Test Of English as a Foreign Language “The Paper Test” STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
Part Pa rtss of Sp Spe eec ech h 1. Noun
5. Adverb
2. Pronouns
6. Conjunctions
3. Adjectives
7. Prepositions
4. Verb
Part Pa rtss of Sp Spe eec ech h 1. Noun
5. Adverb
2. Pronouns
6. Conjunctions
3. Adjectives
7. Prepositions
4. Verb
Nouns have several important functions.
Nouns are subjects. Every sentence has a subject, which is a noun that tells us what that sentence is all about.
Nouns are direct objects. These nouns receive action from verbs.
Nouns are indirect objects. These nouns receive the direct object.
Nouns are objects of prepositions. These nouns follow the prepositions in prepositional phrases.
Nouns are predicate nominatives. These nouns follow linking verbs and rename the subject.
Nouns A noun is a word that identifies a person, animal, place, thing, or idea.
Nouns
Proper nou Proper nouns ns nam name ea specifi spe cific c item item,, and begin with capital letter no matter where it’s placed in the sentence.
Common nouns are words used to name general items rather than specific ones.
Plural Nouns: Rules
Irregular Plural Nouns
Countable and Uncountable Nouns Uncountable Countable
It can be singular or plural.
They are thing we can count.
Nouns that can’t be counted because they come in some indeterminate quantity or mass.
They have only one form.
You can use much, amount, little, and less with them.
They also refer to abstract ideas.
7 KINDS OF PRONOUNS Pronouns
1.
PERSONAL = refers to persons, he, she
Pronouns take the place of nouns. The word or phrase replaced by a pronoun is called an antecedent.
2.
REFLEXIVE = refers back to the subject
3.
INTENSIVE = emphasizes the subject
4.
DEMONSTRATIVE = points to with gesture
5.
INDEFINITE = unsure, some, few
6.
INTERROGATIVE = question words, who
7.
RELATIVE = relates 2 sentences (which)
Personal Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns They are used:
When the object of the verb is the same as the subject of the sentence. As the object of a preposition, when the subject and object are the same. To emphasize the subject.
Intensive Pronouns It’s a pronoun that adds emphasis to a noun or pronoun already named.
George himself bought a copy of American Tall Tales.
He himself paid for the book.
Use for reflexive and intensive pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns They point out if a particular person, place, or thing is close or far, in space or time, from the speaker in the moment of the
This
Singular That
Demonstrative pronouns
These
Plural Those
Indefinite Pronouns do not indicate the exact person or thing to which they refer.
For singular and plural indefinite pronouns, the phrase that follows it will often tell you whether the pronoun is singular or plural.
Examples:
All of the cake has been eaten. All of the books are on the shelves.
Interrogative Pronouns
They are used to ask questions. Sentences using them always end with a question mark.
Interrogative Use Pronoun Who/Whom
People
Whose
People (possessive)
Where
Position or place
When
Time, occasion, moment
Why
Reason or explanation
What
People, animals, and things (Specific)
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduce a relative clause. It is called like that because it “relates” to the word that it modifies. We use who and whom for people, which for things, or we can use that
Example: The person who phoned me last night is my teacher. Who relates to person, which it modifies, and it introduces the relative clause “Who phoned me last night”
Types of adjectives: Articles, there are only three articles, and all of them are adjectives: a, an, and the. •
•
Adjectives Adjectives describe nouns, making your writing and speaking much more specific, and a whole lot more interesting. They are used to identify or quantify individual people and unique things, they are usually positioned before the noun or pronoun that they modify.
A and an used to discuss non-specific things and people.
The word the is called the definite article, and it is used to indicate very specific people or things.
Possessive Adjectives are used to indicate possession. Demonstrative adjectives are used to indicate or demonstrate specific people, animals, or things. They are These, those, this and that. Number adjectives, when they’re used in sentences, numbers are almost always adjectives. You can tell that a number is an adjective when it answers the question “How many?
List of all Verb Types:
Verbs The verb signals an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. Whether mental, physical, or mechanical, verbs always express activity.
Action verbs express specific actions, and are used any time you want to show action or discuss someone doing something.
Transitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities. These verbs always have direct objects, meaning someone or something receives the action of the verb
Intransitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities. No direct object follows an i ntransitive verb.
Auxiliary verbs are also known as helping verbs, and are used together with a main verb to show the verb’s tense or to form a question or negative.
Stative verbs can be recognized because they express a state rather than an action. They typically relate to thoughts, emotions, relationships, senses, states of being, and measurements.
Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are used to express abilities, possibilities, permissions, and obligations.
Phrasal verbs aren’t single words; instead, they are combinations of words that are used together to take on a different meaning to that
Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. Mental verbs have meanings that are related to concepts such as discovering, understanding, thinking, or planning. State of being verbs, or linking verbs, describe conditions or situations that exist. State of being verbs are inactive
Verb Voice: Passive or Active
Active voice: when the subject does an action to an object.
Somebody stole my laptop. Subject = Somebody Action(verb) = stole Object = my laptop
The passive voice is used when we want to emphasize the action (the verb) and the object of a sentence rather than subject. This means that the subject is either less important than the action itself or that we don’t know who or what the subject is.
My laptop was stolen. The object – now the subject = My laptop Action= was stolen)
Forming the passive voice:
Forming the passive voice: Helping verb + past participle
TYPES OF ADVERBS
Adverbs An adverb describes or modifies a verb, and adjective, or another adverb.
1.
Adverbs of manner tell the way in which someone does something (badly).
2.
Adverb of frequency tell how often something happens (always).
3.
Adverbs of time tell when something happens (soon).
4.
Adverbs of degree are used to modify an adjective or to indicate how much something is done (very).
5.
Adverbs of comment add an opinion to a clause (unfortunately).
6.
Adverbs of place tell where something happens (here).
TYPE OF CONJUNCTIONS 1.
Coordinating conjunctions connect two or more independent clauses.
2.
Subordinating conjunctions comes at the beginning of a Subordinate (or Dependent) Clause and establishes the relationship between the dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
Conjunctions A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects words or group of words. 3.
Correlative conjunctions always travel in pairs, joining various sentence elements that should be treated as grammatically equal.
4.
Conjunctive adverbs such as however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result are used to create complex relationships
TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions A preposition links nouns, pronouns, and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its objects to the rest of the sentence.
TIME
PLACE
DIRECTION
In On At
In On At
Towards To Through
AGENT
INSTRUMENT
PHRASE
By With
Listen to Add to Agree with
By With
Clauses
Clauses
A clause is a subject / verb combination. Clauses can be dependent or independent (More explanation on this later)
Clauses
There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent. An independent clause, or main clause, is a subject/verb combination that makes a complete sentence. A dependent clause cannot stand alone, and must be attached to an independent clause. In the following sentence, which one is the main clause?
Example 1: As soon as I woke up, I made the coffee.
Complete Sentences A complete sentence includes: 1. Subject (noun) 2. Verb (may need a direct object or complement) 3. Complete Thought/Idea Shu, Tony, and Ana studied together after class.
Verb
The subject may be
A single noun
College is challenging.
A noun phrase
The English Center can help you succeed.
A pronoun
It is open Monday through Friday.
Two or more nouns, noun phrases or pronouns
Rose, Todd, Humberto, and Jess are all tutors
there.
A gerund (verb + -ing)
Online tutoring is available on weekends.
An infinitive (To + verb)
To err is human
Complements
A complement is a word or words that follow the verb but aren’t direct objects. Depending on the verb, some are obligatory. Example 1: Rufus seems. Example 1 is not a complete sentence because the verb requires a complement. The example should be: Rufus seems extraordinarily sleepy. Example 2: Rufus walks. This is a complete sentence. However, we can add a complement if we want to be more precise. The example could be: Rufus walks with
Complements
There are three types of phrases that can act as complements. 1. A noun or noun phrase 1.
George Michael is a brilliant lyricist.
2. An adjective or adjective phrase 1.
George Michael is brilliant.
3. A prepositional phrase
The verb of a sentence must be complete or include all necessary verb parts She working in the lab.
This would be incorrect as the present participle requires the verb to be. It should be:
A sentence can consist of more than one verb. However, parallel structure is important. Example 1: She works, studies, and is taking care of her children. The three verbs are not the same form. The example should be: She works, studies, and takes care of her children.
Complete Sentences? 1.
Choosing a major is an important decision.
2.
Because I study a lot.
3.
In my college have a cafeteria and several snack areas.
4.
It is difficult to study on the weekend.
5.
There three things to do to be a successful student.
6.
While I was in my class. My college has many buildings, so easy to get lost.
Types of Sentences There are four types of sentences. 1. Simple Sentences
Roxie is a dog. 2. Compound Sentences
Roxie is a dog, and Rufus is her friend. 3. Complex Sentences
Rufus loves Roxie because she is adorable. 4. Compound-Complex Sentences
Simple Sentences
Simple sentences are single, independent clauses. Subject + verb
Rufus runs. Subject + verb + object or complement
Roxie is a dog.
Compound Sentences Compound sentences consist of two independent clauses that are combined with a coordinating conjunction.
Formula: IC, cc IC. Independent Clause = IC
Coordinating Conjunction = cc
IC
cc
IC
Coordinating Conjunctions I like ice cream, for it is delicious.
F or
= because
A nd
= more information I like ice cream, and Judy likes cookies.
N or = two negative options B ut
= contrast
O r
= alternative
Y et
= contrast
So
=result/consequence
Neither ice cream nor cookies are good for your health.
I like ice cream, but I don’t like cake. I could eat ice cream, or I could eat carrots.
I could carrots, yet I wouldn’t feel happy. I will eat ice cream, so I can feel happy.
Subordinating Clauses
What is a main clause?
A Main Clause a.k.a. independent clause, consists of:
+
The subject is involved in the
The verb IS the
Subordinate Clauses
Whenever you add a subordinate conjunction in front of a subject and a verb you no longer have a complete thought.
Subordinate clauses are sometimes referred to as dependent clauses.
Adding Subordinate Clauses to Your Writing
When you add a subordinating clause at the front of a main clause, we use a comma.
While Mr. Rasas was baking cookies, all of D-hall smelled delicious.
subordinate clause +
,
+ main clause
Subordinate Conjunctions
