Tnpsc Geography Material

mstw; w mUshsDk; mUshsDk;> epfuw; w md;GilNahDkhfpa GilNahDkhfpa Vf,iwtdpd; jpUg; jpUg;ngauhy; ngauhy;... ...

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TNPSC exam exam material material

Gtpapay; jpl;lj; lj;jpd; jpd; mbg; mbg;gilapy;] [Gjpa ghlj;jpl;

nghUslf;fk; fk; G+kpAk; R+hpaf; FLk;gKk; gKk; Rod;Wk; Wk; Rw; Rw;wpAk; wpAk; tUk; tUk; G+kp ehk; thOk; G+kp tiuglq;fSk; fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk; Gtp mjd; mikg; mikg;G kw;Wk; Wk; epy epy efh;Tfs; Tfs; Gtp Nkw;gug;G - khwpf; nfhz; nfhz;bUf; bUf;Fk; Fk; epyf; epyf;Nfhsj; Nfhsj;jpd; jpd; Nkw;gug;G thdpiyAk; fhyepiyAk; Nghplh; kw;Wk; Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik ik Nguhopapay; - Xh; mwpKfk; ts Mjhuq;fs; fs; ts Mjhuq;fSk; fSk; nghUshjhu nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk; iffSk; Kjy; epiy epiy njhopypd; tiffs; Ruq;fj; fj; njhopy; gaph;fs; ,uz;lhk; lhk;epiy epiy njhopy; njhopyfq;fspd; fspd; tiffs; tzpfk; Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs; kf;fs; fs;njhif njhif tsh;r; r;rp kw;Wk; Wk; guty; kf;fs; fs;njhifAk; njhifAk; ts Mjhuq;fSk; jkpo;ehL ehL jkpo;ehl; ehl;bd; ,aw; ,aw;if if mikg;Gfs; jkpo;ehl; ehl;bd; fhyepiy jkpo;ehL ehL - tsq;fs; fs; jkpo;ehL ehL - Ntshd;ik jkpo;ehL ehL - cw;gj;jp jp njhopw;rhiyfs; rhiyfs; Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; Wk; jfty; ghpkhw;wk; jkpo;ehL ehL - thzpgk; jkpo;ehL ehL - kf;fs; fs; njhif Rw;Wr; Wr;R+oYk; R+oYk; mjd; njhlh;Gila Gila epfo;TfSk; TfSk; tsq;fs; fs; ghJfhj; ghJfhj;jYk; epiyg; epiyg;gLj; gLj;jg;gl;l tsh;r; rrpAk; ;rpAk; ,e;jpah jpah - miktplKk; ,aw; ,aw;if if mikg;Gk; Gk; ,e;jpah jpah - fhyepiy ,e;jpah jpah - ,aw;if if tsq;fs; fs; ,e;jpah jpah – Ntshz;ik ik ,e;jpah jpah - njhopyfq;fs; Rw;Wr; Wr;R+oy; R+oy; gpur;rpidfs; rpidfs; tzpfk; Nghf; Nghf;Ftuj; Ftuj;J kw;Wk; Wk; jfty; jfty; njhlh; njhlh;Gfs; Gfs; njhiy Ez;Zzh; Zzh;T

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nghUslf;fk; fk; G+kpAk; R+hpaf; FLk;gKk; gKk; Rod;Wk; Wk; Rw; Rw;wpAk; wpAk; tUk; tUk; G+kp ehk; thOk; G+kp tiuglq;fSk; fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk; Gtp mjd; mikg; mikg;G kw;Wk; Wk; epy epy efh;Tfs; Tfs; Gtp Nkw;gug;G - khwpf; nfhz; nfhz;bUf; bUf;Fk; Fk; epyf; epyf;Nfhsj; Nfhsj;jpd; jpd; Nkw;gug;G thdpiyAk; fhyepiyAk; Nghplh; kw;Wk; Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik ik Nguhopapay; - Xh; mwpKfk; ts Mjhuq;fs; fs; ts Mjhuq;fSk; fSk; nghUshjhu nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk; iffSk; Kjy; epiy epiy njhopypd; tiffs; Ruq;fj; fj; njhopy; gaph;fs; ,uz;lhk; lhk;epiy epiy njhopy; njhopyfq;fspd; fspd; tiffs; tzpfk; Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs; kf;fs; fs;njhif njhif tsh;r; r;rp kw;Wk; Wk; guty; kf;fs; fs;njhifAk; njhifAk; ts Mjhuq;fSk; jkpo;ehL ehL jkpo;ehl; ehl;bd; ,aw; ,aw;if if mikg;Gfs; jkpo;ehl; ehl;bd; fhyepiy jkpo;ehL ehL - tsq;fs; fs; jkpo;ehL ehL - Ntshd;ik jkpo;ehL ehL - cw;gj;jp jp njhopw;rhiyfs; rhiyfs; Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; Wk; jfty; ghpkhw;wk; jkpo;ehL ehL - thzpgk; jkpo;ehL ehL - kf;fs; fs; njhif Rw;Wr; Wr;R+oYk; R+oYk; mjd; njhlh;Gila Gila epfo;TfSk; TfSk; tsq;fs; fs; ghJfhj; ghJfhj;jYk; epiyg; epiyg;gLj; gLj;jg;gl;l tsh;r; rrpAk; ;rpAk; ,e;jpah jpah - miktplKk; ,aw; ,aw;if if mikg;Gk; Gk; ,e;jpah jpah - fhyepiy ,e;jpah jpah - ,aw;if if tsq;fs; fs; ,e;jpah jpah – Ntshz;ik ik ,e;jpah jpah - njhopyfq;fs; Rw;Wr; Wr;R+oy; R+oy; gpur;rpidfs; rpidfs; tzpfk; Nghf; Nghf;Ftuj; Ftuj;J kw;Wk; Wk; jfty; jfty; njhlh; njhlh;Gfs; Gfs; njhiy Ez;Zzh; Zzh;T

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Gtpapay; G+kpAk; #hpaf; #hpaf; FLk; FLk;gKk; gKk; Nfhs;fs; fs; (Planets) (Planets) : (  njhiyNehf;fp fp Nghd;w fUtpfs; ,y;yhky; yhky; ntWk; fz;fshy; fshy; Gjd;> nts;sp> sp> nrt;tha; tha;> tpahod;> rdp Mfpa Ie;J Nfhs;fis fis kl;LNk LNk ghh;f; ff ; KbAk;.  Mdhy; ANud]; kw;Wk; Wk; neg;bA+d; bA+d; Mfpa Nfhs;fisj; fisj; njhiyNehf;fpahy; fpahy; kl; kl;LNk LNk fhz ,aYk;.  Gjd;> nts;sp sp Mfpa Nfhs; fs; fs; R+hpa cjaj;jpw; jpw;Fr; Fr; rw;W Kd;Gk; Gk; khiyapy; khiyapy; kiwe; kiwe;j gpd;Gk; Gk; Gyg; Gyg;gLk; gLk;.  nts;spf; spf; Nfhs; fhiyapy; R+hpa cjaj;jpw; jpw;Fr; Fr; rw;W Kd;G Gyg;gLk; gLk; NghJ NghJ tpbnts;sp sp vd miof;fpd; fpd;wdh; wdh;.  G+kp Nkw;fpypUe; fpypUe;J fpof;F Nehf;fpr; fpr; Roy; Roy;tjhy; tjhy;jhd; jhd; R+hpaDk; R+hpaDk; tpz;kP kPd; dfSk; f ; Sk; kw;Wk; Wk; thd; nghUs;fSk; fSk; fpof;fpypUe; fpypUe;J Nkw;F Nehf;fpr; fpr; nry; nry;tJ tJ Nghd;wnjhU Njhw;wk; wk; fpilf; fpilf;fpwJ. fpwJ. R+hpaf; FLk; FLk;gk; gk; (Solar (Solar system) system) : ( njhiyNehf;fpfs; fpfs; topNa Muha; e; ejhy; j ; hy; ANud];> neg;bA+d; bA+d;  Mfpa Nfhs;fisAk; fisAk;> FWq;Nfhs; Nfhs;fisAk; fisAk; > Fs;sf; sf;Nfhs; Nfhs;fisAk; fisAk;> thy;el; el;rj; rj;jpuq; jpuq;fisAk; fisAk; gy Mapuf;fzf; fzf;fhd fhd tpz;kP kPd; dfisAk; f ; isAk;> mz;lq; lq;fisAk; fisAk;> thAj; jpus;fisAk; fisAk; fhzyhk; fhzyhk;. R+hpaDf;F nkhj;jk; jk; cl;Lf; Lf; Nfhs;fs; fs;> vy;yhf; yhf; Nfhs;fSk; fSk;  R+hpaidr; Rw;wp wp tUfpd;wd. wd. G+kpAk; xU Nfhs; jhd; jhd;. G+kpapd; tspkz;lyj; lyj;jpy; jpy; caph;tsp tsp (Mf;]p[d; ]p[d;) ,Ug;gjhy; gjhy; gw;gy gy caph;fSk; fSk;> ehKk; tho tho KbfpwJ. R+hpaf; FLk;gj; gj;jpd; jpd; vl;Lf; Lf; Nfhs;fisAk; fisAk; jplf;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs;>  thAf;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs; vd ,uz;L gphpYfshf gphpf; fyhk; fyhk;. Gjd;> nts;sp> sp> G+kp> nrt;tha; tha; Mfpa Mfpa ehd;Fk; Fk; jplf; jplf;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs;. tpahod;> rdp> ANud];> neg;bA+d; bA+d; Mfpa ehd;Fk; Fk;  thAf;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs; vdg; vdg;gLfpd; gLfpd;wd. wd. vy;yhf; yhf; Nfhs;fSk; fSk; ePs; stl; t ; l;lg; lg;ghijapy; R+hpaidr; rw;Nwwf; Nwwf;  Fiwa xNu rkjsj;jpy; jpy; Rw; Rw;wp wp tUfpd;wd. wd. R+hpad; : : R+hpaf; FLk; FLk;gj; gj;jpd; jpd; ehafd; ehafd; R+hpad; R+hpad; jhd; jhd;.  R+hpaf; FLk;gj; gj;jpd; jpd; xsp kw;Wk; Wk; ntg;gj; gj;jpw; jpw;F %y Mjhuk;  R+hpad;jhd; jhd;. ,J G+kpapypUe;J Rkhh; 15 15 Nfhb fp.kP . njhiytpy; cs; cs;sJ. sJ.  R+hpaf; FLk;gj; gj;jpy; jpy; jhNd xspUk; xNu thd;nghUs; nghUs;  Rhpad;jhd; jhd;. R+hpa xsp G+kpia te; jila jila MFk; fhyk; fhyk; - 8 epkplk; nehb. nehb. 

rdpf;Nfhspd; Nfhspd; tisak; tisak; : : njhiyNehf;fp fp topNa ghh; j; j;jhy; jhy; rdpf;Nfhisr; Nfhisr; Rw;wp wp  tisak; Nghd;w mikg;G fhzg;gLk; gLk;. Ez;fw; fw;fSk; fSk; JhRk; gdpAk; nfhz; nfhz;l njhFjpNa ,e;j tisak;. rdpapd; tisak;jhd; jhd; vLg;ghdJ ghdJ vd;whYk; whYk; tpahod;>  ANud];> neg;bA+d; bA+d; Mfpa Nfhs;fSf; fSf;Fk; Fk; tisaq;fs; fs; cs;sd. sd. Fs;sf; sf;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs; : : GSl;Nlh> Nlh> nru];> Vhp];> Nkf;Nkf; Nkf;> `t;kpNa kpNa Kjypad  2006Mk; Mz;L Fs;sf; sf;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs; vd Gjpjhf tifg;gLj; gLj;jg; jg;gl; gl;Ls; Ls;sd. sd. ve;jf; jf; NfhSf;Fk; Fk; jhdhf xsp ckpOk; jd;ik ik ,y;iy. iy.  mjhtJ Nfhs;fSf; fSf;Fr; Fr; Ra xsp fpilahJ. R+hpa xspiaNa mit gpujpgspf;fpd; fpd;wd. wd. FWq;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs; (Asteroids (Asteroids)) : ( nrt;tha; tha; NfhSf;Fk; Fk; tpahod; NfhSf;Fk; Fk; ,ilapy;  ,yl;rf; rf;fzf; fzf;fhd fhd FWq;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs; cs; cs;sd. sd.  ,e;jpahtpd; jpahtpd; thdtpay; mwpQh; itZghg;G> G> tpz;ntsp ntsp Jiwapd; je;ij ij rhuhgha;> fzpjNkij ,uhkhD[k; MfpNahh; ngah; ngah;fspy; fspy; FWq; FWq;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs; cs; cs;sd. sd. re;jpud; jpud; : : epyT> epyh> kjp. jpq;fs; fs; vdg; gy ngah;fspy; fspy; re;jpud; jpud;  miof;fg; fg;gLfpwJ. gLfpwJ.  re;jpud; jpud; xUNfhs; xUNfhs; ,y; ,y;iy. iy. Nfhs;

Nfhs;fisr; fisr; Rw; Rw;Wk; Wk; Jizf; Jizf;Nfhs; Nfhs;fs; fs;

Gjd;

0

nts;sp sp

0

G+kp

1

nrt;tha; tha;

2

tpahod;

63

rdp

60

ANud];

27

neg;bA+d; bA+d;

13

Nfhs;fs; fs; jd; jd;idj; jhNd Rw;w MFk; fhyKk; fhyKk; R+hpaidr; R+hpaidr; Rw; Rw;wp wp tu vLj;Jf; Jf; nfhs; nfhs;Sk; Sk; fhyKk; fhyKk; idj;jhNd

Nfhs;

R+hpaidr; Rod; Rod;wthW wthW Rw;wp wp tUk; fhyk; fhyk;

R+hpadplkpUe;J njhiyT

Nfhspd; jw; jw;Row; Row;rpf; rpf; fhyk; fhyk;

Gjd;

87.97 ehs;fs; fs;

5.79 Nfhb fp;kP kP

58.6 ehs;fs; fs;

nts;sp sp

224.7 ehs;fs; fs;

10.82 Nfhb fp.kP

(-) 243 ehs;fs; fs;

G+kp

365.24 ehs;fs; fs;

15 Nfhb fp.kP

23 kzp 56 epkplq;fs; fs;

nrt;tha; tha;

687 ehs;fs; fs;

22.79 Nfhb fp.kP


tpahod;

11Mz;Lfs; Lfs; 10khjq; 10khjq;fs; fs;

77.83 Nfhb fp.kP


rdp

29Mz;Lfs; Lfs; 5khjq; 5khjq;fs; fs;

142.7 Nfhb fp.kP


ANud];

84Mz;Lfs; Lfs;

287.1 Nfhb fp.kP

(-) 17 kzp 14 epkplq;fs; fs;

neg;bAd; bAd; 164Mz;Lfs; Lfs; 9khjq; 9khjq;fs; fs; 449.7 Nfhb fp.kP 16 kzp (-) Fwpapl;l nts;sp sp kw;Wk; Wk; ANud]; Nfhs;fs; fs; jw;Row; Row;rpapy; rpapy; fpof;fpypUe; fpypUe;J Nkw;fhfr; fhfr; Rw;Wfpd; Wfpd;wd. wd. Mdhy; kw;w midj;Jf; Jf; Nfhs;fSk; fSk; jw; jw;Row; Row;rpapy; rpapy; Nkw; Nkw;fpypUe; fpypUe;J fpof;fhfr; fhfr; Rw; Rw;Wfpd; Wfpd;wd. wd. Mjhuk; : : NASA-USA

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re;jpud; jpud; R+hpaid Neubahfr; Rw;Wtjpy; Wtjpy;iy. iy. mJ G+kpiaj;jhd; jhd; Rw;wp wp tUfpwJ. vdNt re; jpuidj; jpuidj; Jizf;Nfhs; Nfhs; vd vd miof;fpd; fpd;wdh; wdh;. re;jpud; jpud; G+kpapd; G+kpapd; tpl; tpl;lj; lj;jpy; jpy; Rkhh; Rkhh; fhy;gq; gq;F msT kl;LNk LNk cs;s NfhskhFk; . G+kpf;F kpf mUNf cs;sjhy; sjhy;jhd; jhd; mJ nghpjhfg; Gyg;gLfpwJ. gLfpwJ. mJ ruhrhp 3>84>401 fp.kP njhiytpy; G+kpiar; G+kpiar; Rw; Rw;wp wp tUfpwJ. re;jpud; jpud; G+kpiar; Rw;wptu wptu Vwj;jho jho 27.3 ehs; fs; fs; vLj;Jf; Jf; nfhs;fpwJ. fpwJ. re;jpud; jpud; jd; jd;idj; idj;jhNd jhNd Rw;wpf; wpf;nfhs; nfhs;s Vwj;jho jho 27.3 ehs;fs; fs; vLj; vLj;Jf; Jf; nfhs; nfhs;fpwJ. fpwJ. vdNtjhd; G+kpapypUe; G+kpapypUe;J ghh;j; j;jhy; jhy; re; re;jpudpd; jpudpd; xU xU gf;fk; fk; kl; kl;LNk LNk njhpfpwJ. re;jpudpd; jpudpd; kWgf;fj; fj;ij ij Yhdh 3 vd;w nraw;iff; iff;Nfhs; Nfhs;jhd; jhd; 1959 ,y; Kjd; Kjypy; Gifg;glk; glk; vLj;jJ. jJ. G+kpapy; cs;sJ sJ Nghd;w tspkz;lyk; lyk; ,y;iy. iy. re;jpudpy; jpudpy;
vhpel;rj; rj;jpuk; jpuk; : : ,uT thdpy; jpBnud jpBnud vhpel;rj; rj;jpuk; jpuk; vdg; vdg;gLk; gLk; cspf; cspf;fP fPw; wiwf; i ; wf;  fhzyhk;. ,it cz;ikapy; ikapy; fP fPNo No tpOk; tpz; tpz;kP kPd; dfs; f ; s; my; my;y. y.  rpwpa ghiwfs; ntFNtfkhf CLUTk; NghJ tsp  kz;lyj; lyj;NjhL NjhL Vw;gLk; gLk; cuha;tpdhy; tpdhy; vhpe;J xsph;fpwJ. fpwJ. ,JNt xspf;fP fPw; wwha; w ; ha;g; g Gyg; ; Gyg;gLfpwJ. gLfpwJ. thy; el; el;rj; rj;jpuk; jpuk; : : gdp> JhR Kjypa nghUs; fs; fs; epiwe;j gdpg;ghiwjhd; ghiwjhd;  mJ. R+hpaDf;F mUNf mJ tUk;NghJ NghJ gdp cUfp MtpahjyhYk;> R+hpaxsp gpujpg; gypg; gypg;gjhYk; gjhYk; thy; Nghy; ePz; zL ; Njhd;WfpwJ. WfpwJ. thy; el;rj; rj;jpuj; jpuj;jpd; jpd; thy; vg;NghJk; NghJk; R+hpaDf;F  vjph;j; jjpirapy; j ; pirapy; mikAk; mikAk;. N`ypthy; el; el;rj; rj;jpuk; jpuk; 76 76 tUlq;fSf; fSf;F xUkiw Njhd;Wk; Wk;.  Last - 1986 : Next - 2062. Nguz;lk; lk; : :  gy Nfhbf;fzf; fzf;fhd fhd tpz;kP kd; d P fspd; f ; spd; njhFjpNa mz;lk; lk; vdg;gLk; gLk;.  gy Nfhbf;fzf; fzf;fhd fhd mz;lq; lq;fisf; nfhz;l njhFjpNa Nguz;lkhFk; lkhFk; .  Nguz;lj; lj;jpy; jpy; fhzg;gLk; gLk; gy;NtW NtW mz;lq; lq;fspd; fspd; xd;W ghy;tsp tsp mz;lk; lk; MFk; MFk;. ghy;ntsp ntsp mz;lk; lk; : :  R+hpad; cl; cl; gl gl fz;fSf; fSf;Fg; Fg; Gyg; Gyg;gLk; gLk; tpz; tpz;kP kPd; dfs; f ; s; vy; vy; yhk; yhk; ghy;ntsp ntsp mz;lj; lj;ijr; ijr; (Milk Way Galaxy) rhh;e; ejit. j ; it. ,jid ekJ Kd; Ndhh; Ndhh; ghy;ntsp ntsp (Milk Way) vdTk;>  Mfha fq;if if vdTk; mioj; mioj;jdh; jdh;.

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G+kp Xh; caph; caph;f; fNfhsk; N ; fhsk; : : R+hpadplkpUe;J %d;whtJ whtJ Nfhsfg; G+kp mike;Js; Js;sJ. sJ.  nts;spAk; spAk;> GjDk; kpFe; kpFe;j ntg;gk; gk; nfhz; nfhz;l Nfhs;fs; fs;. nrt;tha; tha;> tpahod;> rdp> ANud];> neg;bA+d; bA+d;> Mfpa  Nfhs;fs; fs; R+HpadpypUe;J ntF njhiytpy; ,Ug;gjhy; gjhy; fLq;Fsph; Fsph; epyTfpwJ. epyTfpwJ. G+kpapy; kl;LNk LNk ePUk; Uk;> fhw;Wk; Wk; cfe;j ntg;g epiyAk;  ,Ug;gjhy; gjhy; caph; caph;fs; fs; cUthfpg; cUthfpg; ngUFfpd; ngUFfpd;wd. wd. 1. njhiyNehf;fpapy; fpapy; kl; kl;LNk LNk Gyg;gLk; gLk; Nfhs; Nfhs; m) Gjd; M) ANud]; ,) tpahod; tpil : M 2. vy;yhf; yhf; Nfhs;fSk; fSk; R+hpaid R+hpaid ................ apy; tUfpd; wd. tUfpd;wd. m) tl;lg; lg;ghij ghij M) ePs; stl; t ; l;lg; lg;ghij ghij ,) rJug;ghij ghij tpil : M 3. FWq;Nfhs; Nfhs;fspd; fspd; ghij ghij ................ m) G+kpf;Fk; Fk; nrt; nrt;tha; tha;f; fFk; F ; k; ,ilNa ,ilNa M) nrt;tha; tha;f; fFk; F ; k; tpahoDf; tpahoDf;Fk; Fk; ,ilNa ,ilNa ,) tahoDf;Fk; Fk; rdpf; rdpf;Fk; Fk; ,ilNa tpil : M



Rw;wp wp

Rod;Wk; Wk; Rw; Rw;wpAk; wpAk; tUk; tUk; G+kp G+kp G+kp vg;NghJk; NghJk; gw;gy gy ,af;fq; fq;fs; efh;Tfisf; Tfisf; nfhz; nfhz;lJ. lJ. ,tw;Ws; Ws; jw;Row; Row;rp rp (Rotation) kw;Wk; Wk; R+hpaidr; Rw;wp wp tUjy; ( (Revolution) Mfpa ,af;fq; fq;fs; fs; Kf; Kf;fpakhdit. fpakhdit.

jw;Row; Row;rp rp (Rotation) :  Rkhh; 23 Kjy; 56 epkplj;jpw; jpw;F xUKiw G+kp jd;idj; idj;jhNd jhNd Rw;wpf; wpf; nfhs; nfhs;fpwJ. fpwJ.  ,jd; fhuzkhfj; fhuzkhfj;jhd; jhd; gfy; gfy; ,uT khw; wk; wk; Vw; Vw;gLfpwJ. gLfpwJ.  ,e;jpahtpd; jpahtpd; gfyhf ,Uf; Fk; Fk;NghJ NghJ G+kpapd; kWgf;fk; fk; cs;s mnkhpf;fhtpy; fhtpy; ,uTg; ,uTg;nghOjhf nghOjhf ,Uf; Fk; Fk;.  Mhpag; gl; gl;lh lh ,th; gz;ila ila ,e;jpa jpa thdtpay; mwpQh;fSs; fSs; xUth;> ,th; G+kp jd;idj; idj;jhNd jhNd Rw;WfpwJ WfpwJ vd;W mwptpay; topapy; topapy; tpsf; tpsf;fpf; fpf; $wpdhh; $wpdhh;.  G+kp jd;idj; idj;jhNd jhNd Rw;WtJ WtJ kl;Lkpy; Lkpy;yhky; yhky; R+hpaid ePs; stl; t ; l;l tbtg; ghijapy; ghijapy; Rw; Rw;wp wp tUfpwJ.  Rw;wp wp 365.24 ehs;fs; fs; nfhz; nfhz;lJ lJ Xh; Mz; Mz;L MFk;.  G+kpapd; Roy; mr;R G+kp R+hpaidr; Rw;wp wp tUk; jsj;jpy; jpy; Neh;Fj; Fj;jpw; jpw;F 23 ½0 rha;e; eJs; J ; s;sJ. sJ. ,g;gb gb rha;thf thf ,Ug;gjhy; gjhy;jhd; jhd; gUt fhy khw; wk; wk;  Vw;gLfpwJ. gLfpwJ. R+hpaidr; Rw; Rw; ;wptUjy; wptUjy; (Revolution (Revolution)) : Rw Rw (  Nfhilf;fhyk; fhyk;> tre;jfhyk; jfhyk;> Fsph;fhyk; fhyk;> ,iyAjph;fhyk; fhyk; vd ehd;F gUt fhyq; fs; fs; cs; cs;sd. sd. G+kp R+hpaidr; Rw; Rw;wp wp tUk; Rw; Rw;Wg; Wg;ghij ghij ePs; stl; t ; l;lkhdJ. lkhdJ.  xUrkak; G+kp R+hpaDf; F mUNf mikAk;. xU rkak;  R+hpaDf;Fj; Fj; njhiytpy; njhiytpy; mikAk; mikAk;. iy 4> khjj;jpy; jpy; G+kp R+hpaDf; F  (aphelion) nghJthf [P iy ntFnjhiytpy; ,Uf;Fk; Fk;> [dthp 3> khjj;jpy; jpy; jpd mUNf ,Uf;Fk; Fk; (perihelion). tlNfhsj;jpy; jpy; cs;s jkpofj;jpy; jpy; brk;gh; gh; khjk;  Fsph;fhykhf fhykhf ,Uf; Fk; Fk;. mNj rkak; njf;Nfhsj; Nfhsj;jpy; jpy; cs;s M];jpNuypahTf; jpNuypahTf;F NfhilfhykhFk; . tlNfhsj;jpy; jpy; Nfhilf;fhyk; fhyk; vd;why; why; njd;Nfhsj; Nfhsj;jpy; jpy;  Fsph;fhyk; fhyk;> tlNfhsj;jpy; jpy; Fsph; fhyk; vd;why; why; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; jpy; Nfhil Nfhil fhyk; vd vd khwpkhwp mikAk; .

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G+kpapd; mr;R rha;thf ,Ug;gjhy; gUtfhy khw; wk; Vw;gLfpwJ. ,uz;L ehs;fs; kpfr; rhpahff; fpof;F Kfkhfr; R+hpad; cjpf;Fk;. ,JNt rk ,uT gfy; ehs;fs; (Equinox). khh;r; 21 kw;Wk; nrg;lk;gh; 23 Mfpa ,U ehs; fs; rk ,uT - gfy; ehs;fshf ,Uf;Fk;. brk;gh; 22> M];jpNuypahtpy; Nfhil vdNt mq; Ff; fpwp];Jk]; gz;bif Nfhil tpohthf mikfpwJ. jkpo; kugpd;gb gUt fhyq;fs; xt;nthd;Wk; ,uz;L khjq;fs;nfhz;l MW gUtfhyq; fshf cs;sd. fhh; (kio)> Fsph; > Kd;gdp> gpd;gdp> ,sNtdpy;> KJNtdpy; vd;gitjhk; ,e;j MW gUtfhyq; fs;. cyfyhtpa ghh;itapy; ehd;F gUtfhyq;fis tFj;Js;shh;fs;. mit ,iyAjph;fhyk;> Nfhilfhyk;> tre;jfhyk;> Fsph;fhyk; vd;git MFk;.

1. G+kpapd; mr;R................bfphp bfphp rha;e e;;Js;sJ 0 0 m) 23½ M) 66½ ,) 900 tpil : m 2. G+kp jd;idj;jhNd Rw;Wtjhy; Vw;gLk; Lk; tpisT m) gUtfhy khw;wk; M) ,uTg;gfy; khw;wk; ,) njd; Xl;lk; tpil : M 3. yPg; Mz;by; gpg;uthp khjj;jpYs;s ehs;fs; m) 28 M) 29 ,) 27 tpil : M







ehk; thOk; G+kp Rw;wpAs;s epyg;gFjpfistplr; rw;Nw caukhfTk; mjd; Nkw;gFjp jl;ilahfTk; cs;s epymikg;G gPlG+kp vdg;gLfpwJ. jpngj; gPlG+kpjhd; cyfpd; kpf caukhd gPlG+kp MFk;. gue;J tphpe;J jho;thd rkkhd epyg; gug;G rkntsp vdg;gLfpwJ. fq;if MW ghAk; tl ,e;jpag; gFjp cyfpd; Kf;fpar; rkntspfspy; xd;W. Mrpah> Mg;hpf;fh> tlmnkhpf;fh> njd;mnkhpf;fh> INuhg;gh> M];jpNuypah> mz;lhh;l;bfh vd nkhj;jk; VO fz;lq;fs; cyfpy; cs;sd.

VO fz;lq;fs; : 1. Mrpah  VO fz;lq;fspy; kpfg; nghpaJ Mrpah. ,J G+kpapd; tlmiuf;Nfhsj;jpy; cs;sJ.  ehk; thOk; ,e;jpah Mrpahf; fz;lj;jpy; cs;sJ. Nfhgp Fsph;ghiytdk;> caukhd ,kakiyj;njhlh; Kjypait ,f;fz;lj;jpy; cs;sd. 2. Mg;gp;hpf;fh  gug;gstpy; ,J ,uz;lhtJ nghpa fz;lk; MFk;.  epyeLf;NfhL ,e;jf; fz;lj;ij ,uz;lhfg; gphpf;fpwJ.  cyfpy; kpf ePskhd iey;ejp (6695 fp.kP) ,f;fz;lj;jpy; gha;fpwJ.  kpfg;nghpa ghiytdkhd rfhuhTk; ,f;fz;lj;jpy;jhd; cs;sJ. 3. tlmnkhpf;fh  ml;yhz;bf;> grpgpf; kw;Wk; Mh;bf; ngUq;fly;fshy; R+og;gl;l fz;lk; ,J. ,jd; Nkw;Fg; gFjpapYs;s uhf;fp kiyj;njhlh; kpf ePzl ; kiyj;njhlh;. 4. njd; mnkhpf;fh  cyfpd; ePykhd Mz;b]; kiyj;njhlh; ,e;jf; fz;lj;jpy;jhd; cs;sJ. cyfpd; kpf mfd;w mNkrhd; MW (6586 fp.kP ePsk;) ,f;fz;lj;jpy; cs;sJ.

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5. INuhg;gh Mrpahtpd; Nkw;Fg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s fz;lk; ,J.  My;g;] ; kiyj;njhlh; INuhg;ghtpy; cs;sJ 6. M];jpNuypah ehd;F gf;fKk; fly;fshy; R+og;gl;l M];jpNuypah  xU jPTf; fz;lk; (Island ,f;fz;lk; Continent) . epA+rpyhe;J> gp[p Nghd;w gy jPTfisf; nfhz;lJ.  gp[pj; jPTfs;> ghg;Gth> epA+fpdpah Kjypa jP Tfs; nghJthf xrpahdpaj; jPTfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd.  fpNul; ghhpah; hPg ; vdg;gLk; cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa gtsg;ghiw M];jpNuypaf; flw;fiwapy; cs;sJ. 7. mz;lhh;l;bfh  ngd;Fapd; gwit> rPy; Nghd;w caphpdq;fspd; tho;tplk; ,J.  ,q;F Ma;Tfs; Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf jl;rpz; fq;Nfhj;hp ikj;Nuap kw;Wj; ghujp (2012) vDk; Ma;Tf; FbapUg;Gfis ek; ehL epWtpAs; sJ. jPT :  ehd;F gf;fq;fSk; ePuhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjpiaj; jPT vdf; $WfpNwhk;. ngUq;fly;fs;  G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; Rkhh; 71rjtPjk; (%d;wpy; ,uz;L gq;F) ePh ; cs;sJ.  cyfpy; Ie;J ngUq;fly;fs; cs;sd.  mit grpgpf; ngUq;fly;> ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly;> ,e;jpag; ngUq;fly;> Mh;bf; ngUq;fly; kw;Wk; mz;lhh;bf; ngUq;fly;.  jkpofj;jpd; fpof;Nf cs;s gFjpia tq;fhs tphpFlh vdTk;> Nfusj;jpd; Nkw;Nf cs;s fly; gFjpia mugpf;fly; vdTk; $WfpNwhk;. grpgpf; ngUq;fly; :  cyfpd; Mokhd ngUq; fly; grpgpf;ngUq;fly;jhd;.  vhpkiyfs; neUg;Gf; Fok;igf; ff;Ftjhy; ,g;gFjp grpgpf; neUg;G tisak; (Pacific Ring of Fire) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahdh mfop (Mariana Trench) vDk; fly;gFjp. ,g;ngUq;flypy;jhd; cs;sJ Mok; 111nr.kP.  ,e;j khpahdh mfop vDk; gs;sj;jpw;Fs; ,kakiyapd; vtnu];L rpfuk;$l mkpo;eJ ; tpLk; mt;tsT Mok;. ml;yhz;bf; ngUq;fly; ,J cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ ngUq;fly; kpf typik nfhz; l  R+whtspfs; ,g;ngUq;flypy;jhk; mjpfkhfj; Njhd;Wfpd;wd ,e;jpag; ngUq;fly; ,J cyfpd; %d;whtJ nghpa ngUq; fly; ,g;ngUq;flypy; cUthFk; gUtf; fhw;W kioapdhy;jhd; ,e;jpah tsk; ngWfpwJ.

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mz;lhh; lhh;lb ; f; ngUq;fly; (South Ocean - 550South) njd;JUtg; gFjpapy; cs;s mz;lhh; ;bfh fz;lj;ijr; Rw;wpg; gue;Js;s fly; njd; ngUq;fly; vdg;gLfpwJ. ,jid mz;lhh;bf; ngUq;fly; vd;Wk; miog;gh;. Mh;bf; ngUq;fly; tlJUtg; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s Mh;bf; ngUq;fly; MFk;.

kpfr; rpwpa

ngUq;fly;

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epyg;gFjpfs; nfhz;l G+kpapd; Nkw;gFjp epyf;Nfhsk; ; Njq;fpa gFjpfs; ; ePh;fN ; fhsk; (Lithosphere) vdTk;> ePh ; gFjp tspkz;lyk; (Hydrosphere) vdTk; fhw;W glh;ej (Atmosphere) vd;Wk; $wg;gLk;.  ,uz;L ePhg ; ;gug;Gfis ,izf;Fk; FWfpa ePhg ; g ; Fjpf;F ePh;rr ; e;jp vd;W ngah;. ,e;jpah> ,yq;if ,uz;Lf;Fk; ,ilapy; cs;sJ ghf; ePhr ; ;re;jp (Palk Strait). epyf;Nfhsk;> eP hf ; ;Nfhsk; kw;Wk; tspkz;lyk; vDk; %d;W  Nfhsq;fspd; $l;L tpisTjhd; caph;f;Nfhsk; (Biosphere) MFk;. flypy; kP df ; s; kl; Lky;yhky; kPdf ; Sf;F czthf cs;s  gpshq; fl ; d; vdg;gLk; fly; caphpfSk; cs;sd. tphpe;j ,uz;L epyg;gug;GfSld; kpff; FWfpa epyg; gug;G  ,ize;jpUe;jhy; mjid epyr;re;jp (Isthmus) vd miog;gh;. njd; mnkhpf;fh kw;Wk; tl mikhpf; fhit ,izg;gJ gdhkh epyr; re;jp MFk;.  ,Uk;G> epf;fy; cNyhfq;fs; ,e;j (Nife) Nghd;w ikag;gFjpapy; nrwpthf ,Uf; fpd;wd ,jid G+kpf;fU (Core) vdf; $WfpNwhk;.  ikaf;fUtpw; F Nky; nkd; ,ilkz;lyk; (Mantle) vd;w mLf;F ,Uf;fpwJ. Mg;gpspd; Njhy;Nghy kpf nky;ypa Nky;mLf;F G+kp XL  (Crust) vdg;gLfpwJ.  ngUq;fly; mbapy; Xl; bd; jbkd; Rkhh; 5 Kjy; 10 fp.kP. tiukl;LNk. Mdhy; fz;lq;fs; cs;s gFjpapy; Xl;bd; jbkd; Rkhh; 30 Kjy; 50 fp.kP. tiu MFk;. 1. ehd;F gf;fKk; flyhy; R+og;gl;l epyg;gFjp m) ePh;rr ; e;jp M) jPT ,) jPgfw;gk; tpil : M 2. cyfpd; kpf Mokhd khpahd mfop mike; Js;s ngUq;fly; m) grpgpf; M) ml;yhz;bf; ,) Mh;bf; tpil : m 3. ,yq;if xU m) jPT M) jPgfw;gk; ,) ePhr ; ;re;jp tpil : m



G+kpapd; ikaj;jpy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; NfhL epyeLf; NfhL (Equator) (G+kj;jpa Nuif) vdg;gLk;.  G+kpapd; nkhj;jf;Nfhz msT 3600 MFk;. epyeLf;NfhL 00 ml;rf;Nfhlhf mikfpwJ. ,J Kf; fpa ml;rf;NfhL.  Kjd; Kjyhf tiuglj;jpy; ml;rf;NfhL jPh;ff ; f;NfhLfis tiue;jth; lhykp fp.gp.2 Mk; Ehw;whz;by; tho;ej ; fpNuf;f thdtpay; mwpQh;.  00 ml;rf;Nfhl;Lf;F tlf;Nf cs;s G+kpg;gug;igj; tl miuf;Nfhsk; vd;gh;.  njw;Nf cs;s G+kpg;gug;ig njd; miuf;Nfhsk; vd;gh;. ,yz;ldpy; cs;s fphPd;tpr; vd;fpw ,lj;jpy; xU  thdtpay; Muha;r;rpf;$lk; mike;Js;sJ.  mjd; topNa nry;Yk; jPhf ; ;ff;NfhL 00 jPhf ; ;ff;NfhL MFk;. 0 ,e;jpah 8 t.ml;rf;NfhL Kjy; 370 t.ml;rf;NfhL  tiuAk; 680 fp.jPhf ; ;ff; NfhL Kjy; 970 fp.jPhf ; f ; f;NfhL tiuAk; gutpAs;sJ. 1. cyf cUz;ilapy; fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gid NfhLfspd; ngah; m) ml;rf;NfhL M) G+kp mr;R ,) jPhf ; ;ff;NfhL tpil : m 2. 0o jP jPhf ; f ; f;NfhL vd;gJ m) fphpd;tPrN ; fhL M) ml;rf;NfhL ,) G+kp mr;R tpil : m 3. ehLfs;> fz;lq;fs;> jiyefuq; jiyefuq;fs; Nghd;wtw;iw cs;slf;fpa tiuglj;ij ................ vd vd miog;gh; m) ,aw;if mikg;G tiuglk; M) murpay; tiuglk; ,) fUj;Jrhh; tiuglk; tpil : M

 

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tiuglq;fSk; cyf cUz;ilAk; G+kpapd; tbtk; jdpj;jd;ik tha;ej ; J. Mq;fpyj;jpy; mij [paha;l; (Geoid) vd;fpwhh;fs;.

tiuglq;fspd; tiffs; tiffs; kiyfs; > gPlg+kpfs;> MWfs;> fly;fs; Nghd;w ,aw;iff; $Wfis tiue;J fhl;LtJ ,aw;if mikg;G tiuglq;fs; (Physical maps) vdg;gLk;.  ehLfs; > khepyq;fs;> khtl;lq;fs;> efuq;fs;> fpuhkq;fs; ,tw;wpd; vy;iyfisf; fhl;b tiuag;gLk; glq;fs; murpay; tiuglq;fs; (Political maps) vdg;gLk;. ntg;gepiyiaf; Fwpf;Fk; tiuglk; fhLfisg; gw;wp  kl;L;k ; fhl;Lk; tiuglk; fUj;Jr;rhh; tiuglq;fs; (Thematic maps) vdg;gL;k;.  G+kp jdJ mr;rpy; 23½ bfphp rha;eJ ; Roy;fpwJ. cyf cUz;ilapy; (tiuglj;jpYk;$l) fpiltrkhf  my;yJ fpof;F Nkw;fhfr; nry;Yk; fw;gidf; Nfhl;bw;F ml;rf;NfhL (Latitude) vd;W ngah;.  nrq;Fj;jhf my;yJ njw;F tlf;fhfr; nry;Yk; Nfhl;bw;Fj; jPhf ; ;ff;NfhL (Longitude) vd;W ngah;. 

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Gtp mjd; mikg;G kw;Wk; epy efh; Tfs; ngU ntbg;Gf; nfhs;if (Big Bang Theory) Nfhl;ghNl ngUk;ghd;ikapduhy; Vw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gl;l xd;whFk;. 10 gpy;ypad; Kjy; 20 gpy;ypad; Mz;LfSf;F Kd;G fh];kpf; ntbg;G epfo;ej ; J. ,e;epfo;Nt ngU ntbg;Gf; nfhs;if MFk;. ,g;Nguz;lkhdJ ,d;Dk; tphptile;J nfhz;Ljhd; tUfpwJ vd mnkhpf; f thdpiy Muha;r;rpahsh; vl;tpd; `gps; tpsf;fpdhh;. Nk khjk; 30> 2010 Mk; Mz;L ek;Kila mwptpay; mwpQh;fs; yhh;r ; n`l;uhd; nfhyha;lh; (Large Hadron Collider-LHC) Rtpl;rh;yhe;J vd;w fUtpia cUthf; fp ngU ntbg;Gf; nfhs;ifia ghpNrhjid nra;J ghh;jj ; hh;fs;. (flTspd; Jfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ-`pf;]; Ngh]hd;)

fz;lq;fs; kw;Wk; Nguh Nguhopfs; cUthFjy; jw;nghOJ cs;s midj;J fz;lq;fSk; njd; JUtj;jpy;  xd;wpize;J ,Ue;jJ. ,g;nghpa epyg;gug;ig ghd;[pah (Pangea) vd;W miof;fg;gl;lJ.  ,e;epyg;gug;ig Rw;wp ,Ue;j nghpa Nguhopia nge; jyhrh my;yJ gpuk;khz;lkhd Nguhop vd;W (Penthalasa) miof;fg;gl;lJ. ghd;[pah gy jl;Lfshf cile;jJ. ,t;thW cile;j  jl;LfNs epyf;Nfhs; jl;Lfs; (Lithiphere Plate) vd mwpag;gLfpwJ.  ghd;[pah VO nghpa jl; LfshfTk; cilgl;Ls;sd. ANurpah> mz;lhh;bfh> tl mnkhpf;fh> njd; mnkhpf;fh>

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grpgpf;> Mg;gphpf;fh kw;Wk; ,e;Njh-M];jpNuypah Nghd;wit nghpa jl;LfshFk;. G+kpapd; cs;sikg;G G+kp (cs;sikg;G) mikg;G gw;wpa Nfhl;ghl;il Kjypy;  Kjypy; cUthf;fpatH Irf; epA+l;ld; MthH. Ntjpg;nghUl;fspd; fl;likg;G kw;Wk; gz;Gfspd;  mbg;gilapy; %d;W mLf;Ffshf gphpf; fg;gLfpwJ. mitfs; G+kp NkNyhLfs; > ftrk; kw;Wk; fUtk; MFk;. #a]; vd;w M];jphpah ehl;bd; Gtp mikg;gpay; ty; YdH  NkNyhL> ftrk; kw;Wk; fUtj;jpw;F rpahy;> rpkh kw;Wk; ie/g; vd KiwNa ngahpl;Ls;sdH. NkNyhL G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;G NkNyhL (Crust) my;yJ epyf;Nfhsk;  (Lithosphere) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. fz;lj;jpd; Nky; mLf;fhdJ rpahy; ;(SIAL) vd;W  miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  ,J rpypf;fh kw;Wk; mYkpdpaj;hyhdJ. flyb NkNyhL grhy;l ; mLf;Ffshy; cUthdjhFk;. ,ij rpkh ( SIMA) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J rpypf; fh kw;Wk; nkf;dr P paj;jhy; MdJ. rpahy; mLf;fhdJ rpkh mLf; fpd; kPJ kpje;J nfhz;L  cs;sJ. NkNyhl;bd; ruhrhp mlHj; jp vz; 3 MFk;.  ftrk; ftrk; G+kpapd; NkNyhl;bw;Fk; fUtj;jpw;Fk; ,ilapy;  mike;Js;sJ. ,f;ftrk; G+kpapd; vilapy; 83 rjtPji ; j nfhz;Ls;sJ.  ,t;tLf;fpd; Nkw;gFjpia m];jpNdh];gpaH  (Asthenosphere) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,f;ftr mLf;fpd; fPog ; ;gFjp Fok;G (Magma) epiyiaAk;  kw;Wk; nefpOk; j d;ikiaAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. ,jd; ruhrhp mlHj;jp vz; 8 MFk;. fUtk; G+kpapd; cs;ika mLf;if fUtk; my;yJ Nghp];gpaH  (Barysphere ) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  epf;fy; kw;Wk;l ,Uk;G ,Ug;gjd; fhuzkhf ,ij ie/g; (NIFE) vdTk; $wg;gLfpwJ.  ,tw;wpy; ,uz;L gphpTfs; cs;sd mitfs; ntspf;fUtk; kw;Wk; cl;fUtk; MFk;. ntspf;fUtkhdJ jput epiyapYk; > cl;fUtkhdJ  Rw;wpAs;s mLf;fspd; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhf nghUl; fs; jplepiyapYk; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jd; ruhrhp mlHj;jp vz; 12 MFk;. Gtpapd; ikag;gFjpapd; ntg;gepiy ntg;gepiyahdJ Gtpapd; ikag;gFjpapy;  0 ntg;gepiyahdJ 5000 C ,Uf;Fk; vd kjpg;gplg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,ay;ghd ngUtpfpj (Normal Gain Rate) ntg;gepiyahdJ  xt;nthU 32 kPll ; h; Moj;jpw;Fk; 10C mjpfhpf;fpwJ. vz;Nlhn[dpf; (my;yJ) cs; ,af;f rf;jp GtpNahl;bd; kPJ nghpasT khw; wq;fs;  vz;Nlhn[dpf; my;yJ fz;l efh;Tfs; Movements)

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mq;fhuh kw;Wk; Nfhz;Lthdh vd;w ,uz;L nghpa epyg;gFjpfSf;F ,ilNa mike;jpUe;j Mok; Fiwe;j fly; gFjp nlj;jp]; MFk;. ilal;Nuhg;gp]k; my;yJ nkJthf efh; jy; vgpNuhn[dpd; my;yJ fz;l Mf;f efh;T nrq;Fj;J efh;thdJ G+kpapd; NkNyhl;L gFjpia  Nky;Nehf;fp my;yJ fPoN ; ehf;fp gytPdkhd Nfhl;bd; topahf nry;tijNa gpsTfs; (Faults) vd;fpNwhk;.  gpsTNfhl;bw;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk; gFjp Nky; Nehf;fp js;sg;gl;lhy; mJ xU gpjph; T kiy (Block Mountain) my;yJ gPlG+kp (Plateau) vdTk; khwhf fPoN ; ehf;fp js;sg;gl;lhy; mij gpsT gs; sj;jhf;F  nfhg;giu (Basin of Rift Valley) vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  G+kpapd; NkNyhl;by; kpfg; nghpastpw;F nrq;Fj;J efh;T Vw;gLtij fz;l Mf;f my;yJ vgpNuhn[dpf; efh;T vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  Mg;gphpf;fhtpd; nghpa gpsT gs; sj;jhf;F nfhg;giu kw;Wk; eh;kjh gs;sj;jhf;F Mfpad ,t;tifahd tb epyq;fSf;Fr; rpwe;j cjhuzq;fs; MFk;. xNuhn[dpf; my;yJ kiyahf;f efh;T  rhjhuz kbg;Gfs; xU Nky; tisitAk; (Anticline) kw;Wk; xU fPo ; tisitAk; (Syncline) nfhz;bUf;Fk;. GtpNahl;by; kpfg;nghpa mstpw;F fpilkl;l efh;T  Vw;gLtij kiyahf;f efh;T vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ> cjhuzk; ,kakiy. vf;N]hn[dpf; my;yJ ntsp ,af;f rf;jp epyeLf;fq;fs;  ,J ,kakiy epyeLf; fk; (Volcanic Earthquake) kw;Wk; fz;l efh;T epyeLf;fk; vd (Tectonic Earthquake) ,Utifg; gLk;.  epyeLf; fk; Njhd;Wk; ,lj;ij epyeLf;f ikak; (Focus) vd;Wk; ,k;ikaj;jpw;F Neh; vjpNu G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy;  mike;jpUf;Fk; Gs;sp ntsp ikak; (Epicenter) vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  rP]N ; khfpuhk; vd;w fUtpiaf; nfhz;L epyeLf;fj;jpd; miyfs; gjpT nra;ag;gLfpwJ.  ,e;epyeLf;fj;ij kjpg;gL P nra;a msTNfhs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. epyeLf;f miyfspd; tiffs; tiffs;  ,t;tiyfis cl;Gw miyfs; (Body wavws) vd;Wk; Nkw;Gw miyfs; (Surface Wavws) vd;W ,Utifahf gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. P miy cl;Gw miyfis ,uz;L tifahf gphpf; fyhk;.  Kjy;epiy miyfs; my;yJ P miyfs; kpf Ntfkhf  gazpf;fpwJ. ,it xyp miyfisg; Nghd;Nw thA> jput kw;Wk; jpl epiyapYs;s nghUl;fspy; CLUtpr; nry;Yk;.  P miyfs; gazk; nra;Ak; jpirapYs;s G+kpapd; nghUl;fis Kd;Dk; gpd;Dk; mOj;jpf; nfhz;L nry;fpwJ. ,J xU nehbf; F 8 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazpf;fpwJ. miy S miy  ,uz;lhk; epiy miyfs; my;yJ S miyfs;> ,itfs; P miyfis tpl nkJthf gazpg;git.  ,it jpl epiyapy; cs;s nghUl;fspy; kl;LNk CLUtpr; nry;Yk; jd;ikAilaJ.

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jhd; gazk; nra;Ak; jpirapy; cs;s G+kpapd; nghUl;fis nrq;Nfhz jpirapy; mirj;J nfhz;L nry;Yk;. xU nehbf;F 5 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazk; nra;af;$bajhFk;.  L miy  Nkw;Gw miyfs; epyeLf;fkhdpapy; ,Wjpahf gjpthfpwJ. ,it G+kpapy; kpf mjpfg;gbahd mopTfs; Vw;gLtjw;F fhuzkhf mikfpwJ.  ,ij L-miyfs; vd;Wk; mwpag;gLfpwJ. ,t;tiyfs; xU nehbf;F 4 fp.kP Ntfj;jpy; gazk; nra;fpwJ. vhpkiyfs;  G+kpapd; cl;gFjpapypUe;J ntg;gkhd ghiwf; Fok;ig (Magma) xU jpwg;G (Vent) my;yJ Jis topNa G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ gbaitg;gij vhpkiy vd;fpNwhk;. mt;thW ckpOk; (Eruption) ghiwf;Fok;G yhth (Lava)  vd vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. vhpkiyfspd; tiffs; tiffs; nray;glk; vhpkiyfs;  `tha; jPtpy; cs;s Nkhdh Nyhth cyfpNyNa kpfg;nghpa nray;gLk; vhpkiy MFk; .  ,e;jpahtpy; xs;s xNu xU nray;gLk; vhpkiy ghud; (me;jkhd;) jPtpy; cs;sJ.  ,e;jpahtpYs;s jf;fhz gPlG+kpapd; tlNkw;F gFjpahdJ vhpkiy Fok;ghy; cUthf;fg;gl;lhjhFk;. vhpkiyfspd; tiffs; tiffs; vhpkiyfs;

nray;gLk; jzpe;j capuw;w jzpe;j vhpkiyfs;  ,t;tif vhpkiyfs; cwq;Fk; vhpkiyfs; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  ,j;jhypapYs;s ntR+tpay; (Vesuvius) vhpkiy kw;Wk; `tha; jPtpYs;s nksdfpah (Mauna Kea) vhpkiyfis cjhuzkhf $wyhk;. capuw;w vhpkiyfs;  ,t;tif vhpkiyfis ,we; j vhpkiyfs; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  Mg;hpf;fhtpy; cs;s kTz;l ; fpspkhQ;Nuh kw;Wk; ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s ehh;fz;lk; jPT Mfpatw;iwf;$wyhk;. ,J tlf;F me;jkhd; jPtpd; tlfpof;F gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ.  jkpo;ehl;bYs;s Gfo;ngw;w jpUtz;zhkiy Fd;W kw;Wk; Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpYs;s gdfh Fd;W Mfpad ,we;j vhpkiyfshf fUjg; gLfpwJ.  ePh; epuk;gpa vhpkiy thia ngUtha; Vhp vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 1. ................ Nfhspy; Nfhspy; kl;Lk;jhd; caphpdq;fs; cs;sd m) G+kp M) nts;sp ,) nrt;tha; <) Gjd; tpil : m 2. ghd;[pah ................ nghpa nghpa jl;Lf;fshf cilgl;Ls;sJ m) 6 M) 7 ,) 10 <) 12 tpil : M 3. G+kp ................ epiyahdjhf ,y;iy m) fUtk; M) ie/g; ,) NkNyhL <) ftrk; tpil : , 4. Gtp NkNyhl;by; kpfg;nghpa mstpw;F nrq;Fj;J efh;T Vw;gLtij ................ efh;T vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ

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m) vz;Nlhn[dpf; M) vf;N]hn[dpf; ,) vgpNuhn[dpf; <) Nja;TUjy; tpil : M 5. epyeLf;fk; Njhd;Wk; ikak; (,lk;) ................ vdg; vdg;gLk; m) ntspikak; M) epyeLf;fikak; ,) ikak; <) vhpkiy kz;lyk; tpil : M 1. 2.

fz;l NkNyhL rpNahy; mLf;fhy; MdJ. rpahy; mLf;F rpkh mLf; fpd; kPJ kpje; ;J nfhz;L kpje ; cs;sJ. 3. G+kpapd; NkNyhl;by; kpfg;nghpa mstpw;F fpilkl;l efh;tpid Vw;gLj;JtJ kiyahf;f efh;T vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 4. Nkw;Gw miyia L miyfs; vd;W miof;fpNwhk;. 5. vhpkiy vd;gJ G+kpapd; xU jpwg;G my;yJ Jis topNa Nkw;gug;gpd; kPJ gbaitg;gJ MFk;. 1. Nkhdh Nyhth `tha; 2. ntR+tpay; ,j;jhyp 3. kTz;l; fpspkhQ;Nuh Mg;gphpf;fh 4. gpA+[pahkh [g;ghd; 5. ehh;fz;lk; ,e;jpah Gtp Nkw;gug;G - khwpf;nfhz;bUf;Fk; epyf;Nfhsj;jpd; Nkw;gug;G thdpiyr; rpijT  ghiwfs; ciljy; my;yJ rpijtiljy; nraNy thdpiyr; rpijT vd;fpNwhk;. thdpiyr; rpijthdJ ngsjPf (my;yJ cUkhw;w)  ,urhad kw;Wk; caphpd rpijT vd tifg;gLj;jg;glfpwJ. ntg;g mOj;jk; (Thermal Shock)  ghiwfspd; njhlh;rr ; pahd tphpjy; kw;Wk; RUq;Fjyhy; mOj;jk; cUthf;fg;gl;L ghiwfs; cilfpd;wJ. ,e;j nray;KiwahdJ ntg;g mOj;j rpijT vd  miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  ntg;g mjph;rr ; p (Thermal Shock) kw;Wk; ntg;g jzpT (Thermal Fatique) MfpaitfshFk; . cg;G gbfq;fspd; tsh;rr ; p  cg;G gbfkhjiy `hNyh`pyh]; b (Haloclasty) vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. fiujy; tspkz; ly fhh;gd;il Mf;i]L my;yJ ry;gh; il  Mf;i]L my;yJ iel;u[d; il Mf;i]L kiog; nghoptpy; fiuAk; nghOJ mkpukhf khWfpd; wJ. Rz;zhk;G gpuNjrq;fspy; jhJf;fs; fiujiyAk; kw;Wk;  ghiwfspy; rpijitAk; Vw;glj;Jfpd;wd. XLk; ePh; mhpj;jy;> flj;Jjy; kw;Wk; gba itj;jy; Mfpa  gzpfis nra;fpd;wd. MNwhL njhlh;Gila epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; kiyg;ghij nrq;Fj;J rhpT kw; Wk; Mw;wpd; mjpf Ntfk; fhuzkhf  nrq;Fj;J mhpj;Jj; jpd;dy; nray; ,q;F Kjd;ikahf ,Uf;fpwJ. ghiw ,Lf;F (Gorges) Mw; Wg; gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; (Canyons)  kw;Wk; V-tbt gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; cUthfpd;wd. Mw;Wf;fth;T ,J Mw;W fth;T (River Piracy) my;yJ Mw;wpd;  jiyjpir khw;wk; vdTk; (River Beheading) mwpag;gLfpwJ. gs;sj;jhf;Fg; ghij Jhpjkhd mhpj;jy; nrayhy; gs;sj;jhf;fpd;  V-tbt fiufs; mfykhfpd;wd.

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FWl;lhWfs; nghJthf FWl;lhWfs; vd; gJ Mw;wpd; tise;J nry;Yk;  ghijfspYs;s tisthFk;. Mw;WePh ; Gtp tpy; my;yJ  tprpwp tbt nly; lh (Arcute or Fan Shaped Delta) > nghq;FKf nly;lh (Estuarine Delta) kw;Wk; $hpa tbt nly;lh (Cone Shaped Delta). tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; kpf ePzl ; MW kprprpgp MFk; .   ,J tl mnkhpf; fhtpy; cs;s kpNdh];lhtpd; ,l;]f ; h Vhpapy; cUthfpwJ.  gwit ghj nly;lh mikg;G ,q;Fs;sJ. fq;if  fq;if ,e;jpa Jizf;fz;lj;jpd; ePzl ; MW tl ,e;jpahtpypUe;J fq;ifr; rkntsp topahf fpof; F Nehf;fp Xb gq; fshNjir milfpwJ.  cj;ufhz;bYs;s ,kakiyapy; ,Ue;J 2510 fp.kP ePsk; nfhz;l ,e;j MW cWthfpwJ.  ,e;jpahtpd; Njrpa Mwhf fq;if MW mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ Mz;L - 2008. Xq;fy;fs; (Cliff ) ( nghJthf nrq; Fj;jhd ghiw fliy Nehf; fp  mikAk;NghJ Xq;fy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. gdpahWfs; gdpahWfs gdpg;ghiwfs; efh;jNy gdpahWfs; vd  miof;fg;gLfpwJ. gdpahWfs; M];jpNuypahitj; jtpu midj;J  fz;lq;fspYk; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. jpl epiyia miltjhy; cUthFk; mOj;jj;jpd;  fhuzkhfTk;>
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gs;sj;jhf;F my;yJ My;/igd; gdpahWfs; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. fz;lg; gdpahWfs; JUtg;gpuNjrq;fspy; gdpj; Jfs;fshdJ gue;j  mstpy; gutpf; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,t;thW gutp fhzg; gLk; gdpj; Jfs;fspd; njhFg;Ng  fz;lg; gdpahWfs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. kiyabthug; gdpahWfs; kiyabthug; gFjpapy; gdpj; Jfs;fs; Ftptjhy;  cUthFk; gdpahWfs;. rh;f; gdpahWfs; gwpj;njLj;jy; nraypdhy; cUthFk;  ehw;fhyp Nghd;w mikg;gpid nfhz;bUf;Fk; epyj;Njhw;wNk rh;f; MFk;. mnul;Lfs; fs kw;Wk; gpukpL rpfuq; fs; ,uz;L rh;fF ; fSf;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk; fj;jp Nghd;w  ePzl ; njhlh; epyg;gFjpNa mnul;L MFk;. mUfUNf cs;s ,uz;Lf;Fk; Nkw;gl;l rh;f;Ffshy;  ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;s gFjp cile;J cah;eJ ; epw;Fk; rpfuk; Nghd;w mikg;Ng gpukpL rpfukhFk; . U - tbt gs;sjhf;F  gs;sj;jhf;fhdJ gdpahw;wpdhy; mhpf;fg;gl;L Mog;gLj;jg;gLtjhy; cUthFk; epyj;Njhw;wNk U - tbt gs;sj;jhf;F MFk;.  V-tbt gs;sj;jhf;fhdJ gdpahw;wpdhy; Mog;gLj;jg;gl;L mfyg;gLj;jg;gLtjpdhy; cUthfpd;wJ. njhq;Fk; gs;sj;jhf;F  Kjd;ikf; fz;lg; gzpahW> Jizg;gzpahw;wpid tpl mjpf msT mhpg; Gj;jpwd; nfhz;bUf;Fk; NghJ njhq; Fk; gs;sj;jhf;F cUthfpd;wJ.  gdpahWfspdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; kw;w epyj;Njhw;wq;fshtd> nrk;kwp Ml;Lg;ghiw (Rocke Mountonnee) > thy; tbtg; ghiw (Crag and Tail), nghUj; jhg;ghiw my;yJ jphpAk; ghiw (Boulder Clay or Glacial) kw;Wk; vuhbf;fs; (Erractics). gbTfs; nkhiud;fs; nkhiud;fs; vdg;gLgit ghiwj;Jfs;fs;> Jz;Lfs;>  ghiw cUz;ilfs; kw;Wk; NrWfshy; Mdit. mitfs; tpspk;G nkhiud;fs; (Terminal Moraines) > gf;f  nkhiud;fs; kw;Wk; kj;jpa (Lateral Moraines) nkhiud;fs; (Medial Moraines) vd gphpf; fg;gLfpd;wd. buk;ypd;fs;  ghiwj;Jfs;fs; kw;Wk; NrW fyitayhd epyj; Njhw;wNk buk;ypd;fs; MFk;.  ,itfs; ghh;g;gjw;F Kl;ilfs; Gijj;Js;sJNghy; Njhw;wkspf;Fk;.  tz;ly; rkntsp kw;Wk; v];fh;fs; Mfpad ,ju gbtpj; jyhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; MFk;. flj;jy; nray;Kiwfs; iwfs;  flj;jy; nrayhdJ gpd;tUk; epfo;Tfs; %yk; eilngUfpwJ. mitfshtd jhTjy; (Saltation) kw;Wk; njhq;Fjy; (Suspension) MFk;. fhw;wpdhy; nra;ag;gLk; mhpg;Gr; nray;fs;  fhw;whdJ Gilj;njLj;jy; (Deflation) kw;Wk; mhpj;J jpd;dy; (Abration) Mfpa nray;fs; %yk; gy;NtW

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tifahd epyj;Njhw;wq;fis Fwpg;ghf ghiytdg; gFjpfspy; cUthf;Ffpd;wd. gPlg;ghiwfs; my;yJ fhshd; ghiwfs; ghiwj;JhzhdJ fhshd; Nghd;W Njhw;wkspf; fpwJ.  ,t;thwhd ghiwfs; gPlg;ghiwfs; vdTk; miof;fg;glfpwJ. R+fd; nkd;ghiw mlf;fpd;Nky; jl;ilahd fbdg;ghiw  mLf;Ffs; fpilahf mile; jpUe;jhy; mit fhw;wpdhy; FWf;fhf mhpf;fg;gl;L ePzl ; Fd;W Njhd;WfpwJ. ahh;lhq; ghiytdr; R+oypy; fhw;wpdhy; mhpf;fg;gl;L ePz ;l ;  kiyj;njhlh; Nghy fhzg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wNk ahh;lhq; MFk;. ahh;lhq;Ffs; mfd;w ePs;tl;l tbtKila  epyj;Njhw;wq;fshFk;. ,d;ry;gh;f;Ffs; mhpf;fg;glhj vQ;rpa Fd;Wfshf jiug; gFjpapypUe;J  cah;eJ ; fhzg;gLk; epyj;Njhw;wNk ,d;ry;gh;fF ; fs; MFk;. fhw;wpd; mhpg;NghL njhlh;Gila kw;w  epyj;Njhw;wq;fshtd> Nkrh (Dreikanter) kw;Wk; CJ gs;sq;fs; (Deflation Hallows) fhw;wpd; gbtpj;jNyhL njhlh;Gila epyj;Njhw;wq;fs; gh;fhd; hd ,itfs; gpiwr;re;jpu tbt epiyahf efUk; jd;ik  nfhz;lit> fhw;W tPRk; jpirahdJ td; rhptpidAk; kw;Wk; vjph; jpirahdJ nkd; rhptpidAk; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. nr/g; my;yJ ePs ; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs; fhw;WtPRk; jpirf;F ,izahf gy fpNyh kP ll ; h;fs;  ePsj;jpw;F mike;jpUf;Fk; FWfshd kzw;Fd;WfNs nr/g; my;yJ ePs ; tbt kzw;Fd;Wfs; mFk;. Nyha]; Nyha]; ghiytdj;jpw;F mUfhikapYs;s gFjpfspy; gbe;jpUf;Fk;  Ez;zpa Jfs;fNs Nyhah]; MFk;. 1. Mf;]pfuz nray;KiwahdJ ,t;thW mwpag;gLfpwJ m) ,Uk;G JUgpbj;jy; M) Ntjpg;nghUl; fs; $l;likg;G ,) ntg;g mjph;r;rp <) `hNyh`pyh];b tpil : m 2. FUl;lhWfs; hWfs; cUthf;fg;gLtJ .................. m) kiyg;ghijapy; M) gs;sj;jhf;F ghijapy; ,) rkntspg;ghijapy; <) nly;lh ghijapy; tpil : M 3. gPr;Rfs; vjDld; njhlh;Gilait m) MWfs; M) gzpahWfs; ,) fhw;W <) miyfs; tpil : < 4. gPlg;ghiwfs; ,g;gbAk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd m) R+fd; M)fhshd; ghiw ,) ahh;lhq; <) gh;fhd;fs; tpil : M 5. gh;fhd; ve;j nraNyhL njhlh;GilaJ m) gbaitj;jy; epyj;Njhw;wk; M) mhpj;jy; epyj;Njhw;wk; ,) flj;jy; epyj;Njhw;wk; <) ,aw;if epyj;Njhw;wk; ;; tpil : m Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf : 1. ntg;g mOj;jk; ,t;thW $l miof; fyhk; ntg;g mOj;jr; rpijT 2. ,uz;L Fiffs; xd;NwhL xd;W Nrh;eJ ; mZFtJ ,t;thW $l miof;fg;gLfpwJ fly;tisT 3. Mw;wpd; %g;G epiyapy; cUthFk; tprpwp tbt tz;ly; epyj; Njhw;wkhdJ tpy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

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4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

ghiwfs; cilf;fg;gLtJ kw;Wk; rpijf;fg;gLtJkhd nray;fshdJ thdpiy rpijT vd miof; fg;gLfpwJ. fhw;wpdhy; gba itf;fg;gLk; nghUl;fs; tskhd Ez;zpa kw;Wk; kQ;rs; epwKs;s kzy;Jfs;fs; MFk;. cg;G gbfq;fspd; tsh;r;rp Fjpiu Fsk;G Vhp kzy; jpl;Lf;fs; nkhiud;fs; nr/g; -

- `hNyh`pyh];b rkntspg;ghij miyapd; gbaitj;jy; epyj;Njhw;wk; gdpahW gbaitj;jy; fhw;W gbaitj;jy;

thdpiyAk; fhyepiyAk; ntg;gkz;lyg; gFjpfspy; Kf;fpag; gapuhfTk;> kpj ntg;g  kz;lyg; gFjpfspy; NfhJik Kf;fpag; gapuhfTk; gaphplg;gLfpd;wd. thdpiy thdpiy vd;gJ xU Fwpg;gpl;l ,lj;jpy; 24 kzp  Neuj;jpw;Fs; epyTk; tspkz;lyj;jpd; epiyahFk;. fhyepiy fhyepiy vd;gJ nghJthf xU eP zl ; fhyj;jpy; kw;Wk;  xU ngUk; gug;gstpy; fhzg;gLk; thdpiyapd; ruhrhp MFk;. xU jpl;lkhd ruhrhp fhyk; vd;gJ 30 Mz;LfshFk; . fhyepiy vd;w nrhy; fpiskh (Kilaima) fpNuf;fr;  nrhy;ypypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ. thdpiy kw;Wk; fhyepiyfis jPh;khdpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; ml;rNuif  epyeLf; Nfhl;Lg;gFjpahdJ R+hpadpd; ntg;gf;fjph;fis Neh;ff ; jph;fshfg; ngWfpd;wJ.  JUtg; gFjpapd; R+hpadpd; rha;Tf; fjph;fisg; ngWfpd;wJ.  G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J ntg;gepiyahdJ Rkhh; xt;nthU 1000 kPl;lUf;Fk; Rkhh; 6.50 nry;rpa]; vd;w tpfpjj;jpy; Fiwfpd;wJ. ,J Lapse Rali vd miof;fg;gLk; (or) 165 m f;F 10C FiwAk;. fly; ePNuhl;lq;fs; s  fly; ePNuhl;lq;fshdJ ntg;gepiyiag; nghWj;J> ntg;g ePNuhl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; Fsph; ePNuhl;lq;fs; vd tifg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.  ntg;g kw;Wk; Fsph; ePNuhl;lq;fs; re;jpf;fpd;w ,lq;fs; Kjd;ikahd kPdg ; pbj;jsq;fshf ,Ug;gjw;F fhuzk; kPdf ; spd; czthd fly;tho; Ez;Zaphpfs; (Plankton) tsu ,q;F jf;f R+o;epiy epyTfpwJ. vy;epNdh tpisT ekJ ehl;by; gUtf;fhw;W ngha;jj ; y; (Monsoon failure)  vd;gij mbf;fb Nfs;tpg;gLfpNwhk;.  vy;epNdh vd;w fhuzpAk; Kf;fpakhdjhfpwJ. vy; epNdh vd;why; ];ghdpa nkhopapy; Foe;ij VR (Chirist Child) vd;W nghUs;. ,J fpU];Jk]; fhyq;fspy; Njhd;wp rpy khjq;fs;  ePbf;Fk;. ngU kw;Wk;
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

vy;epNdhtpd; kw;w tpisTfshtd M]; jpNuypahtpy; Vw;gl;l gQ;rk;> gpNurpy; kw;Wk; njd;fpof;F Mrpahtpy; Vw;gl;l fhl;Lj; jP. kdpjdpd; Mjpf;fk;  ek;Kila tho;fi ; fg; Gtp ntg;gkhjy; (Global Warming),  gRq;Fby; tpisT (Green House Effect). khriljy; (Pollution), Nghd;wit fhpakpy thAit (Corbon-di-Oxide) fhw;wpy; mjpfhpf;fr; nra;Js;sjhf czh;fpd;Nwhk;. efu ntg;gj;jT P  (Urban Heat Island) vd;gJ xU ngU efukhdJ mjidr; Rw;wpAs;s gFjpfisf; fhl;bYk; mjpf ntg;gj;JlNd ,Ug;gjhFk;. ntg;gepiy Gtp ngWk; xsp kw;Wk; ntg;gj;jpw;F %yhjhuk;  R+hpadhFk;. ,J Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;ig mila 8 epkplq; fs; 20  tpdhbfs; vLj;Jf;nfhs;fpwJ. xU ehspy; epyTk; mjpf msT kw;Wk; Fiwe;j msT  ntg;g epiyf;F ,ilNa cs;s ntg;gepiy NtWghNl jpdrhp ntg;g tpahg;jp (Diurnal Range of Temperature) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. tspkz;lyj;jpy; fjph;tr P y; KiwapYk;>  (Radiation) epyj;jpy; flj;jy; (Conduction) KiwapYk;> ePhpy; ntg;gr; ryid (Convection) KiwapYk; eilngWfpwJ.  G+kpapd; tspkz;lykhdJ R+hpa fjph; tr P iytpl (Insolation) Gtpf; fjph;tPryhy; (Terrestrial Radiation) mjpfk; ntg;gkilfpwJ.  xU tUlj;jpy; epyTk; ntg;gkhd khjj;jpw;Fk; Fspuhd khjj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNaahd NtWghNl tUlhe; jpu ntg;g tpahg;jp (Annual Range of Tempereture). Gtpapd; tspkz; tspkz;lyk; Gtpapd; tspkz;lykhdJ thAf;fshy; R+og;gl;Ls;sJ.  ,itfs; Gtp madpaLf;F (Ionosphere) kw;Wk; ntspaLf;F (Ezosphere). mbaLf;F(Troposhphere)  mbaLf;F Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J JUtg; gFjpfspy; 8 fp.kP tiuapYk;> G+kj;jpa Nuifg; gFjpapy; 18 fp.kP tiuapYk; gutpf; fhzg;gLfpwJ.  thdpiy %yq;fshd ntg;gepiy> fhw;W> fhw;wpd; mOj;jk;> Nkfq;fspd; cUthf;fk; kw;Wk; kiog;nghopT Mfpa midj;J khw;wq;fSk; ,e;j mLf;fpNyNa eilngWfpd;wJ.  Nrzpil mLf;F (Troposhphere) vd;w nky;ypa mLf;fhdJ mbaLf;F kw;Wk; gilaLf;F ,itfSf;fpilNa mike;Js;sJ. gilaLf;F gilaLf;fhdJ Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J Rkhh; 50 fp.kP  tiu fhzg;gLfpwJ. n[l; tpkhdq;fs; ,e;j mlf;fpy;jhd; gadpf;fpd;wd.  gilaLf;fpd; cr;rp tpspk;gpy; XNrhd; thA mjpf mstpy;  fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,it R+hpadplkpUe; J tUk; Gw Cjhf; fjph;fis tbfl;b nfljy;fspypUe;J ghJfhf; fpd;wJ. ,e;j mLf;fhdJ rkntg;g mLf;F (Isothermal Layer)  kw;Wk; XNrhd; mLf;F vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

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

gLifaLf; fpid njhlh;eJ ; kPzL ; k; nky;ypa mLf;F fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. ,J kPtsp ,ilaLf;F (Stratopause) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  (Mesophere). 50-80 ,ilaLf;F fp.kP cauk; tiu ngw;Ws;sJ. cauk; mjpfhpf;f mjpfhpf;f ,q;F ntg;gk; FiwAk; (80 fp.kP y; - 1000C)  tpz;ntspapy; ,Ue;J G+kpf;F tUk; ghiwfs; ,q;Fjhd; vwpe;J rhk;gyhfpwJ. madpaLf;F  madpaL Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J 80 fp.kP Kjy; 500 fp.kP tiu gutpf; fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,it thndhyp miyfis G+kpf; F jpUg;gp mZg;Gtjhy;  etPd njhiy njhlh;gpw;F kpfTk; cjTfpd;wJ. xU jpwg;nghd;ndd;wiof;fg;gLk; (Auroras) tz;zkakhd  fhl;rpaikg;gpid tlNfhsj;jpy; tlKid tsnuhsp (Northern lights) my;yJ tlJUt tpz; nzhsp (Aurora Borealis) kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; njd;Kid tsnuhsp (Southern lights) my;yJ njd;JUt tpz;nzhsp (Aurura Australis) MfpaitAk; ,q;Nf fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ntspaLf;F  vf;N]h];gpah; mLf;fhdJ ngUksT i`l; u[d; kw;Wk; `Pypak; thAf;fis nfhz;Ls;sJ.  ntg;gepiyia msf;f cjTk; cgfuzj;jpd; ngah; ntg;gkhdpahFk; (Thermometer) xNu msTila ntg;gepiyia nfhz;bUf;Fk; ,lq;fis  ,izf;Fk; fw;gid Nfhl;bw;F rkntg;gf; NfhLfs; (Isotherms) vd;W ngah;. ntg;g kz;lyk;  flf Nuiff;Fk; (23 ½0 t) kfu Nuiff;Fk; (23 ½0 nj) ,ilg;gl;l gFjpapy; ntg;g kz;lykhdJ fhzg;gLfpwJ. kpj ntg;g kz;lyk; yk flf Nuiff;Fk; (23½0 t) Mh;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk; (66½0 t)  ,ilg;gl;l gFjpia tl kpjntg;g kz;lyk; vd;Wk;  kfu Nuiff;Fk; (23½0 nj) mz;lhh;l;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk; (66½0 nj) ,ilgl;l gFjpia njd; kpj ntg;g kz;lyk; vd;Wk; $WfpNwhk;. Fsph; kz;lyk;  Mh;bf; tl;lj;jpw;Fk; (66½0t)tl JUtj;jpw;Fk; (900 t) ,ilgl; l gFjpiaAk; mz;lhh;lb ; f; tl;lj;jpw;Fk;. 0 (66½ nj) njd; JUtj;jpw;Fk; (900 nj) ,ilgl;l  gFjpiaAk; Fsph; kz;lyk; vd;W miof;fpNwhk;. fhw;W mOj;jk;  fhw;wpd; moj;jkhdJ G+kpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; fhw;wpd; epiwapdhy; Vw;gLj;jg;gLk; moj;jNk MFk;.  fly; kl;lj;jpy; epyTk; fhw;wOj;jj;jpd; ruhrhp msT 1013 kpy;yp ghh;fshFk;.  tsp kz;ly mOj;jj;ij mstplg; gad;glk; cgfuzk; my;yJ fUtp moj;jkhdp (Barometer) MFk;. G+kj;jpaNuif jho; mOj;j kz;lyk; ,e;j kz;lykhdJ 50 tlf;F Kjy; 50 njw;F ml;rNuif  gFjpfspy; mike;Js;sJ ,e;j kz;lyj;jpid mikjp kz;lyk; (Belt of calm)  my;yJ Nlhy;Luhk;] ; vd;wiog;gh;. Jiz maz cah; mOj;j kz;lyk; ,e;j kz;lykhdJ 250 Kjy; 350 tlf;F Kjy; njw;F tiuapyhd ml;rNuiffSf;F ,ilapy; mike;Js;sJ. ntg;g

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kz;lyj;jpypUe;J NknyOk;gpa fhw;W> Fiwe;jntg;gepiyapd; fhuzkhf Fsph;e;J 300-350 ml;rNuifg; gFjpfspy; jiug;gFjpia Nehf;fp fPopwq;FfpwJ. ,k;kz;lykhdJ Fjpiu ml;rNuif (Horse Latitudes)  vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Jiz JU JUt jho; mOj;j kz;lyk; ,e;j kz;lykhdJ 600Kjy; 650 tiu tl kw;Wk; njd;  Nfhsq; fspy; mike;Js;sJ. fhw;wpd; Ntfk; kw;Wk; tPRk; jpirapid mstpl  fhw;Wkhdp vd;w fUtp gad;gLfpwJ. (Anemometer)

fhw;Wfs;

fhw;Wfs;

Nfhs; fhw;Wfs; Mz;L KOtJk; xU Fwpg;gpl;l jpiria Nehf;fp tPRk; fhw;WfSf;F Nfhs; fhw;Wfs; vd;W ngah;.  tpahghuf; fhw;Wfs; (Trade Winds) madkz;lyq;fSf;F ,ilNa tPRfpd;wd. ,it tl Nfhsj;jpy; tlfpof;F tpahghuf; fhw;WfshfTk; >  kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; njd;fpof;F tpahghuf; fhw;WfshfTk; tPRfpd;wd. Gtp Row;rpapd; fhuzkhf tlNfhsj; jpy; tyg;GwkhfTk;>  njd;Nfhsj;jpy; ,lg;GwkhfTk; tpyfpr; nry;fpwJ. ,e;j khw;wkp;yy ; hj tpjp ng/uy; tpjp my;yJ nfhhpahyp]; tpir vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ. /nguy; tpjpapd; gb ,t;tifahd fhw;whdJ tpyfp  tPRfpd;wJ. Nkiyf; fhw;WfshdJ (Westerlies) ,U Nfhsq; fspYk;  Jiz mad kz;ly cauOj;j gFjpapypUe;J Jiz JUt jho;tOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp tPRfpd;wJ.  ,t;tifahd fhw;Wfs; Nkw;fpypue;J fpof;fhf tPRfpd;wJ.  JUtf; fhw;Wfs; cauOj;jg; (Polar Winds) JUt gFjpapypue;J Jiz JUt jho;tOj;jg; gFjpia Nehf;fp fPiof; fhw;Wfshf tPRfpd;wd. ,it fLq;Fsph; fhw;WfshFk; . gUtfhy gUtfhy kw;Wk; gFjp Neuf; fhw;Wfs; Gtpapd; kPJ Vw;gLk; ntg;gg;gLj;Jjy; kw;Wk; Fspuhjy;  epfo;rr ; pfspdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; NtWghl;bd; fhuzkhf ,f;fhw;Wfs; Njhw;Wtpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. gUtf; fhw;Wfs; khd;R+h; vd;w nrhy;yhdJ kTrpk; (Mausim) vd;w mNugpa  nrhy;ypypUe;J ngwg;gl;lJ.  njd;Nkw;Fg; gUtf;fhw;whdJ mnjd; ,e;jpa kw;Wk; njd; grpgpf; Nguhopfspy; ,Ue;J Mrpag; gFjpfis Nehf;fp tPRfpd;wJ. fly; fhw;Wfs; 
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Fsph;ej ; twz;l fhw;whdJ mjpfhiyg; nghojpy; epyj;jpypUe;J ePhg ; ;gug;ig Nehf;fp tP Rfpd;wJ. Gay;fs;  Gay; vd;gJ jho;tOj;j mikg;gpd; ikakhFk;  Gaypd; ikag;gFjp ntw;wplkhFk; mJNt Gay; fz; (Eye of the Cyclone) vdg;gLfpwJ. Gay; fhw;W> ilG+d;fs; kw;Wk;  (Japan> China) mhpf;Nfd;fs; ; (fhpgpad; fly;) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpd; wd. tpy;yp tpy;yp - M];jpNuypah> rKdh];> Mg;gphpf;fh. tlNfhsj;jpy; vjph; fbfhur; Rw; W jpirapYk; kw;Wk; njd;  Nfhsj;jpy; fbfhur; Rw;whfTk; efh;fpd;wd. nlhuz;Nlh mnkhpf;fh. vjph; #whtspfs; #whtspfs; vjph; R+uhtspfs; vd;gJ cah; mOj;j mikg;gpd;  ikakhFk; . vjph; R+uhtspfs; tlNfhsj;jpy; fbfhur; Rw; Wj; jpirapYk;  kw;Wk; njd; Nfhsj;jpy; vjph; fbfhur; Rw;W jpirapYk; efh;fpd;wd. jyf;fhw;Wfs; ntg;gjyf; fhw;Wfs; ,lq;fs; /gphpf; gPyl ; h; M];jpNuypah rpd;D}f; mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehLfs; /ghd; tlf;F ,j;jhyp rpuhf;Nfh rfhuh ghiytdk; Y} ,e;jpahtpd; jhh; ghiytdk; Fsph; jyf; fhw;Wfs; Mh;kj;jhd; kp];l;uy; Gh;fh ehh;l; /ghk;ngNuh

,lq;fs; kj;jpa Mg;gphpf;fh My;g;] ; kiy ,u\;ah nkf;rpNfh tisFlh mh;n[d;ildh

Nkfq;fs; my;yJ Kfpy;fs;  tspkz; lyj;jpYs;s ePuhtpahdJ ePh; RUq;Fjy; %yk; Ez;zpa ePh ; jptisfshfNth my; yJ gdpg;

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gbfq;fshfNth khw; wg;gLtjpd; njhFg;Ng Nkfq;fs; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. fPwW ; Nkfq;fs; (Cirrus)  fPww ; Nkfq;fs; cah; Nkfq;fs; ; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ Vnddpy; ,it fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J Vwj;jho 5000 kPll ; h; cauj;jpy; cUthfpd;wd.  xUNghJk; kiog;nghoptpid nfhLg; gjpy;iy. gil Nkfq;fs; (Stratus) gil Nkfq;fs; fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J 2000 kPl;lUf;Fk;  ,ilapNyNa cUthtjhy; jho; Nkfq;fs; vdg;gLfpwJ. mlh; rhk;gy; epw tphpg;G Nghd;w Njhw;wj;ijAk;  nfhz;bUf;Fk;. jpus; Nkfq;fs; (Cumulus)  tbj;j gUj;jpiag; Nghd;W fhzg;gLk;. Nkfq;fSld; kiog;nghopT> kpd;dy; kw;Wk; ,b  Mfpatw;NwhL njhlh;GilaitfshFk;. ,it fly; kl;lj;jpypUe;J Rkhh; 12000 kPl;lh; cauk; tiu  fhzg;gLk;. fhh;gil gil Nkfq;fs; (Nimbus)  fhh; gil Nkfq;fshdJ nrq;Fj;jhd Nkfq;fshFk; .  fdj;j kiog; nghoptpid nfhLg; gjhy; ,it Gay; my;yJ kio Nkfq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. kiog;nghopT  kiog;nghopT ntg;gr;ryd kio> kiyj; jLg;G kio kw;Wk; Gay; kio vd tifg; gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.  kio msit mstplg; gad;gLk; cgfuzq;fs; my;yJ fUtp kiokhdp MFk; .  kiof;NfhLfs; (Isohytes) vd;W ngah;. kiog;nghopT ,b kw; Wk; kpd;dypidf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;.  khiy Neuq;fspy; Fwpg;ghf 4 kzpf; F tUtjhy; khiy  Neu ehd;F kzp kiog;nghopT (4’0 Clock rain fall) vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. epy mikg;G my;yJ kiyj;jil kio  flw;gFjpapypUe;J tPRk; fhw;whdJ Fsph;eJ ; fhw;W kfg; gFjpapy; (Windward side) mjpf kioia cUthf; FfpwJ. gpwF mit vjph; Kff; fhw;W jpirapy; (Leeward side) 
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vy;epNdh vd;why; ];ghdpa nkhopapy; Foe e;ij VR vd;W Fo ; nghUs; . 4. efu ntg;gj;jT P vd;w ngU efukhdJ mjidr; Rw;wpAs;s gFjpfisf; fhl;bYk; mjpf ntg;gj;jlNd fhzg;gLtjhFk;. 5. Nrzpil mLf;F vd;gJ tspkz;lyj;jpd; mikjp kz;lyk; my;yJ Nlhy;buk;]; vd;wiog;gh;. 6. G+kj;jpaNuif jho;tOj;j kz;lyj;jpid mikjp kz;lyk; my;yJ Nlhy;buk;]; vd;wiog;gh;. 7. fpilkl;lkhf efUk; thAtpid fhw;W vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 8. ,e;jpahtpy; cs;s jhh; ghiytdj;jpy; tPRk; jyf;fhw;wpd; ngah; Yh MFk;. 9. kpd;diyg; gw;wp gbf;Fk; mwptpayhdJ kpd;dypay; ypay vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 10. ,bAld; $ba Gay; vd;gJ fhh;jpus; Nkfq;fshy; cUthf; fg;gLfpwJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. ntg;g kz;lyj;jpy; ....................... Kf;fpag; gapuhFk; m) ney; M) NfhJik ,) Njapiy <) ghh;yp tpil: m 2. vy;epNdh fhyf;fl;lq;fspy; Rkhh; %d;W Kjy; vl;L Mz;LfSf;F xU Kiw ntg;gepiyahdJ ............................ flw;fiu Xuq;fspy; Jhpjkhf mjpfhpf; Fk;. m) ngU kw;Wk; ,b kw;Wk; kpd; dNyhL kpddNyhL njhlh;Gilait m) fPwW ; Nkfq;fs; M) gil Nkfq;fs; ,) jpus; Nkfq;fs; <) fhh;gil Nkfq;fs; tpil: , 8. ..................... kiog;nghopthdJ 4 kzp kiog; nghopT vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. m) ntg;gr;ryd M) kiyj;jil ,) R+whtsp <) gUtf;fhw;W tpil: m 9. fly; kl;lj;jpy; epyTk; fhw;wOj;jj;jpd; ruhrhp msT ..................... kpy;ypghh; pghh;fshFk; shFk m) 1008 M) 1020 ,) 1033 <) 1013 tpil: < 10. ...................... Nkfq;fs; nrq;Fj;jhd Nkfq;fshFk; m) fPwW ; Nkfq;fs; M) gilNkfq;fs; ,) jpus; Nkfq;fs; <) fhh;gil Nkfq;fs; tpil: < 1. Gtp ntg;gkhjy; - kdpjdpd; jhf;fk; 2. ntg;gkhdp - ntg;gepiyia msf;Fk; fUtp

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fhw;Wkhdp - fhw;wpd; Ntfk; kw;Wk; jpirf;fhl;Lk; fUtp R+whtspapd; fz; - ntw;wplk; ,b> kpd;dy;> Gay; - thdpiy njhopw;rhiy Nghplh; kw;Wk; Nghplh; Nkyhz;ik Nghplh;fs; ,aw;if Nghplh; (Natural Disaster) kw;Wk;  kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh; (Man Made Disaster) vd ,U tifg;gLj;jg;gLfp;wd. ,aw;ifg; Nghplh;fs; epyeLf;fq;fs;> vhpkiy ntbg; Gfs;> epyr;rhpTfs;> gdpg;ghiw  tPor ; r ; p> Gay;> nts;sg; ngUf;ffs;> twl;rpfs;> R+iwf;fhw;Wfs; kw;Wk; gpw. kdpjdhy; cUthf;fg;gLk; Nghplh;fs; s Nghh;> jP-tpgj;Jfs;> rhiy tpgj;Jfs;> fg;gy; %o;Fjy;>  mZFz;L ntbg;Gfs;> kpd;rhu tpgj;Jfs; kw;Wk; gpw. epyeLf;fk; Gtpj;jl;Lefh;Tfs;> vhpkiy ntbg;Gfs;> gUg;nghUs; rpijT>  epyr;rhpTfs; kw;Wk; epyg;gpsTfs; Mfpafhuzq;fshy; epyeLf;fk; Vw;gLfpd;wd. ,jdhy; Xj miyfs; kw;Wk; Mopg;NguiyfSk; (Rdhkp)  Vw;gLfpd;wd. [dthp 26> 2001 y; 51 tJ FbauR jpd tpohtpd; NghJ  F[uhj;jpy; kpfg;nghpa epyeLf;fk; Vw;gl;lJ. (G[; epyeLf;fk;) Gtp ntg;grf;jpia  (Geothermal Energy) jahhpf;fg; gad;gLfpwJ. kzpf;fhud; Fd;Wfs; (,khr;ry gpuNjrk;)  vhpkiy gutiyg; gw;wp mwpe;J nfhs;s gad;gLk; rha;T kzp (Tilt Meter) fUtpiag; gw;wp kf;fSf;F tpopg;Gzh;T Vw;Lj;j Ntz;lk;. flw;Nfhs;fs; flw;Nfhs;fspd; Mq;fpyr;nrhy; Rdhkp (Trunamis) ,r;nrhy;  [g;ghdpa nkhopapypUe; J te;jJ. ‘Tsu’ vd;gjd; nghUs; Harbour (JiwKfk;) ‘Nami’ vd;gjd; nghUs; (miyfs;)  brk;gh; 26>2004-y; njd;fpof;F Mfpa ehLfspy; Vw;gl;l Rdhkpfspd; jhf;fj;jpdhy; 1>50>000 f;Fk; Nkw;gl;Nlhh; ,we;jdh;.  ghiwj;Jfs;fs; ePUld; Nrh;eJ ; efh;tij NrW topjy; (Debris flow) vd;fpNwhk;. Gay;fs; jho;tOj;jg; gFjpapy; ntg;g kw;Wk; Fsph; tspKfq;fs;  re;jpg;gjhy; cUthFk; gyj;jf; fhw;iwNa Gay;fs; vd;fpNwhk;. 1999 mf;Nlhgh; 29-y; tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; Vw;gl;l  jho;tOj;jj;jpdhy; xhp];]htpy; khngUk; Gay; (Super Cyclone) cUthdJ. Riwf;fhw;Wfs; fhw;wpdhy; cUthFk; fhh; jpus; Nkfk; G+kpapd; jiug;gFjp  Gdy; tbtj;jpy; njhl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;. jPtpu jho; mOj;jj;jpd; fhuzkhf ,itfs; cUthfpd;wd.   R+iwf; fhw;wpid mnkhpf;fh If;fpa ehl;by; (USA) Ltp];lh; (Twister) vd miof;fpd;wdh;. 1. twl;rp Vw;gl;l Kjd;ikahd fhuzk; m) gw;whf;Fiwthd kiog;nghopT M) Rw;Wr;Roy; rPh;NfL ,) fhLfis tsh; jj ; y; <) njhopw;rhiyfs; tpil: m 2. nghJthf R+iwf;fhw;W Vw;gLtJ m) ,e;jpah M) gq;fshNj\; ,) rPdh <) mikhpf;f If;fpa ehL tpil: < 3. epyr;rhpT mbf;fb Vw;gLtJ

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m) ghiytdg; gpuNjrk; M) fhl;Lg; gpuNjrk; ,) Jhe;jpug; gpuNjrk; <) kiyg; gpuNjrk; tpil: < 4. Rdhkp vd; w nrhy nrhy; ;..................... nkho nkhopapypUe; papypUe;J te;jJ m) jkpo; M) gpnud;Q; ,) [g;ghd; <) yj;jd P ;; tpil: , 5. fPNo nfhLf;fg;gl;Ls;sjpy; ,aw;ifahd Nghplh; ,y;iy m) mZFz;L ntbg;G M) fhLfs; mopjy; ,) fhl;Lj;jP <) kpd;dy; tpil : m 6. Nghplh; vd;gJ xU NguopT 7. ,e;jpah ehd;F mjph;tiy kz;lq;fshf gphp; ff ; g;gLfpd;wd. 8. ,e;jpahtpy; Rdhkp vr;rhpf;if ikak; i`juhghj;jpy; py epWtg; gl;Ls;sJ. 9. ghiwj;Jfs;fs; ePUld; Nrh;eJ ; efh;tij NrWtopjy; vd;fpNwhk;. 10. gdpg;ghiw tpo;rr ; pfs; cah; ml;rg;gFjpfspYk; kw;Wk; FjpfspYk caukhf kiyfspYk; Vw;gLfpd;wd. 1. R+iwf;fhw;W - fhw;wpd; Row;rp 2. ,Wfpa ghiwf; Fok;G - vhpkiy ntbj;jy; 3. epyr;rhpT - fdj;j kiog;nghopT 4. twl;rp - kiog;nghopT gw;whf;FiwT 5. epyeLf;fk; - Rdhkp Nguhopapay; - xU mwpKfk; Nguhop vd;gJ xU fpNuf;f nrhy; XNfd]; Nguhopfs; vd;gJ xU cth;gpa ePhpd; ngUk; gFjp kw;Wk; ePhf ; ;Nfhsj;jpd; Kjd;ikahd $l;likg;ghFk;. Nguhopapay;  Nguhopapay; vd;gJ fly;ehP pd; ,aw;if kw;Wk; Ntjpj;jd;ik> Mok;> ntg;gepiy> cth;gg ; pak;> fly; ePNuhl;lq;fs; kw;Wk; flyb gFjpapy; fhzg;glk; jhtu kw;Wk; tpyq;fpdk; gw;wp gbf;ff;$ba xU mwptpayhFk;.  NguhopfshdJ G+kpapd; nkhj;jg;gug;gpy; 71 rjtPjk; kw;Wk; G+kpapd; nkhj;j ePhpy; 97 rjtPjk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ.  Planet) G+kpahdJ ePhf ; ;Nfhsk; (Water vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. Gtpapy; caphpdkhdJ Kjd; Kjypy; flypy;  Njhd;wpapUf;ff;$Lk; vd ek;gg;gLfpwJ. grpgpf;> ml;yhz;bf;> ,e;jpa> Mf;bf; kw;Wk; mz;lhh;bf;  Mfpa Ie;J NguhopfSk; ehk; ed;F mwpe;jitfs; MFk;. grpgpf; Nguhop grpgpf; NguhopahdJ Kf; Nfhz tbt mikg;ig  ngw;Ws;sJ. grpgpf; NguhopahdJ kpfg; nghpaJk; kw;Wk; Mokhd  NguhopAk; MFk;. njd; grpgpf;fpy; cs;s NryQ;rh; Mopf;FopNa (khpahdh  Mopf;Fop) cyfpd; Mokhd gFjp MFk;. ,jd; Mok; 11.033 kpl;lh;fs; MFk;. epA+rpyhe;J> ,e;NjhNdrpah> [g;ghd; kw;Wk; `tha;  Mfpad ed;F mwpag;gl;l jPTfshFk; . ml;yhz;bf; Nguhop ml;yhz;bf; NguhopahdJ ePzl ; ‘S’ tbtj;jpid nfhz;lJ.   ml;yhz;bf; Nguhopapy; fhzg;gLk; kf;fpaj; jPTfhshd fphPdy ; he;j> gphpl;b\; jpTfs;> epA+gTz;l;yhe;J> Nkw;F ,e;jpaj; jPTfs;> nth;bkid kw;Wk; fhdhP] ; MFk;.  ml;yhz;bf; Nguhopapy; th;jj ; f topahdJ cyfpd; kpfTk; Nghf;Ftuj;J epiwe;j xd;whf fUjg;gLfpwJ. ,e;jpa Nguhop  me;jkhd;> epf;Nfhghh;> khyj;jT P > klfh];fh;> ,yq;if> Rkj;uh kw;Wk; [hth Mfpad ,e; jpa Nguhopapd; ed;F mwpe;j jPTfshFk; . 

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mz;lhh;bfh Nguhop ,J njd; Nguhop vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  mnyf;]hz;lh; jPTfs;> ghypdp kw;Wk; Nuh]; jPTfs;  ,g;Nguhopapy; cs;s rpy jPTfs;. Mh;bf; Nguhop ,jd; Kf;fpa jPTfs; tpf;Nlhhpah jPTfs;> vyprngj; jP Tfs;>  I];yhe;J ];gpl;ngh;n[d; kw;Wk; Nehthf Nrhk;ypah MfpadthFk; . cyfj;jpd; fly;fs; njd; rPdf;fly;> fhPgpad; fly;> kj;jpa jiuf;fly; Mfpad  cyfpd; Kf;fpakhd fly;fshFk; . Nguhopapd; jiu mikg;G m) fz;lj;jpl;L> M) fz;lr;rhpT> ,) fly;jiu MFk;. fz;lj;jpl;L ,f;fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpahdJ kpfr; rpwe;j kPd ; gpbj;jskhf  tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. ,q;F kPdf ; spd; czthf fly;tho; Ez;Zaphpfs;  (Plankton) mjpf msT fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpfspy; epiwe; ;J fhzg;gLfpd;wd. epagTd;l;yhe;jpy; cs;s fpuhz;l; Ngq; kw;Wk; gphpl;ldpy;  cs;s lhfh; jpl;LfshFk;. ,f;fz;lj;jpl;L gFjpfspy; ngl;Nuhypa Mo;Foha; fpzWfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. v.fh: Kk;ig i` (,e;jpah) fz;lr;rhpT fz;lr;rhpT kw;Wk; fz;lj;jpd; gFjpfis fz;l tpspk;G  (Continental Margin) vd miof;fp;Nwhk;.  flybf; Fd;Wfisr; Rw;wp fPo; kl;lj;jp;y; Mo;fly; rkntsp (Abyssal Plain) cs;sJ. eLfly; kiyj; njhluhdJ (Ocean Ridge) fz;ljjpl;L  tpirapdhy; Vw;gLfpd;wd. fly; kiyfs;  fly; kl; ;lj;jpw;F Nky; cs;s jPTfs; miy kw;Wk; thdpiy nray;fshy; mhpf;fg;gl;L fpo;gg ; Fjpf;F nrd;wpUe;jhy; mit fahl; vd (Guyot) miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.  Nguhopapd; mfopfs; vd;git (Oceanic Tranches) Nguhopapd; Mokhd gFjpahFk;. ePh; R+ow; R+ow;rp  fly; ePhpy; Nrhbak; FNshiuL> nkf;dr P pak; FNshiuL> nkf;dr P pak; ry;Ngl;> fhy;rpak; ry;Ngl;> nghl;lhrpak; ry; Ngl;> fhyrpak; fhh;gNdl; kw;Wk; nkf;dr P pak; GNuhikl; Mfpa cg;Gf;fs; ngUksT fye;Js;sd. Nguhopfs; cth;g;gJ Vd;?  Gtpapy; cs;s ghiw kw;Wk; Mw;W gLifapd; kz;fspy; cs;s cg;ghdJ kioePuhy; fuhf;fg;gLk; MWfspy; gha;fpd;wJ. vdNt jhd; fly;ehP ; cg;Gj; jd;ikAld; fhzg;gLfpwJ cth;g;gpak;  Nguhopapy; fiue;Js;s cg;gpd; msNt cth;g;gpak; MFk;. cth;gg ; pak; vd;gJ xU ypl; lh; ePhpy; vj;jid fpuhk; msT cg;G fiue;Js;sJ vd;gij Fwpg;gpLtuhFk; (FwpaPL 0 / 00) cyfpy; cs;s Nguhopfspd; ruhrhp cth; g;gpak; 35 fpuhk;  MFk;. fly;fspNyNa rh;ff ; lypy; kpf mjpf msT cth; gg ; pak;  cs;sJ. Nguhop ePNuhl;lq;fs; s Nguho ePNuhl;lq;fs; jho; ml;rNuifapypUe;J cUthfp  JUtq;fis Nehf;fp XLfpd;wd.

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

Fsph; ePNuhl;lq;fs; cah; ml;rNuif gFjpfspy; cUthfp G+kj;jpa Nuifia Nehf;fp XLfpd;wd. Nguhopfspd; cUthFk; epNuhl;lq;fis ghjpf;Fk; fhuzpfs; 1. ntg;gepiyapy; NtWghL 2. Nguhop ePhpd; mlh;j;jp (cth;gg ; pak;) 3. fhw;W kw;Wk; tspkz;ly mOj;jk; 4. nfhhpahyp]p]; tpir 5. GtpaPhg ; G ; tpir 6. kio tPor ; r ; p kw;Wk; Mtpahjy; 7. gdp cUFjy; Xjq;fs; : R+hpad; kw;Wk; re;jpudpd; re;jpud; kw;Wk; G+kp Mfpad xNu Neh;fN ; fhl;by; ,Uf;fpd;wd.  (Neap tide) epytpd; Kjy;kw;Wk; jho;it XjkhdJ %d;whtJ tsh;rr ; p epiyapy; Vw;gLfpd;wJ. ,e;epiyapy; R+hpad;> re;jpud; kw;Wk; G+kp Mfpad  nrq;Nfhzj;jpy; ,Uf;fpd;wd. fly; R+hpa ntg;gj;jpid cl;ftUjyhy; Nguhopfs;  ntg;gg;gLj;jg;gl;L ePNuhl;lq;fs; Vw;gLfpd;wd. ,ij kpd;dhw;wyhf khw;w ,aYk;. ,e;epfo;rr ; pahdJ Nguhopapd; ntg;g Mw;wy; khw;wk; (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion OTEC) vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 1.

ePhpdhy; R+og;gl;L ,Uf;Fk; tprhykhd ngUk; gug;G ..................... ..................... vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. m) Nguhop M) fly; ,) tisFlh <) tphpFlh tpil: m 2. ml;yhz;bf; Nguhop eP ;zl ; ..................... tbtk; m) Kf;Nfhzk; M) S ,) tl;lk; <) ePh;rr ; e;jp tpil: M 3. fly;ePhpd; cah;T kw;Wk; jho;T ..................... vdg;gLk; m) Xjq;fs; M) Nguhop ePNuhl;lq;fs; ,) Rdhkp <) miyfs; tpil: m 4. ePhpd; mbapy; cs;s kiyfspd; caug;gFjp m) fahl; M) Mo;fly; rkntsp ,) fly;kiy <) flybj;njhlh; tpil: , 5. ePhpay; Row;rp ,t;thW miof; miof;fg;gLfpwJ m) i`l;u[d; Row;rp M) Mf;]p[d; Row;rp ,) ePh; Row;rp <) fhh;gd; Row;rp tpil: , Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf : 1. Gtpapd; kw;nwhU ngauhdJ ePhf ; ;Nfhsk; 2. Nry NryQ;rh; Mopf;Fop njd; grpgpf; Nguhopapy; cs;s Mokhd mfop (kL) 3. epyj;jpdhy; R+og;gl;l ePh; gFjp fly;fs; vdg;gLfpwJ. 4. flyb rkntspahdJ flybFd flybFd;Wfshy; Wfshy R+og;gl;Ls;sJ. Wfshy 5. fhw;Nwhl;lk; fhuzkhf flyiyfs; cUthf;fg;gLfpd;wd. ts Mjhuq; Mjhuq;fs; ts Mjhuq;fSk; mjd; tiffSk; ekJ Gtpf;Nfhs; %d;W Kf;fpa $Wfshy;  cUthf; fg;gl;Ls;sJ. mit ghiwf;Nfhsk; my;yJ epyk;> ePhf ; ;Nfhsk; my;yJ ePh; kw;Wk; tspf;Nfhsk; my;yJ Gtpiar; Rw;wpAs;s fhw;W kz;lyk; MFk;. ,k;%d;W $WfSk; caph;Nfhsj;jpw;F Mjhukhfj; jpfo;fpd;wd.

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kf;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gl;l Kbahj R+oypy; cs;s ts Mjhuq; fs; ,ayhw;wpy; ts Mjhuq;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. irgPhpah> mz;lhh;bf;fh Nghd;w ,lq;fspy; fhzg;gLk; ts Mjhuq; fis ,jw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;Lfshff; $wyhk;. kdpjh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ts Mjhuq; fis  tsh;rr ; pAw;w ts Mjhuq;fs; vd;W miof;fg;glfpd;wd. epyf;fhp> ,Uk;Gj;jhJ Nghd;wit ,jw;F vlj;Jf;fhl;LfshFk; . GJgpf;f ,ayhj ts Mjhuq; fs; cNyhff; fdpkq;fs; vd;gJ cNyhfj; jhjf;fs; mlq;fpa  %yg;nghUl;fs; MFk;. epyf;fhp> vz;nza;. ,aw;ifthA kw;Wk; ; mZrf;jp  fdpkq;fs; Mfpait tpiutpy; jPh;eJ ; NghFk; kf;fpakhd vhpnghUs; fdpkq;fs; MFk;. epyf;fhp Gij vhpnghUs; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. Gtpapd; ntg;gk; kw;Wk; mOj;jk; fhuzkhf Gije;JNghj  jhtuq; fs; epyf;fhpahf khw; wk; mile;jd. jkpo;ehl;by; cs;s nea;Ntypapy; epyf;fhp mjpfkhf ntl; b  vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,q;F ypf;idl; my;yJ gOg;G epyf;fhp mjpf mstpy; fpilf;fpwJ. vz;nza; kw;Wk; ,aw;ifthA nghJthf vz;nza; flYf;fbapYs;s gbTg; ghiwfsh Nrw;Wkz;gbTfs; (Mudstone) nkd;fspfy; (Shale) kw;Wk; kzw;ghiy (Sandstone) Nghd;w mLf;Ffspy; fhzg;gLk;. vz;nza; gbTfs; epyg;gFjpfspYk; (Onshore) fly;  gFjpfspYk; (Offshore) fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpakhd vz;nza; tay;fs; m];]hk;  epyg;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa Kk;ig i` vd;Dk; vz;nza;  tay; flw;gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ. jkpo;ehl;by; fhtphp nly;lh gFjpfspy; vz;nza; tsk;  fz;lwpag;gl;Ls;sJ. mZrf;jp fdpkq;fs; s ANudpak;> Njhhpak; Nghd;w fdpkq;fs; mZrf;jpia  cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. ,e;jpahtpy; jkpo;ehL kw;Wk; Nfus flw;fiu  kzw;gug;Gfspy; ,y;kidl; mjpfsT fhzg;gLfpwJ. cyfpNyNa mjpfsT (30%) mZrf;jpia cw;gj;jp  nra;Ak; ehL mnkhpf; f If;fpa ehL MFk; .  mZrf; ;jp vhpnghUis njpfstpy; (75 %) gad;gLj;Jk; ehL gpuhd;R MFk;. GJg;gpf;ff;$ba ts Mjhuq;fs; ePh;kpd;rf;jp rPdhtpy; cs;s ahq;brp Mw;wpd; FWf;Nf mike;jpUf;Fk;  Kg;gs;sj;jhf;F mizapy; (jphp fhh;[y;) cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd;rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;sJ. ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePhk ; pd; rf;jp gf;uheq;fs; mizapy;  cs;sJ. R+hpa Mw;wy; xspkpd; Nthy;lh kpd;fyk; (Photo Voltic Cells) R+hpa  rf;jpia Nrkpg;gjw;F Njitg;gLfpwJ.  cyfpd; mjpf msT R+hpa Mw; wiy cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ehL n[h;kdp MFk;. fhw;W Mw;wy;  INuhg;gh fz;lk; fhw;W Mw;wiy mjpf mstpy; gad;gLj;JfpwJ.

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nlf;khh;ff ; pd; 20% kpd;rhuk; fhw;W Mw;wy; %ykhfg; ngwg;gLfpd;wd.  ,e;jpahtpy; kfhuh\;buk; kw;Wk; jkpo; ehl;by; fhw;W Mw;wy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ.  jkpo;ehl;by; fd;dpahFkhp khtl; lj;jpy; cs;s Muy;tha;nkhop vd;Dk; gFjpapy; cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa fhw;whiy epWtdk; cs;sJ. caphp Mw;wy;  rhz vhpthA my; yJ kPjN ; jd; khl;Lr; rhzj;jpypUe;J cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd.  jw;nghOJ caphp vhpnghUs; fUk;gpypUe;Jk;>  Mkzf;F tif jhtuq;fspypUe;Jk; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf : 1. ,aw;ifapy; fhzg;gLk; ve;j xU nghUSk; kdpjh;fSf;F gadspg;gjhf ,Ug;gpd; mJ ts Mjhuk; Mjhuk vdg;gLk;. 2. Gtpapd; fdpkr; Ruq;fq;fspypUe;J xU Kiw ntl; b vLf;fg;gl;lij kPzL ; k; ek;khy; ; cUthf;f ,ayhJ. 3. xU ehl;bd; nghUshjhu Nkk; ghl;bw;F ts Mjhuq;fs; s kpf Kf;fpa gq;F tfpf;fpwJ. 4. ANudpak; xU mZrf;jp fdpkkhFk;. 5. mad kz;lyk; R+hpa Mw;wiy kpf mjpf mstpy; cw;gj;jp nra;a VJthf cs;sJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. kdpjh;fshy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; ts Mjhuq; fs; m) tsh;r;rpAw;w tsk; M) ,ayhw;wy; tsk; ,) Nghf;Ftsk; tpil: m 2. fdpkq;fs; tsq;fs; vd;git m) GJgpf;ff;$ba tsq;fs; M) GJgpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs; ,) caphpay; tsq;fs; tpil: M 3. fhw;W Mw;wiy mjpfkhfg; gad;gLj;Jk; fz;lk; m) INuhg;gh M) njd; mnkhpf;fh ,) mz;lhh;bfh tpil: m 4. ekJ khepyj;jpy; ntl;bnaLf;fg;gLk; epyf;fhp m) gOg;G epyf;fhp M) Md;ju; irl; ,) fpuhigl; tpil: m 5. ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa ePh; kpd; rf;jp epiyak; mike;Js;s ,lk; m) gf;uheq;fs; M) Nkl;^h; ,) jhNkhjh; tpil: m ts Mjhuq;fSk; nghUshjhu nghUshjhu eltbf;iffSk; Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fs; ,k;Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fsp;y ; kdpjh;fs; ,aw;if ts  Mjhuq; fNshL Nehpilahf ,ize; J nray;gLfpd;wdh;. fdpkq;fis ntl;bnaLj;jy;> kP d ; gpbj;jy;> kuk; ntl;Ljy;>  Ntshz;ik ,itaidj;Jk; Kjy;epiy njhopy;fs; MFk;. ,j;njhop;yf ; spy; kjpg;gpidAk; ngUf;Ffpd;wdh;.  ,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy; GhpAk; gzpahsh;fs; ePy fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Blut collar workers) vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wdh;.

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%d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs; tzpfk;> Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;G Nritfis  %d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fs; vd miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. %d;whk; epiyj; njhopy;fspy; gzpGhpNthiu ntsph; rptg;G  fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Pink Collar workers) vd;W miof;fpNwhk;. ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs;  fy;tpj;Jiw> ePjpj;Jiw. kUj;Jtk;> nghOJNghf;F> Nfspf;iffs;> eph;thfk;> Muha;r;rp kw;Wk; tsh;rr ; p Mfpa jdpj;jd;ik nfhz;l R+oy;fspy; Nrit GhpNthh; ehd;fhk; epiyj; njhopy;fspy; mlq;Fth;.  ,j;Jiwapy; gzpGhpAk; gzpahsh;fs; nts;is fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (White Collar workers) vd;wiof;fg;gLth;. Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy;fs; MNyhrid toq;FNthh; kw;Wk; jpl;lk; tFg;Nghh; Nghd;w  cah;epiyapy; cs;Nshh; ,t;tif njhopypy; mlq;Fth;. rl;lG+h;tkhd mjpfhhpfSk; Ie;jhk;epiyj; njhopy;fspy;  mlq;Fth;. ,th;fs; fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; (Gold Collar workers) vd miof;fg;gLth;. Nfhbl;l ,lq ,lq; ;fis Njh;e;njL : 1. Kjy;epiy njhopy njhopy; ;; m) kuk; ntl;Ljy; M) tq;fp Ntiy ,) MNyhrid toq; Fjy; tpil: m 2. ....................... njhopy; GhpNthiu nts;is fOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh; gzpahsh;fs; vd miof;fpNwhk;. m) Kjy;epiy M) ,uz;lhk; epiy ,) %d;whk; epiy <) ehd;fhk; epiy tpil: < 3. njhopw;rhiyfs; tsh;r;rpaila paila cjtpGhpAk; Nrit m) Nka;j;jy; M) Nghf;Ftuj;J ,) Ntl;ilahLjy; tpil: M 4. Ie;jhk;epiyj; njhopy; mjpfkhf fhzg;gLk; ,lq;fs; m) fpuhkq;fs; M) gs;spfs; ,) ngUefuq;fs; tpil: , 5. jpl;lk; tFg;Nghh; mlq;fpa njhopy;epiy m) Kjy;epiyj; njhopy; M) Ie;jhk; epiyj; njhopy; ,) %d;whk; epiyj; njhopy; tpil: M 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

ePyfOj;Jg;gl;il gzpahsh;fs; nghOJ Nghf; F tzpfk; Kjy; epiy gzpahsh;fs;

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,uz;lhk;epiy ehd;fhk; epiy %d;whk; epiy kPdg ; pbj;jy; njhopy;El;gk; njhpe;j kw;Wk; njhopy;El;gk; njhpahj

Kjy;epiy njhopypd; tiffs;  kdpjd; Neubahf ,aw;ifr; rhh;e;J cs;shd;. ,jid Kjd;ik njhopy;fs; vd miof;fyhk;. czT Nrfhpj;jy; y  kf;fs; j q;fSf;F Njitahd czit ,aw;ifaplkpUe;J Nrfhpj;dh;.  vLj;Jf;fhl;lhf Mg;gphpf;f fhLfspy; trpf;Fk; G\;nkd; ,dj;jth;fs;. me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghhpd; gok;ngUk; kf;fshd [hh;th]; kw;Wk; XQ;r];. Ntl;ilahL lahLjy;  vLj;jf;fhl;L : Mg;gphpf; fh gpf;kpf;fs;> mNkrhd; tbepyg; gFjpapd; mnkhpz;bad; kw;Wk; fdlhtpd; v];fpNkh];.

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Nka;jj ; y; ehNlhbfs; krha; gNlhapd; Nyg;]; lhnuf;]; fh;l;] ; ,uhghp

,lk; Mg;gphpf;fh - nfd;ah lhd;Nrdpah mNugpah ];fhz;bNetpah Mg;gphpf;fh nj.Nk.Mrpah Nkw;F Mrpah ,e; jpah - ,uh[];jhd;

tpyq;Ffs; fhy;eilfs; xl;lfk; fiykhd; xl;lfk; ML> nrk;kwp ML xl;lfk;

kPdg ; pbj;jy; cyfpd; kpfg;nghpa Nlhd;Nyrhg; (Donle sap) cs;ehl;L  kPdg ; pb Vhp MFk; . fz;lj;jpl;Lg; gFjpfspYk;> Mokw;w gFjpfspYk; gpshq;ld;  vdg;gLk; kPd ; czT ngUkstpy; fpilf;fpwJ. [g;ghd;> ngU> fdlh> tlfly; gFjp kw;Wk; tlNkw;F  ml;yhz;bf; fly; Mfpa gFjpfs; Kf;fpa kPdg ; pb jsq;fshFk; . kuk; ntl;Ljy; jy cyfpy; njhopw;rhiyfSf; Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy;  ,uz;L gq;F kpjntg;g kz;ly fhLfspypUe; J ngwg;gLfpd;wd. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. kdpjd; Neubahf ,aw;ifiar; rhh;eJ ; nray;glk; njhopy;fs; Kjd;ikj; njhopy;fs; s vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 2. Nka;jj ; y; Nka;rr ; y; epyq;fspy; mjpf y njhopypy;> vz;zpf;ifapyhd tpyq;Ffis Nka;g;gh;. 3. czTg; nghUl;fisr; Nrfhpj;jy; y kw;Wk; Ntl;ilahLjy; lahLjy Nghd;wit Kjy;epiyj; njhopy;fSs; goikahd njhopy;fshFk; . 4. kpjntg;g kz;lyf;fhLfspy; nkd;ikahd kuq;fs; s kw;Wk; fhl;L kuq;fs; fhzg;gLtjhy; kpfg; gutyhfg; gad;glfpwJ. 5. flypy; kPd ; gpbg;gJ vd;gJ kpfTk; rpf;fyhd nrayhFk;. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. [huhth]; vdg;gLk; njhd;KJkf;fs; fhzg;gLk; ,lk; m) me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh; M) Mg;gphpf;fh ,) fdlh tpil: m 2. fdlhtpy; fhzg;glk; v];fpNkhf;fs; m) Ntl;ilahLgth; M) czT Nrfhpg;gth; ,) Nka;jj ; y; njhopy; Ghpgth;fs; tpil: m 3. kpd; czT ..................... f;F mUfhiapy; ngUksT fpilf;fpd;wJ. m) fz;lj;jpl;L M) fz;lr;rhpT ,) ngUq;fly;Fop tpil: m 4. cyfpd; njhopw;rhiyfSf; Fg; gad;gLk; kuq;fspd; %d;wpy; ,uz;L gq;F .................... fhLfspypUe; fhLfspypUe;J ngwg; gLfpd;wd. m) kpjntg;g kz;ly; fhLfs; M) mad kz;ly fhLfs; ,) Jhe;jpuf; fhLfs; tpil: m 5. ngUkstpy; eilngWk; Kjd;ikj; njhopy; m) czT Nrfhpj;jy; M) Ntl;ilahLjy; ,)Ruq;fj;njhopy; tpil: m 1. G\;nkd; - Mg;gphpf;fh 2. [g;ghd; - kPdg ; pbjsk; 3. Njf;F - madf;fhLfs; 4. Crpapiyf;fhLfs; - nkd;ikahd kuq;fs; 5. jPtdk; - fhy;eil czT Ruq;fj;njhopy; fdpkq;fs; xU GJgpf; f Kbahj tskhFk; . vdNt Ruq;fj;njhopy; xU nfhs;isj;njhopy; vd;W miof;fg;gL;k.;

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

jhJf;fspd; gbtq;fs; ghiwfspDhNl Fiwe;j msT ,Ug;gpd; mJ Fiwe;j msT jhJg; gLif (veins) vdTk;> mjpf mstpy; ,Ug;gpd; ngUksT jhJg; gLif (lodes) vdTk; tifg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd. vz;nza; fpzWfspy; ,Ue;J Jise;J vz;nza; vLf;f  vz;nza; hpf; (Rigs) vdg;gLk; xUtif Nkiliag; gad;gLj;Jth;.  Jisapl;L vz;nza; vLf;Fk; vz;nza; tay;fs; ,Uf;Fk; ,lq;fis mq;F fhzg;gLk; nlhpf; (derricks) vdg;gLk; ,ae;jpuq;fspdhy; Md NfhGuk; Nghd;W Njhw;wkspf;Fk; fl;likg;Gfisf; nfhz;L fhzyhk;. fdpkq;fspd; guty; Nkf;idl;> N`kill;> ypNkhidl; kw; Wk; rpliul; Mfpait  ,Uk;Gj; jhJtpd; tiffshFk;. ghf;i]l; ghf;i]l; mYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJ MFk;. jufk; jfuj;jpd; jhJ Nfrpliul; (Cassiterite) MFk;. jq;fk; jq;fk; xU tpiyAah;ej ; cNyhfk; vd;gij mwpNthk;. jq;fk; ngUk;ghYk; tz;ly; gphpj;jy; Kiw %yk; gphpj;J vLf;fg;gLfpwJ.  fhul; (carat) vd;w nrhy; jq;fj;jpd; Jha jd;ikia njhpe;Jf;nfhs;sg; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. Ruq;fj;njhopy; xU Kf;fpakhd Kjy;epiyj; njhopy; vdTk; fUjg;gLfpwJ. 2. jpwe;jntspr; Euq;f Kiw vd;gJ Fthhpaq; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 3. fdpkq;fs; xU GJgpf;f ,ayhj tskhFk;. 4. ikf;fh kpd;rf;jp jahhpf;Fk; njhopw; rhiyfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. 5. nlhpf; vd;gJ vz;nza; tay;fspy; NfhGuk; Nghd;w Njhw;wKila fl;likg;ghFk;. rhpahd tpiliaj Njh;e;njL : 1. tz;ly; kz; gbTfNshL fhzg;gLk; fdkk; m) jq;fk; M) ,Uk;G ,) epyf;fhp tpil: m 2. mYkpdpaj;jpd; jhJ m) fe;jfk; M) ghf;i]l; ,) epyf;fhp tpil: M 3. Nkf;dirl; jhJit nfhz;l fdpkk; m) ,Uk;G M) rpliul; ,) jq;fk; tpil: m 4. ,J xU cNyhfkw;w fdpkkhFk; m) ngl;Nuhypak; M) fe;jfk; ,) jfuk; tpil: m 1. vhpnghUs; - epyf;fhp 2. kNyrpah - jfuk; 3. tz;ly; gphpj;njLj;jy; - jq;fk; 4. Rz;zhk;Gf;fy; - fl;llg;nghUs; 5. nrk;G - rpyp

kz;lyg; gapuhFk;. NfhJik tsu Fsph; ej ; fhyepiyj; Njitg;gLfpwJ. cah; gFjpfspy; kpjntg;g kz;ly gapuhfpa fhul; (Carrot)  Nghd;w gsph;fis tpistpf;fyhk;.  gUj;jp Nghd;w gaph;fs; KOikahd tsh; rr ; p ngw 200 gdpnghoptw;w ehl;fs; Njitg;gLtjy; Fiwe;j ntg;gk; epyTk; gUt fhyq; fspy; tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ. gy;gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiw fhy;thy; mkqkiyg; gFjpapy; xNu tpisepyj;jpy; 12 f;Fk; Nkw;gl;l gy;NtW tpjkhd gPd] ; >; gUg;G kw;Wk; jpid tif gaph;fs; gaph; nra;ag;gl;L mg;gaph;fspd; mWtil fhyq;fl;lq;fSf;F Vw;wthW mWtil nra;ag;gLfpwJ. fyg;Gg;gz;iz ,jpy; gaph; tpistpj;jy; kw;Wk; fhy;eil tsh;jjy; Mfpa ,uz;Lk; eilngWfpwJ. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. Ntshz;ik xU Kf;fpakhd Kjd;ik njhopyhFk;. 2. Ntshz; gaph;fis> czTg; gaph;fs; kw;Wk; gzg; gaph;fs; vd ,U ngUk; gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;. 3. nrhl;LePh ; ghrd Kiwapy; ePh ; nrbfspd; NtUf;F mUfhikapy; nrYj;jg;gLfpwJ. 4. ntg;gepiy kw;Wk; kioapd; msT Ntshd; njhopiy ghjpf;Fk; fhyepiy fhuzpfshFk; . 5. tpisepyj;jpy; xNu xU gaph; kl;Lk; xUKiw tpistpf; fg;gl;lhy; mJ xU gaph; tpistpf;Fk; Kiw vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. ................... Ntshz; njhopYf;F Vw;w ,lkhFk;, m) gPlG+kp M) rkntsp ,) kiyg;gFjp tpil: M 2. .................... Ntshz; njhopy; tifapy; mjpf msT gaph; fs; tpistpf; tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ. m) jd;dpiwT M) khw;wpl ,) tzpf tpil: , 3. gpNurpy; ehl;by; ,lg;ngah;T my;yJ khw;wpl Ntshz;ik ....................... vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. m) [Pk; M) Nuhf;Nfh ,) Njhl;lg;gaph; tpil: M 4. ney; xU ......................... gapuhFk; gapuhFk m) kpjntg;g kz;ly M) gz ,) madkz;ly tpil: , 5. kio Fiwthf fpilf;fg; ngw;w gFjpfspy; ......................... mtrpak; m) ePh;gg ; hrk; M) fpzWfs; ,) xU gaph; tpil: m 1. jd;dpiwT Ntshz;njhopy; - rpWepyg; gFjpfs; 2. iey; gs;sj;jhf;F - vfpg;J 3. tzpf Ntshz;njhopy; - tpw;gidf;fhd gaph; 4. tl;ltbt epyk; - ika Row;rp Kiw 5. Njapiy - kiyr;rhpTfs; gaph;fs; ney;

Ntshz;ik Mw;Wr;rkntsp ehfhpfk; fz;lk; rpe;J ùg;gh - nkhfQ; rjhNuh Mrpah iey; vfpg;J Mg;gphpf;fh A+g;uB]; nkrgNlhkpah Mrpah ntg;gepiy  ney;> mad kz;lyj;jpy; tpistpf;fg;gLk; Kjd;ik gapuhFk;. Vnddpy;> mjpf ntg;gKk;> mjpfsT ePUk; new;gaph; tsu Njitg;gLfpwJ. NfhJik xU kjntg; g

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

rPdhtpd; ahh;bq; Mw;Wr; rkntspapy; ,g;gaphpd; gad;ghL Kjd;Kjypy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ vd;w fUj;Jk; epyTfpwJ. ney; tsh;r;rpf;Fj; Njitahd R+y; ;epiyfs; R+y  ney; tsh;tjw;F ruhrhpahf 24 0 nr jl;gntg;gepiyAk;> ruhrhpahf 150 nr.kP kioasTk; Njitg;gLfpwJ.  98% tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; ney; cw;gj;jpapy; gq;F ngWfpd;wdh;. ney; cw;gj;jpapy; rPdh> ,e;jpah> ,e; NjhNdrpah kw;Wk;  tq;fhsNjrk; Mfpa ehLfs; cyfpy; Kjy; ehd;F cw;gj;jp ehLfshfj; jpfo;fpd;wd.

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NfhJik NfhJik xU kpjntg; g kz;lyg; gapuhFk;.  cyfpd; 25% epyg;gFjp NfhJik tsh; ff ;  gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.  Nfhjikg; gapUf;F 150 nr.ypUe;J 200 nr tiu cs;s jl;gntg;gepitNa rhpahd ntg; gj;Njit MFk;.  ,jw;F 50-60 nr.kP ruhrhp msT Njitg; gLfpwJ. gUj;jp ,ioapypUe;J tpijfisg; gphpf;Fk; Kiw (Ginning) vd;w nray;Kiw ,jpy; gad;glj;jg;gLk;. jl;gntg;gepiy 200 Kjy; 300 nr ,Uf;Fk;.  mad kz;lyg; gFjpfspy; 500-1000 nr.kP kio msT cs; s  gFjpfspy; gUj;jp tpisfpwJ. rzy; 300 nr cs;s mjpf ntg;gKk; 150 nr.kP Nkyhd kioasTk; rzy; tsu Njitg;gLfpwJ. rzy; nrfis ePhpy; Cuitj;J kf;fr;nra;J ,iofis  gphpj;njLf;Fk; nra;iff;Fj; (retting) njhopyhsh;fs; Njitg;gLfpd;wdh;.  ,e;jpahTk; tq;fhs NjrKk; rzy; cw;gj;jpapy; Kjyplk; tfpf;Fk; ehLfshFk;. fUk;G fUk;G xU caukhd madkz;ly Gy;tif jhtukhFk;. ,J 3.5 kPll ; h; tiu tsuf;$ba jhtukhFk;.  fUk;G tsu ruhrhpahf 240 nr ntg;gk; Mz;L KOtjk; njitg;gLfpwJ.  Njapiy  ruhrhpahd 210 nr ntg;gKk;> 150 nr.kP kioAk; ey;y kz; tskk; Njapiy tsuj; Njitg;gLfpwJ. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. jhdpaq;fNs kdpjdJ mbg;gil czthFk;. 2. cyfpd; rpwe;j tif NfhJikg; gaph;fs; kpj ntg;g kz;lyg; Gy;ntspfspypUe;J fpilf;fpwJ. 3. ,e;jpahtpy; kfhuh\;buk;> F[uhj; kw;Wk; jkpo;ehL Mfpa khepyq;fs; gUj;jp cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; Kf;fpa khepyq;fs; MFk;. 4. ney; xU mad kz;lyg; gapuhFk;. rhpahd rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. ....................... tptrhapfs; tptrhapfs; Mrpahtpy; new;gaph; tpistpf;Fk; gzpapy; gq;F ngWfpd;wdh;. m) 98% M) 80% ,) 75% tpil: m 2. ,e;jpahtpd; cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;> gQ;rhg; kw;Wk; `hpahdh Mfpa khepyq; fs. mjpf msT ........................... .................... ....... cw; gj;jp nra;Ak; khepyq;fshFk;. m) ney; M) fUk;G ,) NfhJik tpil: , 3. Njapiy xU ........................... nrbahFk; nrbahFk;. m) kpjntg;gkz;ly M) mad kz;ly ,) epyeLf;NfhL tpil: M 4. gUj;jp ............................ kz; zpy; mjpfkhf mjpfkhf tpisfpwJ. tpisfpwJ. m) fhpry; M) tz;ly; ,) rptg;G tpil: m 5. ,e;jpah kw;Wk; tq;fhsNjrk; ....................... cw;gj;jpapy; Kjyplk; tfpf;fpd;wd. m) gUj;jp M) rzy; ,) NfhJik tpil: m 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

tpij gphpf;Fk; nray; Cwitj;J kf;fr;nra;jy; fspkz; fye;j tz;ly; kz; tz;ly;kz; caukhd madg;Gy; tif

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gUj;jp rzy; NfhJik ney; fUk;G

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,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy; %yg; nghUs;fis KbTw;w nghUl;fshf khw;Wk; nray;fs;  ,uz;lhk; epiyj; njhopy; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ. epyf;fhp njhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa Kjy; vhpnghUs;  MFk;. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epu epug; g;Gf 1. ,aw;ifapy; %yg;nghUl;fs; s tbtpy; fpilf;Fk; tsq;fis ehk; mg;gbNa cgNahfpf;f KbahJ. 2. njhopw;rhiyfs; njhlq;fg;gLtij Gtpapay; fhuzpfs; fhuzpfs kw;Wk; kf;fs; tho;tpay; fhuzpfs; eph;zapf;fg;gLfpd;wd. 3. fdkhd %yg;nghUl;fisg; gad;gLj;Jk; njhopw;rhiyfs; %yg;nghUl; mUfpNyNa ghUl;fs; fpilf;Fk; ,lq;fSf;F njhlq;fg;gfpd;wd. 4. njhopy;Jiw cyfpd; 70% vhpnghUs; rf;jpia 70 ,ae;jpuq;fs; ,af;fg; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;fpwJ. 5. vspjpy; cilaf;$ba> El;gkhd fz;zhbg; nghUs;fis jahhpf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyfs; re;ijf;F mUfpNyNa epWtg; gl;Lfpd;wd. rhpahd rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. vspjpy; cilaf;$ba El;gkhd nghUl;fs; m) fz;zhbg; nghUl;fs; M) fha;fwpfs; ,) tz;bfs; tpil: m 2. njhopw;Gul;rpia Vw;gLj;jpa K Kjy; jy; vhpnghUs; ........................ MFk;. m) vz;nza; M) ,Uk;G ,) epyf;fhp tpil: , 3. nghJthf ........................ epyf; fhp Ruq;fq;fSf;F mUfpNyNa mikf;fg;gLk;. m) mYkpdpak; njhopw;rhiyfs; M) ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy ,) fg;gy; fl;Lk; njhopw;rhiy tpil: M 4. ituk; mWf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyf;F .......................... gzpahsh; Njitg;gLfpwJ. m) Fwpg;gpl;l njhopw;El;gk; njhpe;j M) njhopw;El;gk; njhpahj ,) XusT njhopw;El;gk; njhpe;j tpil: m 1. mjpfsT nghUs; cw;gj;jp - njhopw;Gul;rp 2. ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy - %yg;nghUs; fs; 3. [hhpah - epyf;fhp Ruq;fk; 4. nghUl;fis mLf;fpf;fl;Lk; - gzpahsh;fis ikakhff; njhopw;rhiy nfhz;L 5. cjphpg;ghfq;fis ,izf;Fk; - re;ijapid ikakhff; njhopw;rhiy nfhz;L njhopyfq;fspd; tiffs; rpjwp fhzg;gLk; njhopyfq;fs; (Foot Loose) ,t;tif njhopyfq;fs; vt;tplj;jpYk; epWtg;glyhk; > Vnddpy; ,jd; %yg;nghUs; fs; ,ae;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; mjd; ghfq;fs; MFk;. v.fh : fbfhuk; jahhpf;Fk; njhopyfq;fs;. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. Nyrhd my;yJ fdkw;w %yg; nghUs;fisf; nfhz;L jahhpf;Fk; fdkw;w njhopw;rhiyfs; vq;F Ntz;LkhdhYk; epWtg; glyhk;. 2. thfdj; njhopw;rhiy xU ghfq;fis ,izf; ,izf;Fk; njhopw;rhiyahFk;. 3. re;ij rhh;ej ; njhopw;rhiyfs; re;ijfSf;F mUNf epWtg; gLfpd;wd. 4. ifj;jwp njhopy;fs; ifj; njhopyfq;fSf;F vLj;Jf;fhl;lhFk;.

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5.

gjgLj;Jk; njhopy;fs; %yg;nghUs; fis gjg;gLj;jpa nghUs; fshf khw;wpaikf;fpd;wd. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. jdpahh; epWtdj; epWtdj;jpw;F vLj;Jf;fhl;L m) hpiyad;R M) ngy; (BHEL) ,) ghuj; rQ;rhh; epfhk; ypkpnll; (BSNL) tpil: m 2. nghpa mstpy; cw;gj;jpj;jpwd; nfhz;l njhopyfq;fSf;F ........................... Kjypy; Njit m) mjpf M) kpjkhd ,) Fiwthd tpil: m 3. miwfyd;fs; nra;Ak; njhopyfq;fs; ............................ njhopyfq;fSs; mlq;Fk;. m) fhLfs; rhh; ej ; M) Ntshd;nghUs;fs; rhh;e;j ,) fdpkq;fs;rhh;e;j tpil: m 4. gUj;jp njhopw;rhiy xU .......................... njhopyhFk; . m) ifj;njhopy; rhh;e;j M) cjphp ghfq;fis ,izf;Fk; ,) Ntshz; nghUs; rhh;e;j tpil: , 5. rh;f;fiuj; njhopw;rhiy ............................. rhh; e;j njhopyfkhFk;. m) %yg;nghUs; M) rpjhpf;fhzg;gLk; ,) re;ij tpil: m 1. tpijg; gphpj;jy; Kiw - gUj;jp njhopw;rhiy 2. gjg;gLj;Jjy; - Njhy; njhopw;rhiy 3. cUf;Fjy; - ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiy 4. %yjdk; - fduf njhopw;rhiy 5. nerT - ifj;jwp njhopw;rhiy tzpfk; tzpfj;ij Nkd;NkYk; cah;jJ ; tjw;F mz;il ehLfSld; xd;wpize;J xU FOthf nray; gLtij tzpff; $l;likg;Gfs; (Trading blocks) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ. v.fh: njd;fpof;F Mrpa $l;likg;G ehLfs; (ASEAN) INuhg;gpa $l;likg;G Nghd;wit MFk;.  Vw;Wkjp kjpg;gpw;Fk;> ,wf;Fkjp kjpg;gpw;Fk; ,ilNa cs;s NtWghl tzpfr; rkepiy vdg;glfpwJ.  Vw;Wkjpapd; kjpg;G ,wf;Fkjpapd; kjpg;ig tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; me;ehl;bd; rhjfkhf tzpf rkepiy epyTfpwJ vdyhk;.  ,wf;Fkjpapd; kjpg;G Vw;Wkjpapd; kjpg;ig tpl mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhy; ghjfkhf tzpf rkepiy epyTfpwJ vdyhk; . Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. ,yj;jpd; mnkhpf;fh czTg;nghUl;fs; kw;Wk; %yg;nghul;fisAk; Vw;Wkjp nra;fpwJ. 2. ,ug;gh; kw;Wk; jfuk; mjpfk; fhzg;gLk; ,lk; kNyrpah MFk;. 3. njhopy;Jiwapy; tsh;rr ; paile;j ehLfs; cw;gj;jp nra;a KbTg; nghUs;fisj; njhopy;Jiw tsh;rr ; pailahj ehLfSf; F Vw;Wkjp nra;fpd;wJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. xU ehl;bw;Fs;NsNa eilngWk; thzpgk; ....................... m) cs;ehl;L thzpgk; M) gd;dhl;L thzpgk; ,) jpwe;j thzpgk; tpil: m 2. njhopw;rhiyapd; %yg;nghUs; ........................... ghUs;fs; nghUs; fshFk;. m) Kjy;epiy M) ,uz;lhk; epiy ,) %d;whk; epiy tpil: m 3. Rtpl;rh;yhe;J ........................... cw;gj;jpf;Fg; Gfo; Gfo;ngw;wJ m) gl;L M) iff;fbfhuk; ,) Njapiy tpil: M

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

rPdh vz;nza; fhfpjk; Mg;gphpf;fh jfuk;

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gl;L kj;jpa fpof;F ehLfs; fdlh fdpk jhJf;fs; kNyrpah

Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;Gfs; rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J rhiyfis fz;lq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd rhiyfs;  (Transcontinental roads) Njrpa rhuyfs; kw;Wk; cs;Sh; rhiyfs; vd tifg;gLj;jyhk;. fz;lq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd rhiyfs; Kf;fpakhdit. mit xU vy; iyapypUe;J kw;nwhU vy;iyf;F ,izf;Fk; ePzl ; rhiyfs; MFk;.  gaz Neuj;ijf; Fiwf;Fk; tz;zk; ghtq;fs; kw;Wk; FilTfs; topahf ehlfSf; fpilNa mikf;fg;gl;L ,lq;fis ,izf;Fk;gbahf mike;Js;sJ. n[h;kdpapy; cs;s Ml;Nlhghd;]; rhiyfs; Kjypy; mikf;fg;gl;l ,j;jifa rhiyfs; MFk;. ,e;jpahtpd; fpuhz;l ; buq;f; rhiy 2500 fp.kP ePsKs;s fpuhz;l; buq;f; rhiy ,e;jpahtpd; ePskhd> Kjd;ikahd rhiyahFk;.  ,e;neLQ;rhiy tq;fhs Njrj;jpYs;s Nrhdhh;fs; vd;w ,lj;jpypUe;J ghfp];jhdpYs;s ng\hth; vd;w ,lj;jpw;F tl ,e;jpahtpd; topahf ,izf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.  buhd;] ; irgPhpad; ,uapy; ghij fz;lq;fSf;F ,ilNaahd xU ,Ug;Gg; ghijahFk; . ,J u\;ahtpd; gFjpapy; mike;Js;s tpshbth]; lhf; vd;w ,lj;Jld; ,izf;fpwJ. buhd;] ; Mrpa ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J rpq;fg;G+hpid 26  ehLfspd; topahf 18000 fp.kP njhitypy; cs;s JUf;fpapd; ,];jhd;Gy; gFjpAld; ,izf;fpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd; ,uapy;Nghf;Ftuj;J mikg;ghdJ Mrpah  fz;lj;jpNyNa kpfg;nghpaJ.  cyfpy; ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ.  vk;.Mh;.b.v]; (M.R.T.S) vd;gJ kjpo;ehl;by; nrd;idapy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;d cah;gFjpapy; mike;Js;s ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J MFk;. jw;NghJ ,r;Nrit 17 ,uapy; epiyaq;fNshL nrd;id  flw;fiu ,uapy; epiyaj;jpypUe;J Ntsr;Nrhp ,uapy; epiyak; tiuapyhd 25 fp.kP Jhuj;jpw;fF nray;gLfpwJ. ePh;topg;Nghf;Ftuj;J ePh;topg;Nghf;Ftuj;J kypthd Nghf; Ftuj;J topahFk;.  gf;fpq;fhk; fhy;tha; Nghf;Ftuj;J ney;YhUf;Fk;  kuf;fhzj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa nghUs;fis nfhz;Lnry;y gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. cyfpd; Kf;fpa fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J topfs; topfs; tl ml;yhz;bf; top ,J kf;fs; epiwe;j gFjpahfpa Nkw;F INuhg;gpa ehLfisAk; tl mnkhpf; fhtpd; fpof;Fg; gFjpfisAk; ,izf;Fk; topahFk;. ed;dk;gpf;if Kid top ,J Nkw;F kw;Wk; njw;F INuhg;gpa gFjpfis njd;Nkw;F Mrpah kw;Wk; M];jpNuypa cld; ,izf;Fk; topahFk;. gdhkh fhy;tha; top  ,J tl kw;Wk; njd; mnkhpf;fhtpd; Nkw;F flw;fiug; gFjpfis mf;fz;lk; fpof;F flw;fiu gFjpfNshL ,izf;Fk; topahFk;.  ,e;jpah 6100 fp.kP ePsKs;s ePzl ; flw;fiuiaf; nfhz;lJ.

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rpy vz;nza; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;Jfs; nghpa ,dr; iyd; (Big Inch Line) nlf;rh]; Kjy;  epA+n[h;rp tiu nry;Yk; Foha; top.  lhg;]; (TAPS) tl mnkhpf;fhtpd; buhd;] ; myh];fh Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J. lhg; iyd; (TAP) rTjp mNugpahtpd; ifRkh gFjpapypUe;J  nygdhdpy; cs;s irld; gFjptiu 1214 fp.kP Jhuj;jpw;F mikf;Js;s Foha;g; Nghf;Ftuj;J MFk;.  jfty; njhlh;gpd; Kjw;tsh;rr ; p 1844-y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l je;jpj;njhlh;G MFk.  1875-y; fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;l njhiyNgrp njhiyj; njhlh;gpy; mLj;j Kf;fpa tsh;r;rpahFk;. 1935-y; je;jp njhlh;gpy; Vw;gl;l tsh;rr ; p  (TELEX) nra;jpfis xU ,lj; jpy; jl;nlOjp njhiyTg; gFjpfSf;F mDg;Gk;NghJ mit njhiy mr;rpy; (Teleprinter) nra;jpfshfg; ngwg;gl;ld. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. buhd;] ; irgphpad; fz;lq;fSf;fpilNaahd ,Ug;Gg;ghij nydpd; jpuhl; vd;w ,lj;jpid tpshnth];lhf;Fld; ,izf;fpwJ. 2. ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J vd;gJ kpfTk; kypthd Nghf;Ftuj;J rhjdkhFk;. 3. gf;fpq;fhk;fhy;tha; topahf nghUs; fs; ney;YhhpypUe;J kuf;fhzj;jpw;F mDg;gg;gl;ld. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. .......................... vd;gJ xU nghpa JiwKfkhFk; m) GJr;Nrhp M) nrd;id ,) flYhh; tpil M 2. Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J vLj;Jr; nry;Yk; nghUs; m) epyf;fhp M) vz;nza; ,) kuk; tpil: M 3. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

je;jpj;njhlh;G fz;Lgpbf; gpbf;fg;gl;l tUlk; tUlk m) 1844 M) 1855 ,) 1866 tpil: m gpuk;kGj;jpuh - tlmnkhpf;fh iud; - fz;lq;fis ,izf;Fk; neLQ;rhiyfs; myh];fh neLQ;rhiy - nghpaJiwKfk; tprhfg;gl;bdk; - cs;ehl;L ePh; Nghf;Ftuj;J lhg;]; - n[h;kdp

kf;fs; njhif tsh;r;rp kw;Wk; guty; kf;fs;njhif tsh;r;rp cyf kf;fs; njhif 1650Mk; Mz;L Rkhh; 500 kpy;ypad; vl;baJ. cyf kf;fs; njhif Kjd;Kjypy; 1804 mk; Mz;L xU  gpy;ypaid vl;baJ. nkhdhNfh vdg;gLk; kpfr; rpwpa ehl;bd; kf;fs; mlh;jj ; p  xU rJu kPll ; Uf;F 16779 kf;fs; MFk;. kf;fs;njhif mlh;jj ; p kpf mjpfk; cs;s ehL tq;fhs  NjrkhFk;. ,q;F 1 rJu fpNyh kP l;luf;Fk; 1069 kf;fs; tho;fpd;wd. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. kf;fs;njhif tsh;rr ; p 1950 tUlk; Kjy; njhlh;eJ ; mjpfhpj;Jf; nfhz;Nl tUfpwJ. 2. xU Mz;by; nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; 1000 kf;fSf;F gpwf;Fk; kf;fspd; vz;zpf;if gpwg;G tpfpjk; MFk;. 3. cyf kf;fs;njhif 1999 Mk; Mz;by; 6 gpy;ypaid vl;baJ. 4. kf;fs;njhif guty; kw;Wk; mlh;jj ; papid gy;NtW ,aw;if kw;Wk; kdpj fhuzpfs; eph;zapf;fpd;wd.

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5.

xU ehl;bd; kf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifia me;ehl;bd; gug;gstpdhy; stpdhy tFf;ff; fpilg;gJ kf;fs; mlh;j;jp MFk;. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. ,wg;G tpfpjj;jpidtpl gpwg;G tpfpjk; mjpfkhf ,Ug; gpd; kf;fs;njhif m) mjpfhpf;Fk; M) Fiwthf ,Uf;Fk; ,) rPuhf ,Uf;Fk; tpil: m 2. Gtpapy; Rkhh; 90% kf;fs; ......................... rjtPjk; epyg;gug;gpNyNa tho;e;J nfhz;bUf;fpwhh;fs;. m) 10 M) 20 ,) 25 tpil: m 3. kf;fs;njhif mlh;jj ; p mjpfkhf fhzg; gLk; ehL m) rPdh M) nkf;]pNfh ,) tq;fhs Njrk; tpil: , 4. ........................ fhyepiy fhzg; gLk; gFjpfspy; kf;fs; ........................ njhif gutyhf fhzg;gLk;. m) rhjfkhf M) jP tuP ,) Fsph;ej ; tpil: M 5. ....................... Nghd;w epiyahd muRs;s ehLfspy; kf;fs;njhif mlh;jj ; p mjpfkhf ,Uf; Fk;. m) Mg;fhdp];jhd; M) vfpg; J ,) rpq;fg;G+h; tpil: , 1. 1804 - mjpf ,wg;G tpfpjk; 1 gpy;ypad; kf;fs; njhif 2. nkhdhNfh - mjpf kf;fs; njhif mlh;jj ; p 3. Fiwe;j gpwg;G tpfpjk; - kf;fs;njhif FiwT 4. M];jpNuypah - Fiwthd kf;fs;njhif mlh;jj ; p 5. n[h;kdp - Fiwe;j kf;fs; mlh;j;jp kf;fs; njhifAk; njhifAk; ts Mjhuq;fSk; ed;dhP ; cyfpy; 0.03% ed;dhP ; kl;LNk fpilf;fg; ngWfpwJ. ,e;jpah 17.5% kf;fs; njhifia nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. Mdhy;  4% ePNu ,e;jpahtpy; fpilf;fg;ngWfpwJ. kjy; nraw;if Nfhs; ];Gl;dpf; - 1 vd;gJ Nrhtpaj;  A+dpadhy; 1957 k; Mz;L Kjypy; nrYj;jg;gl;l nraw;if NfhshFk;. mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehl;bd; yhz;l; rhl;> gpuhd;rpd; ];ghl;>  nfhhpahtpd; fpl;rhl; kw;Wk; rPdhtpd; ahq;fhd; Mfpa nraw;iff; Nfhs;fspy; Kf;fpakhdjhFk;. ,e;jpahtpy; Kjy; njhiy Ez;Zzh;T nraw;iff;  Nfhshfpa IRS-1A vdg;gLk; nraw;iff; Nfhs; 1988-k; Mz;L tpz;zpy; nrYj;jg;gl;lJ. Nfhbl;l ,lq;fis epug;Gf 1. ngUfptUk; kf;fs;njhif fpilf;fg;ngWk; tsq;fis epyk; kw;Wk; ePh; tsj;jpy; mjpf mOj;jj;ij Vw;gLj;jp cs;sJ. 2. fp.gp. 2025k; Mz;L 5 gpy;ypad; kf;fs; jPtpu ePhg ; ;gw;whf;Fiw Ml;gLth;. 3. ghiytdkhjy;> 110 ehLfspy; tho;fpd;w ngUk;ghd;ikahd kf;fis ghjpf;fpd;wJ. 4. tsUk; ehLfspy; 95% fopT ePh; MWfspy; Nrh;ff ; g;gLfpwJ. 5. ,e;jpahtpd; Kjy; nraw;iff;Nfhs; IRS-1A 1988 Mk; Mz;L tpz;zpy; nrYj;jg;gl;lJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. cyfpd; ed;ePhpd; msT m) 30% M) 0.03% ,) 3% tpil: M 2. twl;rp> mhpg;G kw;Wk; ntg;gkhjy; Vw;glf; fhuzk; m) fhLfspd; mopT M) fhL tsh; g;G ,) Ntl;ilahLjy; tpil: m 3. Nrhtpaj; A+dpadhy; Kjd; Kjypy; nrYj;jg;gl;l nraw;iff;Nfhs;

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4.

5.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

m) ];Gl;dpf; 1 M) ];Gl;dpf; 11 ,) fpl;rhl; tpil: m ,e;jpah 2200 kf;fs; njhifia nfhz;bUf;fpwJ. Mdhy; fpilf;fg; ngWfpd;w ePhpd; msT m) 5 M) 4 ,) 2 tpil: M ePh; kl;lk; .......................... nray; mjpfhpg; mjpfhpg;gjhy; FiwfpwJ. m) Ruq;fj;njhopy; M) Ntl;ilahLjy; ,) kPd;gpbj;jy; tpil: m Ntshz;tsh;r;rp - kdpj tsh;rr ; p ghiytdkhjy; - twz;l gFjp tzpf gad;ghl;L Mw;wy; - epyf;fhp>vz;nza; yhz;l;rhl; - mnkhpf;f If;fpa ehL ];ghl; - gpuhd;];

jkpo;ehL    

       

jkpo;ehL> GJr;Nrhp> Nfush> fh; ehlfk; > Me;jpug; gpuNjrk; Mfpa khepy;fis vy;iyfshf nfhz;Ls;sJ. jkpo; khepyj;jpd; Ml;rp nkhopahf 1958-k; Mz;L [dthp Kjy; eilKiwf;F nfhz;L tug;gl;lJ. ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; MwhtJ ,lj;ij ngw;Ws;sJ jkpofk; . jkpo;ehL tlf;Nf 8005' ml;rj;jpypUe;J 130 09' ml;rk; tiuapYk;> fpof;Nf 76015' jPhf ; ;fj;jpypUe;J 80020' jPhf ; f ; k; tiu gutpAs;sJ. ,e;jpa A+dpadpd; njd; vy;iyahf fUjg; gl;lJ ,e;jpuh Kid. jkpo;ehl;bd; nkhj;j epyg;gug;G 1>30>058 rJu fpNyh kPll ; h;fshFk; . ,J ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j gug;gpy; ehd;F rjtPjkhFk;. eph;thf Nkk;ghl;bw;fhf ,k;khepy 32 khtl; lq;fshfg; gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. khepyg; gwit - kufjg; Gwh khepyg;G+ - nrq;fhe;jy; kyh; khepy tpyq;F - tiuahL khepy kuk; - gidkuk;

jkpo;ehl;bd; cs;shl;rp mikg;G kf;fsit njhFjpfs; 39 rl;lkd;w njhFjpfs; 234 khtl;lq;fs; 32 khefuhl; rpfs; 10 Cuhl;rp xd;wpaq;fs; 152 efu gQ;rhaj;Jf;fs; 611 fpuhkg; gQ;rhaj;Jf;fs; 12618 jkpo;ehl;bd; tuyhW Rkhh; 1000 Mz;LfSf;F Kd;dNu jpuhtpl ghuk; ghpaj;Jld;  Mhpa ehfhpfk; fye;jjd; fhuzkhf ehfhpfj; jpd; njhl;byhfNt jkpofk; tpsq;FfpwJ. kJiuapy; jpfo;ej ; Kjw; jkpo;r; rq;fk; fl;Nfhshy;  mkpo;ej ; J. ,uz;lhk; jkpo;rr ; q;fk; fghlGuj;jpYk;> %d;whk; jkpo;r; rq;fk; kJiuapy; mike;jJ. jkpo; nkhopf;Nf chpj;jhd rpwe;j ,yf;fz fhgpgakhd  njhy;fhg;gpak; rq;f fhyj;jpy; cUthd ,yf;fpaq;fSs; xd;whFk;. rq;f ,yf;fpaq;fSs; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f xd;whd vl;Lj;  njhifAk;> gj;Jg;ghl;Lk; rq;f fhyj;jpd; gilg;gpyf;fpaq;fspd; xd;whFk;. nrk;nkhopahf cah;jj ; g;gl;Ls;s jkpo;nkhop> nrk;nkhop  juthpirapy; vl;lhtjhFk;.

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rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. ,e;jpa khepyq;fspd; gug;gstpy; jkpo;ehL .......................... ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ. m) 5tJ M) 7MtJ ,) 9MtJ <) 11MtJ tpil : < 2. jkpo;ehL ........................... khtl; lq;fshfg; gphpf; fg;gl;Ls;sd. m) 28 M) 30 ,) 32 <) 34 tpil : , 3. jkpo;ehl;by; ......................... khtl; lk; fpof;F flw;fiuNahuj;jpy; mike;Js;sd. m) ePyfphp M) Njdp ,) ehfg;gl;bdk; <) Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; tpil : , 4. ,e;jpahtpd; ........................... Kidapy; jkpo;ehL mike;Js;sJ. m) tlfpof;F M) njd; Nkw;F ,) njd;fpof;F <) tlNkw;F tpil : , 5. ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j gug;gstpy; jkpo;ehL ........................... tpfpj mstpy; mike;Js;sJ. m) 4% M) 5% ,) 3% <) 2 % tpil : m 1. khepyg; gwit - kufjg;Gwh 2. khepy kuk; - gidkuk; 3. rl;lkd;w njhFjpfs; - 234 4. Cuhl;rp xd;wpaq;fs; - 152 5. fh;ehlfk; - jkpo;ehl;bd; Nkw;gFjp jkpo;ehl;bd; ,aw;if mikg;G ,aw;if mikg;G jkpo;ehl;bd; ,aw;if mikg;ig ehd;F gphpTfshfg;  gphpf;fyhk;. 1. kiyfs; (Nkw;F njhlh;r;rp kiyfs; kw;Wk; fpof;F njhlh;rr ; p kiyfs;) 2. gPlG+kp gFjp 3. rkntspg; gFjpfs; 4. flNyhug; gFjpfs; jkpo;ehl;bd; kiyfs; jkpo;ehl;by; kiyj; njhlhpy; mjpfgl;r caukhd rpfuq;fs;  njhl;lhngl;lh (2620 kPl;lh;fs;) kw;Wk; Kf;$h;jj ; p (2540 kPll ; h;fs;) MFk;. njhl;lhngl;lh rpfuk; jkpo;ehl;bd; kpf cah;ej ; rpfukhFk;.  Nkw;F kiyj;njhlUk;> fpof;F kiyj;njhlUk; ePyfphp  kiyg;gFjpapy; xd;W Nrh;fpd;wd. godpf; Fd;WfSf;F njw;Nf tUrehL> Mz;bg;gl;b vd;w  ,U kiyj;njhlh;fs; fhzg;glfpd;wd. Vykiyj; njhFjpapy; nropg;G kpf;f fk;gk; gs;sj;jhf;F  mike;Js;sJ. tUr ehL kiyf; Fk; mfj;jpah; kiyf;Fk; ,ilNa  fhzg;gLk; ,ilntsp nrq;Nfhl;il fztha; vd;W miof;fg;gLfpwJ. njw;fpy; Mj;Jhh; fztha; vd;Wk;> tlf;fpy; nrq;fk;  fztha; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,f;fztha;fs; flYhh; khtl;lj;ij rkntsp gFjpNahL ,izf;fpd;wJ. Nkw;F njhlh;rr ; p kiyfspd; Fwpg;gplj;jf;f fztha;fs;  ghyf;fhLk; nrq;Nfhl;ilAk; MFk;. fpof;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyfs; 1. NtYhh; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s [t;thJ kw;Wk; Vyfphp kiy 2. Nryk; khyl;lj;jpy; cs;s Nrh;tuhad; kiy 3. tpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;jpy; fy;tuhad; kiy 4. jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s gr;irkiy(nguk;gYhh;) 5. ehkf;fy; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s nfhy;ypkiy 6. jUkGhp kw;Wk; Nryk; khtl;lj;jpYs;s tputpAs;s rpj;Njhp kiy 7. jpUtz;zhkiy khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s nrQ;rpkiy.

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fpof;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p kiyfspy; cah; ej ; kiy - Nrh;tuhad; kiy (1500-1600 kPll ; h) Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p kiyfspy; cah;ej ; kiy - Midkiy  jkpo;ehl;bd; gPlg+kpfs; Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p kiyfSk;> fpof;Fj; njhlh;rp kiyfSk;  Nrh;tuhad; cah;epyq;fSf;F Nkw;fhf ghuhk`hy; gPlG+kp  vd;W miof;fg;gLk; jUkGhp gPlG+kp mikfpwJ. jkpo;ehl;bd; gPlG+kpfis Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; gPlG+kp kw;Wk; kJiu  gPlG+kp vd;W gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;. fh; ehlf khepyj;jpy;  FlF khtl;lj;jpy; cw;gj;jpahfpwJ. fhtphpAk; mjd; Jiz MWfshd gthzp> neha; ay;>  Nkhahh; kw;Wk; mkuhtjp Mfpa MWfs; jpUr;rp> jQ;ir> jpUth&h; kw;Wk; ehfg;gl;bdk; khtl;lq;fspd; ePh; Mjhukhf tpsq;Ffpd;wJ. fhtphp MWf; Fk; mjd; Kjd;ik fpisahW Mfpa  nfhs;splj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa =uq;fk; mikag; ngw;Ws;sJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. fpof;F njhlh;r;rp kiyapy; mike;Js;s Fd;W ......................... MFk;. m) ePyfphp M) fy;tuhad; kiy ,) Vykiy <) godpkiy tpil : < 2. jkpo;ehl;bd; kpfg kpfg; ;nghpa rpfuk; ......................... MFk; . m) MidKb M) njhl;lhngl;lh ,) FlFkiy <) gpuk;kfphp kiy tpil : M 3. rpw;whW ......................... Mw;wpd; Kf;fpa JizahW MFk; . m) fhtphp M) jhkpuguzp ,) itif <) ghyhW tpil : M 4. jkpo;ehl;bd; kpf ePskhd khd MW .................... MFk; . m) jhkpuguzp M) itif ,) ghyhW <) fhtphp tpil : < 5. neha;aYk; mkuhtjpAk; ......................... Mw;wpd; JizahWfs; MFk;. m) itif M) fhtphp ,) ghyhW <) nghpahW tpil : M 1. fpof;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p kiy - Nrh;tuhad; 2. Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p kiy - ePyfphp 3. fhtphp MW - fh;ehlfk; 4. nfhilf;fhdy; - kiyfspd; murp 5. itif - kJiu

   

jkpo;ehl;bd; fhyepiy Xh; nghpa gug; gpwfhd ePzl ; fhy ruhrhp thdpiy. ,ay; ghd thdpiyf;F fhyepiy vd;W ngah;. jkpo;ehl;bd; fhyepiy nghJthf mad kz;ly fhyepiy tifia rhh;ej ; jhFk;. Mz;Lfs; ,UKiw R+hpadpd; nrq;Fj;jhd xspf;fjph;fs; jkpo;ehl;by; tpOk;. jkpo;ehl;by; Nk khjk; ntg;gkpF khjkhfTk; > [dthp khjk; Fsph; kpFe;j khjkhfTk; cs;sJ.

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rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. jkpo; jkpo;ehL nra;jpj; jhs; epWtdk; (TNPL)) ............ ............ Jiwahf ,aq;fp tUfpwH. m) jdpahh; M) nghJ ,) ,iz <) $l;LwT tpil : M 2. fUk;Gr; rf;if .......... njhopw;rhiyf;F %yg;nghUshf gad;gLfpwJ. m. rh;f;fiu M. fhfpj ,. ,uhraz <. thfd tpil : M 3. ,e;jpahtpd; mjpf .............. cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; epWtdk; ];gpf; (SPIC)) m. ,uhrazk; M. cuk; ,. ngl;Nuhy; <. kPd; tpil : M 4. ..........njhopy; kpff; Fiwe;j KjyPL nfhz;lJ. m) ngUepiy M) rpWepiy ,) Fbik <) kj;jpa epiy tpil : , 5. jkpo; ehl;by; ................... ghuk; ghpakpf;f jdpj;j nerT juj;jpw;fhhf cyfnkq; cyfnkq;fpYk; Gfo;ngw;wJ. m) fhQ;rpg;Guk; M) Muzp ,) Nryk; <) jpUGtzk; tpil : M 1. nrd;id - njw;fhrpahtpd; nll;uha;l; 2. rptfhrp - Fl;b [g;ghd; 3. nguk;G+h; - ,izg;Gg; ngl;b njhopw;rhiy 4. f&h; - nerTj; jiyefuk; 5. NfhaKj;Jhh; - njd;dpe;jpahtpd; khd;nr];lh; Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; ghpkhw;wk; rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J  jkpo;ehl;bd; 24 Njrpa neLQrhiyfs; 4500fp.kP njhiyj;Jhuj;ij ,izf;fpd;wd.  VO Kf;fpa Nghf;Ftuj;Jf; fofq;fs; nray;gLfpd;wd.  Njrpa neLQrhiyapd jq;f ehwfu rhiyj; jpl;lk; jkpo;ehl;by; 1232 fp.kP njhiytpw;F mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.  nrd;id Nfhak;Ngl;by; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;s Gwefh; NgUe;J epiyak; MraphtpNyNa kpfg; nghpa NgUe;J epiyakhFk;. ,uapy; ghijfs; ghijfs;  jkpo;ehl;by; nkhj;j ,uapy;NT fhijapd; ePsk; Vwj;jho 5952 fpNyh kPl;luhfTk; nkhj;j ,uapy; epiyaq;fspd; vz;zpf;if532 MfTk; cs;sJ.  nrd;id flw;fiu Ntsr;Nrhp mjpNtf ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J jpl;lk; (MARTS) ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J jkpo;ehL Vwf;Fiwa 1000 fp.kP ePsKs;s flw;fiuiaf;  nfhz;Ls;sJ.

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jkpo;ehl;by; %d;W nghpa JiwKfq;fs; nrd;id> Jhj;Jf;Fb kw;Wk; vz;Zhh; MFk;. ePh;topg; pg; Nghf;Ftujpw;fhd jpl;lq;fs; NrJ rKj;jpuf; o fhy;tha; jpl;lk; ,jd; Kf;fpa Nehf;fkhdJ ,e;jpag; ngUq;flypUe;J  kd;dhh; tisFlh> Mjk;] ; ghyk;> ghf; tisFlh> ghf; [yre;jp topahf tq; fhs tphpFlhit mila Xh; fg;gy; Nghf;Ftuj;J fhy;thia cUthf;FtNjahFk;. tpOg;Guk; khtl;lj;jpy; cs;s kuf;fhzj;ijAk;> Me;jpuhtpy;  cs;s tp[athlhitAk; ,izf;fpwJ gf;fpq;fhk; fhy;tha;. Ntjhuz;aijAk;> ehfg;gl;bdj;ijAk; ,izf;fpwJ  Ntjhuz;ak; fhy;tha;. Mfha top Nghf;Ftuj;J ,e;jpahtpy; Kk;ig> nly;ypf;F gpwF %d;whtJ nghpa  tpkhd epiyak; nrd;idapy; mike;Js;s tpkhd epiyakhFk;. gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyaq; fs; 1. nrd;id (mz;zh) 2. Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; 3. jpUr;rpuhg;gs;sp cs;ehl;L tpkhd epiyaq;fs; 1. nrd;id (fhkuhrh;) 2. kJiu 3. Nryk; 4. Jhj;Jf;Fb mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp epiyak; epiyak ,e;jpa thndhyp xypgug; G 1927 Mk; Mz;L  njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp vd; w ngaiu 1936 Mk; Mz;L  ngw;wJ. 1957-y; Mfhrthzp vd ngah; khw;wg;gl;lJ.  njhiyf;fhl;rp  (EDUSAT) gs;spf;$lq;fSf;Fk;> gy;fiyf;  fofq;fSf;Fkhd fy;tp epfo;rr ; pfs; xspgug;gg;gLfpwJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. mQ;ry; JiwAk;> je;jp NritAk; ............................ jfty; ghpkhw;wkhFk;. m) jdpegh; jfty; ghpkhw;wk; M) nghJ jfty; ghpkhw;wk; ,) kpd; mQ;ry; <) Ntiytha;gG ; rk;ke;jg;gl;l ghpkhw;wk; tpil : m 2. ............................. vd;gJ Njrpa tsh; rr ; papd; capNuhl; pNuhl;lkhFk;. ca m) jfty; ghpkhw;wk; M) Nghf;Ftuj;J jpl;lk; ,) vOj;J gbtk; <) njhiyJhu mwpjy; tpil : M 3. fpof;F flw;fiur;rhiy .............................. flw; fiug; gFjpNahuhkhf mikf;fg;gLfpwJ. m) mugpf;fly; M) ,e;jpag; ngUq;fly; ,) tq;fhs tphpFlh <) nrq; fly; tpil : , 4. cyfj;jpy; kpfg;nghpa jiutopr;Nrit vd;gJ m) mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp M) njhiyf;fhl;rp ,) njhiyJhu mwpjy; <) ,izjsk; tpil : , 5. rpwpa JiwKfk; JiwKfk; vd;gJ ........................... MFk;. m) nghUs; Nrkpj;J mDg;Gk; JiwKfk; M) thpr;rYif ngw;w JiwKfk; ,) eq;$uk; gha;rR ; k; trjp ngw;w JiwKfk; <) cah; miy JiwKfk; tpil : , 1. jq;f ehw;fur; rhiy - NjrpaneLQ;rhiy muR 2. flYhh; - rpwpa JiwKfk; 3. [p.gp.v]; - ,lk; Rl;Lk; fUtp 4. gj;jphpf;iffs; - vOj;J gbtk; 5. A+dpdhh; - jdpahh; njhiy njhlh;G epWtdk;

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jkpo;ehL thzpgk;  1999k; Mz;L Kjd; Kjypy; kJiuapy; coth; re;ij jpl;lk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. gz;ilfhy th;jj ; fk; vd;gJ m) kpd; th;jj ; fk; M) gz;lkhw;W Kiw ,) kuGtop Kiw <) gzGof;f Kiw tpil : M 2. ........................... ........................... nghUshjhu tsh; r;rpia eph;zapf;fpwJ. m) Vw;Wkjp M) ,ef; Fkjp ,) thzpgk; <) Nghf;Ftuj;J tpil : , 3. jkpo;ehl;by; rpwg;ghd cs;ehl;L thzpgg; ghpkhw;wk; .......................... ,ilNa Vw;gLfpwJ. m) khepyk; M) khtl;lk; ,) ehLfs; <) efuq;fs; t pil pil : M 4. ..................... khtl; khtl;lk; ntb nghUs;fis Vw;Wkjp nra;fpwJ. m) NtYhh; M) tpOg;Guk; ,) tpUJefh; <) rptfhrp tpil : < 1. Vw;Wkjp - nkd;nghUs; 2. ,wf;Fkjp - tpahghu rq;fk; 3. illy; ghh;f; - nrd;id 4. lhd;rpy;f; - fhQ;rpGuk; 5. Kjy; coth; re;ij - kJiu jkpo;ehL kf;fs;njhif kf;fs; Fwpj;j ghlq;fis gbg;gijNa kf;fl; Gtpapay; vd;fpNwhk;. ,jid Mq;fpyj;jpy; nkNkhfpuhgp (Demography) vd;fpd;wdh;. jkpo;ehl;by; kf;fs;njhif 

2011 Mk; Mz;L kf;fs;njhif fzf;nfLg;gpd;gb jkpo;ehl;by; nkhj;j kf;fspd; vz;zpf;if 7>21>38>958 MFk;.



,jpy; 3>61>58>871 Mz;fSk;> 3>59>80>087 ngz;fSk; cs;sdh;. Njrpa mstpy; ehl;bd; nkhj;j kf;fs; njhifapy; ,J 5.96 tpOf;fhL MFk;.

 

muR epWtdkhd kf; fs;njhif fzf;nfLg;G epWtdk; gj;J Mz;LfSf;F xUKiw kf;fs;njhifg; gw;wpa KO tptuq; fisAk; Nrfhpj;J gl;baypLfpwJ. ; p tpfpjk; 15.60%  gj;J Mz;LfSf;F tsh;rr kf;fs;njhifg; guty; msT nrd;id khtl;lk;  kf;fs; njhifapy; mjpf ngw;Ws;sJ. 

kpff; Fiwe;j kf;fs; njhif cila khtl; lk; nguk;gYhh;. jkpo;ehl;bd; kf;fs; njhif fl;likg;G tpfpjk; Mapuk; Mz;fSf;F 995  jkpo;ehl;by; ghypd ngz;fshf cs;sJ.  ePyfphp khtl; lk; mjpf ghypd tpfpjj;ijAk; 1041> jh;kGhp khtl;lk; 946 kpff; Fiwe;j ghypd tpfpjj;ijAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ. 

jkpo;ehl;by; 80.33 tpOf;fhL kf;fs; fy;tpawpT ngw;wtuhfj; jpfo;fpd;wdh;.



jh;kGhp khtl;lj;jpy; kpff; Fiwe;j msT fw;Nwhh; cs;sdh;.



fd;dpahFkhp cs;sdh;.



kfsph; Ra cjtpf;FOj; jpl;lk; tWik jkpo;ehl;by; mwpKfg;gLjjg;gl;lJ.



1989 Mk; Mz;L jh;kGhp khtl;lj;jpy;jhd; Kjy; Kjypy; ,f;FO nray;glj; njhlq;fpaJ.

khtl; lj;jpy;jhd;

mjpfgl;rkhd

fw;Nwhh;

xopg; gjw;fhf

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rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. jkpo;ehl;by; ....................... khtl; lk; fy;tpawptpy;Kjd;ik tfpf;fpwJ. m) f&h; M) fd;dpahFkhp ,) nrd;id <) nguk;gYhh; tpil : M 2. khtl;lq;fSf;Fs; kpff; Fiwe;j kf;fs; mlh;jj ; p cilaJ ......................... MFk;. m) rptfq;if M) ePyfphp ,) fd;dpahFkhp <) jpUts;Sh; tpil : m 3. jkpo;ehl;bd; kf;fs;njhif jhif 1951 Kjy; Kjy; 2001 Kba 50 Mz;Lfspy; ........................... epiyia mile; Js;sJ. m) cah;e;j M) Fiwe;j ,) ,ul;bg;G <) khw;wkpy;yhj tpil : , 4. nrq;Fj;jhd rhpTk; ; p fhLfSk; nfhz;l mlh;jj fhLfSk; kiyg;gpuNjrk; ......................... kf; fs; njhifia puNjrk; kpf Mjhpf;fpd;wJ. m) eLj;juk; M) mjpfk; ,) Fiwe;j <) kpff; Fiwe;j tpil : < 1. Mz;L tsh;rr ; p tpfpjk; - 1.1% 2. Cuf kf;fl; njhif - 56% 3. jkpo;ehl;bd; fy;tpawpT tpOf;fhL - 80.33% 4. ,e;Jf;fs; - 88% 5. efu kf;fl;njhif - 44%



Rw;Wr;#oYk; mjd; njhlh;Gila epfo;TfSk; caphpdq;fs; xd;Nwhnlhd;W cld;gl;L thOk; R+oiyj;jhd; Rw;Wg;Gwr;R+oy; vd;W $WfpNwhk;.



,e;jpahtpy; jkpo;ehL efukakhjypd; ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;jpy; ,Uf;fpd;wJ.



cjf kz;lyk;> nfhilf;fhdy;> Vw;fhL gFjpfspy; cs;s Vhpfis fz;fhzpf;f jdp fz;fhzpg;G gphpit jkpo; ehL khRf;fl;Lg;ghl;L thhpak; n[k;]; (GEMS - Global Environment Monitoring System) vd;w kj;jpa murpd; epjp cjtp ngw;w epWtdj;jpd; %yk; fz;fhzpf;fpwJ.



Rw;Wr;R+oy; tpopg;Gzh;T Vw;gl Gtpehs; (Vg;uy; 22k; ehs;) Mfpait nfhz;lhlg;gLfpwJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. caphpdq;fs; xd;iw xd;W rhh;e;J thOk; caphpdr; R+oiy .................... vd;W $WfpNwhk;. m) caphpdr;R+oy; M) Rw;Wr;R+oy; ,) epyg;gFjp <) caphpdg;gFjp tpil : M M 2. kdpjdhy; fhLfs; mopf;fg;gLtij Ltij ....................... vd;W $WfpNwhk;. m) fhLfs; tsh; jj ; y; M) fhLfs; mopj;jy; ,) gaphpLjy; <) rpjWjy; tpil : M 3. Rw;Wr;R+oy; caphpdq;fs; moptij .......................... vd; W $WfpNwhk;. m) caphpdq;fs; mopj;jy; M) fhLfs; mopj;jy; ,) mkpy kio <) caphpd Ntw;Wik tpil : m 4. mjpfsT nraw;if ,urhaz cuq;fs; cgNahfpg;gjhy; ........................... juk; FiwfpwJ. m) fhw;W M) kz; ,) MWfs; <) fly; tpil : M 1. Gtp ntg;gkiljy; - flNyhu nts;sk; 2. fhLfis mopj;jy; - fhpky thA 3. thfdq;fs; - fhw;W khriljy; 4. ePh ; khriljy; - G+r;rp nfhy;ypfs; 5. efu kakhjy; - nehpry;

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tsq;fisg; ghJfhj;jYk; epiyg;gLj;jg;gl;l tsh;rr ; pAk; jkpofjj;jpy; fhL kw;Wk; tpyq;Ffspd; ghJfhg;G  jkpofj;jpy; 17% epyg;gFjpfs; fhLfs; gutpapUf;fpd;wd. 

jkpo;ehl;by; 13 gwitfs; ruzhyaq;fs;> 5 Njrpa G+q;fhf;fs; kw;Wk; 7 td tpyq; F ruzhyaq;fs; cs;sd. jkpofj;jpy; cs;s gwitfs; kw;Wk; tpyq;Ffspd; ruzhyaq;fs; ngah; khtl;lk; rpj;jpuf;Fb gwitfs; ruzhyak; ,uhkehjGuk; fQ;rpuhq;Fsk; ,uhkehjGuk; Nkynry;tDhh; fPo nry;tDhh; ,uhkehjGuk; gwitfs; ruzhyak; kd;dhh; tisFlh fly;rhh; Njrpa ,uhkehjGuk; G+q;fhf;fs; fiuntl;b gwitfs; ruzhyak; mhpaY}h; $e;jd;Fsk; gwitfs; ruzhyak; jpUney;Ntyp (kpfg;nghpa ,Ug;G) fsf;fhL tdtpyq;F ruzhyak; jpUney;Ntyp Kz;le;Jiw ruzhyak; jpUney;Ntyp Nfhbaf;fiu gwitfs; ruzhyak; ehfg;gl;bdk; (Point Calimere) goNtw;fhL gwitfs; ruzhyak; jpUts;Sh; (Pulicut) cjakhh;jj ; hz;lGuk; gwitfs; jpUth&h; ruzhyak; tLT+h; gwitfs; ruzhyak; kd;dhh;Fb> ehfg;gl;bdk; Ntle;jhq;fs; gwitfs; ruzhyak; fhQ;rpGuk; nts;NshL gwitfs; ruzhyak; ; tpUJefh; ,e;jpuhfhe;jp tdtpyq;F ruzhyak; Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; fd;dpahFkhp tdtpyq; F ruzhyak; fd;dpahFkhp fhpf;fpsp tdtpyq;F ruzhyak; fhQ;rpGuk; gwitfs; ruzhyak; (2011) ,uhkehjGuk; 

Mh;bf; gFjpapypUe;J Fsph;fhyq;fspy; gwitfs; jkpo;ehl;bw;F ,dg;ngUf;fj;jpw;fhf te;J jq;fpnry;fpd;wd.



Gypfis ghJfhf; f g;uhm[f;l; ilfh; Vw;gLj;jpaJ Nghy ahidfis moptpypUe; J fhg;ghw;w g;uhn[f;l; vd;w ghJfhg; G jpl;lk; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ.



rpg;Nfh ,af;fk; Nghd;W mgpf;Nfh vd;w ,af;fk; fh;ehlf khepyj;jpy; njhlq;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,t;tpaf;fk; Nkw;F njhlh;rr ; p kiyapypUe;J> fpof;F njhlh;r;rp kiy tiu tdg;ghJfhg; G ,af;fkhf nray;gLfpwJ.



,t;tpaf;fj;jpd; kpf gpugykhd Kof; f thrfk; ghJfhf;f> tsh;f;f> tpNtfkhf cgNahfpf; f. caph;Nfhs Nrkpg;G ngl;lfq;fs; (Biosphere - Reserve) 

caph;f;Nfhs Nrkpg;G ngl;lfk; vd;gJ xU ghJfhf; fg;gl;l gpuj;jpNahf Gtpg;gFjpfspd; cyfyhtpa tiy mikg;ghFk;.

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

jkpo;ehl;by; cs;sd. 1) kiy MFk;. (Ethopnal) Mz;bypUe;J

%d;W caph;fN ; fhs Nrkpg;G ngl;lfg;gFjpfs; ePyfphp 2) kd; dhh; tisFlh> 3) mf]; jpa fyg;G thfd vhpnghUis gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ.

2003

Mk;



jkpof tdj;Jiw fuQ;rhtpd; (Gq;fk;) ,Ue;J jahhpf; Fk; caph; vhpnghUs; v];hpgphpNf\d; epiyaq;fs; %d;W XR+hpYk;> Jhj;Jf;FbapYk; mike;Js;sJ.



v];lhpgpNf\d; (Esterification) vd;w gjk; ,U vjph;khw;w nray;fSf;F ,ilNa cz;lhd ,urhaz tpistpd; %yk; cUthFk; xU nghUis (ester) Fwpf;fpd;wJ.

  

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

fhl;lhkzf; F toijfisf; nfhz;L caph; vhprf;jp jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. Ntk;G> fuQ;rh(Gq;fk;) tpijfspy; ,Ue;Jk; caph; vhpnghUs;jahhpf;fg;gLfpwJ. jw;Nghija Njitfisg; G+h;jj ; p nra;tij kl;Lk;Nehf;fkhf nfhs;shky;> vjph;fhy jiyKiwapdhpd; ts chpik ghJfhg; igAk; kdjpy; nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. ,j;jifa tsh;rr ; pj; jpl;lq;fNs epiyg;gLj;jg;gl;l tsh;r;rpf;F (Sustainable Development) toptFf;Fk;. jkpo;ehl;bd; fk;gk; gs;sj;jhf;fpy; ........................... tif kz; mhpg;G Vw;gLfpwJ. m) fhw;W M) MW ,) gdpahW <) miy tpil ; m fhl;Lg; nghUl;fs; rPuhff; fpilf;f xU gFjpapy; .......................... gq;F fhLfshf ,Uf; f Ntz;Lk;. m) ehd;fpy; %d;W M) %d;wpy; ,uz;L ,) %d;wpy; xd;W <) Ie;jpy; xd;W tpil : , tpyq; ;Ffis tsh;jJ ; tUlj;jpd; xU gUtj;jpy; kl;LNk mjd; Nuhkq;fis vl vlj; j;J cgNahfpj;jy; ............................ MFk;. m) ghJfhj;jy; M) guhkhpj;jy; ,) fhg; ghw;Wjy; <) mopj;jy; tpil : < tpyq;Ffis mjd; thOk; ,lj;jpNyNa ghJfhj;jy; ........................ MFk; ;.; MFk m) guhkhpj;jy; M) ruzhyak; ,) G+q;fh <) kpUff;fhl;rp rhiy tpil : M gdq;nfhl;il nrwtp> fpYtha; thj;J kw;Wk; kl;b %f;F nrwtp Mfpait .......................... gwitfs; . m) ,lk;tpl;L ,lk; ngaUk; M) RNjrp ,) tl;lhuk; <) cs;ehl;L tpil : m kd;dhh; tisFlh - fly; G+q;fh nfhbaf;fiu - gwitfs; ruzhyak; mfj;jpa kiy - caph;fN ; fhsr; Nrkpg;G ngl;lfk; KJkiy - ahidg;ghJfhg; gfk; Kz;le;Jiu - Gtpg; ghJfhg;gfk; ,e;jpah miktplKk; ,aw;if mikg;Gk;

miktplk; ,e;jpah Mrpaf; fz;lj;jpd; njd;gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ.

 

tuyhw;Wf; fhyj;jpy; ,e;jpah ghujk; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.



Kw;fhyj;jpy; typik tha;ej ; murdhf ,Ue; j vd;gtiug; gpd;gw;wp ,e;jpahit ghujk; vd;Wk;



rpe;J Mw;wpd; ngauhy; ,e;J];jhd; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.





xU fz;lj;jpw;Fhpa gz;Gfs; midj;Jk; ,e;jpahtpy; fhzg;gLtjhy; ,e;jpahit xU Jizf;fz;lk; vd;W miof;fpNwhk;. miktplKk; gug;gsTk; 

,e;jpah 80 4' tlml;rk; Kjy; 370 6' tl ml;rk; tiuapYk;



680 7' fpof;F jPh;ff ; k; Kjy; 970 25' fpof;F jph;ff ; k; tiuapYk; gutpAs;sJ. 230 30' tlf;F ml;rkhd flfNuif ,e; jpahtpd; FWf;fhf nrd;W ehl;il ,U gFjpfshf gphpf; fpd;wJ.

 

,e;jpah 32>87>263 r.fp.kP gug;gsit nfhz;Ls;sJ.



,e;jpah tlf;Nf fh\;khP ; Kjy; njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp tiu 3214 fp.kP. ePsj;ijAk;> Nkw;nf F[uhj; Kjy; fpof;Nf mUzhr;rygpunjrk; tiu 2933 fp.kP . mfyj;ijAk; nfhz;Ls;sJ.



,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j flw;fiu ePsk; - 7516 fp.kP. ,e;jpa epyg;gFjp flw;fiuapd; ePsk; 6100 fp.kP.



INuhg;gpa ehLfSld; R+a]; ehy;tha; topahfTk;



rPdh> [g;ghd; kw;Wk; M];jpNutpa ehLfSld; kyhf;fh ePh;rr ; e;jp topahfTk; >tzpfk; kw;Wk; nghUshjhu nray;fspy;
,e;jpaj; jpl;l Neuk; fphpd;tpr; 00 jPhf ; ;f Neuj;ij tpl 5 kzp 30 epkplk; Kd;djhf cs;sJ. ,e;jpahTk; mjd; mz;il ehLfSk; ehLfSk  ,e;jpahtpy; fpof;Nf cs;s kiyj;njhlh;fs; ,e;jpahit kpahd;khhpypUe;J gphpf;fpd;wJ.    

,jd;gpd; te;j INuhg;gpah;fs; rpe;J vd;w mbg;gilapNyNa ,e;jpah vd;W ngahpl;ldh;. ,e;jpah xU Jizf;fz;lk;

nrhy;ypd;

��

Nkw;fpYs;s ghfp];jhd;> Mg;fhdp]; jhd; tlf;fpy; Neghsk;> G+lhd; kw;Wk; rPdh cs;sd. fpof;fpy; tq;fhsNjrk; kw;Wk; kpahd;kh; vy;iyfshf ,Uf;fpd;wJ. ,e;jpahtpypUe;J njw;fpy; cs; s ,yq;ifia ghf; eP h;rr ; e;jp gphpf;fpd;wJ. ,e;JF\; kw;Wk; fhuNfhuk; kiyfisf; ,kakiyj; njhlh;fs; ,e;jpahtpd; tlf;F vy;iyahf mike;j cs;sd.

nfhz;l ,aw;if



tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; cs;s me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh; jPTfSk;> mugpf;flypy; cs;s ,yl;rj; jPTfSk; ,e;jpa A+dpad; tpuNjrq;fshf mike;Js;sd. Ntw;Wikapy; xw;Wik ; kiyr;rpfukhf tpsq; Fk; K2  ,e;jpahtpd; kpf cah;ej vdg;gLk; fhl;tpd; M];bd; ,e;jpahtpy; cs;sJ. ,J POIL y; cs;sJ.  

Neghyj;jpYs;s vtnu];l; rpfuk; ,kakiyapd; kpf cah;ej ; rpfukhFk;. cauk; 8848 kPl;lh;. ,e;jpa epyg;gFjpapd; kpf cah;ej ; rpfuk; - fQ;rd; [q;fh



kpf mjpf kio ngWk; gFjp NkfhyahtpYs;s rpuGQ;rp.



kpff;Fiwe;j kiongWk; ,q;Fjhd; mike;Js;sJ.



Nkw;F tq;fj;jpy; Re;jutdq;fSk;



jhh; ghiytdj;jpd; fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

vd;Wk; ,e;J];jhd; gujd;

jPh;ff ; NfhLfs; Xh; ,lj;jpd; Neuj;ij fzf;fplg; gzd;glfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd; eLNt myfhghj; topahf nry; Yk; 820 30' fpof;Fj; jPh;ff ; k; ,e;jpaj; jpl;l Neuj;ij fzf;fpl cjTk;.

gFjpahd

jhh;ghiytdKk;

khq;FNuht;

kuq;fs;

Gjh;fSk;

Mq;fhq;Nf

nfhz;l gutpf;

��



,e;jpah vf;flTisAk; topgl KOr; Rje;jpuk; mspf;Fk; Xh; kjr; rhh;gw;w ehL. ,e;jpahtpd; ,aw;if mikg;G gphpTfs;

,khr;ry;  tlf;Nf ,khj;hp kiyf;Fk;< njw;Nf rpthypf; kiyf;Fk; ,ilNa ,khr;ry; kiyj;njhlh; mike;Js;sJ.





,g;gFjpapy; cs;s eP zl ; kiyj;njhluhf fh\;kPhpy; ,Ue;J tUk; jt;yjhh; kiyj;njhlh; ePz;L nry;fpwJ.



,k;kiyj; njhlh;fSf;F ,ilNa fh\;kPh>; fhq;fpuh> FY gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; mike;Js;sJ.



Gfo;ngw;w kiy thoplq;fshd =Pefh; ghfy;fk;> Fy;khh;f>; %Nrhhp kw;Wk; nedplhy; Nghd;witfSk; ,q;F mikelJs; sd.



Gdpj ,lq;fshd mkh;ehj;> Nfjhh;ehj;> gj;hpehj; kw;Wk; it\;ztpNjtp Nfhapy;fSk; rpwg;Gkpf;f ,lq;fshf ,khr;ry; kiyj;njhlhpy; mike;Js;sd.

epyj;Njhw;wq;fspd; mbg;gilapy; ,e;jpahtpd; ,aw;ifaikg;ig Ie;J ngUk; gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;. 1) tlf;F kiyfs; 2) tl,e;jpa ngUk; rkntspfs; 3) jPgfw;g gPlG+kp 4) flw;fiur; rkntspfs; 5) jPTfs; 

,e;jpahtpd; epyg;gug;gpy; 29.3% kiyfshfTk;> Fd;WfshfTk; > 27.7% gPlG+kpfshfTk; 43% rkntspfshfTk; cs;sJ. ,kakiyfs;  tlf;F kiyfs; vd;gJ ,kakiyfis Fwpg; gjhFk;. 

,kakiyfs; gdp ciwtplk; vd;W miog;ghh;fs;.



Nkw;Nf [k;K fh\;kphpy; cs;s rpe;J gs;sj;jhf;fpypUe;J fpof;Nf mUzhr;ryg; gpuNjrj;jpYs;s gpuk;kGj;jpuh gs;sj;jhf;F tiu ePzL ; nry;fpd;wd. ,kakiy cUthd tpjk;

,J mlh;ej ; fhLfs; tsh;tjw;Fk; rJg;G epyq;fs; cUthtjw;Fk; JizGhpfpd;wd. rpthypf;  rpthypf; ,kakiyapd; njd;gFjpapy; rpthypf; kiyfs; cs;sd.



gy kpy;ypad; tUlq;fSf;F Kd;G xNu xU wpyg;gFjpjhd; ,Ue;jJ. ,ijr;Rw;wp ngUq;fly;fs; R+o;ej ; pUe;jd. ,t;thW ,Ue;j epyg;gFjpf;F ghQ;rpah vd;Wk; mijr; Rw;wpAs;s ePh;g ; gFjpf;F ghe;jyhrh vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.



FWfyhd ePzl ; ^d; vdg;gLk; kiyj;njhlhpy; fhzg;gLfpd; wd. Nluhîdf; $wyhk;.





,t;thW gue;j epyg;gFjp ,U gFjpfshfg; gphpe;jj. tlgFjp mq;fhuh vd;Wk; njd;gFjp Nfhz;Lthdh vd;Wk; ngahplg;gl;ld.

rpthypf;fpd; njd;gFjpapy; nkd;Jfs;fshd gbTfs; juha; rkntspia cUthf;Ffpd;wd.





,e;j ,uz;L epyg;gFjpia gphpf;Fk; ePhg ; ;gFjpf;F nlj;jP]; fly; vd;Wk; miof;fg;gl;lJ.



Gtpapd; cs; ,af;f tpirfshy; Gtp nlj;j] P ; gFjpapd; epyg;gug;G cah;eJ ; ,kakiyfs; vd;wiof;fg;gLk;. kbg;G kiyfis cUthf;fpd.



,J mlh;ej ; fhLfs;tsh;tjw;Fk; cUthtjw;Fk; jizGhpfpd;wd. fpof;F ,kakiyfs;  



,e;jpahtpYs;s Muty;yp kiyj;njhlh; cyfpd; goikahd kiyj; njhlh;fSs; xd;whFk;. Nkw;F ,kakiyfs; ,kakiyfs; ; Kbr;rpypUe;J fpof;fhf  tlNkw;F ,e;jpahtpYs;s ghkPh fhuNfhuk; kiyfs; ,k;kiyj;njhlhpy; mike;Js;sJ.







gy;Nlhuh kw;Wk; rpahr;rpd; vDk; ,UngUk; gdpahWfSk; fhuNfhuk; kiyfspd; njw;Nf mike;Js;sd.ylhf; gPlG+kp ,e;jpahtpYs;s kpf cah;ej ; gP lG+kpahfTk; mikfpwJ. ,J tlNkw;F fh\;khP py; mike;Js;sJ. kj;jpa ,kakiyj; njhlh;fs; `pkhj;hp

,g;gbTfs; ghgh; vdg;glk; fulkulhd gbTfisAk;> juha; vdg;gLk; rJg;Gg; gbTfisAk; gq;fhh; vdg;gLk; gioa tz;ly; gbTfisAk; fhlh;vdg;gLk; Gjpa tz;ly; gbTfisAk; nfhz;lJ. juha; 

juha;vd;gJ NrWk;. rfjpAk; nfhz;l xU epyg; gFjp MFk;.



tl,e;jpar; rkntspia ehd; F gphpTfshfg; gphpf;fyhk;.



,jd; ruhrhp cauk; 6000 kP MFk;.



cyfpYs;s kpf cah;ej ; rpfuq;fspy; gy ,k;kiyj; njhlhpy; mike;Js;sd. cyfpNtNa kpf cauKs;s 8848 kP cauk; nfhz;lvtnu];l; kiyr;rpfuk; ,q;F mike;Js;sJ. fQ;rd;[q;fh (8598 kP)> eq;fgh;tj; (8126 kP)> jtsfphp (8167 kP) kw;Wk; ee;jNjtp (7817 kP) Mfpa rpeuq; fSk; ,q;F mike;Js;sd.

1. uh[];jhd; rkntsp  uh[];jhd; rkntsp mike;Js;sJ.

fq;ifapd; gpwg;gplkhd fq;Nfhj;hp gdpahWk; > aKidapd; gpwg;gplkhd aKNdhj;jphp gdpahWk; ,q;Nf mike;Js;sd.



kiyfspd; FWf;Nf fztha;fs;vd;fpNwhk;.



fh\;kPhpYs;s nrh[pyh fztha; > ,khr;ry gpuNjrj;jpYs;s \pg;fpyh fztha;> rpf;fpkpy; cs;s ehJyh kw;Wk; [yg;Gyh Nghd;wit `pkhj;jphpapYs;s Kf;fpa fztha;fshFk;.

fhzg;gLk; ,aw;ifg; ghijfis

��

epyq;fs;

,q;F n[ae;jpah> fhNuh kw;Wk; fhrp Fd;Wfs; fpof;F Nkw;fhf fhzg;gLfpd;wd. tlngUk; rkntspfs;  ,r;rkntsp 2400 r.fp.kP . ePsk; nfhz;lJ. Vwj;jho 7 ,yl;rk; fp.kP. mstpw;F gutpAs;sJ.

,kakiyapd; tlf;F kiyj;njhliu `pkhj;hp vd;fpNwhk;.



rJg;G

,e;jpahtpd; fpof;F vy;iyfSld; cs;s ,k;kiyfis G+h;thr;ry; vd;W miof;fpNwhk;. tlf;fpy; gl;fha; kw;Wk; ehfh Fd;WfSk; > njw;fpy; kPNrh Fd;WfSk;> fpof;F ,kakiyapy; mlq;fpAs;sd.





gs;sj;jhf;fs; rpthypf; rpwe;j vlj;Jf;fhl;lhf

Muty; yp

kiyj;njhlUf;F

Nkw;fpy;



,g;gFjpapd; Kf;fpa Mwhfj; jpfo;tJ Yhdp MW ,J fl; r; tisFlhtpy; fyf;fpwJ.



jw;NghJ cs;s fhf;uh MW kiwe;JNghd ru];tjp Mw;wpd; njhlh;rr ; p vd;W ek;gg;gLfpwJ.



gy cg;G VhpfSk; uh[];jhd; rkntspapy; mike;Js;sd.



rhk;ghh; Vhp kpfg; nghpa vg;GePh; VhpahFk; . 2. gQ;rhg; - `hpahdh rkntspfs; rkntspfs; kfl (ridge) gQ;rhg; `hpahdh  nly;yp fq;ifr; rkntspapypUe;J gphpf;fpwJ. 

rkntspfis

gQ;rhg;. `hpahdh rkntsp> rl; ny[;. gpah];> uhtpMWfshy; Vw;glk; gbTfshy; MdJ.

��



`hpahdhtpYs; s fhf;uh ejpf;Fk;> aKdh ejpf;Fk; ,ilgl;l epyg;gug;Ng `hpahdh rkntspahf mikfpwJ. 3. fq;ifr; rkntsp Nkw;fpYs;s akid Mw;wpypUe;J fpof;fpYs;s  ,J tq;fhsNjrk; tiu Rkhh; 1500 fp.kP. ePsj;JlDk;> ruhrhp 300 fp.kP. ,fyj;JlDk; gutpAs;sJ. 

uhk;fq;fh> Nfhkjp> fhf; uh. fhz;lf;> Nfhrp. aKdh ejpfs; tlf;fpypUe;Jk;> Nrhd;> rk;gy;> gPl;th Nghd;w ejpfs; njw;fpypUe;J cUthfp fq; if Mw;wpd; JizahWfshf fq;ifAld; NrUfpd;wd.



,r;rkntspapd; mike;Js;sJ.



gPfhhpd; Jauk; vd;wiof;fg;gLtJ Nfhrp MW.



fq;fh - gpuk; kGj;jpuh MWfs; gy;NtW ,izahWfshfg; gphpe;J cyfpNyNa kpfg;gue;j rkntspia cUthf;fp cs;sd. ,r;rkntspapd; jho;gFjp Re;jutdk; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

fpof;fpy;

Nuh`py;fz;l;

jho;epyk;



,g;gFjp Xjj;jhy; Vw;gLk; mlh;ej ; rJg;G epyf; fhLfisf; nfhz;Ls;sJ. 4. gpuk;kGj;jpuh rkntsp rhq;Ngh vd;w ngaUld; jpngj;jpy;  gpuk;kGj;jpuh MW cUthfpwJ. 

,J ,e;jpahtpw;Fs; EioAk; gs;sj;jhf;if cUthf;FfpwJ.

Kd;

jpfhq;

mog;



tz;ly; tprpwpfshy; juha; vdg;gLk; rJg;G epyf;fhLfis cUthf; fpAs;sd. 5. jPgfw;g gPlG+kp  ,J Kf;Nfhz tbtk; nfhz;lJ. 

,J Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;FNehf;fp rhpe;J cs;sJ.



Mdhy; eh;kij - jgjp gFjpfspy; fpof;fpypUe;J Nkw;fhf rhpe;Js;sJ.



tlNkw;Fj; jpirapy; tpe;jpa rhj;G+uh kiyj; njhlh;fisAk;



tlf;fpy; kfhNjt; kw;Wk; ikf;fhyh kiyj;njhlh;fisAk;



Nkw;fpy; Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p nfhz;Ls;sJ.



jf;fhz tPlG+kp Nkw;fpypUe;J fpof;fhfr; rhpe;Js;sJ.



Muty;yp kiy> tpe;jpa kiy Mfpatw;why; R+og;gl;Ls;sJ.



,J yhth vdg; gLk; vhpkiyf; Fok;ghy; cUthfp fUg;G kz;zhy; Md gFjpahFk;.

kw;Wk;

gz;ly;fhz;l;



rk;gy; ejpAk; mjd; JizahWfSk; Nrh;eJ ; gPlG+kpapd; tl gFjpapy; gy gpsTfis (ravines) cz;lhf;fpAs;sJ. 2. gz;ly;fhz;l ; cah;epyk;  ,J aKidahw;wpd; njd;gFjpapy; mike;Js;sJ. 

gPl;th kw;Wk; nfd; Nghd;w mWfs; gs;sj;jhf;Ffis cUthf;fpAs;sd. 3. gfy;fz;l; ; ikf;fhyh kiyj;njhlhpd;  gfy;fz;l mike;Js;sJ.

mjd; fhuzkhf kfhejp. Nfhjhthp. fpU\; zh kw;Wk; fhtphp MWfs; fpof;F Nehf;fpg; gha;ej ; tq;fhstphpFlh flYld; fyf;fpwJ. jPgfw;g ,e;jpahtpYs;s kiyj;njhlh; jhlh;fs; 1. Muty;yp kiyj;njhlh; cyfpNyNa kpfg;goikahd kbg;G kiyj; njhluhFk;  Muty;yp kiyj; njhlhpd; kpf cah;e;j FUrpfhh; (1722 kP) rpfuk; mG kiyapy; mike;Js;sJ.  jpy;thuh rkzf;Nfhtpy; ,q;Fs;sJ. 2. tpe;jpa kiyj;njhlh; 

tpe;jpa kiyj;njhlh; eh;kij kw;Wk; jgjp MWfSf;F eLtpy; mike;Js;sJ. ; pahFk;.  ,J VOkiyfisf; nfhz;l kiyj; njhlh;rr Nkw;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyj; njhlh;fs; 

,itfs; tlf;Nf jgjp ejpapypUe;J njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp tiu Rkhh; 1600 fp.kP. tiu gutpAs;sd.



Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p kiyahdJ Nkw;F flw;fiur; rkntspapy; nrq;Fj;jhf cah;eJ ; fhzg;glfpd;wJ.



rhuhtjp Mw;wpy; N[hf; ePht ; Por ; ;rp (270 kPll ; h;) Nghd;w gy ePh;to P ;rr ; pfis cUthf;Ffpd;wd. jhh; fztha;> Nghh; fztha; kw;Wk; ghyf;fhl;L fztha; Mfpait Nkw;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyapy; fhzg;glk; Kf;fpa fztha;fs; MFk;.





fpof;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p kiyfSk;. Nkw;Fj; njhlh;rr ; p kiyfSk;. ePyfphp kiyapy; xd;wpizf;fpd;wd. ,q;F kpf caukhd njhl;lh ngl;lh (2637 kP) kiyr;rpfuk; mike;Js;sJ.



ghyf;fhl;L fztha; Nfus flw;fiuia jkpo;ehl;Lld; rhiyfs; kw;Wk; ,uapy; fhijfs; %yk; ,izf;fpwJ. njd;dpe;jpahtpd; kpf caukhf rpfuk; MizKbahFk; 2695 kPll ; h;.

jhNkhjh;

MW



godpkiyapd;njd;



,it xhprhtpYs; s kfhejpf;Fk;> jkpo;rhl;bYs;s itif Mw;wpw;Fk; ,ilapy; gpsTgl;l Fd;Wfshf fhzg; glfpd;wd.



Nfhjhthp kw;Wk; fpU\;zh MWfSf;F ,ilgl;l gFjpapy; ,k;kiyfs; fhzg;gltpy;iy.



,jd; tlf;Fg; gFjpapy; kpf cah;ej ; kNfe;jpufphp (1501 kP ) vd;w rpfuk; fhzg;gLfpwJ.

kiy thoplkhd nfhilf; fhdy; Kidapy; mike;Js;sJ, fpof;Fj; njhlh;r;rp kiyj;njhlh;



fpof;Nf

gPlG+kpapd; kj;jpag;gFjp Nrhd; Mw;Wf;Fk;> ,ilNa ePh;gg ; phpNklhf mike; Js;sJ. 4. Nrhl;lhehfGhp gP lG+kp  jhNkhjh;> Rgh;zNufh. Nfhay; kw;Wk; guhf;fh; MWfs; ,jd; topahfg; gha;fpd;wd. ,g;gFjpapd; kj;jpapy; fpof;fhfg; gha;fpwJ. jf;fhz gPlG+kp



Mokhd





vy;iyfshf





eh;kij MW jPgfw;g gPlG+kpia ,U rkkw;w gFjpfshfg; gphpf;fpd;wJ. ,jd; tlgFjpia kj;jpa cahepyq;fs; vd;Wk;> njd; gFjpia jf;fhz gPlG+kp vd;Wk; miog;gh;. kj;jpa cah;epyq;fs; 1. khs;th gPlG+kp

kiyfisAk;

Nkw;fpypUe;J

��

njd; gFjpapy; ey;ykiy vd;w gpurpj;jp ngw;w njhlh; cs;sJ. 4. flw;fiu rkntspfs; rkntspfs  ,J Nkw;fpy; uhd; Mg; fl;rpapypUe;J fpof;Nf fq;if gpuk;kGj;jpuh rkntsp tiu 6100 fp.kP Jhuk; gutpf; fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. Nkw;Ff; flw;fiur; rkntsp  

tlf;fpy; fl;r; gFjpapy; cs;s uhd; Kjy; njw;Nf fd;dpahFkhp tiu ePzL ; s;sJ. F[uhj;jpd; njd;gFjp kw;Wk; fhk;gl;bd; flw;iug; gFjpAk; Nrh;eJ ; F[uhj; rkntsp vd; wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.

��



nfhq;fz rkntsp F[uhj;jpw;F njw;fpypUe;J Nfhth tiu Rkhh; 500 fp.kP. tiu gutpAs;sJ.



fh;ehlfh rkntsp NfhthtpypUe; J kq;fSh; tiu ruhrhp mfyk; 30ypUe;J 50 fp.kP tiu ePzL ; fhzg;gLfpwJ.



kyghh; rkntsp kq;fSUf;Fk; fd;dpahFkhpf;Fk; eLNt mike;Js;sJ. ,q;F rpwg;G mk;rq;fshf Vhpfs; > fopfs; kw;Wk; fhay;fs; (backwater) fhzg;gLfpd;wd.

 

Ntk;gehL Vhp Nfushtpd; kpfg;nghpa VhpahFk; . fpof;F flw;fiur; rkntsp rkntsp  Nkw;F tq;f Mw;Wr; rkntspapypUe; J fd;dpahFkhp tiu gutpAs;sJ. 

nrd;idapy; nkhpdh flw;fiu rkntspiaAk; nfhz;bUf;fpwJ.



kfhejp kw;Wk; fpU\;zh MWfSf;F ,ilNa fhzg;gLk; flw;fiuia tlrh;f;fhh; flw;fiu vdTk;



fpU\;zh kw;Wk; fhtphp MWfSf; F ,ilNa flw;fiuia Nrho kz;ly flw;fiu miof;fg;gLfpwJ.

Nghd;w

flw;fiur;

cs;s vdTk;

 

epf;Nfhghh; jPTf;$l;lq;fspYk; 13 jPTfspy; kl;LNk kf;fs; trpf;fpd;wdh;. yl;rj;jPT P f; $l; lq;fspYs; s 27  mugpf;flypy; mike;Js;s ,yl;rj;jT jPTfspy; 11 jPTfspy; kl;LNk kdpjh;fs; trpf;fpd;wdh;.  Nyf;fbt;];> kpdpf;fha; kw;Wk; mkpdpjptp jPTf; $l;lq;fis 1973Mk; Mz;L ,yl;rj; jPTfs; vd kWngahpl; L mioj;jdh;. 

,itaidj;Jk; KUifg;ghiwfshy; cUthdit. cs;ehl;L tbfhy; kiyj;njhlUf;F Nkw;Nf cs;ehl;L tbfhy;  Muty;yp fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,g;gFjpapy; Yhdp MW XLfpwJ.  ,e;j MW M[;kPUf;F njd;Nkw;F Muty;yp kiyj; njhlhpy; cUthfpwJ.  

,t;thW Nfhtpe; fhh;f; vd;Dkplj;ij fle;J Mw;Wld; fyf;fpwj. ,e;j ruRtjp MW G];fh; Vhpapy; cUthfpwJ.



,it Rf;hp ejp kw;Wk; [t;tha; ejp MFk;.



Yhdp MW F[uhj;jpd; fl;r ; gFjpapy; cs;s uhdpd; jiyg;gFjpapy; cs;s rJg;G epyg;gFjpapy; kiwfpwJ.



cj;fy; rkntsp xhprh flw; fiuapypUe;J 400 fp.kP. Jhuk; ePzL ; kfhejp Mw; W rkntspiaAk; cs;slf;fpajhf fhzg;gLfpd;wJ.



rpypfh Vhp kfhejp Mw; wpd; njw;Nf mike;Js;s ,e;jpahtpd; kpfg;nghpa VhpahFk;.



Me;jpur; rkntsp ngh; fk;G+h; kw;Wk; Gypfhl; Vhpf;F ,ilapy; mike;Js;sJ.



Me;jpu flw;fir; rkntspapy; nfhy;NyU Vhp mike; Js;sJ.



fd;dpahFkhp



me;jkhd; kw;Wk; epf;Nfhghh; jPTfs; tq;fhs tphpFlhtpYk; ,yl;rj;jPTfs; mugpf; flypYk; cs;sd.



me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh; jPTfs; tiuapYk;> 900 fp. Kjy; mike;Js;sd.



,it 572 rpwpaJk; nghpaJkhd jPTfisf; nfhz;lit.



,tw;wpy; 38 jPTfs; kl;LNk thoplq;fshf cs;sd.



,jd; nkhj;jg; gug;G 8249 r.fp.kP.



me;jkhd; jP Tf;$l;lq;fis epNfhghh; jpTf; $l;lq;fspypUe; J 100 fhy;tha; gphpf;fpwJ.



njw;F me;jkhidAk; ypl;by; me;jkhidAk; gphpg;gJ lq;fd;ghij. me;jkhd; epNfhghhpd; njd;Nfhb Kidia ,e;jpuh kid vd;wiof;fpd;wdh;. ngah; Mw;wpd; gpwg;gplk; fyf;Fkplk;

jkpo;ehl;Lr; rkntsp Gypfhl; VhpapypUe;J tiu 1076 fp.kP. ePzL ; gutpAs;sJ. 5. ,e;jpaj; jPTfs; me;jkhd; epf;Nfhghh;



60 t Kjy; 140 t mr; ;rk; 940 fp jPhf ; f ; k; tiuapYk;

me;jkhd; 25 jPTfspy; kl;LNk kf;fs; trpf;fpd;wdh;.



Yhdp Mw;wpd; ePh; ghNyhl;buh tiu Ritahf ,Ue; j NghjpYk; uhd;Mg;fl;r ; gFjpapy; cg;Gj;jd;ikAld; fhzg;gLfpwJ. rhpahd tpiliaj; Njh;e;njL : 1. ,e;jpahtpw;F ........................ apy; tq;fhs tphpFlh mike;Js;sJ. m) Nkw;Fjpir M) njw;F jpir ,) njd;fpof;F jpir <) njd;Nkw;F jpir tpil : , 2. ghf; ePh;r;re;jp ........................ it ,e; jpahtpypUe;J gphpf;fpwJ m) =yq;fh M) kpahd;kh; ,) khyj;jPTfs; <) ,yl;rj;jT P fs; tpil : m 3. ,e;jpahtpd; eLNt nry;Yk; kpf Kf; fpa jPhf ; ;ff;NfhL .......................... .......................... eLNt nry;fpwJ. m) mfkjhghj; M) myfhghj; ,) i`juhghj; <) xsuq;fhghj; tpil : M 4. ,e;jpahtpd; kpf caukhd rpfuk; m) vtnu];l; rpfuk; M) fhl;tpd; M];bd; ,) fQ;rd;[q;fh <) jtsfphp tpil : M 5. fq;if Mw;wpd; gpwg;gplk; m) aKNdhj;hp M) rpahr;rpd; ,) fq;Nfhj;hp <) fhuf;Nfhuk; tpil : ,

gadilAk; gFjp

rpe;J

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nly;yp> `hpahdh> cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;

gpuk;kGj;jpuh

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tq;fhs tphpFlh

kfhuh];buh> Me;jpug;gpuNjrk;

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eh;kij

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mugpf;fly;

kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;> kfhuh\;buk;

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kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;> kfhuh\;buk;

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cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;

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kfhejp

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itif

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cj;jpug;gpuNjrk;



6.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

,kakiyfs; ............................ vd miof; fg;gLfpd; wd. m) gdp ciwtplk; M) ,khr;ry; ,) rpthypf; <) ,khj;hp tpil : m Gdpj jyk; - Nfjh;ehj; juha; - rJg;G epyk; fh;ehlfhtpYs;s Nkw;Fnjhlh;rr ; p kiyfs; - raj;hp yhth gPlG+kp - jf;fhzk; NfushtpYs;s nghpa Vhp - Ntk; gehL

,e;jpah - fhyepiy thdpiy vd;gJ Xhplj;jpd; tspkz;lyj;jpy; cs;s ntg;gk;> mOj;jk;> fhw;W>
3. flypypUe;J Jhuk; Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy; mjpf ntg;gkhfTk; Fsph;fhyj;jpy; mjpf  FspuhfTk; cs;s fhyepiy fz;l fhyepiy vd; fpNwhk;. 4. fhw;W Nkw;Ff; fhw;Wfs; kj;jpaj; jiuflypy; cUthfp  ,e;jpahtpd; tlNkw;F gFjpia Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ. ,f;fhw;W gQ;rhg;> `hpahdh khepyq; fSf;F kioiaj; jUfpwJ. ntg;gkz;ly Gay;fhw;W tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; cUthfp  ,e;jpahtpd; fpof;F flw;fiuia Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ. ntg;gf;fhw;W

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tspkz;lyj;jpd; cah; mLf;Ffspy; fhzg;gLk; fhw;Nwhl;lj;jpid n[l; fhw;Nwhl;lk; vd;fpNwhk;.  ,f;fhw;Nwhl;lk;,e;jpahtpy; gUtf; fhw;wpd; njhlf;ff; fhyj;ijAk; mJ KbtilAk; fhyj;ijAk; eph;zapf;fpwJ.  vy;epNdh vd;gJ Ie;J Kjy; gj;J tUlq;fSf;F xUKiwf; fhzg;gLk; Xh; thdpiy epfo;T.  ,e;jpahtpd; njd; Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W tPr Muk;gpg;gjpy; ,J fhyjhkjj;ij Vw;gLj;JfpwJ. ,e;jpahtpd; fhyepiy  khd;R+d; vd;w nrhy; mNugpa nrhy;yhd nksprpk; vd;gjpypUe;J te;jj.  ,f;fhw;W MWkhjq;fs; njd; Nkw;F jpirapypUe;J tPRfpwJ.  Nfhilf;fhyj;jpy;> Fsph;fhyj;jpw;Fk; ,ilNa jq;fsJ jpiria KOtJk; khw;wpf; nfhz;L tPRk; fhw;WfSf;F gUtf;fhw;W vd;W ngah;. ,g;gUtf;fhw;wpdhy; ,e;jpahtpy; ntg;gkz;ly gUtf;fhw;W fhyepiy epyTfpwJ. 1. Fsph;fhyk; (brk; (brk;gh; Kjy; gpg;uthp tiu) Fsph;fhyj;jpy; R+hpadpd; nrq;Fj;J fjph;fs; kfu Nuifapd; kPJ tpOfpwJ.  njd; ,e;jpahtpy; mugpf;fly; kw;Wk; tq;fhs tphpFlh Mfpa gFjpfspy; jho;T mOj;jk; cuthfpwJ. ,jd; tpisthf fhw; whdJ cah; mOj;jg; gFjpapypUe;J njd; ,e;jpahit Nehf;fp tPRfpwJ. ,e;jf; fhw;Wf;F gpd;dilAk; gUtf;fhw;W (Retiring Monsoon) vd;W ngah;. ,f;fhw;W tq;fhs tphpFlhit flf; Fk;nghOJ rpwpjsT  ,khr; ryg;  gpuNjrj;jpw;F kiog;nghopT Vw;gLfpwJ. ,k;kio NfhJik tpisr;rYf;F kpfTk; gadspf;fpwJ. 2. Nfhilf;fhyk; (khh;r; Kjy; Nk tiu) ,g;gUtj;jpy; mOj;j epiyapd; fhuzkhf fhw;whdJ  njd;Nkw;fpypUe;J tlfpof;fhf mugpf;fly; kw;Wk; tq;fhs tphpFlhtpy; tPRfpwJ. ,J Nk khjj;jpy; Nkw;Ff; flw;fiug; gFjpfSf;F Kd;  gUt kioiaj; jUfpwJ. khQ;rhuy; (Mango showers) vd; wiof;fg;gLk; ,bAld; $ba  kioahdJ tpiutpy; Kjph;tjw;F cjTfpwJ.

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

tlfpof;F ,e;jpag; gFjpfspy; tPRk; jiyf;fhw;W ehh;nt];lh; (Norwesters) vd; wiof;fg;gLfpwJ. ,j;jyf;fhw;W gQ;rhg;gpy; fhy;igrhfp (igrhfp khj rP uopT) (Kalbaisagl) vd;wiof;fg;gLfpwJ. 3. njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W ([Pd ; Kjy; nrg;lk;gh; tiu)  ,f;fhw;W G+kj;jpaNuifia flf;Fk;NghJ mjd; jpir khw;wg;gl;L njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;whf tPRfpwJ.  Nfushtpd; njd; gFjpia milAk;NghJ gyj;j ,b kpd;dYld; $ba kioia mspg; gjd; %yk; njd;Nkw;F gUtfhyk; Muk;gpg;gij fhl;LfpwJ. ,jid gUtkio ntbg;G (Monsoon Burst ) vd;gh;. nghJthf njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;W ,e;jpa jPgfw;g  mikg;ghy; ,Ufpisfshf gphpfpwJ. mugpf;fly;fpis gUt fhw;wpd; mugpf;fly;fpis Xh; typikkpf;f fhw;W. ,J mjpf kiog;nghopit jUfpwJ. kiokiwTg; gFjp tpe;jp rhj;G+uh kiyfspd; topNa nrd;W uh[;kfhy;  Fd;Wfspd; kPJ khjp Nrhlh ehfGhp gPlG+kpf;F mjpf kiog;nghopitj; jUfpwJ. Muty;yp kioj; njhlh; fhw;W tPRk; jpirf;F ,izahf  cs;sJ. mjdhy; ,f;fhw;W kiykPJ Nkhj ,ayhjjhy; uh[];jhDf;F kiog;nghopit jUtjpy;iy. tq;fhstphpFlh fpis ,J fhrp> fhNuh> n[ae;jpah Fd;Wfspd; kPJ NkhJfpwJ.   tq;fhs tphpFlh fpis fhw;Wf;F ,izahfTk; mike;Js;sJ. 4. tlfpof;F gUtf;fhw;W (mf;Nlhgh; - etk;gh;)  R+hpad; kfuNuifia Nehf;fp efu Muk; gpg;gjhy; njd;Nkw;F  gUtfhw;W tl ,e; jpahtpy; ,Ue;J nrg;lk;gh; khjk; ,uz;lhtJ thuj;jpy; gpd;Ndhf;fp tu Muk;gpf;fpwJ. ,J tq;fhs tphpFlhit flf; Fk;nghOJ cwpQ;rp  Nrhokz;lyf; flw;fiuf;F fdj;j kioiaj; jUfpwJ. mjdhy; Me;jpug;gpuNjrKk;> jkpo;ehL Fsph;fhyj;jpy; ey;y kioiag; ngUfpd;wd. gUtf;fhw;wpd; ,ay;Gfs; 1. Mz;LKOtJk; rPuw;w kiog;guty; ek; ehl;bd; 80 % kiog;nghoptpw;F fhuzkhf miktJ [P d;  Kjy; nrg;lk;gh; tiu tPRk; njd;Nkw;F gUtf;fhw;Nw MFk;.  cyfpNyNa mjpf kiog;ngWk; nksrpd;uhk; vd;w ,lk; rpuGQ;rpf;F Nkw;fpy; 16 fpNyhkPl;lh; Jhuj;jp;y ; cs;sJ. kiog;guty; 1. kpf mjpf kio ngWk; gFjpfs; gFjpfs 200 nr.kP.f;Fk; mjpfkhd kiongWk; . 2. mjpfkio ngWk; ngWk; gFjpfs; 100 nr.kP. Kjy; 200 nr.kP. 3. kpjkhd kiongWk; gFjpfs; gFjpfs 50 nr;.kP. Kjy; 100 nr.kP tiu 4. Fiwthd kiongWk; kiongWk; gFjpfs; 50 nr.kP. f;Fk; Fiwthf kiongWk; gFjpfs;

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1. ,e;jpahtpy; epyTtJ .................. m) kpjntg;g kz;lyf; fhyepiy M) ntg;g kz;ly gUtf;fhw;W fhyepiy ,) ntg;g kz;ly fhyepiy <) Fsph; fhyepiy tpil : M 2. flw;fiu gFjpfspy; epyTtJ ........................ fhyepiy m) fz;l fhyepiy M) rkkhd fhyepiy ,) jz;zhP ; Nghd;wit njhlh;eJ ; fpilf;ff;$ba tsq;fs;.  GJgpf;f ,ayhj tsq; fs;  gad;ghl;bw;F gpwF kPzL ; k; fpilf;f ,ayhj tsq; fs; GJg;gpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs;  epyf;fhp kw;Wk; fr;rh vz;nza; ,jw;F cjhuzkhFk;. kz;tsk;  Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpy; mike;Js;s cWjpahd Jfs; fs; kz; vdg;gLfpwJ. kz; tsik  kpf Ez;zpa rj;Jf;fshd fe;jfk;> FNshhpd;> nrk;G> khq;fdp];> khypg;jd P k;> Nghuhd;> ,Uk;G> Nfhghy;L> Jj;jehfk; Nghd;witAk;> nghpa rj;Jg; nghUl;fshd iel;u[d;> nghl;lhrpak; kw;Wk; gh];Ngl;Lfs; Nghd;wtw;iwAk kz;zpy; ,Uf;f Ntz;ba rj;Jg; nghUl;fshFk; . Kf;fpa kz; 1. tz;ly; kz;  nly;lh> kw;Wk; flw;fiurkntsp Nghd;wtw;iw MWfshy; gbaitf;fpd;w gbTfshFk;.  tz;ly; kz; ,uz;L tifahfg; gphpf;fg;gLfpwJ. mit fhjh; kw;Wk; ghq;fh; MFk;.  fhjh; kz; Gjpjhf gbaitf;fg;gl;l ntsph;epwj;Jld; $ba tz;ly; kzyhFk;.  ghq;fh; kz; fspkz; $ba gioa tz;ly; kz;zhFk;  fq;if-gpuk;kGj;jpuh jho;ej ; Mw;Wr; rkntsp rzy; gaphpl gad;gLfpwJ. 2. fhpry; kz;  fhpry; kz; jPg;ghiwfs; rpijTWjhy; cUthfpwJ

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,k;kz; Nfhjthp> eh;kjh kw;Wk; jgjp Mw;Wg; gs;sj;jhf;Ffspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ. nghJthf Rz;zhk;G> ,Uk;G> nghl;lhrpak;> mYkdpak;>  fhy;rpak; kw;Wk; nkf;dr P pak; fhh;gNdl;Lfis mjpfk; nfhz;ljhf cs;sJ. ,k;kz; F[uhj;>  kj;jpagpuNjrj;jpy; fhzg;gLgpwJ. 3. nrk;kz; gbfg; ghiwfs; kw;Wk; cUkhwpa ghiwfs; rpijAWtjhy;  cUthdit nrk;kz;zhFk; ,Uk;Gr;rj;J mjpf mstpy; fhzg;gLtjhy; nrk;kz; rptg;G  epwkhf cs;sJ. 4. ruis kz; ruis kz; ntg;g kz;ly gUtf;fhw;W fhyepiyapy;  cUthfpd; wd. ,J jPgfw;g gPlGkpapy; ngUksT fhzg;gLfpwJ. ,jpy; ,Uk;G Mf;i]L ,Ug;gjhy; rptg;G epwk; nfhz;ljhf  fhzg;gLfpwJ. 5. twz;l ghiytdkz; twz;l ghiytd kz; tlNkw;F ,e;jpa gFjpfshd  ,uhI];jhd;> F[uhj; (fl;rp)> kw;Wk; njd; gQrhg; Mfpa gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLfpwJ. epiyepWj;jf;$ba tsh;r;rp (Sustaniable developement)  jw;fhy Njitapid g+h;j;jp nra;tjd; nghUl;L vjph;fhy re;jjpapdhpd; Njitfis ghjpf;fhky; ,Ug;gjhFk; ,e;jpahtpd; tdtsq;fs;  ,e;jpahtpy; fhLfspd; nkhj;jg;gug;gsT Rkhh; 63.72 kpy;ypad; rJu fpNyhkPl;lh;. ,e;jpa gug;gstpy; Rkhh; 19.39%  ,aw;ifj; jhtu tiffs; 1. ntg;gkz;ly gRik khwhf; fhLfs; Mz;L kiog; nghopT 200 nrdlbkP l;lUf;Fk; mjpfkhd  ,lq;fspy; gRik khwhf; fhLfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd kuq;fspd; mlh;ej ; tsh;rr ; papdhy; R+hpa Xsp jiug;gFjpia  te;J mila Kbtjpy;iy. Nuh]; kuk;> vghzp> kNfhfdp> ug; gh;> rpd;dNfhdh> %q;fpy;  kw;Wk; yadh]; 2. ntg;g kz;ly gUtf;fhw;W fhLfs; 70 nr.kP Kjy; 200 nr.kP tiu MZL ruhrhp kio ngWk;  gFjpfspy; ntg;gkzly gUtf;fhw;W fhLfs; vd;W miog;gh;. twl;rpapd; fhuzkhf ,iyfis cjph; jJ ; tpLfpd;wd.  vdNT ,f;fhLfis ,iyAjph;f ; fhLfs; vd;W miog;gh;. Njf;F> rhy;> rprk;> re;jd kuk;> Ntl;by; kw;Wk; Ntg;gkuk;  3. FWq;fhL kw;Wk; Kl;Gjh;fhLfs; ,t;tif jhtuq;fs; 75 nr.kPf;F Fiwthd ruhrhp  kioasTld; ePzl ; twl;rpahd gUtk; nfhz;l gFjpfspy; tsh;fpd;wd Kf;fpakhd kuq;fs; mf;Nfrpah> gid kw;Wk; fs;sp  4. ghiytdj; jhtuk; kio msT 25 nr.kP Fiwthf cs;s gFjpfspy;  ghiytdj; jhtuq;fs; mike;Js;sd. ,t;tif jhtuq;fs; ngUk;ghYk; Kl;Gjh;fs; mf;Nfrpah> 
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khq;FNuht; fhLfs; fly; fly; Vjq;fs; %yk; ePiug; ngWk; flNyhug; gFjpfspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. Nkw;F tq;fhsj;jpy; ,f;fhLfis Re;jutdk; vd miog;gh;  ,tw;iw glFfs; fl;Ltjw;F gad;gLj;Jth;. ,f;fhLfs;  tpiy kjpg;G kpf;f vhpg;nghUshTk; mikfpd;wd. 6. kiyf;fhLfs; ,kakiyf; fhLfs; fhLfs; ,kakiyj; njhlhpy; 1000kP cauj;jpypUe;J 2000 kP cauk;  tiu fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,q;F Xf;> nr];nel; Nghd;w gRik khwhj mfd;w ,iy;f  fhLfs; Kf;fpakhf fhzg;gLfpd;wd. 1500 kPll ; hpypUe;J 3000 kP cauk; tiu igd;> bNahlh;>  rpy;th; gPh>; ];g+U]; kw;Wk; nrlh; Nghd;w Crpapiy kuq;fs; cs;sd. 3600 kP cauj;jpw;F Nky; Crpapiyf; fhLfSk; Gy;  ntspfisAk; jhz;b My;igd; jhtuq;fs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. kpf cauk; nfhz;l gFjpfspy; Nkhr]; kw;Wk; ypr;rd;];  Nghd;witNa jhtuq;fspd; gFjpahf mikfpd;wd. jPgfw;g kiyf;fhLfs; ePyfPhpapYs;s ntg;gkz;lyf;  fhlfis Nrhyh[; cd; W cs;Sh; ngahpy; miof;fpwhh;fs;. ,t;tif fhLfs; rhj;g+uh kw;Wk; ikf;fyh kiyj;njhlh;fspy; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. ,q;F tsUk; Kf;fpakhd kuq;fs; Nkf;Nfhypah> yhuy;>  rpd;Nfhdh kw;Wk; Ntl;by; Nghd;wit MFk;. jho;epiy Gy;ntsp ,it 30 nr.kP Kjy; 200 nr.kP tiu Mz;L ruhrhp kiyasTk; mjpfkhd Nfhil fhy ntg; gKk; nfhz;l gFjpfspyp tsUfpd; wd. Nkl; ;L epyg; Gy;ntspfs; Nkl ,g;Gy;ntspfs; 100kP cauj; ;jpw;F Nky; cs;s ,kakiyg;gFjpfspYk;> njd;dpe;jpahtpy; Nrhyh fhLfspd; rpWgFjpfspYk; ,g;Gy;ntspfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd. XJf;fg;gl;l fhLfs; (Reserve Forests) fhLfspd; nkhj;jgug;gpy; ghjpf;F NkYs;s fhLfNs XJf;fg;gl;l fhLfs; vd;W murhy; mwptpf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,f;fhLfs; epue;ju fhLfs; vd;Wk; miof;fpd;wdh;. ghJfhf;fg;gl;l fhLfs; tdj;Jiwahy; mwptpf;fg;gl;lgb fhLfspd; nkhj;j gug;gpy; ngUk;ghYk; 3y; 1gFjp ghJfhf;fg;gl;l fhLfshFk;. ,q;F kuk; ntl;Ltjw;F mDkjp mspf;fg;gLtjpy;iy.  fhLfis mopj;J fhl;L epyg;gug;Gfs; fhLfs; rhuhj gzpfSf;F gad;gLj;Jtij epwj;Jtjw;F 1980k; Mz;L td ghJfhg;Gr;rl;lk; Cw;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;sJ. Njrpa tdf; nfhs;if ,e;jpah 1984-k; MZ;by; Njrpa tdf; nfhs;if Xd;iw Vw;gLj;jpaJ.  33 rjtPjk; epyg;gug;gpid fhLfshf khw; WtJ. fdpk tsq tsq; ;fs; f ; s; 1. cNyhff; fdpkq;fs; ,Uk;G jhJ ehl;bd; tsh;rr ; pf;F Mjuhkhd tskhf ,Ug;gJ ,Uk;FjhJ.  ,Uk;G ehfhPfj;jpd; KJnYk;G vd th;zpf;fg;gLfpwJ.  cyfpd; bkhj;j ,Uk;G jhJ ,Ug;gpy; 20 rjtPjk; ,Uk;GjhJ ,e;jpahtpy; mike;Js;sJ ,Uk;GjhJ ,Ug;gpy; u\.ahtpw;Fk; mLj;J ,e;jpah  ,uz;lhtJ ,lj;ij tfpf;fpwJ khq;fdPR khq;fdpR cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah Ie;jhtJ ,ljij  ngw;ws;sJ

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fbdkhd Jug;gpbj;j ,Uk;G v/fpid jhahhpf; f khqfdpR Njitahd ,Ug;gjhy; ,Uk;G v/F njhopw;rhiyfspy; khq;fdpR Kf;fpa gq;fhw;WfpwJ cyh; kpd;fyd;fs; jahhpf;f khq;fdpR Kf;fpa  gq;fhw;WfpwJ  cyh; kpd;fyd;fs; jahhpf;f khq;fdpR- il � Mf;i]L gad;gLfpwJ ghf;irl; ghf;irl; mYkdpaj;jpd; jhJ MFk;.   mYkdpak; rpypNfl; epiwe;j ghiwfs; rpijTWtjhy; cUthFk; Nyrhd cNyhfNk mYkdpak; MFk;. jhkpuk; kpd; fUtpfs; jahhpg;G njhopwrhhiyfspy; jhkpuk; ngUk;gq;fhw;WfpwJ. ikf;fh ikf;fh kpd;rhuj;ij flf;fhj nghUshf ,Uf; fjhy; kpd;  nghUlfs; cw;gj;jpf;F gad;gLfpwJ. cyfpy; ikf;fh cw;fj;jpapy; ,e;jpah 60 rjtPjk;  gq;fspf;fpwJ. vhprf;jp tsq;fs; GJgpf;f ,ayhj vhprf; jp tsq;fs; epyf;fhp  67 rjtpjk; ehl;bd; vhprf;jp Njit Kyk;  G+h;jj ; pnra;ag;gLfdpwJ epyf;fhp fUg;Gj; jq;fk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ   epyf;fhpapd; juk; kw;Wk; ; fhh;gd; mstpd; mbg;gilapy; gy tiffshf gphpf; fg;gLfpwJ. mitahtd> Me;juirl;> gpl;Lkpdy; ypf;idl; kw;Wk; kuf;fhp. 2.. ngl;Nuhypak; fdpk vz;iza; vd;wiof;fg;gLk; ngl;Nuhypak; gbTg;  ghiwfspypUe;J vLf;fg;gLfpwJ  63 rjtPjk; Kk;ig-iàpypUe;J> 18 rjtPjk; F[uhj;jpYk;> 16 rjtPjk; m];]hkpypUe;J ngwf;fLfpwJ. 3. ,aw;if vhpthA me;jkhd; jPTfspy; kl;LNk 47.6 kpy;ypad; f.kP. ,Uk;G cs;sJ. rkPgj;jpy; fpU\;zh> Nfhjthp> tb epyq; fspy; mjpf msT ,awif vhpahT ,Ug; G cs;sjhf fz;Lgpbf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. 1. mdy; kpd;rf;jp ,e;jpahtpd; nkhj;j kpd; cw;gj;jpapy; 70 rjtpjKk; mdy;  kpd; epiyaq;fspypUe;J ngwg;gLfpwJ. 2. ePhk ; pd;rf;jp ANudpak; kw;Wk; Njhhpak; fdpkj;jpypUE;J mDkpd;rf;jp  cw;gj;jp nra;ag;gLfpwJ. ,f;fdpkq;fs; [hh;fz;l; kw;wk; Muty;yp kiyj;njhlh;fspy;  uh[];jhdpypUe;J vLf;fg;gLfpwJ. Nfus flw;fiuapd; kz;zpy; cs;s Nkhdirl;bypUe;J  Njhhpak; ngwg;gLfpwJ. cyfpd; Njhhpag; gbTfspy; ,e;jpahtpy; 50 rjtpjk;  cs;sJ. ,e;jpahtpy; jhuhg+h; (kfhuh\;buk;)> fy;ghf;fk; (jkpo;ehL)>  uhtj;gl;lh (Nfhl;lh - ,uh[];jhd;) eNuhuh (cj;jpugpuNjrk;) fhf;guh (F[uhj;) iff;fh (fh;ehlfh) Mfpa ,lq; fspy; mDrf;jp epiyaq;fs; cs;sd. GJgpf;fj;jf;f tsq;fs; R+hparf;jp R+hpa Xspia Neubahf kpd; rf;jpahf Nghl;NlhNthy; lhapf;  njhopy;El;gk; %yk; khw;w KbAk;.

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,k;Kiwap;d %yk; 2 nkfhthl; R+hpa rf;jpia 1r.fp.kP gug;gstpw; Fs; cw;gj;jp nra;a KbAk; ;. R+hpa rf;jpapy; kpd; rf;jpahf khw;Wk; ikak; F[uhj;jpYs;s  G+[; mUNf mike;Js;s khjhGhpahFk; . Xjrf;jp fhk;Ng tisFlh 7000nkfhthl; rf;jp jpwidg; ngw Vw;w ,lkhFk;. NkYk; fl;r ; tisFlh (1000 nkfhthl; ) kw;Wk; Re;jutdg; gFjpfspy; (100 nkfhthl;) ,r;rf;jpia cw;gj;jp nra;ayhk;. miyrf;jp jpUtde;jGuj;jpw;F mUfpy; c;ss ; tpfpd;[k; vd;w ,lj;jpy;  150 nkfhthl; miy rf;jp cw;gj;jp epiyak; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. NkYk; XU nkfhthl; miy rf;jp cw;gj;jp epiyak;  me;jkhd;-epNfhghh; jPTfspYk; epWtg;gl cs;sJ. 1. twz;l epyg;gFjpapy; fhzg;gLk; kz; ....................... MFk; m) ghiykz; M) R+iskz; ,) fUg;Gkz; <) tz;ly;kz; tpil : m 2. gUtf; fhw;Wf; fhLfs;..................... .................... vd;Wk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wd. m) madkz;ly gRik khwhf; fhLfs; M) ,iyAjph; fhLfs; ,) khq; FNuht; fhLfs; <) kiyf; fhLfs; tpil : M 3. NkhNdhirl; kzypy; fhzg;gLk; jhJ..................... m) vz;nza; M) ANudpak; ,) Njhhpak; <) epyf;fhp tpil : M 1. fhpry; kz; - gUj;jp gaph; 2. gOg;G epyf;fhp - XUtif epyf;fhp 3. khq;FNuht; fhLfs; - Re;jutdk; 4. GJgpf;f$ ; ba tsq;fs; - R+hpad; 5. GJgpf;f ,ayhj tsq;fs; - vz;iza; ,e;jpah Ntshz;ik  NfhJik gapUf;F kpjntg;gk; Njit. Mdhy; new;gapUf;F mjpf ntg;gk; Njit. Mifahy; gQrhg; khepyj;jpy; NfhJikAk;> jkpo;ehl;by; ney;Yk; gaphplg;gLfpwJ.  tskpf; f tz;ly; kz; > ney; kw;Wk; fUk;G tpisr;rYf;Fk;> fhpry; kz; gUj;jp tpistpf;fTk; Vw;wjhf cs;sd. 1. goikahd Ntshz;ik  goikahd Ntshz;Kiw gy;NtW ngah;fspy; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. m];]hkpy; [Pk; vdTk;> Xhprh kw;Wk; Me;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpy; nghL vdTk;> kj;jpag; gpuNjrj;jpy; khrhd; vdTk; Nfushtpy; nghd;dk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. 2. jd;dpiwT Ntshz;ik  ,e;jpa Ntshz;ikapy; mjpf ,lk; ngw;ws;s Ntshz;ik tif jd;dpiwT Ntshz;ik MFk;.  Fiwe; ;j msT epyj;jpy; urhad cuq;fs;> vU> fyg;gpd tpij tiffs;> etPd ,ae;jpuq;fs; kw;Wk; ePhg ; g ; hrd trjpfisg; gad;gLj;jp mjpf tpisr;riyg; ngw Kaw;rpf;fpd;wdh;.  jPgfw;g ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpa czthd mhprp 44 kpy;ypad; n`f;Nlh; epyj;jpy; tpistpf;fg;gLfpwJ. ,J cyfpd; mhprp tpistpf; fg;gLk; kpfg; nghpaehlhFk; . 1977 Mk; Mz;Nl mhprp cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah jd;dpiwT mile;Jtpl;lJ.  cah;ju ghRkjp mhprp Fiwe; j mstpy; Vw;WkjpAk; nra;ag;gLfpwJ.  ,k;Kiw Ntshz;ik jPtpu Ntshz;ik (Intersive agriculture) vd;fpNwhk;. 3. tzpf Ntshz;ik ,j;jifa Ntshz;ikapy gue;j Ntshz;ik vd;Wk; Fwpg;gpLth;.

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gzg;gaph;fs; fUk;G> gUj;jp> rzy;> Njapiy. fhg;gp> vz;nza; tpj;Jf;fs;. Gifapiy kw;Wk; ug;gh; Nghd;wit Fwpg;gplj; jf;f tzpfg; gaph;fshFk; . fUk;G fUk;G xU ntg;g kz;lyg; gapuhFk;.  ,e;jpah fUk;G cw;gj;jpapd; gpwg;gplkhfk;.  fUk;G cw;gj;jpapy; gpNurpYf;F mlj;j ,lj;jpy; ,e;jpah  cs;sJ. gUj;jp gUj;jp ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpahd ,iog;gaph; mFk;.  fhpry;kz;> gUj;jp gaphpLtjw;F Vw;w kz; MFk;.  gUj;jp cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah ehd;fhk; ,lj;ij tfpf;fpd;wJ.  rzy; gaph; rzy; gUj;jpf;F mLj;jgbahf cs;s kpf kf;fpakhd  ,iog;gaph;. rzy; gaph; tsu xt;nthU Mz;Lk; GJg;gpf;fg;glk; tz; ly;  kz;izf; nfhz;Ls;s nts;sr; rkntspfspy; cs;s kz;> eph; tbAk; nropg;ghd kz;zhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. Gifapiy Gifapiy 1508 mk; Mz;LNghh;rR ; f;fPrpauhy; Kjd; Kjyhf  ,e;jpahtpw;F nfhz;L tug;gl;lJ. Gifapiy cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah %d;whtJ ,lj;ijg;  ngWfpwJ. kw;w ,U Kd;ddp trpf;Fk; ehlfs; rP dh kw;Wk; mnkhpf;fh  If;fpa ehLfs; MFk;. Njapiy Njapiy Kf;fpa gzg;gapuhFk;.  fhg;gp fhg;gp kpf Kf;fpakhd gzg;gaph; > ,e;jpahtpy; gaphplg;gLk;  fhg;gp juj;jpw;Fg; Gfo; ngw;wJ.  ,e;jpahtpd; 60% fhg;gp fh;ehlfj;jpy; cw;gj;jp nra;ag;glfpwJ.  fhg;gp gapuhFk; kw;w khepyq;fs; jkpo;ehl kw;wk; Nfush. ,ug;gh;  ,ug;gh; gaphplg;glk; gug;gstpy; ,e;jpah MwhtJ ,lj;ijAk;> ,ug;gh; cw;gj;jpapy; Ie;jhtJ ,lj;ijAk; ngw;Ws;sJ. jhtu caph;El;gtpay; tsh;rr ; p jhtu caph; El;gtpaypy; Ma;Tfis Nkw;nfhs;sTk; %yf  caphpay; (Molecular Biology) kw;Wk; caph; El;gtpay; (Bio-technology) Mfpatw;wpy; fw;gpj;jy; kw;Wk; gapw;rpia mspf;fTk; 1985 Mk; Mz;L Njrpa Muha;r;rp ikak; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. 1. ney; mjpfkhf tpisAk; kz; m) fhpry; kz; M) nrk;kz; ,) tz;ly; kz; <) ruiskz; tpil : , 2. Njapiy kw;Wk; fhg; fhg;gp gaph; mjpfkhf tpisAk; ,lk; m) kiyr; rhpTfs; M) rkntspfs; ,) flw;fiur; rkntspfs; <) Mw;Wg;gs;sj;jhf;Ffs; tpil : m 3. twl;rpapYk; tsUk; gaph; m) ney; M) NfhJik ,) rzy; <) jpiztif tpil : m 4. gUj;jp xU .................... m) czTg; gaph; M) gzg;gaph; ,) njhl;lg;gaph; <) jpidgaph; tpil : m 5. epiyahd czTg; gaph;fs; ......................... m) mhprp kw;Wk; NfhJik M) fhg;gp kw;Wk; Njapiy

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,e;jpah - njhopyfq;fs; njhopyf miktplf; fhuzpfs; fhuzpfs njhopyf miktplj;ij eph;zapf;Fk; fhuzpfs; %yg;nghUl;fs;. vhprf;jp> Nghf;Ftuj;J. kdpjrf;jp> ePht ; sk;. re;ij kw;Wk; murhq;f nfhs;iffs;. Ntshz; rhh;ej ; njhopyfq;fs; s gUj;jpahiyfs;> rzy; Miyfs; kw;Wk; rh;f;fiu Miyfisf; $wyhk;. gUj;jp Miyfs; kfhuh\;buj;jpYs;s Kk;ig gUj;jp Miyfs; Kd;dpiy  tfpf;fpd;wJ. NkYk; ,J ,e;jpahtpd; khd;nr];lh; vd miof;fg;gLfpwJ.  cyfpy; gUj;jpahil cw;gj;jp nra;Ak; ehLfspy; ,e;jpah %d;whk; ,lj;ijAk;> gUj;jpahil tzpfj;jpy; ,uz;lhk; ,lj;ijAk; ,e;jpa njhopw;rhiyfs; Kjy; ,lj;jpYk; cs;sJ. rzy; Miyfs; Miyfs  rzy; cw;gj;jpapy; ,e;jpah Kjyplk; tfpf;fpwJ. Vw;Wkjpapy; tq;fhsNjrj;jpw;F mLj;J cs;sJ. rh;f;fiu Miyfs;  rh;ff ; iu Miyfs; ,e;jpahtpd; ,uz;lhtJ kpfg;nghpa njhopyhFk;.  ,e;jpahtpd; rh;ff ; iu cw;gj;jpapy; 70% rh;ff ; iuapid cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; kw;Wk; gPfhh; khepyq; fs; kl;LNk cw;gj;jp nra;fpd;wd. Mifapdhy; ,e;j gFjp rh;ff ; iu kz;lyk; vd miof;fg;glfpwJ. jkpo;ehl;by; ney;ypf;Fg;gk;> GfSh;> Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; kw;Wk;  ghz;bauh[Guk; rh;ff ; iu cw;gj;jpf;F Gfo;ngw;w ,lq;fshFk;. rh;ff ; iu cw;gj;jpapy; cyfp;y; ,e;jpah ehd;fhtJ ,lj;jpy;  cs;sJ. kw;w %d;W ehLfs; fpA+gh> gpNurpy; kw;Wk; u\;ah. fhfpj Miy ,J kuf;$o;> %q;fpy; kw;Wk; rhgha; Gw;fs;>  cgNahfpf;fg;gl;l fhfpjq;fs;> fUk;Gr;rf;if Nghd;wtw;iw %yg;nghUshfg; gad;glj;JfpwJ. fhfpj cw;gj;jpapy; Kd;dzpapy; cs;s khepyq;fs; Nkw;F  tq;fhsk; > kfhuh\;buk;> kj;jpag;gpuNjrk;> fh;ehlfh kw;Wk; Me;jpug;gpuNjrk; MFk;. ,Uk;G v/F njhopyfq;fs; miktplq;fs; ngUk;ghyhd ,Uk;G v/F njhopyfq;fs; NrhlhehfGhp  gPlG+kp gFjpapy; mike;Js;sd. 1. lhlh ,Uk;G v/F njhopyfk; (TISCO)  1907 Mk; Mz;by; lhlh ,Uk; G v/F fk;ngdp [hk;n\l;G+hpy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.  ,e;jpahtpd; goikahd nghpa xUq; fpize;j ,Uk;G v/F MiyahFk;. 2. ,e;jpa ,Uk;G v/F FOkk; (IISCO) Fy;b> ghd;G+h; kw;Wk; `puhG+h; v/F Miyfs;  xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;L ,e;jpa ,Uk;G v/F epWtdk; 1919 Mk; Mz;L ghd;G+hpy; mikf;fg;gl;lJ.

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1972 y; Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;L ,e;jpa v/F Mizaj;jpd; fPo; nfhz;Ltug;gl;lJ. (SAIL - STEELAUTHORITY OF INDIA LTD) ,J v/F kw;Wk; ,Uk;gpid jahhpf;fpwJ. 3. tp];Nt];tiuah ,Uk;G v/F epWtdk; (VISL)  1923 Mk; Mz;L (ikR+h; v/F epWtdk; ) tp];Nt];tiuah ,Uk;G v/f epWtdk; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. gj;uhtjp vd;w ,lj;jpyl mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.  4. m) ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; gpyha; (HSL) rl;B];fh; khepyj;jpy; Jh;f; khtl;lj;jpy; gpyha; vd;w  ,lj;jpy; 1959 Mk; mz;L gpyha; epWtdk; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. fg;gy; fl;Ltjw;F Njitahd v/Fj; jfLfs; ,q;F  jahhpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. 4. M) ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; &h;Nfyh (HSL) ,e;j epWtdk; 1959 Mk; Mz;L xhprhtpy; cs;s Re;jh;fhh;f;  khtl;lj;jpy; &h;Nfyh vd;Dkplj;jpy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. kpd;Kyhk; G+rg;gl;l jfLfs; kw;Wk; kpd; v/F jfLfs;  ,q;F mjpfkhf jahh; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd. 4. ,) ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; Jh;ff ; hG+h; (HSL)  Jh;ff ; hG+h; v/F epWtdk; Nkw;F tq;fk; th;jkhd; khtl;lj;jpy; 1959-y; mikf;fg;gl;lJ. 1962-y; ,J cw;gj;jpia Muk;gpj;jJ.  uapypy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; rf;fuk; RoYk; ,URk; uapy; jz;lthsq; fisj; jhq;fp epw;Fk; ,Uk;Gr; rl;lq;fs; Mfpa jahhpg;gpy; jdpr;rpwg;G tha;ej ; jhFk;. 4. <) ,e;J];jhd; v/F v/F epWtdk; epWtdk; nghfhNuh (JHSL) ,e;j epWtdk; [hh;fz;l; khepyj;jpy; `rhhpghf;  khtl;lj;jpYs;s nghfhNuhtpy; 1972 mk; Mz;L kjy; ,aq;fp tUfpwJ. v/F jahhpg;gpy; cUthFk; fopT (WASTE) nghUl;fs;  rpe;jphp cuj; njhopyfj;jpy; cu cw;gj;jpf;F gad;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. 5. Nryk; v/F Miy  jkpo;ehl;by; Nryj;jpy; v/F epWtdk; mikf;fg;gl;L 1977 kjy; v/F cw;gj;jp nra;J tUfpd;wJ. 6. tp[aefh; v/F Miy  fh;ehlfhtpYs;s N`h];gl; khtl;lj;jpy; Nlhh;efy; vd;w ,lj;jpy; v/F epWtdk; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. 7. tprhfg;gl;bdk; v/F Miy  tprhfg;gl;bdj;jpy; ,e;J];jhd; v/F epWtdk; 1992 Kjy; ,aq;fp tUfpwJ. thfdj; njhopyfk; ; njhopyfk  Kjy; thfdj; njhopyfk; 1947 Mk; Mz;L fh;yhtpy; (Kk;ig) gphpkpah; Ml;Nlhnkhigy; vd;w ngahpy; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.  1948 mk; Mz;L ,e;J];jhd; nkhl;lhh; epWtdk; cj;juhghuh (nfhy;fj;jh) tpy; epWtg;gl;lJ.  kpd;dpay; njhopyfk;  kpd;dpay; njhopyfk; Kjd; Kjyhf 1850 Mk; Mz;by; thndhyp jahhpg; ig Muk;gpj;jJ.  1950 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpa njhiyNgrp epWtdk; ngq;fShpy; Muk;gpj;j gpd; ,j;njhopyfk; Gj;jzh;T ngw;wJ.  kpd;dpay; nghUl;fs; jahhpg;gpy; ngq;fSh; Kjyplk; tfpf;fpwJ. Mifahy; ngq;fSh; kpd;dpay; jiyefuk; vd;wiof;fgLfpwJ. 1. gUj;jpahiy xU m) Ntshz; rhh;e;j njhopyfk; M) fdpkk; rhh;ej ; njhopyfk;

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,) tdg;nghUs; rhh;ej ; njhopyfk; <) nkd;nghUs; njhopyfk; tpil : m 2. ,e;jpahtpd; khd;nr];lh; vd;wiof;fg;gLtJ m) nly;yp M) nrd;id ,) Kk;ig <) nfhy;fj;jh tpil : , 3. lhlh v/F epWtdk; epWtdk; mike;Js;s ,lk; m) Jh;fhG+h; M) gh;dG ; +h; ,) [hk;n\l;G+h; <) gpyha; tpil : , 4. NrhlhehfGhp gP lG+kp ................... tsj; jpw;F Gfo;ngw;wJ. m) ,aw;ifj;jhtuk; M) fdpktsk; ,) tz;ly kz; <) gUj;jp tpil : M 5. kpd;dpay; jiyefuk; vd miof;fg;gLtJ m) fhd;G+h; M) Nfhak;Gj;Jhh; ,) ngq;fSh; <) kJiu tpil : , 1. rzy; njhopyfk; - Nkw;F tq;fk; 2. thfd njhopyfk; - jkpo;ehL 3. nkd;nghUs;njhopyfk; - cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; 4. ,Uk;G v/F njhopyfk; - Nrhl;lhehfGhp kz;lyk; 5. rh;ff ; iu njhopyfk; - cj;jpug;gpuNjrk; Rw;Wr; #oy; gpur;ridfs; fhw;W khriljy;  xt;nthUehSk; kdpjd; ruhrhpahf 20>000 ypl;lh; fhw;iw Rthrpf;fpd;whd;.  fhw;W khriljYf;F 70 rjtPjk; thfdq;fs; ntspNaw;Wk; GifNa fhuzk;.  thfdq;fs; Rw;Wr;RoYf;F jpq;F tpistpf;fh tz;zk; mikjy; Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;F ghuj; II kw;Wk; III jur;rhd;W mspf;fg;gLfpwJ. epyf;fhpia gad;glj;Jk; kpd; epiyaq;fspypUe;J fe;jf il-mf;i]L ntspNaWfpwJ. Nkhl;lhh; thfdq;fspypUe; J fhh;gd; Nkhdhf;i]L ntspahfpwJ. fhh;gd; Gif mjpf mstpy; ntspNaw;Wk; ehLfspy; ,e;jpah  5-tJ ,lj;jpy;cs;sJ. 1984 Mk; Mz; L brk;gh; 2k; ehs; Nghghy; thAf; frpT kpf  Nkhrkhd tUe;jj;jf;f epfo;thFk;. ,jpy; 8000 kf;fs; caphpoe;jdh;. khRf;fhw;wpdhy; Vw;gLk; jPikfs; XNrhd; mLf;FrPuopT XNrhd; tspkz;lyj;jpd; Gtpapd; Nkw;gug;gpypUe;J 24-40 fp.kP.  cauj;jpw;F nky;ypa glykhf fhzg; gLk;. XNrhd; glyk; jPik tpistpf;Fk; R+hpadpd; Gw Cjhf;  fjph;fisf; fpuf;fpwJ. XNrhd; glyj;ij Fsph;rhjdg; nghUl;fspy; gad;gLj;Jk;  FNshNuh GSNuh fhh;gd; Nrjg;gLj;jp tUfpwJ. ,jd; fhuzkhf Neha; vjph;gG ; rf;jp FiwT. fz;Neha;  kw;Wk; Njhy; Gw;WNeha; Vw;gLfpd;wd. cyfntg;gkakhjy;   gRik tPL thAf;fs; vd miof;fg;glk; fhh;gd;il Mf;i]L. kPjN ; jd;> ePuhtp> FNshNuh GSNuh fhh; gd; Nghd;wtw;why; tspkz;lyj;jpy; ntg;gNjf;fk; Vw;gLfpwJ. mkpy kio mkpy kio 1852 y; Kjd; Kjypy; mkpykio  fz; ;lwpag;gl;lJ.  mkpykiof;F fhuzkhd thAf; fs; fe;jf-il-mf;i]L kw;Wk; iel;u]; Mf;i]L MFk;. ,it ePuhtpNahL Nrh;eJ ; Mf;]p[d; kw;Wk; R+hpa xspahy;  ePh;jj ; fe;jf kw;Wk; iel;hpf; mkpykhf khWfpwJ. ,e;jf; fyit kioahFk;nghJ mkpy kio vdg; gLfpwJ. mkpy kioapdhy; flypYs;s kpf Ez;zpa caphpfshd  gpshq; ld; caph;tho ,ayhJ.

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fly; ntg;gk; mjpfhpj;jhy; gtsg; ghiwfspd; tsh;rr ; p ghjpf;fg;gLk;. 100 nry;rpa]; ntg;gj;jpw;F nkyjhd; KUq;iffs;  tsh;fpd;wd. khz;lh; pay; (1987) kw;Wk; tpad;dhtpy; 30 ehLfs; gq;Nfw;w  $l;lj;jpy; FNshNuh /GSNuh fhh; gd; gad;ghl;bidf; Fiwj;J XNrhd; glyj;ij ghJfhg;gJ vd;w KBT vLf;fg;gl;lJ. er;Rg;Gif (SmogO)  GifAk;> %LgdpAk; fye;j fyitNa er;Rg;Gif vdg;gLk;.  er;Rg;Gifapy; c s;s khRf;fs; fhh;gd; Nkhdhf;i]L> JhR>  mOf;Fj; jfs;> XNrhd; Nghd;wit R+hpa xspapy; i`bNuhfhh;gd; kw;Wk; iel;u]; Mf;i]l Nrh;tjhy; ,J cUthfpwJ. er;Rg; Gifapdhy; (Smog) EiuaPuy;Neha; kw;Wk;  epNkhdpah Vw;gLfpwJ. XilfspYk; k;> VhpfspYk; ,aw;if rj;J mjpfhpg;gJ 1. XilfspY ....................... m) ePh; khriljy; M) kpifA+l;l tsKWjy; ,) fhw;W khriljy; <) xyp khriljy; tpil tpil : M 2. ,aw;if fhw;W khriltjw;F Kf;fpaf; fhuzk; m) thfd Gif M) vhpkiy ntbg;G ,) mdy;kpd; rf;jp epiyak; <) ePh ; kpd;rf;jp epiyak; tpil : m 3. ePh ; khriltij ......................... vd; wiof;fpNwhk;. m) xyp khriljy; M) fhw;W khriljy; ,) epykhriljy; <) ePh ; khriljy; tpil tpil : M tzpfk;> Nghf;Ftuj;J kw;Wk; jfty; njhlh;G nghJthf tzpfk; ,Utifg;gLk;. mit cs;ehl;L tzpfk;  my;yJ gd;dhl;L tzpfk; MFk;. xU ehl;bd; vy;iyf;Fs; eilngWfpd;w tzpfj;ij  cs;ehl;L tzpfk; my;yJ cs;Sh; tzpfk; vdgh;. cs;ehl;L tzpfj;jpy; epytop Nghf;Ftuj;J Kf;fpa gq;fhw;WfpwJ. gd;dhl;L tzpfk; tzpfk ,uz;L my;yj mjw;F Nkw;gl;l ehLfSf;F ,ilNa  eilngWk; tzpfk; gd;dhl;L tzpfk; my;yJ ntspehl;L tzpfk; MFk;. gd;dhl;L tzpfj;jpy; fly;top Nghf;Ftuj;J Kf;fpa gq;F  tfpf;fpwJ. Neub tzpfk; ,U ehLfSf; fpilNa eilngWk; tzpfk; gy;fpis tzpfk;  vdg;gLk;. gy;fpis tzpfk; tzpfk gy ehLfSf;fpilNa cld;ghl;bd; gb eilngWk; tzpfk;  Neub tzpfk; vd;wiof;fg;gLk;. rhiyg; rhiyg; Nghf;Ftuj;J ehl;bd; gy;NtW gFjpfis mjpf rhiyfshy;  xd;wpizf;Fk; vspa topahFk; . ,e;jpa rhiy topg;Nghf;Ftuj;J 3.314 kpy;ypad; fp.kP. eP sk;  nfhz;L cyfpd; ,uz;lhtJ nghpa rhiy Nghf; Ftuj;jhf mike;Js;sJ. fpuhk rhiyfs; rhiyfs ,e;jpahtpy; 26>50>000 fp.kP. ePsKs;s fpuhkrhiyfs;  fhzg;gLfpd;wd. khtl;l rhiyfs; rhiyfs ,e;jpahtpy; khtl;l rhiyfs; 4>67>763 fp.kP. ePsj;jpw;F  mike;Js;sd.

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khepy neLQ;rhiyfs; khepy neLQ;rhiyfs; 1>31>899 fp.kP. ePsj;jpw;F ,e;jpahtpy;  mike;Js;sd. Njrpa neLQ;rhiyfs; ,e;jpahtpy; 707548 fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F Njrpa neLQ;rhiyfs;  mike;Js;sd. cjhuzkhf Njrpa neLQ;rhiy 47 vd;gJ jkpo;ehl;ilAk;>  NfushitAk; ,izf;Fk; Njrpa neLQ;rhiyahFk;. ,jd; nkhj;j ePskhf 650 fp.kP. 224 fp.kP. ePsKs;s  rhiyfs; jkpo;ehl;L khepyj;jpw;Fs; nry;fpd;wd. Njrpa neLQ;rhiyfs; Fiwthd ePsKila NH47A. ,J  5.9 fp.kP. ePsKilajhFk; vh; ;zhFsk; nfhr;rp JiwKfj;ij ,izg;gjhf cs;sJ.  NH7. mjpf ePsKila Njrpa neLQ;rhiy ,J cj;jpug;gpunjrj;jpYs;s thuzhrpapypUe;J fd;dpahFkhp tiu nry;fpwJ. ,jd; ePsk; 2369 fp.kP. ,e;neLQ;rhiyfs; [gy;G+h;> ehf;G+h;> i`juhghj; kw;Wk; ngq;fSU Mfpa khefuq;fis ,izf;fpwJ. jq;f ehw;fu rpwg;G neLQ;rhiyfs; hiyfs 14.846 fp.kP. ePsj;jpw;F ,e;jpahtpd; Kf;fpa efuq;fis  ,izf;Fk; rhiyfshf mike;Js;sJ. MWtop rpwg;G rhiyfs; Rkhh; 5846 fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. nrd;id>  Kk;ig> nly;yp> nfhy;fj;jh Mfpa khefuq; fis ,izf;fpwJ. tlf;F njw;fhf =efiuAk; fd;dpahFkhpiaAk;  ,izf;fpwJ. fpof;F Nkw;F gFjpfis ,izf;Fk; rhiyfs; rpy;rhh;-Nghh;ge;jiu ,izf;fpwJ. ,tw;wpd; nkhj;j ePsk; 7300 fp.kP. jq;f ehw;fu rpwg;G Njrpa ,izg;G neLQ;rhiyfspd;  Kf;fpa Nehf;fk; Ntfk;> ghJfhg;G kw;Wk; Neur;Nrkpg;G. muR jdpahh; epWtdq;fsplk; kjyPL nra;aTk;>  neLQ;rhiyia Nkk;glj;jp guhkhpf;Fk; nghWg;igAk; nfhLj;Js;sJ. fl;L> nray;gLj;J khw;W (Build, Operate and Transfer-BOT) vd;w fUj;jpd; mbg;gilapy; xg;ge;jk; nra;ag;gl;Ls;sJ. tpiuTtopr; rhiyfs; rhiyfs; ,it 200 fp.kP . Jhuj;jpw;F mjpfkhd ePskhd MW topr;  rhiyfshFk;. vlj;Jf;fhl;L Kk;ikapypUe;J GNd nry;Yk; tpiuT topr;rhiy. vy;iyNahur; rhiyfs; (Border roads)   ,e;jpa muR 1960 Mk; Mz;by; mikf;fg;gl;l vy;iyNahu (Border roads Organisation) mikg;G ,r;rhiyfisg; guhkhpf; fpwJ. ,t;tikg;G 46>780 fp.kP. ePsk;nfhz;l rhiyfs; fbdkhd  epy mikg;Gfspy; cs;sJ. vy;iyNahu rhiy mikg;ghy; BRO cyfj;jpNyNa  caukhd ,lj;jpy; (4270 kP> cauj;jpy; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ.) kdhypiaAk; (,khr;ryg; gpuNjrk;) fh\;kPhpYs;s Ny vd;w ,lj;ijAk; ,izj;Js;sJ. ,uapy; Nghf; Nghf;Ftuj;J ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J Kjd;Kjypy; 1853 mk; Mz;L  njhlq;fpaJ. 1947 Mk; Mz; L tiu 42 ,uapy; nghf;Ftuj;J njhFjpfs;  37 jdpahh; epWtdq;fs; eph;tfpf;fg;gl;ld. 1951 Mk; Mz;L midj;Jk; Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;L ,e;epa  ,uapy;Nt vd xUq;fpizf;fg;gl;lJ. Kjy; ePuhtp ,uapy; Kk;igf;F jhNdf;Fk; ,ilNa 1853 Mk; Mz;L 34 fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F mikf;fg;gl;lJ.

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Nghghy;-rjhg;jp ,uapy; ,e;jpahtpNyNa mjptpiuT ,uapy; MFk;. ,J kzpf;F 150 fp.kP. Ntfj;jpy; Nghghy; re;jpg;GGJby;yp ,ilNa nry;fpwJ. ,e;jpa uapy;Nghf;Ftuj;J tiy Mrpahtpy; kpfg;nghpaJ. cyfpy; ,uz;lhtJ nghpajhFk; . ,J FWf;fpYk; neLf;fpYkhf 63.273 fp.kP . 7025 ,uapy; epiyaq;fs; ,izf;fpwJ. nly;ypia j iyikaplkhff; nfhz;l ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J.

,e;jpa ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J gphpf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ kz;lyq;fs; 1. kj;jpa uapy;Nt 2. fpof;F uapy;Nt 3. fpof;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt 4. fpof;F flw;fiu uapy;Nt 5. nfhy;fj;jh nkl;Nuh 6. tlf;F uapy;Nt 7. tlNkw;F uapy;Nt 8. tlf;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt 9. tlfpof;F 10. tlfpof;F vy;iyNahu uapy;Nt 11. njw;F uapy;Nt 12. njw;F kj;jpa uap;Nt 13. njd;fpof;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt 14. njd;fpof;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt 15. njd;Nkw;F uapy;Nt 16. Nkw;F uapy;Nt 17. Nkw;F kj;jpa uapy;Nt

17

kz;lyq;fshfg;

jiyikaplq;fs; Kk;ig nfhy;fj;jh `[pG+h; GtNd];th; nfhy;fj;jh nly;yp n[a;g;G+h; myfhghj; Nfhuf;G+h; khypfhd; nrd;id nrfe;uhghj; nfhy;fj;jh gpsh];G+h; `Pgs ; p Kk;ig (Church Gate) [gy;G+h;

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,kakiy gFjpfspy; %d;W ,uapy; ghijfs; kl;LNk fhzg;gLfpd;wd.  tl,e;jpa rkntsp mlh;ej ; ,uapy;ghij tiyaikg;ig nfhz;l gFjpahf mike; Js;sJ.  jPgfw;g ,e;jpah kpjkhd ,uapy; tiyaikg;Ng fhzg;gLfpd;wJ. Gwefh; ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;J  Kk;ig> nrd;id> nfhy;fj;jh kw;Wk; nly;yp Mfpa ngUefuq;fspy; Gwefh; ,uapy; Nghf;Ftuj;jpw;nfd jdpahf ,uapy; ghijfs;. nkl;Nuh ,uapy;fs; (Mass Rapid Transit System - MRTS) nrd;id nkl;Nuh ,uapy;fs; vdgJ cauj;jpy; mikf;fg;gl;l ,uapy;  ghijapy; nry;git. nkl;Nuh ,uapy;fs; ika murhy; eph;tfpf;fg;gLk;. ,it  njw;F ,uapy; kz;lyj;jhy; ,af;fg;gLfpwJ. jw;rkak; nrd;id flw;fiuapypUe;J Ntsr;Nrhp tiu 25  fp.kP. Jhuj;jpw;F (17-,uapy; epiyaq;fs;) nry;fpwJ. ek; ehl;by; %d;W Kf;fpakhd Foha;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J  tiy fhzg;gLfpwJ. 1. Nky; m];]hk; vz;nza; fpzWfspypUe;J nfs`hj;jp> g&dp> myfhghj; topahf cj;jpug;gpNjrj;jpYs;s fhd;G+h; tiu nry;Yk; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J. 2. F[uhj;jpYs;s ryhahtpypUe; J tpuhk;fk;> kJuh> nly;yp. Nrhdpghj; topahf gQ; rhg;gpYs;s [ye;jh; tiu nry;Yk; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J.

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3. F[uhj;jpYs;s `[puhtpypUe;J kj;jpa gpuNjrj;jpd; tp[a;gG ; +h; topahf cj;jpug;gpuNjrj;jpUs;s n[fjP\G ; +h; tiu nry;Yk; Foha; Nghf;Ftuj;J. ,tw;iwj; jtpu Kk;ig flypYs;s Kk;ig i` vz;nza; fpzWfspypUe; J Kk;igf;Fk;> Kk;igapypUe;J GNdf;Fk; ,ilapy; mike;Js;s Foha; topfSk; ,jpy; mlq;Fk;. ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J ,e;jpahtpd; cs;ehl;L ePht ; opg; Nghf;Ftuj;J ePh;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J nkhj;jk; 14>500 fp.kP. Jhuk;  eilngWfpwJ. mjpy; 5685 fp.kP. Jhuk; MWfspYk; 400 fp.kP. Jhuk;  fhy;tha;fspYk; ve;jpug;glFfs; %yk; eilngWfpwJ. ,e;jpa ePht ; op Mizak; 5 Njrpa ePht ; opfis  fz;lwpe;Js;sJ. Njrpa ePht ; op vz; 1: fq;ifapy; cs;s myfhghj;  `hy;bah ghij Njrpa ePh;top vz; 2;: gpuk;kGj;jpuhtpy; cs;s irajpah  Jghp ghij. Njrpa ePh;top vz; 3: Nkw;F flw;fiuapy; rk;gf;fhu  fhy;tha; kw;Wk; cj;jpNahf kz;ly;fhy;tha; - nfhy;yk; Nfhl;lhGuk; ghij. Njrpa ePht ; op vz; 4: fpU\;zh> Nfhjhthp MWfspy; cs;s  rPuhghj;> tp[athlh ghij> fhf; fp ehlh - GJr;Nrhp ghij. gj;uhr;ryk; uh[Ke;jphpg; ghij. Njrpa ePht ; op vz; 5: kfhejp> gpuhkzp MWfspd; jyr;rhh;  jk;khuh ghij. fpof; Ff; flw;fiu fhy;tha; kq;fy;fhb ghujPg; tiu ePbj;jpUf;fpwJ. fly; topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J ,e;jpahtpd; flw;fiuapd; nkhj;j ePsk; 7516 fp.kp. MFk;.  ,jpy; 13 nghpa  JiwKfq; fSk; 187 eLj;ju kw;Wk; rpwpa JiwKfq;fSk; nfhz;L mike;Js;sJ. nkw;F flw;fiuapy; mike;Js;s nghpa JiwKfq;fs;  fz;l;yh> Kk;ig> [t`h;yhy; NeU> kh;kNfhth> GJ kq;fSh; kw;Wk; nfhr;rp MfpadthFk;. fpof;F flw;fiuapy; mike;Js;s nghpa jiwKfq;fs;  jhj;Jf;Fb. nrd;id> vz;Zhh;. tprhfg;gl;bdk;. gpujPg>; `hy;jpah kw;Wk; nfhy;fj;jh Mfpait. ,e;jpah fg;gy; fl;Lk; njhopypy; Mrpahtpy; ,uz;lhtJ  ,lj;jpYk;. cyfpy; 16tJ ,lj;ijAk; ngWfpwJ ,e;jpahtpy; ehd;F  Kf;fpa fg;gy; jsq;fs; cs;sd. 1. ,e;J];jhd; fg;gy; fl;Lk; jsk; - tprhfg;gl;bdk; 2. fhh;ld; hPr; njhopw;rhiy nfhy;fj;jh 3. Nkrfhd;lhf; - Kk;ig 4. nfhr;rp fg;gy; fl;Lk; jsk; - nfhr;rp ,e;jpa JiwKfr; rl;lk; 1908 kw;Wk; JiwKfr; rl;lk; 1963  ,it ,uz;Lk; jdpahh; KjyPL nra;tjw;F topNfhypd. thd;topg; Nghf;Ftuj;J ,e;jpahtpy; 1911 Mk; Mz;L njhlq;fpaJ.  Mdhy; cz;ikahd njhlf;fk; 1932 y; N[.Mh;.b.lh;lh  mth;fshy; lhlh Vh;iyd;] ; njhlq;fg;gl;lJ. ,J 1946 Mk; Mz;L Vh; ,e;jpah vd;W ngah; khw;wg;gl;L gpd;dh; 1953 y; thd;top Nghf;Ftuj;J Njrpakakhf;fg;gl;lJ. ,e;jpad; Vh;iyd;] ; cs;ehl;L Nghf;Ftuj;jpw;Fk;  Vh; ,e;jpah ntspehl;L Nghf;Ftuj;jpw;Fk; Vw;gLj;jg;gl;lJ.  ,t;tpuz;Lk; thd;top epWtdq; fs; kl;LNk ,e;jpa thd;topr; Nritia 1986 Mk; Mz;L tiu Nkw;nfhz;L te;jd.

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2007 Mk; Mz;L ,e;jpa muR Vh; ,e;jpa kw;Wk; ,e;jpad; Vh;iyd;] ; epWtdq;fis xd;wpizj;J Ne\dy; VtpNa\d; fhh;g;gNu\d; Mg; ,e;jpah ypkpnll; vd;w ngahpy; cUthdJ.  NACIL (National Aviation Company of India Limited) gd;dhl;L tpkhd NritfisAk; NACIL cs;ehl;L kw;Wk; Mrpah ehL njd;fpof;F kw;Wk; kj;jpa fpof;F ehLfSf; Fk;nry;Yk; tpkhdq;fis ,af;fp tUfpwJ.  NACIL Ij; jtpu jdpahh; epWtdq;fshd fpq;gp\h> ];ig]; n[l;> ,z;lh;FNshg; VtpNa\d; Nghd;wit cs;ehl;L thd;top Nritfisr; nra;J tUfpd;wd.  ,e;jpa tpkhd epiya nghWg;G Mizak; (Airport Authority of India) 1995 y; epWtg;gl;lJ.  jw;rkak; 129 tpkhd epiyaq;fs; ,aq;fptUfpwJ. ,jpy; 17 gd;dhl;L tpkhd epiyaq; fs; MFk;.  gthd; `hd;]n ; `ypfhg;lh; ypkpnll; vd;w nghjj;jiw epWtdk; vz;nza; kw;Wk; vhpthA fofj; jpd; fly;rhh;ej ; gzpfSf;F n`ypfhg;lh; Nritia mspf;fpwJ. jfty; njhlh;G 1. mQ;ry; Nrit  ,e;jpa mQ;ry; Nrit 1854 Mk; Mz;L njhlq;fg;gl;lJ.  mQ;rypy; Kjy; tFg;G kw;Wk; ,uz;lhk; tFg;G mQ;ry; vd ,Utiffs; cs;sd.  Kjy; tFg;G mQ;rypy; Gj;jff;fl;Lfs;> gjpT nra;ag;gl;l nra;jpj;jhs; kw;Wk;gUt ,jo;fs; (periodicals) mlq;Fk;. 1>55>618 mQ;ry; mYtyfq;fSld; ,e;jpah kpfg;nghpa  mQ;ry; tiyaikg;gpid ngw;Ws;sJ.  kz;ly gphpTfshf 1972-k; Mz;L Pin Code 8 mwpKfg;glj;jg;gl;lJ.  2. je;jp  3. njhiyNgrp cs;ehl;by; cs;sth;fNshL njhlh;Gnfhs;s (STD) v];.b.b.  ntspehl;by; cs;sth;fNshl njhlh;G nfhs;s I.v];.b  (ISD) Ak; gad;glj;jg;gLfpd;wd. kf;fs; njhlh;G rhjdk; 1. thndhyp ,e;jpahtpy; 1927 Mk; Mz;L kjy; thndhyp  xypgug;gg;gl;lJ. 1936 Mk; Mz;L mfpy ,e;jpa thndhyp vd ngah;khw;wk; nra;ag;gl;lJ. 1957 Kjy; Mfhrthzp vd; wiof;fg;gLfpwJ.  2. njhiyf;fhl;rp ,e;jpahtpy; njhiyf;fhl;rp Jhh;jh;\d; vd  miof;fg;gLfpwJ. cyfpNyNa kpfg; nghpa tiyaikg;ghFk;. 3. nra;jpj;jhs; 4. ,izajsk; ,izajsk; vd;gJ fzpdpfspd; kpfg;gue;j  tiyaikg;ghFk;. Muk;gj;jpy; vOj;Jg;G+h;tkhd nra;jpfis kpd;dZ  nra;jpahf (E-mail0 mDg;gTk;> ngwTk; gad;glj;jg;gl;lJ. ,izajsj;jpd; Kf;fpa nritahf ,Ug;git 1. kpd;dZ  mQ;ry;. 2. cyfshtpa tiyj;jsk; (www) kw;Wk; 3. ,izajs njhiyNgrp. 1. xU ehl;bd; vy;iyf;Fs; eilngWk; tzpfk; m) gy;fpis tzpfk; M) gd;dhl;L tzpfk; ,) cs;ehl;L tzpfk; <) gz; lkhw;W tzpfk; tpil : , 2. tzpff; $l;likg;Gfs; .................. tzpf tsh;r;rpia vspjhf;Ffpd;wd.

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Tnpsc Geography Material

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