INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVE: To understand the information contained in financial statements with a view to know the strength or weaknesses of the firm and to make forecast about the future prosp prospec ects ts of the the firm firm and and there thereby by enabl enabling ing the finan financia ciall analy analyst st to take take differ different ent decisions regarding the operations of the firm.
RATIO ANALYSIS: Fundamental Analysis has a very broad scope. One aspect looks at the general (qualitative) factors of a company. The other side considers tangible and measurable factors (quantitative). This means crunching and analyzing numbers from the financial statements. If used in conjunction with other methods, quantitative analysis can produce excellent results.
Ratio analysis isn't just comparing different numbers from the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement. It's comparing the number against previous years, other companies, the industry, or even the economy in general. Ratios look at the relat relation ionsh ships ips betw between een indivi individu dual al value values s and and relat relate e them them to how how a comp compan any y has has performed in the past, and might perform in the future.
MEANING OF RATIO: A ratio is one figure express in terms of another figure. It is a mathematical yardstick that measures the relationship two figures, which are related to each other and mutually interdependent. Ratio is express by dividing one figure by the other related figure. Thus a ratio is an expression relating one number to another. It is simply the quotient of two numbers. It can be expressed as a fraction or as a decimal or as a pure ratio ratio or in absolut absolute e figures figures as “ so many times”. times”. As account accounting ing ratio is an expression expression relating two figures or accounts or two sets of account heads or group contain in the financial statements.
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MEANING OF RATIO ANALYSIS: Ratio analysis is the method or process by which the relationship of items or group of items in the financial statement are computed, determined and presented. Ratio analysis is an attempt to derive quantitative measure or guides concerning the financial health and profitability of business enterprises. Ratio analysis can be used
both in trend and static analysis. There are several ratios at the disposal of an annalist but their group of ratio he would prefer depends on the purpose and the objective of analysis. While a detailed explanation of ratio analysis is beyond the scope of this section, we will focu focus s on a tech techni niqu que, e, whic which h is easy easy to use. use. It can can prov provid ide e you you with with a valu valuab able le investment analysis tool. This technique is called cross-sectional analysis. analysis . Cross-sectional analysis compares financial ratios of several companies from the same industry. Ratio analysis can provide valuable information about a company's financial health. A financial ratio measures a company's performance in a specific area. For example, you could use a ratio of a company's debt to its equity to measure a company's leverage. By comparing the leverage ratios of two companies, you can determine which company uses greater debt in the the conduc conductt of its busine business. ss. A compa company ny whose whose levera leverage ge ratio ratio is higher higher than a competitor's has more debt per equity. You can use this information to make a judgment as to which company is a better investment risk. However, you must be careful not to place too much importance on one ratio. You obtain a better indication of the direction in which a company is moving when several ratios are taken as a group.
OBJECTIVE OF RATIOS Ratio is work out to analyze the following aspects of business organizationA) Solv Solven ency cy-1) Lon Long term erm 2) Short hort term erm 3) Imm Immedia diate B) Stab Stabil ilit ity y C) Profit Profitabi abilit lity y D) Operati Operational onal efficien efficiency cy E) Credit Credit stan standin ding g F) Struc Structur tural al ana analys lysis is G) Effective utilization utilization of of resources resources H) Leverage Leverage or extern external al financin financing g
FORMS OF RATIO: Since Since a ratio ratio is a mathe mathema matic tical al relat relation ionsh ship ip betw betwee een n to or more more variab variables les / accounting figures, such relationship can be expressed in different ways as follows – A] As a pure ratio: For example the equity share capital of a company is Rs. 20,00,000 & the preference share capital is Rs. 5,00,000, the ratio of equity share capital to preference share capital is 20,00,000: 5,00,000 or simply 4:1. B] As a rate of times: In the above case the equity share capital may also be described as 4 times that of preference share capital. Similarly, the cash sales of a firm are Rs. 12,00,000 & credit sales are Rs. 30,00,000. so the ratio of credit sales to cash sales can be described described as 2.5 [30,00,000/12,00,000] or simply by saying that the credit sales are 2.5 times that of cash sales. C] As a percentage: In such a case, one item may be expressed as a percentage percentage of some other item. For example, net sales of the firm are Rs.50,00,000 & the amount of the gross profit is Rs. 10,0 0,00,000 000, then hen the gros ross profit fit may be describ cribe ed as 20% 20% of sales les [ 10,00,000/50,00,000]
STEPS IN RATIO ANALYSIS The ratio analysis requires two steps as follows: 1] Calculation of ratio 2] Comparing the ratio with some predetermined standards. The standard ratio may be the past ratio of the same firm or industry’s average ratio or a projected ratio or the ratio of the most successful firm in the industry. In interpreting the ratio of a particular firm, the analyst cannot reach any fruitful conclusion conclusion unless the calculated calculated ratio is compared with some predetermined standard. The importance of a correct standard is oblivious as the conclusion is going to be based on the standard itself.
TYPES OF COMPARISONS The ratio can be compared in three different ways – 1] Cross section analysis: One of the way of comparing the ratio or ratios of the firm is to compare them with the ratio or ratios of some other selected firm in the same industry at the same point of time. So it involves the comparison of two or more firm’s financial ratio at the same point of time. The cross section analysis analysis helps the analyst to find out as to how a particular firm has performed in relation to its competitors. The firms performance may be compared with the performance of the leader in the industry in order to uncover the major operational operational inefficiencies. The cross section analysis is easy to be undertaken undertaken as most of the data required for this may be available in financial statement of the firm. 2] Time series analysis: The analysis is called Time series analysis when the performance of a firm is evaluated over a period of time. By comparing the present performance of a firm with the performance performance of the same firm over the last few years, an assessment assessment can be made about the trend in progress of the firm, about the direction of progress of the firm. Time series analysis helps to the firm to assess whether the firm is approaching the long-term goals goals or not. not. The The Time Time series series analy analysi sis s looks looks for (1) impor importan tantt trends trends in financ financia iall performance (2) shift in trend over the years (3) significant deviation if any from the other set of data\ 3] Combined analysis: If the cross section & time analysis, both are combined together to study the behavi behavior or & patter pattern n of ratio ratio,, then then meani meaning ngful ful & comp compreh rehen ensiv sive e evalu evaluati ation on of the performance performance of the firm can definitely be made. A trend of ratio of a firm compared with the trend of the ratio of the standard firm can give good results. For example, the ratio of operating expenses to net sales for firm may be higher than the industry average however, over the years it has been declining for the firm, whereas the industry average has not shown any significant changes.
The combined analysis as depicted in the above diagram, which clearly shows that the ratio of the firm is above the industry average, but it is decreasing over the years & is approaching the industry average.
PRE-REQUISITIES TO RATIO ANALYSIS In order to use the ratio analysis as device to make purposeful conclusions, there are certain pre-requisites, which must be taken care of. It may be noted that these prere prerequi quisi sites tes are are not not condi conditi tions ons for calcu calculat lation ions s for for meani meaningf ngful ul conclu conclusio sions ns.. The accounting figures are inactive in them & can be used for any ratio but meaningful & correct interpretation & conclusion can be arrived at only if the following points are well considered. 1) The The date dates s of diffe differen rentt finan financia ciall statem statement ents s from from where where data data is taken taken must must be same. 2) If possible, possible, only audited audited financia financiall stateme statements nts should be considered considered,, otherwi otherwise se there must be sufficient evidence that the data is correct. 3) Accounti Accounting ng policies policies followe followed d by differen differentt firms must be same same in case case of cross cross section analysis otherwise the results of the ratio analysis would be distorted. 4) One ratio may may not throw light on any performan performance ce of the firm. firm. Therefore, Therefore, a group of ratios must be preferred. This will be conductive to counter checks.
5) Last but but not least, least, the analyst analyst must find find out that the the two figures figures being being used to calculate a ratio must be related to each other, otherwise there is no purpose of calculating a ratio.
CLASSIFICATION OF RATIO CLASSIFICATION OF RATIO
BASED ON FINANCIAL
BASED ON FUNCTION
BASED ON USER
STATEMENT
1] BALANCE SHEET RATIO 2] REVENUE STATEMENT RATIO 3] COMPOSITE RATIO
1] LIQUIDITY RATIO
1] RATIOS FOR
2] LEVERAGE RATIO
SHORT TERM
3] ACTIVITY RATIO
CREDITORS
4] PROFITABILITY RATIO 5] COVERAGE RATIO
2] RATIO FOR SHAREHOLDER 3] RATIOS FOR MANAGEMENT 4] RATIO FOR LONG TERM CREDITORS
BASED ON FINANCIAL STATEMENT Accounting ratios express the relationship between figures taken from financial statements. statements. Figures may be taken from Balance Sheet , P& P A/C, or both. One-way of classification of ratios is based upon the sources from which are taken. 1] Balance sheet ratio: If the ratios are based on the figures of balance sheet, they are called Balance Sheet Ratios. E.g. ratio of current assets to current liabilities or ratio of debt to equity. While calculating these ratios, there is no need to refer to the Revenue statement.
These ratios study the relationship between the assets & the liabilities, of the concern. These ratio help to judge the liquidity, solvency & capital structure of the concern. Balance sheet ratios are Current ratio, Liquid ratio, and Proprietory ratio, Capital gearing ratio, Debt equity ratio, and Stock working capital ratio.
2] Revenue ratio: Ratio Ratio based based on the figure figures s from from the reven revenue ue statem statemen entt is calle called d reven revenue ue statement statement ratios. These ratio study the relationship between the profitability & the sales of the concern. Revenue ratios are Gross profit ratio, Operating ratio, Expense ratio, Net profit ratio, Net operating profit ratio, Stock turnover ratio.
3] Composite ratio: These ratios indicate the relationship between two items, of which one is found in the balance sheet & other in revenue statement. There are two types of composite ratiosa) Some Some comp compos osit ite e rati ratios os stud study y the the rela relati tion onsh ship ip betwe etween en the the prof profit its s & the the investments of the concern. E.g. return on capital employed, return on proprietors fund, return on equity capital etc. b) Other Other compos composite ite ratios ratios e.g. e.g. debtor debtors s turno turnover ver ratios ratios,, credit creditors ors turn turnove overr ratio ratios, s, dividend payout ratios, & debt service ratios
BASED ON FUNCTION: Accounting Accounting ratios can also be classified according to their functions in to liquidity ratios, leverage ratios, activity ratios, profitability ratios & turnover ratios.
1] Liquidity ratios: It shows the relationship between the current assets & current liabilities of the concern e.g. liquid ratios & current ratios.
2] Leverage ratios: It shows the relationship between proprietors funds & debts used in financing the assets of the concern e.g. capital gearing ratios, debt equity ratios, & Proprietory ratios.
3] Activity ratios: It show shows s relat relation ionshi ship p betwe between en the sales sales & the the assets assets.. It is also also known known as Turnover ratios & productivity ratios e.g. stock turnover ratios, debtors turnover ratios.
4] Profitability ratios: a) It shows the relationship between profits & sales e.g. operating ratios, gross profit
ratios, operating net profit ratios, expenses ratios b) It shows the relations relationship hip between between profit profit & investm investment ent e.g. return return on investmen investment, t, return on equity capital.
5] Coverage ratios: It shows the relationship between the profit on the one hand & the claims of the outsiders to be paid out of such profit e.g. dividend payout ratios & debt service ratios.
BASED ON USER: 1] Ratios for short-term creditors: Current ratios, liquid ratios, stock working capital ratios 2] Ratios for the shareholders: Return on proprietors fund, return on equity capital
3] Ratios for management: Return on capital employed, turnover ratios, operating ratios, expenses ratios 4] Ratios for long-term creditors: Debt equity ratios, return on capital employed, proprietor ratios.
LIQUIDITY RATIO: Liquidity refers to the ability of a firm to meet its short-term (usually up to 1 year) obligations. The ratios, which indicate the liquidity of a company, are Current ratio, Quick/Acid-Test ratio, and Cash ratio. These ratios are discussed below
CURRENT RATIO Meaning: This ratio compares the current assests with the current liabilities. It is also known as ‘working capital ratio’ or ‘ solvency ratio’. It is expressed in the form of pure ratio. E.g. 2:1 Formula : Current assets Current ratio = Current liabilities The current current assests assests of a firm represent represents s those those assets assets which can be, in the ordinary ordinary cours course e of busine business ss,, conve converte rted d into into cash cash withi within n a short short perio period d time, time, norm normal ally ly not exceeding one year. The current liabilities defined as liabilities which are short term maturing obligations to be met, as originally contemplated, with in a year. Current ratio (CR) is the ratio of total current assets (CA) to total current liabilities (CL). Current Current assets assets include include cash cash and bank balance balances; s; inventor inventory y of raw materials, materials, semisemifinished and finished goods; marketable securities; debtors (net of provision for bad and doubtful debts); bills receivable; and prepaid expenses. Current liabilities consist of trade creditors, bills payable, bank credit, provision for taxation, dividends payable and outstanding expenses. This ratio measures the liquidity of the current assets and the ability of a company to meet its short-term debt obligation. CR measures the ability of the company to meet its CL, i.e., CA gets converted into cash in the operating cycle of the firm and provides the funds needed to pay for CL. The higher the current ratio, the greater the short-term solvency. This compares assets, which will become liquid within approximately twelve months with liabilities, which will be due for payment in the same period and is intended to indicate whether there are sufficient short-term assets to meet the short- term liabilities. Recommended current ratio is 2: 1. Any ratio below indicates that the entity may face liquidity problem but also Ratio over 2: 1 as above indicates over trading, that is the entity is under utilizing its current assets.
LIQUID RATIO:
Meaning: Liquid ratio is also known as acid test ratio or quick ratio. Liquid ratio compare the quick assets with the quick liabilities. It is expressed in the form of pure ratio. E.g. 1:1. The The term term quick quick assets assets refer refer to curre current nt assets assets,, whic which h can can be conve converte rted d into, into, cash cash immediately or at a short notice without diminution of value. Formula: Quick assets Liquid ratio = Quick liabilities Quick Ratio (QR) is the ratio between quick current assets (QA) and CL. QA refers to those current assets that can be converted into cash immediately without any value strength. QA includes cash and bank balances, short-term marketable securities, and sundry debtors. Inventory and prepaid expenses are excluded since these cannot be turned into cash as and when required. QR indicates the extent to which a company can pay its current liabilities without relying on the sale of inventory. This is a fairly stringent measure of liquidity because it is based on those current assets, which are highly liquid. Inventories are excluded from the numerator of this ratio because they are deemed the least liquid component of current assets. Generally, a quick ratio of 1:1 is considered good. One drawback of the quick ratio is that it ignores the timing of receipts and payments.
CASH RATIO Meaning: This is also called as super quick ratio. This ratio considers only the absolute liquidity available with the firm. Formula:
Cash + Bank + Marketable securities Cash ratio
= Total current liabilities
Since cash and bank balances balances and short term marketable securities are the most liquid assets of a firm, financial analysts look at the cash ratio. If the super liquid assets are too much in relation to the current liabilities then it may affect the profitability of the firm.
INVESTMENT / SHAREHOLDER
EARNING PER SAHRE:Meaning: Earnings per Share are calculated to find out overall profitability of the organization. An earnings per Share represents earning of the company whether or not dividends are declared. If there is only one class of shares, the earning per share are determined by dividing net profit by the number of equity shares. EPS measures the profits available to the equity shareholders on each share held.
Formula: NPAT Earning per share = Number of equity share
The higher EPS will attract more investors to acquire shares in the company as it indicates that the business is more profitable enough to pay the dividends in time. But remember not all profit earned is going to be distributed as dividends the company also retains some profits for the business
DIVIDEND PER SHARE:Meaning: DPS shows how much is paid as dividend to the shareholders on each share held. Formula: Dividend Paid to Ordinary Shareholders Dividend per Share = Number of Ordinary Shares
DIVIDEND PAYOUT RATIO:Meaning: Dividend Pay-out Ratio shows the relationship between the dividend paid to equity shareholders out of the profit available to the equity shareholders.
Formula:
Dividend per share
Dividend Pay out ratio =
*100 Earning per share
D/P ratio shows the percentage share of net profits after taxes and after preference dividend has been paid to the preference equity holders.
GEARING
CAPITAL GEARING RATIO:Meaning: Gearing means the process of increasing the equity shareholders return through the use of debt. Equity shareholders earn more when the rate of the return on total capital is more than the rate of interest on debts. This is also known as leverage or trading on equity. The Capital-gearing ratio shows the relationship between two types of capital viz: - equity capital & preference capital & long term borrowings. It is expressed as a pure ratio.
Formula: Preference capital+ secured loan
Capital gearing ratio = Equity capital & reserve & surplus Capital gearing ratio indicates the proportion of debt & equity in the financing of assets of a concern.
PROFITABILITY Thes These e ratios ratios help help meas measur ure e the the profi profitab tabili ility ty of a firm. firm. A firm, firm, which which gener generate ates s a substantial amount of profits per rupee of sales, can comfortably meet its operating expenses expenses and provide more returns to its shareholders. shareholders. The relationship between profit and sales is measured by profitability ratios. There are two types of profitability ratios: Gross Profit Margin and Net Profit Margin.
GROSS PROFIT RATIO:Meaning:
This ratio measures the relationship between gross profit and sales. It is defined as the excess of the net sales over cost of goods sold or excess of revenue over cost. This ratio shows the profit that remains after the manufacturing costs have been met. It measures the efficiency of production as well as pricing. This ratio helps to judge how efficient the concern is I managing its production, purchase, selling & inventory, how good its control is over the direct cost, how productive the concern , how much amount is left to meet other expenses & earn net profit. Formula: Gross profit Gross profit ratio
=
* 100 Net sales
NET PROFIT RATIO:Meaning: Net Profit ratio indicates the relationship between the net profit & the sales it is usually expressed in the form of a percentage. Formula: NPAT Net profit ratio =
* 100 Net sales
This ratio shows the net earnings (to be distributed to both equity and preference share sharehol holde ders) rs) as a perce percenta ntage ge of net sales sales.. It meas measure ures s the overa overallll effici efficienc ency y of product production, ion, administ administrati ration, on, selling, selling, financi financing, ng, pricing pricing and tax manage management ment.. Jointly Jointly considered, the gross and net profit margin ratios provide an understanding of the cost and profit structure of a firm. RETURN ON CAPITAL EMPLOYED:Meaning:
The profitability profitability of the firm can also be analyzed from the point of view of the total funds employed in the firm. The term fund employed or the capital employed refers to the total long-term source source of funds. It means that the capital employed employed comprises of shareholder shareholder funds plus long-term debts. Alternatively it can also be defined as fixed assets plus net working capital. Capital employed refers to the long-term funds invested by the creditors and the owners of a firm. It is the sum of long-term liabilities and owner's equity. ROCE indicates the efficiency with which the long-term funds of a firm are utilized.
Formula: NPAT Return on capital employed =
*100 Capital employed
FINANCIAL These ratios determine how quickly certain current assets can be converted into cash. They are also called efficiency ratios or asset utilization ratios as they measure the efficiency of a firm in managing assets. These ratios are based on the relationship between the level of activity represented by sales or cost of goods sold and levels of investment in various assets. The important turnover ratios are debtors turnover ratio, average collection period, inventory/stock turnover ratio, fixed assets turnover ratio, and total assets turnover ratio. These are described below:
DEBTORS TURNOVER RATIO (DTO) Meaning: DTO is calculated by dividing the net credit sales by average debtors outstanding during the year. It measures the liquidity of a firm's debts. Net credit sales are the gross credit sales minus returns, if any, from customers. Average debtors are the average of debtors at the beginning and at the end of the year. This ratio shows how rapidly debts are collected. The higher the DTO, the better it is for the organization. Formula: Credit sales Debtors turnover ratio = Average debtors
INVENTORY OR STOCK TURNOVER RATIO (ITR) Meaning: ITR ITR refers refers to the the numb number er of times times the inventor inventory y is sold sold and and replac replaced ed durin during g the accounting period. Formula: COGS Stock Turnover Ratio = Average stock
ITR reflects the efficiency of inventory management. The higher the ratio, the more efficient is the management of inventories, and vice versa. However, a high inventory turnover may also result from a low level of inventory, inventory, which may lead to frequent stock outs and loss of sales and customer goodwill. For calculating ITR, the average of inventories inventories at the beginning and the end of the year is taken. In general, averages averages may
be used when a flow figure (in this case, cost of goods sold) is related to a stock figure (inventories).
FIXED ASSETS TURNOVER (FAT) The FAT ratio measures the net sales per rupee of investment in fixed assets. Formula: Net sales Fixed assets turnover = Net fixed assets This ratio measures the efficiency with which fixed assets are employed. A high ratio indicates a high degree of efficiency in asset utilization while a low ratio reflects an inefficient inefficient use of assets. However, However, this ratio should be used with caution because when the fixed assets of a firm are old and substantially depreciated, the fixed assets turnover ratio tends to be high (because the denominator of the ratio is very low).
PROPRIETORS RATIO: Meaning: Propr Propriet ietary ary ratio ratio is a test test of financ financial ial & credi creditt stren strength gth of the busine business ss.. It relat relates es share sharehol holde ders rs fund fund to total total asset assets. s. This This ratio ratio deter determin mines es the the long long term term or ultima ultimate te solvency of the company. In other words, Proprietary ratio determines as to what extent the owner’s interest & expectations are fulfilled from the total investment made in the business operation. Proprietary ratio compares the proprietor fund with total liabilities. It is usually expressed in the form of percentage. Total assets also know it as net worth. Formula: Proprietary fund Proprietary ratio
=
OR Total fund
Shareholders fund
Proprietary ratio = Fixed assets + current liabilities
STOCK WORKING CAPITAL RATIO: Meaning: This ratio shows the relationship between the closing stock & the working capital. It helps to judge the quantum of inventories in relation to the working capital of the business. The purpose of this ratio is to show the extent to which working capital is blocked in inventories. The ratio highlights the predominance of stocks in the current financial position of the company. It is expressed as a percentage. Formula: Stock Stock working capital ratio = Working Capital
Stock working capital ratio is a liquidity ratio. It indicates the composition & quality of the work working ing capital capital.. This This ratio ratio also also helps helps to study study the solven solvency cy of a conc concern ern.. It is a qualitative test of solvency. It shows the extent of funds blocked in stock. If investment in stock is higher it means that the amount of liquid assets is lower.
DEBT EQUITY RATIO: MEANING: This ratio ratio compares compares the long-ter long-term m debts debts with sharehol shareholders ders fund. fund. The relation relationshi ship p betwe between en borro borrowed wed funds funds & owners owners capit capital al is a popul popular ar measu measure re of the long long term term financial solvency of a firm. This relationship is shown by debt equity ratio. Alternatively, this ratio indicates the relative proportion of debt & equity in financing the assets of the firm. It is usually expressed as a pure ratio. E.g. 2:1
Formula: Total long-term debt Debt equity ratio = Total shareholders fund
Debt equity ratio is also called as leverage ratio. Leverage means the process of the increasing the equity shareholders return through the use of debt. Leverage is also known as ‘gearing’ or ‘trading on equity’. Debt equity ratio shows the margin of safety for long-term creditors & the balance between debt & equity.
RETURN ON PROPRIETOR FUND: Meaning: Return on proprietors fund is also known as ‘return on proprietors equity’ or ‘return on sharehol shareholders ders investm investment’ ent’ or ‘ investm investment ent ratio’. ratio’. This ratio ratio indicate indicates s the relation relationshi ship p between net profit earned & total proprietors funds. Return on proprietors fund is a profitability ratio, which the relationship between profit & investment by the proprietors in the concern. Its purpose is to measure the rate of return on the total fund made available by the owners. This ratio helps to judge how efficient the concern is in mana managi ging ng the the owne owner’ r’s s fund fund at disp dispos osal al.. This This rati ratio o is of prac practi tica call impo import rtan ance ce to prospective investors & shareholders. Formula: NPAT Return on proprietors fund =
* 100 Proprietors fund
CREDITORS TURNOVER RATIO: It is same as debtors turnover turnover ratio. It shows the speed at which payments are made to the supplier for purchase made from them. It is a relation between net credit purchase and average creditors Net credit purchase Credit turnover ratio = Average creditors
Months in a year Average age of accounts payable = Credit turnover ratio
Both the ratios indicate promptness in payment of creditor purchases. Higher creditors turnover ratio or a lower credit period enjoyed signifies that the creditors are being paid promptly. It enhances credit worthiness of the company. A very low ratio indicates that the company is not taking full benefit of the credit period allowed by the creditors.
IMPORTANCE OF RATIO ANALYSIS: As a tool tool of financ financia iall manag managem ement ent,, ratio ratios s are are of cruc crucial ial signif significa icance nce.. The The importance importance of ratio analysis lies in the fact that it presents presents facts on a comparative basis & enab enables les the drawin drawing g of interf interfer erenc ence e regard regarding ing the the perfor performa manc nce e of a firm. firm. Ratio Ratio analysis is relevant in assessing the performance of a firm in respect of the following aspects: 1] Liquidity position, 2] Long-term solvency, 3] Operating efficiency, 4] Overall profitability, 5] Inter firm comparison 6] Trend analysis.
1] LIQUIDITY POSITION: With the help of Ratio analysis conclusion can be drawn regarding the liquidity position of a firm. The liquidity position of a firm would be satisfactory if it is able to meet its current obligation when they become due. A firm can be said to have the ability to meet its short-term liabilities if it has sufficient liquid funds to pay the interest on its short maturing debt usually within a year as well as to repay the principal. This ability is reflected in the liquidity ratio of a firm. The liquidity ratio are particularly useful in credit analysis by bank & other suppliers of short term loans.
2] LONG TERM SOLVENCY: Ratio analysis is equally useful for assessing assessing the long-term long-term financial viability of a firm. This respect of the financial position of a borrower is of concern to the long-term creditors, security analyst & the present & potential owners of a business. The long-term solve solvency ncy is meas measure ured d by the lever leverage age// capit capital al struc structu ture re & profit profitab abili ility ty ratio ratio Ratio Ratio analysis s that focus on earning power & operating efficiency. Ratio analysis reveals the strength & weaknesses of a firm in this respect. The leverage ratios, for instance, will indicate whether a firm has a reasonable proportion proportion of various sources of finance or if it is heavily loaded with debt in which case its solvency is expos exposed ed to seriou serious s strain strain.. Simila Similarly rly the variou various s profit profitab abili ility ty ratios ratios would would reve reveal al whether or not the firm is able to offer adequate return to its owners consistent with the risk involved. 3] OPERATING EFFICIENCY: Yet Yet anoth another er dimens dimensio ion n of the usefu usefull of the the ratio ratio analy analysis sis,, relev relevan antt from from the the view viewpo poin intt of mana manage geme ment nt,, is that that it thro throws ws ligh lightt on the the degr degree ee of effi effici cien ency cy in management & utilization of its assets. The various activity ratios measures this kind of opera operatio tiona nall effic efficien iency cy.. In fact, fact, the the solve solvency ncy of a firm firm is, in the the ultima ultimate te analy analysis sis,, dependent upon the sales revenues generated by the use of its assets- total as well as its components. 4] OVERALL PROFITABILITY: Unlike the outsides parties, which are interested in one aspect of the financial position of a firm, the management is constantly concerned about overall profitability of the enterprise. That is, they are concerned about the ability of the firm to meets its short term as well as long term obligations to its creditors, to ensure a reasonable return to its owners & secure optimum utilization of the assets of the firm. This is possible if an integrated view is taken & all the ratios are considered together. 5] INTER – FIRM COMPARISON: Ratio analysis not only throws light on the financial position of firm but also serves as a stepping-stone to remedial measures. This is made possible due to inter firm comparison & comparison with the industry averages. A single figure of a particular particular ratio is meaningless unless it is related to some standard or norm. one of the popular
techniques is to compare the ratios of a firm with the industry average. It should be reasonably expected that the performance of a firm should be in broad conformity with that of the industry to which it belongs. belongs. An inter firm comparison would demonstrate demonstrate the firms position vice-versa its competitors. If the results are at variance either with the industry average or with the those of the competitors, the firm can seek to identify the probable reasons & in light, take remedial measures. 6] TREND ANALYSIS: Finally, ratio analysis enables a firm to take the time dimension into account. In other words, whether the financial position of a firm is improving or deteriorating over the years. This is made possible possible by the use of trend trend analysis. The The significance significance of the trend analysis of ratio lies in the fact that the analysts can know the direction of movement, that is, whether the movement is favorable or unfavorable. For example, the ratio may be low as compared to the norm but the trend may be upward. On the other hand, though the present level may be satisfactory but the trend may be a declining one.
ADVANTAGES OF RATIO ANALYSIS Financial ratios are essentially concerned with the identification of significant accounting data relationships, which give the decision-maker insights into the financial performance of a company. The advantages of ratio analysis can be summarized as follows: ➢
Ratios facilitate conducting trend analysis, which is important for decision making and forecasting.
➢
Ratio analysis helps in the assessment of the liquidity, operating efficiency, profitability and solvency of a firm.
➢
Ratio Ratio analys analysis is provi provide des s a basis basis for both both intraintra-fir firm m as well well as interinter-fir firm m comparisons.
➢
The comparison of actual ratios with base year ratios or standard ratios helps the management analyze the financial performance of the firm.
LIMITATIONS OF RATIO ANALYSIS Ratio analysis has its limitations. These limitations are described below: 1] Information problems ➢
Ratios require quantitative information for analysis but it is not decisive about analytical output .
➢
The figures in a set of accounts are likely to be at least several months out of date, and so might not give a proper indication of the company’s current financial position.
➢
Where historical cost convention is used, asset valuations in the balance sheet could be misleading. Ratios based on this information will not be very useful for decision-making.
2] Comparison of performance over time ➢
When comparing performance over time, there is need to consider the changes in price. The movement in performance should be in line with the changes in price.
➢
When comparing performance over time, there is need to consider the changes in technology. The movement in performance should be in line with the changes in technology.
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Changes Changes in account accounting ing policy policy may affect the compari comparison son of results results between between different accounting years as misleading.
3] Inter-firm comparison ➢
Companies may have different capital structures and to make comparison of performance performance when one is all equity financed and another is a geared company company it may not be a good analysis.
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Selective application of government incentives to various companies may also distort intercompany intercompany comparison. comparison. comparing comparing the performance of two enterprises may be misleading.
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Inter-firm comparison may not be useful unless the firms compared are of the same size and age, and employ similar production methods and accounting practices.
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Even within a company, comparisons can be distorted by changes in the price level.
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Ratios provide only quantitative information, not qualitative information.
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Ratios are calculated on the basis of past financial statements. They do not indicate future trends and they do not consider economic conditions.
PURPOSE OF RATIO ANLYSIS: 1] To identify aspects of a businesses performance to aid decision making 2] Quantitative process – may need to be supplemented by qualitative Factors to get a complete picture. 3] 5 main areas:-
➢
Liquidity – the ability of the firm to pay its way
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Investment/shareholders – information to enable decisions to be made on the extent of the risk and the earning potential of a business investment
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Gearing – information on the relationship relationship between the exposure exposure of the business to loans as opposed to share capital
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Profitability – how effective the firm is at generating profits given sales and or its capital assets
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Financial – the rate at which the company sells its stock and the efficiency with which it uses its assets
ROLE OF RATIO ANALYSIS:
It is true that the technique of ratio analysis is not a creative technique in the sense that it uses the same figure & information, which is already appearing in the financial statement. At the same time, it is true that what can be achieved by the technique of ratio analysis cannot be achieved by the mere preparation of financial statement. Ratio analysis helps to appraise the firm in terms of their profitability & efficiency of performance, either individually or in relation to those of other firms in the same industry. The process of this appraisal is not complete until the ratio so computed can be compared with something, as the ratio all by them do not mean anything. This comp compar ariso ison n may may be in the form form of intra intra firm firm comp compar ariso ison, n, inter inter firm firm compa comparis rison on or comparison comparison with standard ratios. Thus proper comparison comparison of ratios may reveal where a firm is placed as compared with earlier period or in comparison with the other firms in the same industry. Rati Ratio o anal analys ysis is is one of the the best est poss possib ible le tech techni niqu ques es avai availa labl ble e to the the management to impart the basic functions like planning & control. As the future is closely related to the immediate past, ratio calculated on the basis of historical historical financial statements statements may be of good assistance to predict the future. Ratio analysis also helps to locate & point out the various areas, which need the management attention in order to improve the situation. As the ratio analysis is concerned with all the aspect of a firms financial analysis i.e. i.e. liquid liquidity ity,, solve solvency ncy,, activ activity ity,, prof profita itabi bilit lity y & overa overallll perfo perform rman ance, ce, it enab enables les the the interested interested persons to know the financial financial & operational characteristics characteristics of an organisation & take the suitable decision.
EVALUATION OF APLAB LIMITED THROUGH RATIO
COMPANY PROFILE THE COMPANY –
APLAB Limited is a professionally managed Public Limited company quoted on the Bombay Stock Exchange. Since its inception in 1962, APLAB has been serving the global market with wide range of electronic products meeting the international standards for safety and reliability such as UL, VDE etc. They specialize in Test and Measurement Equipment, Power Conversion and UPS Systems, Self-Service Terminals for Banking Sector and Fuel Dispensers for Petroleum Sector. APLAB enjoys worldwide recognition for the quality of its products, business integrity and innovative engineering skills.
ABOUT APLAB:
Aplab started its operation in October 1962.
It is a professionally managed 40 years old public limited company.
It is quoted on BOMBAY STOCK EXCHANGE.
It serves customer global customer par excellence.
It specialized in Test & measurement instruments, power conversion, & UPS & fuel dispensers for petroleum sector.
It enjo enjoys ys worl worldw dwid ide e reco recogn gnit itio ion n for for the the qual qualit ity y of its its busi busine ness ss inte integr grit ity y & innovative engineering skills.
MISSION:
To deliver high quality, carefully, engineered products, on time, with in budget, as per the customer specification in a manner profitable to both, our customers & so to us.
VISION:
To be a global player, recognized for quality & integrity.
To be the TOP INDIAN COMPANY as conceived by our customers.
To be “ THE BEST ” company to work for, as rated by our employees.
GOAL:
Goal at Aplab is extract ordinary customer service as we provide our customer needs in the personal service industry.
CORPORATE MISSION – 1] To achieve healthy and profitable growth of the company in the interest of our customers & the shareholders.
2] To encourag encourage e teamwork teamwork,, reward reward innovati innovation on and maintai maintain n healthy healthy interpe interperson rsonal al relations within the organization.
3] To expand knowledge and remain at the leading edge in technology to serve the global market.
4] To underst understand and the customer’s customer’s needs and provide provide solutions solutions than than merely merely selling selling products.
5] To create create intel intellec lectu tual al capita capitall by invest investin ing g in hard hardwar ware e and embed embedde ded d softw software are development.
VALUES & BELIEFS: Their values & beliefs required that they
Treat employees with respect & give them an opportunity for input on how to continuously improve their service goals.
Offer opportunities for growth, professional development & recognition.
Provide most effective & corrective action, to resolve customer service issues, to ensure customer satisfaction.
Foster an open door policy, which encourages interaction, discussion & ideas to improve work environment & increase productivity.
“ Do it right the first time & every time” is their team commitment * our way of doing business, it ensures as growth & prosperity.
THE 21ST CENTURY SUCCESS –
APLAB had planned to enter the 21st Century with a program for a fast and healthy growth in the global market based on company’s high technology foundation and the the reputa reputatio tion n of four four deca decades des for promp promptt custom customer er servic service e and and as a reliab reliable le solution provider. After completing three years in the new era, we can say with pride that we have been delivering our promises to our customers and the shareholders. APLAB has entered the field of Professional Services starting with the Banking and the Petroleum Industry. Focus on developing embedded system software has been also enhanced. We believe that professional professional services sector is poised to grow at a very rapid pace.
QUALITY IS OUR WORK CULTURE - ISO 9001:2000
Quali Quality ty at APLA APLAB B is a part part of our our peopl people’ e’s s attitu attitude. de. Entir Entire e orga organiz nizat ation ion is committ committed ed to create create an environ environmen mentt that encoura encourages ges individu individual al excellen excellence ce and a personal commitment to quality. In APLAB, “Quality is everybody’s responsibility” and all strive to “do it right the first time”. It is therefore natural that APLAB Limited is certified for quality with ISO 9001:2000 registration.
QUALITY POLICY:
Aplab will deliver to its customer products & services that consistently meet or exceed their requirement.
Aplab will achieve this by total commitment & involvement of every individual.
Aplab Aplab will encoura encourage ge its employ employees ees & supplie suppliers rs to develop develop quality product products s prevent defects & make continual improvement in all processes.
QUALITY OBJECTIVE:
Aplab is an ISO 9001:2000 certifies company.
100% customer satisfaction.
On time delivery every time reduction is out going PPM to 10,000 [4 sigma]
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Developing innovative products with the latest technology is the core strength of APLAB. The Science & Technology Ministry of the Govt. of India accredits our R&D Laboratories. We have a large team of dedicated, highly qualified skilled engineers who exce excell in the the latest latest statestate-ofof-the the-ar -artt-tec techn hnolo ology gy.. APLA APLAB B is recog recogniz nized ed not not only only for manufacturing standard products but also in providing solutions and services as per the
customer customer specifications. We spend more than 4% of the company revenue revenue in Research Research & Development activities. Specific areas in which the company carries out R&D 1. Develop Developmen mentt of new product product especially especially hi-tech hi-tech intellige intelligent nt product product & electron electronic ic transaction control system. 2. Impr Improv ovem emen entt
in the the
exis existi tin ng
pro product ducts s
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prod produc ucti tion on proce rocess sses es,,
impo import rt
substitution. 3. Develop Developmen mentt of product products s to suit expor exports ts markets markets.. 4. Cust Custom omiz izin ing g the the prod produc ucts ts to the the cust custom omer er’s ’s spec specif ific icat atio ions ns & adap adapta tati tion on of imported technology. The
company
has
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its its
posit ositio ion n
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lead leader ers ship in the
Indi ndian
inst instru rume ment ntat atio ion n indu indust stry ry & cont contin inuo uous us to main mainta tain in it thro throug ugh h its its stro strong ng grip grip of tech techno nolo logy gy.. Almo Almost st all all the the prod produc ucts ts manu manufa fact ctur ured ed by the the comp compan any y are are impo import rt substitution items, which are fully developed in house. It has resulted in considerable savin saving g of foreig foreign n excha exchange nge.. With With the the comp compan any, y, R&D R&D is an ongoi ongoing ng proc process ess.. The The ministry of science & technology, Government of India, recognizes the company’s R&D. Thro Throug ugh h
a
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Assu Assura ranc nce e
Department takes up redesign of existing products. This is done to achieve state of the art in our design & to bring about improvement to get maximum performance / cost ratio.
FUTURE PLAN OF ACTION Major R&D activity is concentrated around up gradation of product design & realignment of production processes to bring about improved quality at lower cost. This will will greatl greatly y help help the compa company ny in facin facing g compet competiti ition on in local local mark markets ets from from fore foreign ign companies.
EXPORT
APLAB currently exports over 25% of its production to Western Europe, Canada & USA. Over 30 million U.S. Dollars worth of Power Systems and Test Instruments from
APLAB are today operational in UK, Germany, Germany, France, Sweden, Belgium, Canada, and USA & Australia.
APLAB’S ORGANISATION CHART EXECUTIVE CHAIRMAN
MANAGING DIRECTOR DIRECTOR
MAEKETING
[TECHNICAL
DIRECTOR
- PE]
REGIOAL HEAD: MUMBAI NEWDELHI SECUNDARABAD BANGLORE CHENNAI
GENERAL MANAGER
FINANCE MANA MANAGE GER R
G. G.M
G.M.
MATERIAL
PROD PROD..
MARK MARKET ETIN ING G
MANA MANAGE GER R
&
G.M. ELTR ELTRAC AC PROD.
DESIGN
G.M. DESI DESIGN GN & DEVLOPMENT
OFFICERS
STAFF
WORKERS
PRODUCTS OF APLAB: a. TEST TEST & MEASURE MEASUREMENT MENT INSTRU INSTRUMENT MENTS S b. HIGH POWER POWER AC AC SYSTEMS SYSTEMS (UPS, (UPS, Frequency Frequency Converter, Converter, Inverter, Inverter, Isolation Transformer) c. HIGH POWER POWER DC SYSTEMS SYSTEMS (DC Power Supply, DC Uninterrupt Uninterruptible ible Power Supply) d. ATM ATM INST INSTAC ACAS ASH H e. POWE POWER R SUPP SUPPLI LIES ES,, AC-D AC-DC C POWE POWER R SUPP SUPPLY LY,, DC/D DC/DC C CONV CONVER ERTE TERS RS,, SMPS, SMPS, INVERT INVERTERS ERS,, STABIL STABILIZE IZER, R, LINE LINE CONDIT CONDITION IONER, ER, ISOLAT ISOLATION ION TRANSFORMER
ATM INSTACASH
The Banking Automation Division of APLAB was launched in 1993, when we introduced INSTACASHIndia’s first indigenously manufactured ATM INSTACASH demonstrated APLAB’s skills in design, hardware manufacturing and software integrations. Our in house R&D group is constantly striving to scan the rapidly changing technology and offer suitable end to end solutions. We are into Self Service Delivery Systems, MICR Cheque Processing and Smart Card based solutions. The latest is IMAGEENABLED Cheque Processing solution- QUICKCLEAR.
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