, 50, 50, 5"\, 57, HO, 140, 142, 158 paintings, still-life -I0,.f2 Paisle\' sha\\"ls 208 paktong 200, 200 Palagi, Pelagio 129, 151, 151 Palais Stoclet, Brussels 3]1, 332-3 I'alaao Brancone dell'Aguila, Rome]O Palazzo Caprini, Rome 10 Palazzo Colonna, Rome.fJ Palazzo Pitti, F10rcnce 72 Palano del Quirinale, Rome, 209 Palano \'ecchio, Florence 1-1 Paliss~~ Bemard 2ol, 2.f, ""S, 230 Palladianism 83, 120, IJO, 138 Palmq\'ist, Swn 459 Pamphili family-l4 Pan 30] Pankok, Bcrnhard 308,308 Panton, Verner ~32, .;]2, ';50, ~5-!, 459, -lSS,
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Paolini, Cesare 45';, 458 Paolozzi, Eduardo -H-I, U5, 462 papelera (\\"riting cabinet) 16, li paper furniture -t56-S, 456, 493 papier maché 213, 225, 226 Parian \\"are 22S, 229, 233, 2.3) J'aris 33, SO, 136, 198,200,301,350 Paris Exhibition (1855) 222, 223 Paris Exhibition (1937) 569, 381 Paris Exhibition Cni'-ersclle (1900) 298, 301, 30';, 305, 350 París Exposition des Arls Oécoralifs et Induslriels \locIemes (1925) 350, 551, 355, 357,35 8,383 Pari~ Exposilion Cni\'erselle (]S7S) 258 Paris Jnternalional Exhibilion (1S67) 222, 222, 150 Paris ~\'Ietro 321, 322 Paris porcelain 161, 162, 162
Park, \laJcolm S. .; J; Parker, Elizabeth 76 Parker, John 188 Parker, \\ílliam 177 Parker-Knol1 -l2-l Parodí, Oomenjco -l4, 45 parquetr:' 52, 86, 131 Parzinger, Tommi 428 Pascal!, James 94 Passenger, Charles 286 Pastorini, B. 140 prite-de-verre 318, ]64, 365, j65, ,16"'¡, 465 pMe-slIr-piite 228,229,230,231,262,263 Patcnt Office 253 Pater, lean Baptiste Joseph 101 pattern books lO, ]8, 83, 119-20, 154, 156, 196 Paul, Bruno 338, 338, 339, J45, 3-t6 Paulin, Ida 566 Peace, Da\'id "1 Peaeh, Harry 282 pearlware 166 Pearson, Joho 290, 290 Peche, Oagobert 330-2, 3';2, 345, 3-1-1, J.46, 346, J47, :H8 Pecl. jonathan .205 Peel & Co. 203 PEL 358, 380, 39~, 395 Pelei, Jifí -190, 491, 493 PellaU, Apsley 181, 183, 18], 2-t0 Pellegrino, Francesco 10 Pel1elier, René 49 Pelletier family ~8 Pembroke, Earl of 48 Pcnguin Books 39'; Pennsvl\'ania 186 Pennsdvanian Dutch 175 Pepler, :\larion -t12, ';15 Perder, Charles 126, 128, 128, 129, 135-7, 136, 1-17,147,150,15],156, lS3, 192, 193 Permoser, Balthasar 6-l Pernon, Camille 208 Perriand, Chariotle 383, 383 Perrin, Geddes 183, 183 Persian shawls 208 Pesec, Gaetano 455 Petersdorf 67 Petersen, S\'errc 406, 400 Pelit, Jacob 230, 231 Pelit, Philippe 33-1 Pelzold, Hans 35, 3i Pe\sner, :'\ikolaus ~S2 pc\\t~r 37, 200, 2IJO, .201, 290, 324, 315, -1--11 Pl'zctta, Roberto 498, 502 Pfistcrer, Peter .P9 pharmaey jars 20, 24 Philadelphia 54, 55, 9S, 98, 15"'¡, 156, 157, 194, 194, 195,20';,277 Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition (1876) 218, 233,233,238,250,260 Phiko .p6 Philip V, King of Spain 92 Philips 449, 480 PhiJipson 2';5 photography.;81 Phyfe, Duncan 13-1, 155, 157 pianos 218, 223, 2S1-2 Picasso, Pablo 352, 436, 437, -162 Piehler, Johann Adam SS Pieolpasso, Cipríano 22, 2j picturesque style 129 pier glasses 45 Picrcc, H.R .f03 pie/n.· dure (hard slones) 1-1, .f4, ';5, Si, 57, 132, 15 1,226 Piffelti, Pietro 92, 93 pilgrim bottles 74 Pilkington's Royallaneastrian 287 ~
PiI1emenl, jean-Baptiste 12], 12-t, 149 Pimm, John 55 Pinder Boume 161 Pincau, :'\icolas SO, 8-l Pirali, Ezio 4';9 Piranesi, CiO\'anni Batlisla 126, 128, 150, 176, 177 Pirclli 431 Pirsson, James 223 Pitman. Bcnn 261 Pitmann, Agnes 26..,¡ Pitl:-;, Thomas 121 Pitl~burgh 186, 187 Pitl"burgh PJatl' Glass Company 391 Piu:> IV, Pope 27 PlA:'\ Lid 39..,¡ pl.lnt stand... 33'; pla...tic... -t-lÓ-S, '¡'¡ó-q fa.,hloJ\ .f;'1 furnitun: .;::!b, -127-8, +16, .;.;;, 454-5, 461 indu...lri.ll dl..... i~n 176, .f'4, -t76-80, .;,6 p/iqu,,-,¡-}t1Ilr en.lmd1ing 310, _120,322 PHI/Ol'r, r('rdlTland nm 52, :;1 Plum('J\t & St:lmer.. h...·im JO; Plumct, Charil'" :ro:; Plycr.lfl ';26 Ph-moulh 16"~ plywood 11Irnllure 3~, 3...%, 1,s6, 392, 31)-t, J9';-;, -12-1, .p.¡, .;26, ..,110, -t:;-l, .;5.f Poircl, l'.lll1 H;,17"'¡ Poirier 86, ,s7, 132 Poli, Fla\'io J67 Polidorn da c.H,1\'aggio 1·1 I'OI1i1illOlo, t\ntonin 30, 30, 33. 37 Pollock, ¡\manda 470 Pollock, Jackson ';.p Pollrano\'¡¡ 490 polyurcl!lan..., -t78 Pommer..fddell 53 Pompadour, ~lad.lllll' de 102. 130, IJO Pompcii 126, 129, l3S, 162, 162, 172 Pompci.ln !>tylc 136, 1:;2.230,251 Ponocn\', - K¡¡rJ .141 Ponti, Cio 362, 368, 5,1, -lIS, .; Iq, ';]0, 431, UO Pontypool 200 Poole Poltcry 360, ,>00, '>Q6, 397, -t35 Pop An -132, 4;2, .f;;', ,G~, 402, ';0J, ~o-l, .f;¡, -t78,4SO,-IS3,-t92, -196 pop mllsic -152 poredain .-\rt "oU\e.lU 114, 315 Baroqut.' 64, 6.;- ; bluc·;l1ld·whitc 22, 42, 42, 62, 61 Ear1y i\lodcrnism 3.; 1 historie rC\'i\'als 230, 230 NeoclassicisOl 160-72,160-73 Rococo 100-5,100--5 ;;,',' a/.;p (eramies porphyr~' l-l, 15 I'ort-grundt- I'orselaensfabrik 315, j99 Portoghcsi, POlolo ~9-t, -t98, ';99 porlrilil he.ld!>, in roundels 20 Porlugal c....r.lmics 106 furniture 53, 53, 56, 92, H9, 149,491 poslers .;]2 Postmoclernism 381, -!S2-505 cer.lmies -I9..,¡, 494-5 furniture 486-92, 486-93 gJass .;8.;, -t%, 496-7 industrial design 502-5, 503---.,\ sil\'er and mctalwork ~98, 498-9 texliles 500, 500 1 Polsdam 67, 83, 88, HO, 129, 147 Polt, Carl 466 polter:' Baroqlle 62-3, 62-5
53~
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166-72, 166-/3
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!itudía potlcry 287, 3-10, 362, 397, 39,. +35. ~J6.43i. ~62.
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ceramics; glazes POu\"at :230, 2]1 Powell. Alfred .286, 287 Powell. Arthur \Iarriott 401 Powell. &lrnilb\" .rol, 402 Powell, Harn' 288, lS9 PO\\'t'II, ]am<.'S & Sons 288, 28S, 289.-102 Po\\dl, Louisc 1;9. 286, 287, 194 I'owoln~~ ~lichael 332, ,3.l0, ;40, 3-11, 3-12 1'02zi, Ambrogio '¡l"Ij P.P. ~Iobler 493 Prague 67, 70 Prairie School 28-1 Prei..sler. IgO.17 70S preso;ed gla:.~ 186, 23-l, 255.137, 238, :.ql Pré\"
Priec, :\braham ;6 Pricc, \\"illi"m 28-! I'ri.·..di,·lI 215 Primaliccio, Francesco 13. 13.)j. 3-1, 36 printing. textiles 2~, :q¡ prints 36-7, ·D, 51'1, 300, 301 Pritchard, jaek 39.;Prohibition -lOS Prom"c, Victor 302
Pwn.'ncc. comtcssc de 131 Prllssiil 83, 129 Prutschcr, 0110 183, 189, 320, 310, 33-!, 3-12 Prylz, Thorolf 320, 310 psychcdeliil '+j] Pllchweiser, Johann 88 Pllgin, A.\V,N. 210, 111, 214, l q , 11j, llj, 228, llS, 24:2, lp, 2'/j, 2-16, :Q7, 2-18, 2.J8, ¡-¡ ¡-, ¡7' _:J_,_:J",_ ..
Puiforcat, Jean 368, ]7°, .JI7 Pllig, Alejo ClilpC'S 311 Pulpilcl, \Iilos .J.;.o I'unk ~85 Puritalls 5-l Purkersdorf 5.,n,ltorium 33-l, 33j PVC -173, -l7S Pn" . n"9 Pyne, Benjamin ,1 Pnc" -102
Q QUilnt, \Ian' ~6S. .;.6$, -170. -173 QUilr!i, Eugenio 311 QmYI1 -173 Queen Annl' style 5-1,112,252-3,258,260 Queen's House, Greenwich ';'1 Quennell, CS.H. lSJ Quen'ellc, Anlhony 15, QlIL~nel, A. 12]
R Habanne, Paco ';"J Rabel, O.lniel Race, Emest -12-1, ';'2';', ';'2j, -l5, Radice, B.lrbara ;:;00 Radio Cily \Iusic Hall, Xew York 373 radios 376, 3;" -116, ..p6, +lS, .¡.¡5, -I76,..J80, .J-80, jOl, 503 Ral'rcn 2j Raimondi, \Iarcantonio 20, 11 l
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Rapin, Henri ;6; Rapson, Ralph .p6 Raslrelli, Sartolomeo 9J Ral für Formgebung -185 Rateau, Armand Aloc'rt 353, 356, 35, r.lllan fumilure 253 Ra\·enhl'ad Glass -102, -+03 Ran.'Oscroft, Ceorge 6S. 69. 177 Ra\'ilious, Eric ..W2 RCA .J-16 realism, te"tile designs 20S Rebel MI Centre 333 Réc"mier. \1.ldame 1;';' Redgra\e, Rich,ud 249 Redoulc, Pierre·Joscph 208
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Rococo -13, 70, 80-125. 300 and Art :\oU\'eau 305 ceramics 100-5, 100-, fumiture 8-I-9S. 84-99. 220 glass 10&-13. 108-13 sih'er 112, 11-1-20, n";-lI textile-; 9-1-6, ]i")-4, J 22-5 wal1paper 122, 12-1. 11-+-.:; Rococo re\·i\'.ll cl'ramics 228, 128,230.1;2,233 fumihlrc ")")6 melal,,"ork 2-12. 24; textiles 2+1, 2";'+. 246 wallpapers 2-18 Rodm.ulon \Ianor, Gloucester::.hirc 2,6 rOCII/t'r5 (drinking gla:>:>cs):!9. 29 Roentgen. Abraham SS, 90, 1..;6 Roentgen, Da\-id q6. 1-17. 152 Roettil"r::.. JacqllL~·:\icolas 192. 192 Rogers. \\'.H. 218, 219, 21-1 Rohdc, Gilbert353, 359. 3SS. ]88. 359, 41, Rohde, Johan 292. -110 Rolling Slones -152 Roman C'lhoIic Church -10 Roman Empire 33 architecture 30 MI 128, 132, 136 .1lld :-\rt ~co 352, 356 and i\coclassicism 177, lSS, 191 Romilno, Giulio 12, ;2, 36,151 Romantic i\IO\·ement 206, 20S I{ombic, Ruba .+00 Rome anliquities 126, 129 archilecture 10-12 Baroque -10, -I-l, 45 furnitllre 61, 91, 151, 151 mL"ti1lwork 72 piefrt' dure 57,151 Ronai, Joszcf Rippl 32$ Ronson ";14, 477 Rookwood Pottery 2EH, 315 Roose\·elt, F.D, -100 Rürstrand 170,31')'31j Rose, Hajo 41 j Rose, \Iartin ;68 Rosc lron \\'orks 368, 371 Rosenborg Casile, Copl'nhagcn 66 RoscnthaI43';',43,.-I62,495 Rosc\'ille POllery 360, ;61 Rósseger, \\'. 410 Rosselli, Alberto -161 Rosselti, O.mll' Gabriel .27-1, liS Rossi. Cario 153 RÓSsler. Karl ;6; rosso antico 166. 16, Rossu Fiorcntino 13, 13, 33. 3-1, 36 Roth, Enun\' ..; 11 Rolterdam 69 Roubo, André·J<1cob $, Rouen 102 Rousseau, Clémenl350. 355. 356 Rousseall. Jean Jacques 126 Rousseau de la Roulii!re J19 Roussel S, Roux, Alc"andcr 11,. 118 Ro\\"diffe, \V. 358 Ro\\"l.md. Da\'id .;.60 Royal College of Arl, London -1-12,-168 Royal Copenhagen 315 Royal Wilton Carpet Faclor}' 3i 4, -112, .;. 11, .J-.I j RO\'al \\'orcester Porcelain CO, 161 Roycroft Community 28-1, 284. 15j, 286 Rozenburg 3J..1, ;16 rubber furniture -12-1 Rubens. Pelcr Paul 50,60, ,0, 72, 2]1 Rückert, i\lilrtin Joscf 345
Rückl (A.) GI.w,worl.....<; '¡'O'í Rudolf 11. Empcror 70, jO Rudolph. Chrbti.111 FriL"l,.lrio.:h llS rug:; ,:...•' e.lrpcb, Ruhlm.lllll, Jac'1ul'~-Emile 350, 35-1. 55-l, 361. 373.37"\ Rundell 191 Rundel!, Bridgl' & Rundell 18&-91,191 Rupcrl of the Rhine. Prince 6] Ruskin, John 2:H. 27"\, 276. 288. 300, 378 Ruskm PoUcry 2S7, 28;Ru~-;('Il. Gordon 281, ~ ,2S9. 29T, 192, 392, NJ.-I- l -' Ru.. 'CIl. R.O. (Oick) 392, 595 Ru~~i.1 352 ,\rb Olnd Crafts 282 \Iodcmism ]95 'coclac;c;ieism fumiture 152, J5J mctalwork 200. ::01 porccl.1in 170-2, lj1 I~ococo ql S Saarinen, EeTO 390. 591. "\13, .p6, "\17• .,\18, "\5"\, .;6J S.1arincn. E1ieI313. 31], 359, ]59 S.1aril)c!n. Loja ]59, 373 S,lbattini. Lino '¡''¡'J Saddinglon, Tom -1-99 Saint-Aubnn 125 S, lassachusells 156, 156 5.111aio, J.1COpO del 1; 5.110, I-.larkku Oha.¡.g; salt-gla/c
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\loclembm 420. .,\::¡3 cl'ramies 398, 39" fumiturc 386. JSu-;-. 390. "\1:!, -IJ1-_; gl.1SS "\06• .¡.oo Postmooemism 491. -196 Spaee Age eer.1mics -162 furniture .,\'l.,\-6. -I5S-q gla..s .,\M .;,'.' n/:'4,l Denmark; Finland; '\on\·.lY; Swcclcn Searpa. AIf.1 461 Searpa. Tobia .¡.J9. -161 scenic designs, textiles and wallpapcr 202, 203 seent bottles ]P-, 56.;, 365, 565, "\96. '¡'9j Scheibe. Karl J5J Sehellenbühel, Gertraud \'On 323.31.,% Scherf. \\"alter & Co. 325 Scherrebcck 328 Sehmkd. KMI rricclrieh 129. 1-17. 14¡ Sc.hlcmmcr. Oskar 379 Sehloss Brühl 83 Sehloss Chi'lrlottenburg. Berlin 83 Schloss Pomersfelden pSc.hloss Wilhclmslahl 83 Sc.hloss \\'orlit7 1-17 Schlumbohm. Peh.'r 4'¡'1 Sehnell, \Iartin 89 Schofield, Jeiln ';57 Sch6nbnllln 83 5chonhcit. Johilnn (ar! 16] Sehor, JohcanelOS ¡j. 569 scootcrs -/.11 ScOpp.l, Or.12io ;-1 Scotland Art Deco 366 Art '\ou\·eau 330 fumiture 309 sih-er and metalwork 325. 315 textiles 328. 519 '\eoclassicism 100 Scolt, Digby lSS, J91 Scott, 1s..1ae Elwood 26.J. Scolt, Sir \\"alter 216. 2-15. 145 Scott Brown, Oenise-182 screens Aesthelie \IO\·ement 256. 1]j Art Deco ]5). 359, ]68. J69 Art Xouwau J03, 3°9,)1; Arts and Crafts 295 Contemporary stylc ';19 [ar!" \Iodcmism 336. 336 Historie Re\'i\'als 145 \Iodemism J85, 386 scrollwork 21 sculpture Arl NOll\·eall 322, 311 Baroql,le 4-1.';5 ceramic .;63
COlltemporary style 423 ¡.; 1"...... .,\ 64. .¡.65 SI...Ú'..... l ..n 1:>ullding. Vicnn.1 330 'X'o.:lIlld \\'urld \\..lT 392. -100. -120, ,130• .w2, -I;2-~
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sil/ón de fraile (ehair) 16. 1;, 61 sih·er Aesthelie \IO\·ement 168 Art Deco 368 Arts
537
Simmonds, R.l. 4J1 Simonson, Lee 380 Simpson, ),1.8. & Sons 272 Singer, Susi 3·m, 340 Sípek, Borek -!86, .¡87. 490, 491, 4%, -1-96 Sissons, W. :q.j Les Six 305 skyscraper style, fumiture 359, 388, 389 slate 226 slipware 6] Sloane, Sir Hans 105 Sloane, 'N & J. 373, 374, 415 Slodtz, Antoine-Sébasticn 8+ Smith, Benjamín 188, 191 Smith, Daniel 188, lSS Smilh, Gabriel .2oJ Smith. Gcorge 141, 142 Smrcko\"á, lud\'jka 404, '+05 snakeskin 33-1, 35'; snuffboxes 74 Socchi, Gim"anni 151, I j I Socieh- of Blue and Whitc :'\ccdlework 294 Society of e pholstcrers 94 Sodoma q. sofas Ar! Dcco 357 Art :\"ou'-eau JJJ
Contemporary slyle .P7 \llodemism 385 Neoclassicism 1]8, 1.p, 146, 149, 156 Neo-Rocaeo slvle 111 Postmodernism 484. 490 Renaissance re\'i\-aI218, 219 Space Age 460 Solis, Virgll ]6. 37 Solon, Léon Viclor :ql Solon, ~larc~louis 228, 229 Sony 481, 503 Sorensen, Oskar 369, 371 Sorgenthal, Konrad Sorgel \'on 1M Sollsass, Ellore 463, 4i8, 480, .;84, -185, -186, 486,-19-1,-1-95,-196 South :\frica 56 South Amcrica 53, 158 Southwark 18, 19 So\·ict Lnion 381. -11-1, 414 Sl'f' ti/so Russia Sowden, George .;82, 504 Space Age -130-81 ceramies -162, 463 fashion and textiles -168-73, 468-13 furnilure 45-1-61. 45.;-61 glass -lM, 464-5 industri.ll design -174-80, 474-81 ¡ighting 479 melah\·ork 466, 466-7 Spain Art NOll\"eaU 311, 31'1 l3aroque 53, 61. 77 Neoclassicism fumiture 1-19, 149 glass 184 porcdain 173 Postmodcrnism -185, -190 Renaissance furniture 16, 17 glass 28 potlery 21, 2-1 silyer ,textiles ]8 Rococo 91, 92,124 Sparton Corpor.ltion ]77, -1]6, 416 Speciali¿ed School of Glassmaking, Stcinschonau ]67 The SpccltltOT -15-1 Spence,6asil424 Spencer, Edward 292
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538
Spicdolato. Ernesto 505 Spiller, Goufried 67 Spindler, Heinrich Wilhelm SS, 88, 146 Spindler, ]ohann Friedrich SS, 88 Spitalfields 79, 246, 247 Spode 168, 168 Spooncr, Charles 281 Spooncr, William & Co. 197 sprig motifs, textiles and wallpaper 20-l, :!Oj, 20S Sprimont, Nicholas 104, 105, 119, 120 Squires, Eddie 472 Sri lanka 53 Staatliche 1\lajolika-M
408 Steubendlle Pottery -100, 401 Ste\-ens, Alfred n8, 229 Ste\"ens & \\llliams 235, 2]9, -102, 40] Stickle\", GUStil\- 28-1, 284, 2<14, Sti/e F/oun/e 298 Sli/( Lib..·rty 198 still·life paintings -lO, 42 Stilno\-o 4-49 Stockholm 57 Stoclel, Adolphe 332 Stoer, lorenz lB Stolzl, Gunta -112, .P3 Stone, Ed\\'ard Durrcl! 426 stoncwarc :\rt NOll\'cau 31-1, 314 Arts and Crafts 287 Baroque 62, 6J, 64 Contemporary style 4J7 historie rcyi\-als 228, 228 Neoclassicism 166, 174 Renaissance 2-1, 25 Rococo 107, 107 sludio poltcry 397, 4]5, 462 stools 18, 47, 1;':', lJ9, JJ4, ]57, 426, 428, 4]1, • 4J3, -1-1}O, 49 1 storagc units 39-1 Stourbridge 2J4, 2-10, -102 strap\,'ork 13, 1J. 17,18,2-1,]],36, ]6, ]i, J9, 42, -16, -18, 2-lS, 249 Strasbourg 106 Stratlon 376 straw marquetn~-• J)/ Strawbern· Hill, \liddlcscx 9-1, 21-1, 214 streamlining 390, 390--1, -130 Strcct, George Edmund 252, 25-1 StrengelJ, 1\larianne 445
slriped pattems, textiles and wallpaper 20-1-6, 206 Stmad, Oskar ]43 Stuart,]ames "Athenian" 126, 128, 138, lJ8, 139,198,198 Stuart, Robert -102 Stuart Crystal-l02, 40J T/lt! Stl/dio 28-1, 301 Studio Alchymia 483, -186, 50-l Sh.ldio l'clci 493 studio pottery 287, 3-10, 362, 397, J97, 435, -l36, 437, -162, 462 Stupinighi, Turin 82-3 Le Sty/l' GlIilllllrd 298 Le Sly/e ¡\ ft'frn 298 Stde ] 900 298 Subes, Raymond 368, 369 Süe, louis 350, 35-1 Süe ct \Iare 350, 35-1, 35-; Suetin, :\icolei 398 Sugawara ]55, 356 Sul1i\-an, Louis 325 sulphides, glass 182, 183 Summers, Gerald 392, J9J Sumner, G. Hevwood 2;9 sunburst molifs 352, 355 SI/I/dny ¡¡..kgmpll -156 S/llldtly Times -153 Suprcm<1tism 398 Surrealism 394, -130 SuS5€' Freres 269 Süssmanhand, Richard 366 Sutherland, Graham -W2,.J..W Sutnar, Ladisl¡l\' -l0-l, 405 swags, textiles and wallpaper 20-1, 204-5 Swatch \\'atchcs 50-l, 50'¡ S\\'cdcn Art Dcco ccramics 362, 362 glass 366, ]66, J67 Arl :\ou\'eau 315, Jlj Conlemporary style-l20 ceramic.<; -136, 4]6, 437 furniture -132 gla..s 439 metal\\'ork ~2 textiles 444 Gusta\'ian st\'le 152 \Iodemism 380 cer,lmics 398, ]99 fumiture 386 glass -106, 406 industrial design -l16 sih'er -110, 411 Neoclassicism 170, 170 Postmodt'rnism hlrniture -192, ';'92 glass -196 Rococo 91 Space Age -1&1 Swid PowellUd -l9-l, 494 Switzerland 29 S\·I\'ius, Balthasar 25 Symbolism 277, 198, 300, 305, 313. 318, 322, 323,325,J35 Sympson, Joscph 120
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cansole 85. SS, 91, 92. ljO. 1]6. 149 Early ~lodemism ni. 338, 339 exhibition furniture 223 gale-leg 5~
Tiepolo, Giambatlista 83 Tiepolo, Giandomenico fU Tiffam~ Louis Comfort 260, 267, 301, 320, 321,
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Tiffany & Co" 252, 260, 268, 26q, 325 Tiffanv st\-le 298 Tigerman --l98 Tijou, Jean 75 tiles 106, 228, 228, 163, 26-1, 265 Tilli
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:\Iodemism 358, 359. 382, 38.;-;. 392-5 i'\'eociassicism 130, 131, 13-4, 136, 13¡-~1. 140,142, 1.J..l, 148-31, 151, 153. 15-+.
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pcmbroke 97. I.j.1, 159 pier -l7. 9-1-. 136. 1]8. 139. J.to Postmodemism 486-9• ..IB8, .J91, 493 Renaissance 1-4, lj. 16, 18, 19 Rococo 8-1. 85-6. 88, 90-.2, % 96, 97. 99 sofil. l.fl, 1-44 Space Age -i59 lea 99 \\"ork S¡ \\Titing 86, Si. 131, ql. j5.;: lablcwi'lrC'. plastics +16
Taglione, Filippo In Tni/or aJld el/lf!!r 4iO Tail, Jessie .{joto 435 Takasuno, ~laSd..h¡to j03 Talberl. Bruce James ).15. 252, ::'5.2, 1;3,15-1, ~-, ~-- ?~L 160, _ '60 . _'lO . _'-0 ,-, ,-~ _) ... _))._~'V._ , --'-'-I.J
T.1IOOI, Suzannc 35, lapeslTy .p, 328, p.S T<1pio\·aar.l, IImari .¡.jj. -+59
T.lsscl House, Brussels 298, 299 T.lssie 191 Tale, jessie 463 Tatham, Charles Heathcote 139, 1-12, 191, 191 Talton Park, Che~hirl:! 220 Ta,-eira, Tomas 491 Tadar & Sons 223 tea eaddies 145, 190 tea serúces 31.1-, 346, 3;0, 410, 4Il, 494, -l98, 499 Teaglle, \\'alter Dorwin 359, 376, ;//' 390, -l08, 409, -l16, 416 Teco 315, 31/ telephones .p;, 4;8, :;0-1 teleúsion 41;, -l-l8, +lS, 449, 480-1, 503, 505 tl'lIIl1lokll 28;
Templelon, j" & j.5" & Co" 270 Teniers, Da,-id 100.101 Teodoro, Franeo 454, -158 Td.ud Frcres 410 te,tiJes Aesthetic \Io\"ement 270, 2;(l--J Art Deco 372---1, ;;2-5 Art :-':ollH'all 326--S, )-2b--q Arts and Cr.lfts 29-1-6, 294-6 Baroque 50, 76-8, ,6 S CantemporilTY stylc W, 444-5 Early \Iodcrnism 332, 348, 348-e; historie red'·als 2+1-6, 244-7 i\[odernism 412-14, 412-15 , 1i1SSlCISm "" ¡"eoc _'0'-8 _ ,202-(} Postmodernism 500, 500-1 Renaissance 38-(}, 39 Romeo 9-l-6, 122---1, 122-j Space .-\ge -168-73, 468 .7] TIlalcher, SUl' 4/2 Theselius, \ lats -192, 491 Thieme hOllse, \llInich J.l8, 349 Thirty Years \V.u (1618-18) 53 Thiry, Léonard 33 Thomae, Denjamin 6-1 Thomire, Pierre--Philippe 136, 13,,198 Thonel, Gebrüder 334, 382 Thonet, \Iichael 213, 215, 776, 383 Thorman, Caroline 48S Thom Prikker, johan 307 Thun, \l;lUCO 495, 498, 499, 504 Thuringia 108, 111, q6 Tidcw.lter, Virginia 55
toiit' dI! jOIlY 203 Tok\"O 360 tóle \\"
10)
U Ungaro, Emma.nue1.J'l Union Porcelain \\'orks 233, 133, 26-1 LJniled Slates of America Aeslhetic \IO\·ement cera.mic::> 2M, ~64 5 1 760 _:J_, 7'" _~, _ ,2 60-1 fu rm"tu re ·r7 glass 267 sih-cr and melal,,"ork 268 \\"allpaper 272,1;-2 , "'-7 .... rt ,-",,--o J:>_ ceramics 360, 361 furniture 359, 359 glass 366, 366, 36, mas::>-prodllced wares 376, ~ih-er and melalwork 368, 368-,0, 371 \e,lilc;; 3,2-3, 373--1 Art ;\Oll\"eall ceramics 315, 31, fllrniture 311. 313 .-....~
_.,0-;
glass 320, 321 sih'er and metal\\"ork 31..;, 325 ..... r1s and Crafts 277 ceramics 186, 287 furniture 28·1, 28.¡-) (c,till'::> 296 BaroquL' furniture 5--l, 54-) COn!L'mpor,l.·ph :-:n, :U, Lrbino 11, 22, 1., 14 Llilih· furnituTC' 392 LlfL>cht .Jo, ;-.J L/annl'. Oet.l\L' 300
V \·"CUlllll dl'''lll'r.. -l16, .Jl', j02, 50-1 V.lg,l, PL'rino dell1, 1-1 \,,,1 SI [,llnbl2rl G1,ls::'!lollse 182,318 V"I¡¡br,-'¡,;¡¡, Vitlorio 311 Val.ldil2r, Giu..eppl.' 129, 151,191,19; V.lld!,l ~Q V.ll1icn, 13crlil 4M \'¡¡IJin, [ugl:'ne 302, 303 \-,111 Bnggll2, Artu::' 315, 31; \·.ln dl'r Cm:;.l.' (Lacroh), Roger 130, 132 \.m DllrL'n, H.uold 376, 3,; \'¡¡n Hllffl.'1. ..\Ibert 373, 3,5 \'.10 \Vi..:;.clingh & Co. 307 V.lntine 3;6 V.lm"itelli, Llligl 83 \'ardy, \\'illiam 121 V.unish, E" & Ca" NO ¡·,lrSllt'll(l 16 Va"'1TeI\', \'jctor 462 \'as.Mi, Giorgio 12, 1) \'aseg.l.1Td, Gerlrud 436 \"¡¡.,::>os, john .J16 \'.lszar\', Janos 328, 318 Vatiean 12
539
Vaticall Logge. Rome 22 Vechte, Antaine 2.I2, 2';; Vclde, Henry \"
Rococo furniture 92, 92 textiles 78 Venice & !'.lurano Glass Comp¡m~· 237 Ven ice Biennale -l06
Venini -lOb, -t07 \'enini, I'aolo 366, .J-39, -1-10 Venturi, Robert -lS2----l, -lBS, -/87, --l9-l, .f9-f, 503 Vcnturini, Guido j05 Vcnuti, Domcnico 171 ('<'1"11;5
540
lI/arfÍi¡
131
I/er Sl1rrum 301, 330 Verbiest, 1'vlicheJ 51 Vereinigte \VerkstiiUen für Kunsl im Handwcrk 282, 30S, 333, 338, 338, 339 Verheul, Jan 323, 323 Vernon Kilns 360, 360 pare eglol!li;;¿ 57. 137 Verreries Pochl't Du COlln',ll ,/97 Verrocchio, Andrea del 30 Versailles 50, 56, 61, 80, 8.J, 209 Versen, Kurt .J19 Verzelini, Giacomo 28, 28 Vespa 422 ,'elfO pc:::.:a/o .JJ9 Vianen, Adarn \'al1 70, 70, 118 Vianen, Christian I'an 70, 70 Vianen, Pillll \'an .Jo, 70, 70, 72 Vico, Enea 32, 36 Victoria, Queen of England :n8 Victoria & Albert J\lllsellm, london 266 Vien, Joseph-J\ larie 126, 192 Vienna 18-1 Arl i'\ouleau 300 ccramics 6-1, 16-1, 16.¡, 170, 2]2, 3-10, 3'¡1 glass 3-12, 3.P JlIgendstil 308, 309 Rocoeo architectllre 83 Vienllil ACildelllV 330 Vienna Secession 308, 330, 350 Vienna \\'orkshops 51'(' Wiener \\'erkstiitte Viertha!er, Ludwig 323 Vigeland, Tone -198, .J-99 Vignelli A5sociates .J-B7 Vignola, Giacomo da 1-1 Vikings 313, 320 ViJla Giu!ia, Rome J.lVi11efO\' & Boch 31-1 Vincennes 102, 102, 103, 298 \'ine motifs 39, 76, 78 Viners -+-12, -166 Viollet-Ie-Duc. Eugene 21--1, 23-1, 311, 322 \'irginals 336 Vitl, \\'olfgang 28 Vitra .;.87, -188 Vitrolite 339 Vitrm'ius 10 Vodder, :\Ieils .j.33 lIogllc -152, -168, -170 Volpone, Gio\'anni l3attista 150 VOlllpté 376 Voneche 182 Voronikhin, Andrei NikiforO\'ich 132, 153 Vouet, Simon -16
VOlllkos, Peter -162, .¡6; Voysey, c.f...\. 27-1, 27.j., 276, 277, 279, 279, 281, 283,28-1,290,29 0 ,292,29-1,296,297 Vries, Ilans Vredeman de 16, 17, 3.j., 37, 50, 52 W
\\'aa15, Peter 279, 281 \Vade ,t35 \\'agenfeld, Wilhehn 353, 398, -10-1, -J04, -110, '¡1O, -118, .pS \\'agner, atto 308, 330, 33-1,;;'¡ Wailly, Charles de 131 Wakelin, Ed\\'ard lS8 \\'akelin & Tador ISO \\'akel\· & \Vheeler 371 ¡Va/dg/a:> (forest glass) 29, 29 \ Vales 200, 201 \Valker, Emery 276, 216 \\'alker & Rvland ISO \\'a11, Or lO'=; \\'allander, Alf 315, ;15 \\'aJlp
n'estem'ald 25, 62, 63 \\'estman, CarJ 313 Westwood, Vi\-ienne -185, 300 Weyhe, Bernhard Heinrich 116, 118 whatnot 225 \\'heel engradng. glass 67, 6" 69, 69, 239 Wheeler, Candace 272, 272, 273 Whistler, Jame:; ;-"1c:\'eiIl256, 258, 258, 268, ,-O -' White, Wil1iam 25-1, 25.J Whitcfri.., Harriet L 315 \Vilde, Oscar 298 Wilhelm Hahe, Kassel 1-17 \Vilkinson, \V. and C. 221 \Vilkinson Sword -t7¡ \Vil1ard, Samue1 15.JWil1ems, Joseph 103 \\'illiam 111, King of England .J9, 50, 3-1, 56, 62, 62, 73 Williilm IV, King of England 228 Willi
,l.
Picture Acknowledgments \\"rought ¡ron 75 \\'ürzburg 56, 83, 8; \\'vatt, James 129, 196 \\\'alt, lewis 220
i\litchell Beazley would likc to ilcknowledge and thank lhe follo\\'ing pro\-iding imtlges fUf publici'ltion in Ihis book
X X-frame chairs bO, 61
Ajeto: -1% be; AJoony instituteof History ,md Art::H belo\\" 1. 157 bl; App[c .\Iacintosh: 503 t; Air.;,tream Ine ill; AKG-Im,'ges, London: 15 b, 35 tr,-l5 tI, 65 cr, 67 ti, 166 bt 3"" tr, ·n7 bl, pholOS S Domíngie 26 bl, S Domingie-\ 1 Rabalti 30 I belo\\", Ldo HL'Sse 165 br, Erieh Lessing 10 bt 32 ti, 52 Ir, 83, SS tI, 100 tr, 103 br. 16-1 te, U,Joscph \Iarlin 321 ti, Visioars59 ti; A La Vieille Russie, :-\ew York: 170 br, 171 tr, e, & b; Ales!'i: -l98 I & bl, -l99 t, 505 e; AIscot P\"TL'S, photo D'lgli Orti 31-1 bl, ~luseo di Palaao \'l'l1C/i,l, [{onll' 22 tI, i\hISL'O \'clria110 dc 1\lurano, photo O,lgli Orti 236 b; Arl [{C:-;¡lUrec: 17-1 br; Arlek: 386 ti, tr, el, bJ. & br, 387 te, 387 Ir; Ashmoleiln \!lI'>Clll1l, O,ford: 71 Ir, 72 bl, 73 el; Asprey & G(lrr--lIT, Ei' Ir, el, & bl, 269 cr, bl, & br; Bolton \Iuseum and A,rl Gallen-: 205 br; Bonh.lms, london: 6-1 tI. 101 le, 161 be. 161 br, 163 tr, 168 be & br, 169 e, 2SO tr, 290 tI, 293 bl, 376 tr, 3SS 11, 3S9 1, 393 Ir. bl & l'Ir, -UM br. -ID8 b, -lO9 br, -l 11 eb!, -l25 el, -l26 ter & Ir, -l28 r & bl, -i29 tr, -l39 el, --l--ID 11 & b, oH7 bl, br, el. er & br; -i57 bl, -160 bl, -179 be, -l87 tI, -i89 ti, er & bl. -l91 te; Botleherstrasse GmbH, Bremcn: 380 tr; Buughlon House, The Lh"íng Landscape Trust, by kind pemlission oi his Grilce the Duke oi Buceleueh and QUL>ensberrv, KT: -l7 br, -l9 b, 59 cr; Bradbury 6.:: Sheffield Assay Offiee Librilry: 180 1; Sraull GmbH: -l-l8 tr. e, & br; Christine Bridge: 17i r, 178 Ir, 179 d, 182 el; Bridgeman Art Libra~~ london: American \luseum, Bath 233 Ir, 236 tI, .,175 b, Ashmolean .\Iuseum, Oxford, eK 31 bl, Badisches Landesmuscum, Karlsruhc 398 tI, Bethn
y Yillllashita -l98 Yardlcy, Helen jOl Yenn, john 189 Yixing ,,"are 62 YOlli, jean-Baptisle-Cilb 1;;, 151 \-outh fa<:hion -i68-1O industrial d~ign.,lSO YJhilanti Reed Furniture Co_ .389 'hISOPO\', Prinee 1,1
Z Zach, Franz Pau[ 236, 236 Zan, Bernard 36, Ji Zallini, /l.larco -196 Zanllso, .\Iarco -liS, .;.80. -t8J Zanuso, .\larco Sr. +31
Zanussi -198, 502 Zccchin, \ '¡"orio -106, +0; Zeiscl, hil -.lOO. -+01, .fj.¡.-B5 len, Cario JJO. 311 Zenith Plastics +l6 Zero,,"att +:9 Zinkeisen, Anna-in Zipeliu52-/-9 Zoppino 39 Zsolnay Factory 315,]16 Zubcr 2-1-9 Zündt. .\Iatthias 36 Zi.irich 332 ZiI'iSCfll'llgofdglll;; lOS, l(J(), 18-1
fOf
Kcy: b 00"001, e centre, ¡left, r righl. I lap
e
:c
be,2821.286b~287~289t~~ObG291b~295~336b~-i13tl&l~
Corning i\luseum oi glilss, Nc\\" York, USA 237 t, Oesign Library, :\le\\' York 326 tr, Detroit lnstitule af Arts 193 br, Dre,,-ealt Neatc Finc Art Auenonecrs e AOAGp, Paris and DACS, London 2003 J6.l tel, Edinons Graphiqucs. london 317 el, Filzwilliam \Iuseum, Lni,-ersily of Cambridge. LK 20 te, 63 tI. 107 ti, 168 t, Galleria dell' Aecademia, Veniee 11, Glasgo\\' Lnin'rsity Art Gal1ery 325 br, Guildh.llllibra~~ Corporanon of Londan 211, Henry Francis Dupanl \ \'interthur .\Iuscum. Delaw
541
-.153 r, -.157 be, Royal Pa\-ilioll, l.ibraries &
~ luseums.
Brighton & Ho\'e 358 b, 392 t, Saatchi Collection, Landan E The Andy \rarhol roundation for the Visual .-\r15, lnc./DACS, London 1003. Trarlcmarks licenscd by
Campbell Saup Company. AH Righl5 Resern~d -.152 bl, Schloss Charlottenburg, Berlin 59 bL The Slapleton CollecHan 296 1, Ste\"ens and \\'illlams LId, Brierley Hill 235 tr, 5trawbcrry HiU, :-'liddlesex 214 tI, Tilbley House Collection, Uniwrsity of ~Iancheskr 2-15 ti, Torre Abbey .\ luseum, Oe\'on 239 ti, Victoriil & Albert l\lusel.lm, London 189 bef, 216 te, 2..13 le, 2.f8 tr, 397 be, -112 tr, Villa Famesin,l, Romc 1"¡' J. \Vallace Collection, Lonrlon 199 cer, \ \rutney of Americ.lll Arl, :\"c\\" York, t:: Estale of Robert Ameson I VAGA, :\:ew York/DACS. London 2003 -.163 bl, \\'orshipful Company of C10ckmakers Collection ~9 tr; British Archite
542
50-:1 tl; Christophcr Farr: © OACS 1003 -lB b; Christopher Wood Gallc~~ London: 252 t; Cincinnati Art \lusewn: 261 cr, Gift of \lary Louise \IcLaughlin 269 tr, Gift of ¡..liss Bertha Pfirrmann in memor:' of \Iiss Ernmil lIoeller 317 er, the Folgcrs Coffee SilYer Collcetion, Gft of the Proctcr & Gamble Company 121 br; ClassiCom GmBH: 385 b, -l90 br; The Cleyeland l"'luseum of Art: Lconard C Hannñ,jr Fund 115 bl;joe Colombo Studio: ~7~ bl; Coloniill \\'illiamsburg Fouodation: 55 ee, 196 ti, 2+t ti; CoMer Rosenkram:, 1'\ew York: 369 le; Cooper Hewitt, ~ational Design :\lusewn, Smithsonian lnstitution/Art Resouree, :\Y: ~i3 tr, -l95 er, photo Da\·e King ~95 bl, -l% t, -l99 bl, Bequest of \lay Sarton, 1996-9--1 pholo
\Jatt Flynn 333 r, Gift of Donald I:>c!;key, 1975--11-:;(; photo \ latt Flynn 372 bl, Gift of Eleanor .lnd $ar,lh He\\'itt 1928-2-7:> 206 bl, Gift of Josephine Ho\\"eIl19i1-U-187 2Q.l el, 1972---U-IS9 ~OS tr, 1972-11.-2, -71, ·7, -72 209 e, Gift of James \.1 Osbom, 1%9-97-7-a,b 359 b; Gifl of Donald \'Iaek, 1971-l9-} photo \liltl Aynn 310 el; Corbis: ~531, ~75 el, pholo .-\ngelo Homilk 225 tr, KEA Publishing Sen·ices OACS 2003 3SO b; Coming \.Iuseum of Glass: 28 br, 68 be, ~09 bl, Gift of Louise Estcrlv 187 t & e, Gift of lerome Strilllss © ADAGl~ l'.1ris ilnd DACS, London 2003 365 tI, Gift of 1 & L Lobmeyr © DACS 2003 -ID5 bl; Corsham Court Colledion, eourtcsy Jarrold Publishing: 95 Ir, 1+l b; Country Liie Picture Libr"ry: 216 b, 351; Courtauld Institutl' G.ll1eries, Somerset Housc, London: 15 ti, 336 ti & er; Cowan Pottcry \.Iuseum at lhe Rock~- Rh·cr Publie Libra~', Ohio: photo Larry L Peltz 361 er; Crafts Council. London: 279 ti, -l73 br, photos Paul Highnam 2761, Jonath,lIl \Iorris -lb'9 br; Curricr Gallery of ,\rt, :\Ianchester, :\H: \Iuseum Pueha~ by c,ehilnge and \\"ith fund~ pro\"ided by Ihe John H \ lorison Aequisition Fund and Ronald Buurgeal1lt, 2000 155 ti; Dartington Hall Trust: 393 el; D,,\·id Rago Allct¡on~ lne, LambertYille: 29-l b, 359 ti, 360 b, 373 ti; Delomosnc: 110 br, III te & bl, 112 tr, lo\\'er e, er ,lnd tr, 113 bt 176 el & cr, 177 t & e, 178 tl, 182 bl; Sert IA'nker: 286 el, Greg anu K.lte Johnson Collection 286 bl; Derby \Iuseum: 167 be; Design Council Slidc Collection al the \Ianchester \ letropolitan L"ni,crsity: 385 tI, ~ O:-\CS 2003 -lIS 1, ~19 ti, l l i b, .ui6 bl, --167 bl, -l7~ tr & e, -li5 l, ~77 bl, -l81 br, eourlesy of The \\',lmer Arehi\'e 375 el; IA'SignrnllseD, Hdsinki: 313 te, 328 tr, photo Au\o Lukki -l33 ee, -l59 bl, photo lean l3arbicr ~33 er, -I-H ti, -165 tr, -l-67 tr, -l77 bel; Dcsign COllneil DHRC, uniYersity of Brighton -l67 ti, © IBi\1 -l7': 1, Olh·etti -l78 tr, © \'Illfphy -l81 tr, ~ Kodak -l81 bl; Ocsign .... !llSl'llm, london: photo Clairc Aho 422 bl; Dóignor :-\13: 315 tI; Oeutsehes Porzellanmllseum, Ilohenberg: ~J..I ti, ~37 bl; Deyonshire Collcelion, Chatsworth. By permission of lhe Duke of De\·onshlrc .1I1d the Chats\\-orth Settlement Trustees: 32 tr, 71 br; DiplomatiCTl."Ccplion Rooms, L"nited Statcs Department of Statc: 15-41; :\anna Dil7.el: ~93 el; Driade: ~% br, ~99 br; Dyson Appliances lid: 502 bl; Eames OffieL': t: 2002 photo "cuhart -l26 ti; Electrolu, Zanussi: 502 br; Tl1e \lasters and Fellows o( EmmanueI College, Cilmbridge: 3-l tr, photo Jcrcmy RiehMds 12.1 br; English Heritage Photo Library: 125 bl, photo lcrcmy Riehilrds 205 el'; Elon Callege l.ibrilry, \Vindsor: i4 Ir; E'-a Zeiscl: ~3-l bl & be; herson ~ luseum of Art, Syr,leuse: 317tr, \ 11Iseum Purchase, 317 br, The \ lar:' and Paul Bran\\'cin Collection, photo HlIgh Tifft 361 el; Courtesy of The Fine Arl Society PLC, London: 251 r &. bl, 255 ti, te & tr, 257 cr, be & br, 258 tr, 259 el, er, bl & br, 261 ti" & bl, 262 tI, te, tr & bl, 263 cr, 26--ltl, tr & br, 266 fr & be, 267 I & e, 268 tr & b, 269 tr & be, 270 tr, bl & br, 271 tr & br, 273 ti, 2S6 ti, 29-l 1, photo Tumer Aotiques 260 1; The Fishmonger's Company, London: 119 te; Fitz\\"illiilm :\luscum, L"ni\'ersity uf Cilmbridge: 23 bl; Foclls PR: -l22 tr; Fonda¿ionc Thysscn Bornemis¿a Colkclion, Lugano: 35 bel; Frabel Sludio ñnd Gallery: -l97 ti; Franeeseil Gilllo\\"ay: 38 tr, rn tel; Friek \luseum, :\:e\\ York: 15 tr aOO\'e; Fundac;:ao Calouste Gulbenk1;m, Lisbon: photo Catarina G Ferreire 86 t, fJ AO,-\GP, Paris ilnd DACS, London 2003 321br; Fundac;:ao RieilTdo do Espirito Santo Sih'a, Lisbon: 53 ti, tr & bl; Galeric bei der Alberlina, \ icnna: 362 be; Gallen-Kallcla .\lu5eQ, Helsinki: 313 tr; Philippe Gamer: 81, 260 r, 263 br, 265 bl, 306 tr, 318 r, 319 ti, 378, 385 er, -l55 ti & tr, -l56 br, -l5S 1 & r, ~59 br, -161 11,46--1 tI', ':76 ti, te & b, ~79 b!, ~1 tl, el &. r, -l83, 500 br; Gemeenlemuseum, Thc Ililgue: 69 tr, 307 tr &: br; Gemtanisches i\iltionalmuseum, i'\uremberg: 18 b, 52 ti &. br, 12': tI; Gilbert Col\ection, Somerset House, London: 31 el, 32 er, 36 br, 37 tI, bl & be, 73 br, 7-l ti, 119 tI, tI' & b, 121 el,12-l tl, 189 tr, 191 tr, 193 ti; Gillette: 503 be; Glasgalerie \liehael KO\'aeek, V¡eona: 67 br, lOS e & r, 111 11, 1&1 bl & br, 185 tr, e & bl; Glasgo\\' \Iuseums: Burrell Collection ~ br, Art Gallc~' and :\Iuseum, Keh'ingro\"€' 279 bl, 30S bl; Goldfinger Ud: 395 ti; The Gordon Russcll Trust: 291 bl; Glasgow School of Art Collection: 278 tI', 282 r, 329 br; .\lichael Gra"es:.m6 b, ~9': tr, ~98 br; \.Iary Greenstcd: 279 tr; Hadeland Glass'·erk: 406 e, photo And\'Ord/Sjom Stokke +-11 te; Halpern AssociiltCS, London: lO ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003 36--l br,
e
e
293 a; Iparm?n~~zeti \Iúzeum, Budapest: photo Agm"~ Kolozs 313 br, 326 ter, 328 te, bl & br; The Interior Archi\"e: photo Fritz \"on der Schulenburg
151 1, 153 er, bl, & br; Instituto Portugués de \luseus, Diüsao de Documental;.io Fotogriír¡eil, Lisbon: .\Iuseu :\"aeional de Arte Antiga, photo Luis 1'.1\"ao 116 bel, be & br; Lesley Jaekson: ..07 ti; Richard Jess: 291 ti; Kallemo AB: -192 bl & br, -193 ti; Kalmar Konstmuseum: -l-l-I b; Kanlonsarehaologie Sch.1ffhauscn: 29 11; Kaplan Collection: 112 b & el; Kartell: -l-l6 br; Dadd King Collection: -n-ll; Klaber & Klaber: 102 r; Knoll Intern.ltionai: 382 el, © OACS 2003 382 cr, -l.27 b; Baltha7ar Korab Ud: 359 tr; Kunsthistorisches i\luseum, Vienna: 31 er, 33 te; Kunstíndustrimuseet, Copenhagen: photos Pemille Klemp 30.,\ tr, 315 tr & be, -l33 bi & br, © DACS 2003 -l36 tI, Ole \Voldbye 1-16 tr, 152 r, 315 bl, 320 tI, 387 el, -lü6 ti, -l93 e; Kllnstindustrimuseet, Oslo: 312 br & er, 315 te, 320 br, 369 ti, © OACS 2003 399 e; Kllnstsammlungen, Chemnitz: photo i\lay Voigt 399 bl; Kunstsammlungen Zl1 Weimar: photo Atelier Louis Held Itl DACS 2003 -l1O bl; Leeds \luseums and Galleries: Lotherton Hall 215 tI & er, 211 er, :!25 bl, Temple :\'e\,"sam Ilouse 19 tl, 217 bl, 225 tI, 226 tr, 2-H te; Collection of Christie .\Iayor Lef1.:.owith & Edwin F Lefko\,ith: phOIO Skot Yobbagy from TI/,' Art of Pafilllll" 199-1, Thames & Hudson, London i1nd :\"ew York 332 ti; \Iassimo Listri: -13; Li\"rustkarnmarcn, Stockholm: 57 el, ~ LSH photo Goran Schmidt 61 br; Los Angeles County \luseum of Art: CostumeCouncil Fund 39 b, 79 t, Gift of \Irs Ramona de Jongh 76 bl; John \lakepeaee Fumiture Studio: photo \like \Iurless -l89 el; \lA,KOsterreiehisches .\Iuscum mr ange\\'andte Kunst \leona: 90 ti, 125 ti, 1-lS tr & bl, 320 tr, 320 bl, :HO r & e, JB er, bl & ti, 3-H t & br, 3-l6 ti, :E OACS 2oo33-lS ti, J.iS te, te & br, J.l9 tI, tr, di & etr; \tallett and Son (Antiques) Ud: 111 tr, 112 ti, 1771, 178 bl & br, 179 t, er & bl, 180 br, t81 U, tr, le, er & bl, 182 te, 183 el & br, 18-1 ti; .\ lanchcsler City Art Galleries: 289 br, 290 te, 292 bl, 293 ti, 293 d, J.l0 1, -l15 bl, -l17 t, -130 b, -l37 ti, From the Colledion of the \lanehesler \letropolilan Cni\"ersity 176 r; Estudio ~Iariseal: 501 br; \Iaryland Historieal Society, Baltimore: 157 br; \Iathsson lntemational AB: 387 cr & b; Andre,," \lcConnet\: 109 e, 178 te, 18t el; lngo l-.laurer: -l93 bl; \-lemphis srl: -l8-l tr, 486 Ir, -l87 er, -l9-l tl, 500 ti; The i\letropolitan :vlusellm of Art, N'cw York: H.lrris Brisbane Oick Fund, 1953 121. Gift of ¡-",Ir .lnd i\lrs James B Trae)', 1966216 bl; Herman :'\-li\ler Ine: -H5 tr, -l60 t; Minneapolis lnstitute of Arts: Gift of Mr .lnd ¡vlrs Sheldon Sturgis, i\lr and i\lrs Henry Hyatt, and the Anne and H.ldlai Hall Fund 2S-l tr, The i\ lodemism CoHection, Gift of Norwest Bank l-.Iinnesota 285 ti, © ARS, ?\T)' and DACS, london 2003 285 er, 290 tr, 325 tr, 332 tI, 3-l1 ter, 3-l7 br, 332 r, 363 bl & br, 3SS r, 389 ti, & br, 391 ti, 399 tr, -lOO tr, Gift of Dena Petriek Rothermel in memory of John P Rothennel -l0l et, -l10 d & er, -lll bl, bcr & br, -l16 1, er & br, -117 br & te, © DACS 2003 -l19 er, -119 ebr, 426 br; .\ lobiller :\"ational, Paris: 135 ti, 20-l er, :ms br, 209 ti, bl & br; .\10ffal1-Ladd House, Portsmouth, XH: 202 ti; The \Iontreal \ luseum of Fine .-\.rts: Liliane and Da\"id \1 Slewart Collection, GHt of Geoffrey :-;:" Bradfield photo Denis Fariey (~Iontreal) 455 b, Liliane and Oa\"id ~I Stewart Collection, photo The \lontreal .\Iuseum of Fine Arts, Giles Ri\'est -199 er; \imuso: -l91 er; \lounl \emon Lariie;;' .~iation, \"irginia: 155 br; :'\Iusée Baeearat: 23S r, photos Jaeques Boulay 2.J-O bl, J \1 Tardy 2-l1 br; \ fusée Bouilhet-ehristofle, Paris: 371 tr, -H3 br; \Iuséc Conde, Chateau de Chantilly: photo Giraudon 215 te; \lusée de la \lode et du Textile, Paris: photo Lamenl Sully-Jaulmes 32~ ti, © ADAGP, Paris and OACS, London 2003326 tel, 372 d; \Iusée de l'Ecole de :\"aney: 302 br, 303 er, bl & br, 319 te, photo ClicheStudio Image :¡;'ADAGp, Paris & OACS, London 2003 319 be, F Brabant 326 br; i\lusée de l'Impression sur Étoffes, Mulhouse: 203 br, 206 br, 209 tr, 2-17 br; i\lus6c des Années 30, Boulogne: photo Philippe Fuzeau 336 ti; ;\/!usée des Arts Oecoratifs, Paris: 85 br, 215 el, 221 te, 357 etl, 372 ti, photo Lament Sully-Jaulmes 115 br, 212 ti, 30-l er, 305 br, © AOAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003 333, © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003353 er, 370 etr; :Vlusée des Beaux-Arts de Naney: photo G i\langin 319 bl; :'vlusée des lissus de Lyon: 76 tr, 77 abO\"e e, 78 r, 121 te & b, 123 tI & br, 2().,\ t, 205 tr, 206 tI, 207 te, bl, bel & br, 20S el, photo Pierre Verrier 79 be; i\lusée du P.lpier Peint, Rixlleim: 249 le & tr; }"Iusées de Steasbourg: 305 ti; \lusées Royaux d'Arl et d'Histoire, Brussels: 323 tr & bl; i\luseo :\"acional de Artes Decorati\"as, \Iadrid: 17 ti & tr, 289 el, 3-l2 ti, te, tr, bl, be & br, J.l3 tr & br, 366 te & bl, 367 er & be; \h.1SCU ::\"acional dos Coches, Lisbon: -15 te; .\luseum für Kunst und Gcwerbc, Hamburg: 52 bl, 89 te, 328 ti; \lusewn Kunsl Palas!. Dusseldorf, Glasmuseum Hentrieh: 67 bl; :'\Iuseum 01 the City of :\"ew York: 157 ti, presented to Jenny Lind by the Fire Department of ::\"e", York Cily 1850, Cift 01 Arthur S Vemay, photo Hclga Photo Studio, 217 Ir; \luseum of Domestie Design & Architecture, \liddlesex L:niwrsity: 297 er & bl; ;"'Iuseum of Earlr Southem Decoratiw Arts, üld Salem: 55 el, 99 ti & 99 bl, 174 tI, Courtesy of Old Salem lne, Collection of the Wachovia Historieal Sacie!)' 186 ti; \Iuseum \"oor Sierkunst & Vonnge\"ing. Ghent: photo Studio C1aerllout m" 306 bl & r; Forrest W \lyers: -192 tl & tr; Lillian l'\asSi\u Ud, :'\ew York: 321 el; :'\ational Archi\'es, London: 2+l c. 273 br; :-lational Galler)', London: 63 bl, 70 br;
:\"ational Galle~" of :\rt, \ \'a:>hington OC: Samuel H Kress Colll'Ction, photo Lorene Emerson 127; :\"ational \lonuments Record: reprodueed by permission of English Herilage, 221 b; '\:ational .\Iuseum of American His(00", Smithsonian Institution, Washington OC: 17-llr & bl, Electrieity Colleclions +lB bl; :\"ational \Iuseum of lreland, Oublin: 295 bl; :\"ational \Iuseums of Scotland: E tr; :'\ational :\luscum of \\'ales: 121 bl; :\"ational .\Iuscums & Galleries on \Ierseyside: 96 bl, 291 te; :\"ationalmuseum, Stockholm: 50 t, 61 tI, 82 tI,:l) OACS 2003 H7 tr, -H6 te, photo SK\I 60 tr, piloto Hans Thorwald 312 bl, 313 tI, 10 OACS 2003 399 er; N'ational Trust, East i\lidlands: photo \like \\'illiams 199 tr; Natíonal Trust l'hotographie Library, London: 103 el, 220 tI, photos John Bethell H2 bl, Jonathan Gibson 65 b, 167 br, Angelo Homak 95 er, :'\'adia i\laeKenzie 198 1, Andre.1s \'on Einsiedel-17 tI, -181, 60 te, 61 tr, 96 belo\\' r, 217 ti; Neeehi SpA: -H8 ti; Neue Galerie, 1'\ew York J!6 tr; Die Neue Sammlung, \'lunieh: © DACS 2003 -l06 tr, photos A Brahan 398 bl, 399 ti, Bungartz 327 bl, C Hansmann -l10 br: :\"ew Jersey State \Iuseum, Trenton: The Brewcr Collection, photo Joscph Crille)' 233 bl; :'\ewark \luseum: Gilt of the \luseum of the Oty of :\"e\\' York 193.,1, 220 tr, Gift of \lrs W Clark S~mington, 1%5, 233 br; :\"obilis Font.lO: photo )"'es Duronsoy 501 tr; Oelopus Publishing Graup Ud: 68 br, photos lan Booth -l32 tI, .f39 br, lan Booth/Alfie's -139 bl, -H2Ir, +B tr, -l55 el, -l78 bl, lan Booth/Bonhams -l31 el, H2 Ir, -l33 ti & tr, -161 bl, -l69 ti & r, lan Booth/Christie's South Kcnsington -l2-l br, © "~, Xl' and DACS, London 2003 426 el, -131 ti, H3 el, -171 tr, Fa)' Lueas -l67 e, Prcmier Pholography -ID3 cr & te, Tim Ridley 3% ti & cr, Tim Ridley '20th Century De:.ign 416 er, -l31 cr, lim Ridley /:\"eil Bingham -l2-l ti, Tim Ridley 'Odt.l of '"enus 477 t, Tim Ridley/F1ying Duek Enterprises -l-l7 t, Tim Ridlcy ITarget Gallery -157 ti, tr, -177 bcr, Tim Ridley /Twenly TWo.'nty One -l5.,l t, -l6O br & -l78 br, -l79 br, Tim Ridler/Zambesi -163 1, Ste\'e T.lnner -l03 bl & br. Ste\'e Tanner/::\"igel Benson -139 er, Ste\"e Tanncr/Je.lnncttL' Hayhurst.J-.J-O Ir, John \\'cbb 2J.I be; Orrefors Glasbruk: -138 r, +11 ti, photo Per larsson -139 ti; Pateimonio :\"acional, :\Iadrid: 128 tr, 149 tr; P.1I.icio :\"acional da Ajuda, Lisbon: 1-19 tI; Partridge Fine Arts, london: 37 br, 121 er; Jiri Pelel: -191 b, photo Jar05la\" Prokop -l93 tr; Pentagrilm Dl...ign [ Id: 474 br; Penlhouse J-lighpoint: 395 b; Philadelphia Museum of Art: photo Gavin Ash\\'orlh 5-l t, Pri\"ate Colleetion 55 br, pUTeha"ed \\'ilh the Elizabeth S Shippen Fund, photo Gr.lydon \Vood 55 bl, l'ureha:>L'd \\'ilh ~Iusellm funds from the Edmond Foule CoHection, 1930 56 tI, 56 el, l'llrehased: Art in Industry Fund 12-l br, Gut of Simon Gratz in memory of Caroline S Gratz 157 el, Gift of \lrs Ale;.; Simpson Jnr and ,\ CilTson Simpson (by exchange) and funds eontribuled by \"arious donor!> 157 ce, Purchased: The Baugh-Barber Fund, Ihe Thomas Skelton Harrbon Fund, the Elizabeth \\andell Smith Fund, and funds gh"en in mem00' ofSophie E Pennebaker, and funds eonlributcd by the Barra Found.ltion, \ Ir:> J-lenry \\" 8re\"er, \Ir and \lrs \1 Todd Cooke, The Dietrieh Amerie.lll FoundaHon, \Ir and \ 1rs Anthony :\" B Gan'.ID, the Phil,1delphi.1 s.wmg~ Fund Socieh" and Andrew \1 Rouse 175 t, Gift of john T \Iom.. 173 e, Exehanged ;vith the Franklin lnstitute 173 bl, Gift of thl' OúrOlllgt.'r Gla"" Company, pholo Gra~ don \\"00<1 23, br, Gift of G.:,)rgl' \\"ood FumesS,197-l255 bl, Gift of \Ir and \lrs Benjamin Bloom, 19SJ, ' OACS 2003 -136 b, Gift of Chemex -H 1 bl. Gin of Bonnie Ca:>llin, piloto Lynn Rosenthal -l-l-I te, Gift of Jaequeline and Bruno Dan.1St"' +16 le, Gift of Tupperware Home Parties -H6 bl; PhOlotheque des \ILI~'{'S de la \'ille de Paris: photo Daniel lifermann 132 1; POf7ell.ln.\lanufaktur, ~ ymphenburg: J.ll te; Alan Powers: \VSCAD Collection 414 tr, er & br; PP :-"lobler ApS: -159 el; Publie \luseum of Grand RapiJ,,: 219 bl; Peler Reischer: -l9-l br; Réunion des ~Iusées Nationaux, l'Mi:>: 16 bl, 133 e, 13.,1 Ir, 135 el, 136 br, 231 tI, Photos Amaudet 16 tr, 82 br, 83 er, 87 ti, 106 bl, 133 bl & r, lJ.1 bl & br, 137 er, AmaudetSchorma 1361, ivll3eck"Coppola 230 1and br, 232 ti, 263 bl, 363 er, Gerard Blot 15 br abm"c, 60 el, 129, 135 er, BlotLewandowski 47 bi, Chuze\'illc 116 tr, Gendr.lud 231 cr & bl, Vi\"ien Guy 137 d, ]ean Hutin 306 er, Lagiewski 151 er, Je,ln Lwialle 231 Ir, j-Ien"é Lewandowski 31-1 tl, R G Ojeda 2-1 bl, Popoviteh 137 tr, Re\'ersement OA 57 b, Routhier 230 tr, 232 tr, Jean Schorman~ 41; Rex Features: -169 br; Rexite SpA:.5(),\ tr; Rhode Island School of Oesign. \Iuseum of Art: Ida Ballou Lil1lefield and \lan", B Jaekson Funds and additional funds pro\"idcd by \Ir and \Irs George Kaufman and J J Smortehe\"sky, photo Erik Gould 1>1 belo\\' e, Bequest of ~lartha B Lisie, by Exehange, photo Erik Gould 155 bl, Gift of the \\"unsch Amerieana Foundation Ine, photo Erik Gould 156 te, Gift of \lrs Gutsta\'e Radeke, pholo Erik Gould 175 b, Gift of Textron, lne, photo Cathy Can"er 370 ehl; Richard Oennis Publieations: 263 tI,.J-02 t, e & b; Rij~museum, Amslerdam: 18 tr, 29 br, 35 k,~"2t1,~b~5Itl,el&b~56tl,57tt~~@tl,bl&b~mbl,W~91
d, 153 ti; :\"oel Rile\": 355 br, t>ADAGP, Paris and OACS, London 2003 36-l tI, t> ¡.\OAGP, Par~ and OACS, London 2003 J6.l ter; Roger-Viollet, Paris: 300 1; Rt.ihsska .\Iuseet, Goteborg: copyright Alf Bokgren H6 Ir; Rotherham \Iuseum, ltJ V&A Images: 228 te; The Rose Family Collection: 368 tr, on loan to the Cle\"eland i\luseum of Art, I'hotograph pro\'ided
543
eourtesy of the Cle\·eland \Iuseum of Art 36S b; Roscnthal AG: ~93 tr; Rosti Housewares ApS: +l6 ti; The ROy.ll Collt"Ction 2001, Her \Iajesty Queen Elizabeth 11: ~5 el, 56 b, 37 ti, 58 b, 66 te, 131 te, 2+1 b; The Royal Collections, Rosenborg Caslle, Copcnhagen: ~ bl, 66 r, 91 CT; The Royal Comwall \Iuseum, Tmro: 287 br; Ro~'al Pa\·ilion Libraries & :'-.luseums, Brighton & Han:-: 309 br; Royal Scandina\·ia Ud: 170 bl; Royal Sociely of Arts, London: 138 tr; Royeroft Shops lne, East Aurora, ,,': © 1995 285 tr; Tom Saddington: -199 eb; St Bamablls, Hengoed. 266 bl; St Jam('s's Square Pllblishing lid: -H br; n'e Sainl LOllis Art l\luscum: 261 el; Roberto Sambonet: ~3 b; Sammlungen des Regicrcndcn Prsten Von Lieehlenstein, Vaduz: 66 be; Sea la: 1-l9 b; l'hotoarehi\'e C Raman Schlcmmer, 1-28824 Oggebbio (VB), ltaly: 379; Schloss Fasanerie, Hessisehe Hausstiftung, Eichenzcllc: 89 br; Scienee & Society Pi(hlre Libra~': 22~ r, -116 tr, ~17 el & er; $cattlc J\rt l\luseum: Thomils \V i1nd .A..Jm \,1 Banviek, thl' Virgini
e
ce
544
br, 2-1 ti & br, 25 ti & bl, 26 tc!, 271, tr & br, 28 tr, 19 tr & bl, 31 tr, 32 el & be, 37 tr, -12 tr, ~ 1, -l6 tr, -l9 11 & er, 53 br, 56 tr, 59 tr, 61 bl, 66 tI. 6S t & bl, 72 t, el & er, 73 11 & tr, 17 tr & bl, 79 tr, 89 ti & 89 tr, 95 el, 103 bl, 106 te, tr & er, 107 tr & ebr, 11..J r, 117 br, 12U t, br, be & bl, 121 ti & Ir, 123 tr, 12~ bl, 1')::; d, 139 b, 1-11 el, 1-12 be, 1-15 b, 148 br, 151 ti, 15S tr, 166 br, 167 tr, 173 er, 1SS tr &b, 189 t1 & er, 190 e, ti & tr,191 ti & bl, 193 be, 196tr, 197tr&er, 199t1& br, 200 tI. te, Ir & bl, 201 11, d, bl & br, 202 bl & e, 203 d & r, 206 Ir, 207 tr & ber, 208 ti, 216 ti, 221 tI,222 r & bl, 225 te & br, ')')6 ti, 227 tI, 228 tl, tr, bl & br, 229 tl, r & bt 232 br, 23..J Ir, 235 br, 236 tr, 2381, 239 tr, er & bl, 2~1 bt 242 b, 2-15 b, 2-16 bl, 2~7 tI, r & e, 2..JS tr & bl, 2-19 bl & br, 233 r,25-1 1 & br, 255 br, 236 tl, 257 t1 & e, E8 1. 260 e, 262 br, 263 el, 266 br, 271 ti & bl, 272 1 & r, 273 tr, er & bl, 279 te, 281 tr, 288 b, 289 tI, 290 bJ, 291 e, 292 br, 29~ [r, 295 lel & br, 296 b, 297 br, 298, 301 1, tr & br, 302 1, 303 te & tr, 30-l br, 305 bl & tr, 308 ti, © OACS 2003 308 be, 309 bl, 313 br, 31-1 tr & br, 315 br, ro DACS 2003 316 t,tc!, er, be & br, 317 ti, 319 bl, 320 be, 321 ti, 323 bl, 326 bl, 10 OACS 2003 327 er, 329 ti, tr, el & bl, 3331, 33-J br, 335 er & br, 336 tr & ber, 3-n b, 3-19 b, 358 ti, tr & el, 360 tr, 362 Ir, 366 br, © OACS 2003 367 1, 370 b, 372 br, 373 tr, bl & br, 37-1 bl, 375 t, er &bl,Cl FLC ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003 383 bJ. 391 tr, :E ARS, :,\Y and DACS, London 2003391 e, 392 bl & br, 39.J bl, 396tr, el, & b, 397 te, 398 tr, ~03 tI & el, -lO6 bl & br, -112 b, ~13 d & er, -115 er, -117 be, -I2~ tr, 426 tc!, -129 br, ~30 I & r, rn Ir, H3 bl & r, ~37 e & be, -138 e, ~1 tr, br & tr, l l i tI, ~9 e, bl, e & be, -132 t, -I5-l bl,.fi6 tr, -l6O er, -162 br, -165 e & br, -170 t -171 ti, ~72 d & bl, -1731, .J78 ti, -!SO bl & r, ~90 tr, -195 tI, 500 tr & bl, 502 el, loan from Anglepoise lid -119 le; "enturi, ScottBrown and :-hsociatcs loe: -I9~ bl; \ 19nelli Associates: -187 el; The \ intage \ lagaLinc Company: -l8-I tI; V·trginia \Iuseum of Fine Arts, Riehmond: Gifl of \Iiss \Iary Sue Dew and \Irs Betsy Fauntleroy Foulds, in memoryof Or 5.1.muel Griffin FauntlerO\~ - Jr, and ~lrs Franees EliLabeth Clavbrookc - Fauntlerov and their f.,mily, of \Iariah'a, King and Quecn County, Virginia, photo Katherine \ Vetzel 210, Gift of Sydncy and Franees Lewis, pholo Kalherine \Vet7.el 283 le & tr, 312 tr, 317 bl, 32~ bl, 335 el, 337bl, 334 ti & tr, 353 tl,:C ADAGP, Paris and DACS, london 355 bl, 336 bl, 357 td & br,lti OACS 2003 370 t, 371 br, © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London 2003 372 tr, Gift of the Sydney and Frailees lelds Foundation, photo Katherine \ Vet7el 332 br, 3-J7 bl, 359 e, l\luseum Purehase, with fllnds prodded b~' anonymolls donor, photo Katherine \ Vetzel 269 te, n'e Adolph O and \Vilkins C Williams Fund, photo Katherine \Ver/el 261 tl, The Sydney and Frilnees le"'is Arl Nom·eau Fund, photo Kalhcrine \Vctzd, 3O-l tl, 310 tr, 321 te, 3-17 er, Bequest oí Florenee H Lnder 323 ti; Vitra lid ~8-I b; Vitra Design l\lllsellm, Weil am Rhein 391 br; Vittorio Bonacina: -131 br; \V.,dsworth Atheneum, Hartford: PurehaSl'CI from the Dadd Harris Cohen Estate through the J Herbcrl Callisler Fund 372 CT; The WaJ]ilee Colleclion, London, rcproduced by kínd permission of lhe Tmstees: 26 tr, SO, 8-1 b, 86 bl, 126, 131 t, 1-16 1I & el, 138 br; The \\'arner Archh·e: 125 er & br, 205 ti; Trustees of The \\'edg'oHxKl \Iuseum, Barlaston, Staffordshirc: 107 bl, 166 ti & Ir, 167 er & bl; The Wellington \Iuseum, london: \'&t\ ¡milges 161 ti; \\'endell Castle, lne -161 tr; The \\'hitworth Art Gallc~·, CnÍ\'crsity of \Iancnester: 2-10 I & e, 2-19 ti, 29~ te, ~5 bl & br, -172 ti & tr; \\illiam \Iorris Gal1e'1~ The lonclon Borough of Waltham Forest: 295 ebl; \\ínterthur \Iuseum, Delaware: 55 ti & er, 98 tI & br, 1>l11, 136 ti, b¡ & r, 186 Ir, 20-l, be, Partial funds for purchasc Gilt of h\·o anonymousdonors 99 Ir, Gift of \Irs E du Ponl ln:ing 186 le, G¡ft of \Irs Titus Bupey 186 below 1, Gift of \lr5 H.lTTY W Lungcr 186 below r, Gift of \Irs Charles K Da,·is 18, br, 187 bl; \Vorshiphll Company of Goldsmiths, Landon: 189 d, 2-13 be, -111 tel & tr, ~2 tI, +42 te & b, +13 ti & e, -166 t & br; Helen Yardley: 301 e; York City Mt Gallery: 397 tl & tr; Zanott" SpA: -187 bl.
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