Advertising ;
Paid form of a nonpersonal message communicated through the various media by industry, business firms, nonprofit organizations, or individuals. Advertising is persuasive and informational and is designed to influence the purchasing behavior and/or thought patterns of the audience. Advertising is a marketing tool and may be used in combination with other marketing tools, such as sales promotions, personal promotions, personal selling tactics, selling tactics, or publicity. Advertising is often thought of as the paid, non-personal promotion of a cause, idea, product, or service by an identified sponsor spo nsor attempting to inform or persuade a particular target audience. Advertising has taken many different forms since the beginning of time. For instance, archaeo-logists have uncovered walls painted in ome announcinggladiator announcing gladiator fights as well as rock paintings along Phoenician trade routes used to advertise wares. From this early beginning, advertising has evolved to take a variety of forms and to permeate nearly every aspect of modern society. !he various delivery mechanisms for advertising include banners at sporting events, billboards, "nternet #eb sites, logos on clothing, magazines, newspapers, radio spots, and television commercials. Advertising has so permeated so permeated everyday everyday life that individuals can e$pect to be e$posed to more than %,&'' different messages each day. #hile advertising may seem like the perfect way to get a message out, it does have several limitations, the most commonly noted ones being its inability to (%) focus on an individual consumer*s specific needs, (&) provide in-depth information about a product, and (+) be cost-effective for small companies. Forms of Advertising Advertising can take a number of forms, including advocacy, comparative, cooperative, direct-mail, informational, institutional, outdoor, persuasive outdoor, persuasive,, product, reminder, point-of purchase, and specialty advertising. Advocacy Advertising Advocacy advertising is normally thought of as any
advertisement, message, or public communication regarding economic, political, or social issues. !he advertising campaign is designed to persuade public opinion regarding a specific issue important in the public arena. !he ultimate goal of advocacy advertising usually relates to the passage of pending state or federal legislation. Almost all nonprofit groups use some form of advocacy advertising to influence the public*s attitude toward a particular issue. ne of the largest and most powerful nonprofit nonpr ofit advocacy groups is the American Association of etired Persons (AAP). !he AAP fights to protect social programs such as edicare and ocial ecurity for senior citizens by encouraging its members to write their legislators, using television advertisements to appeal to emotions, and publishing a monthly newsletter describing recent state and federal legislative action. ther maor nonprofit advocacy groups include the environmental organization 0reen peace, others Against 1runk 1riving (A11), and the 2ational ifle Association (2A).
Comparative Advertising 3omparative advertising compares one brand directly or
indirectly with one or more competing brands. !his advertising techni4ue is very common and is used by nearly every maor industry, including airlines and automobile manufacturers. ne drawback of comparative advertising is that customers have become more skeptical about claims made by a company about its competitors because accurate information has not always been provided, thus making the effectiveness of comparison advertising 4uestionable. "n addition, companies that engage in comparative advertising must be careful not to misinform misinform the the public about a competitor*s product. "ncorrect or misleading information may trigger a lawsuit by the aggrieved aggrieved company company or regulatory action by a governmental agency such as the Federal !rade 3ommission (F!3). Cooperative Advertising 3ooperative advertising is a system that allows two parties to
share advertising costs. anufacturers and distributors, because of their shared interest in selling the product, usually use this cooperative advertising techni4ue. An e$ample might be when a soft-drink manufacturer and a local grocery store split the cost of advertising the manufacturer*s soft drinks5 both the manufacturer and the store benefit from increased store traffic and its associated sales. 3ooperative advertising is especially appealing to small storeowners who, on their own, could not afford to advertise the product ade4uately. Direct-Mail Advertising 3atalogues, flyers, letters, and postcards are ust a few of the
direct-mail advertising options. 1irect-mail advertising has several advantages, including detail of information, personalization, selectivity, and speed. 6ut while direct mail has advantages, it carries an e$pensive per-head price, is dependent on the appropriateness of the mailing list, and is resented by some customers, who consider it 7unk mail.7 Informational Advertising "n informational advertising, which is used when a new
product is first being introduced, the emphasis is on promoting the product name, benefits, and possible uses. 3ar manufacturers manufa cturers used this strategy when sport utility u tility vehicles (89s) were first introduced. Institutional Advertising "nstitutional advertising takes a much broader approach,
concentrating on the benefits, concept, idea, or philosophy of a particular industry. 3ompanies often use it to promote image-building activities, such an environmentally friendly business practices or new community-based programs that it sponsors. "nstitutional advertising is closely related to public relations, since both are interested in promoting a positive image of the company to the public. As an e$ample, a large lumber company may develop an advertising theme around its practice of planting trees in areas where they have ust been harvested. A theme of this nature keeps the company*s name in a positive light with the general public because the replanting replanting of of trees is viewed positively by most people. Outdoor Advertising 6illboards and messages painted on the side of buildings are
common forms of outdoor advertising, which is often used when 4uick, simple ideas are being promoted. ince repetition is the key to successful successf ul promotion, outdoor advertising is most effective when located along heavily traveled city streets and when the product
Comparative Advertising 3omparative advertising compares one brand directly or
indirectly with one or more competing brands. !his advertising techni4ue is very common and is used by nearly every maor industry, including airlines and automobile manufacturers. ne drawback of comparative advertising is that customers have become more skeptical about claims made by a company about its competitors because accurate information has not always been provided, thus making the effectiveness of comparison advertising 4uestionable. "n addition, companies that engage in comparative advertising must be careful not to misinform misinform the the public about a competitor*s product. "ncorrect or misleading information may trigger a lawsuit by the aggrieved aggrieved company company or regulatory action by a governmental agency such as the Federal !rade 3ommission (F!3). Cooperative Advertising 3ooperative advertising is a system that allows two parties to
share advertising costs. anufacturers and distributors, because of their shared interest in selling the product, usually use this cooperative advertising techni4ue. An e$ample might be when a soft-drink manufacturer and a local grocery store split the cost of advertising the manufacturer*s soft drinks5 both the manufacturer and the store benefit from increased store traffic and its associated sales. 3ooperative advertising is especially appealing to small storeowners who, on their own, could not afford to advertise the product ade4uately. Direct-Mail Advertising 3atalogues, flyers, letters, and postcards are ust a few of the
direct-mail advertising options. 1irect-mail advertising has several advantages, including detail of information, personalization, selectivity, and speed. 6ut while direct mail has advantages, it carries an e$pensive per-head price, is dependent on the appropriateness of the mailing list, and is resented by some customers, who consider it 7unk mail.7 Informational Advertising "n informational advertising, which is used when a new
product is first being introduced, the emphasis is on promoting the product name, benefits, and possible uses. 3ar manufacturers manufa cturers used this strategy when sport utility u tility vehicles (89s) were first introduced. Institutional Advertising "nstitutional advertising takes a much broader approach,
concentrating on the benefits, concept, idea, or philosophy of a particular industry. 3ompanies often use it to promote image-building activities, such an environmentally friendly business practices or new community-based programs that it sponsors. "nstitutional advertising is closely related to public relations, since both are interested in promoting a positive image of the company to the public. As an e$ample, a large lumber company may develop an advertising theme around its practice of planting trees in areas where they have ust been harvested. A theme of this nature keeps the company*s name in a positive light with the general public because the replanting replanting of of trees is viewed positively by most people. Outdoor Advertising 6illboards and messages painted on the side of buildings are
common forms of outdoor advertising, which is often used when 4uick, simple ideas are being promoted. ince repetition is the key to successful successf ul promotion, outdoor advertising is most effective when located along heavily traveled city streets and when the product
being promoted can be purchased purchas ed locally. locally. nly about % percent of advertising is conducted in this manner. Persuasive Advertising Persuasive advertising is used after a product has been
introduced to customers. !he primary goal is for a company to build selective demand for its product. For e$ample, automobile manufacturers often produce special advertisements promoting the safety features of their vehicles. veh icles. !his type of advertisement could allow automobile manufactures to charge more for their products because of the perceived higher 4uality the safety features afford. Product Advertising Product advertising pertains to nonpersonal selling of a specific
product. An e$ample is a regular television commercial promoting a soft drink. !he primary purpose of the advertisement adver tisement is to promote the specific soft drink, not the entire soft-drink line of a company. eminder advertising is advertising is used for products that have entered the mature stage of the product life cycle. !he advertisements are simply designed to remind customers about the product and to maintain awareness. For e$ample, detergent producers spend a considerable co nsiderable amount of money each year promoting pr omoting their products to remind customers that their products are still available and for sale. Reminder Advertising
Point-of-Purchase Advertising Point-of-purchase advertising uses displays or other
promotional items near the product that is being sold. !he primary motivation is to attract customers to the display so that they will purchase the product. tores are more likely to use point-of-purchase displays if they have help from the manufacturer in setting them up or if the manufacturer provides easy instructions on how to use the displays. !hus, promotional items from manufacturers who provide pro vide the best instructions or help are more likely to be used by the retail stores. Specialty Advertising pecialty advertising is a form of sales promotion designed to
increase public recognition of a company*s name. A company can have its name put on a variety of items, such as caps, glassware glassware,, gym bags, ackets, key chains, and pens. !he value of specialty advertising varies depending on how long the items used in the effort last. ost companies are successful in achieving their goals for increasing public recognition and sales through these efforts. Advertising Obectives
Advertising obectives are the communication tasks to be accomplished with specific customers that a company co mpany is trying to reach during a particular time frame. f rame. A company that advertises usually strives to achieve one of four advertising obectives: trial, continuity, continuity, brand switching, and switchback . #hich of the four advertising obectives is selected usually depends on where the product is in its life cycle. !rial !he purpose of the trial obective is to encourage customers to make an initial
purchase of a new product. prod uct. 3ompanies will typically employ creative advertising
strategies in order to cut through other competing advertisements. !he reason is simple: #ithout that first trial of a product by customers, there will not be any re peat re peat purchases. purchases. Continuity 3ontinuity advertising is a strategy to keep current customers using a
particular product. ;$isting customers are targeted and are usually provided new and different information about a product that is designed to build consumer loyalty. "rand S#itching 3ompanies adopt brand switching as an obective when they want
customers to switch from competitors* brands to their brands. A common strategy is for a company to compare product price or 4uality in order to convince customers to switch to its product brand. S#itchbac$ 3ompanies 3ompanies subscribe to this advertising obective when they want to get
back former users of their product brand. A company might highlight new product features, price reductions, or other important product information in order to get former customers of its product to switchback. Advertising "udget
nce an advertising obective has been selected, companies must then set an advertising budget for each product. 1eveloping such s uch a budget can be a difficult process because brand managers want to receive a large resource reso urce allocation to promote their products. verall, the advertising budget should be established so as to be congruent congruent with with overall company obectives. 6efore establishing an advertising budget, companies must take into consideration other market factors, such as advertising fre4uency, competition and clutter , market share, product differentiation, and stage in the product life cycle. Advertising %re&uency Advertising fre4uency refers to the number of times an
advertisement is repeated during a given time period to promote a product*s name, message, and other important information. A larger advertising budget is re4uired re4u ired in order to achieve a high advertising fre4uency: ;stimates have been put forward that a consumer needs to come in contact with an advertising message nine times before it will be remembered. Competition and Clutter
industry, re4uire higher advertising budgets ust to stay even with competitors. "f a company wants to be a leader in an industry, then a substantial advertising budget must be earmarked every year. ;$amples abound of companies that spend millions of dollars on advertising in order to be key players in their respective industries (e.g., 3oca 3ola and 0eneral otors). Mar$et Share 1esired market share is also an important factor in establishing an
advertising budget. "ncreasing market share normally re4uires a large advertising budget because a company*s competitors counterattack with with their own advertising blitz advertising blitz.. uccessfully increasing market share depends on advertisement 4uality, competitor responses, and product demand and 4uality.
Product Differentiation
budget-setting process. Product differentiation is often necessary neces sary in competitive markets where customers have a hard time differentiating between products. For e$ample, product differentiation might be necessary when a new laundry laundry detergent detergent is advertised: ince so many brands of detergent already e$ist, an aggressive advertising campaign would be re4uired. #ithout this aggressive advertising, customers would not be aware of the product*s availability and how it differs from other products on the market. marke t. !he advertising budget is higher in order to pay for the additional advertising. Stage in the Product 'ife Cycle 2ew product offerings re4uire considerably more
advertising to make customers aware of their e$istence. As a product moves through the product life cycle, fewer and fewer advertising a dvertising resources are needed because the product has become known and has developed an established buyer base. Advertising budgets are typically highest for a particular product during the introduction stage and gradually decline as the product matures. Selecting the Right Advertising Approach
nce a company decides what type of specific advertising campaign it wants to use, it must decide what approach should carry the message. A company is interested in a number of areas regarding advertising, such as fre4uency, media impact, media timing, and reach. %re&uency Fre4uency refers to the average number of times that an average consumer is
e$posed to the advertising campaign. A company usually establishes fre4uency goals, which can vary for each advertising campaign. For e$ample, a company might want to have the average consumer e$posed to the message at least si$ times during the advertising campaign. !his number might seem high, but in a crowded and competitive market repetition is one of the best methods to increase the product*s visibility and to increase company sales. !he more e$posure a company desires for its product, the more e$pensive the advertising campaign. !hus, often only large companies can afford to have high-fre4uency advertisements during a campaign. Media Impact edia impact generally refers to how effective advertising will be
through the various media outlets (e.g., television, "nternet, print). A company must decide, based on its product, the best method to ma$imize consumer interest and awareness. For e$ample, a company promoting a new laundry detergent might fare better with television commercials rather than simple print ads because more consumers are likely to see the television commercial. imilarly, a company such as ercedes-6enz, which markets e$pensive products, might advertise in specialty car magazines to reach a high percentage of its potential customers. 6efore any money is spent on any advertising media, a thorough analysis is done of each one*s strengths and weaknesses in comparison to the cost. nce the analysis is done, the company will make the best decision possible and embark on its advertising campaign.
Media !iming Another maor consideration for any company engaging in an advertising
campaign is when to run the advertisements. For e$ample, some companies run ads during the holidays to promote season-specific products. !he other maor consideration for a company is whether it wants to employ a continuous or pulsing pattern of advertisements. 3ontinuous refers to advertisements that are run on a scheduled basis for a given time period. !he advantage of this tactic is that an advertising campaign can run longer and might provide more e$posure over time. For e$ample, a company could run an advertising campaign for a particular product that lasts years with the hope of keeping the product in the minds of customers. Pulsing indicates that advertisements will be scheduled in a disproportionate manner within a given time frame. !hus, a company could run thirty-two television commercials over a three-or si$-month period to promote the specific product is wants to sell. !he advantage with the pulsing strategy is twofold. !he company could spend less money on advertising over a shorter time period but still gain the same recognition because the advertising campaign is more intense. Reach each refers to the percentage of customers in the target market who are e$posed
to the advertising campaign for a given time period. A company might have a goal of reaching at least =' percent of its target audience during a given time frame. !he goal is to be as close to %'' percent as possible, because the more the target audience is e$posed to the message, the higher the chance of future sales. Advertising (valuation
nce the advertising campaign is over, companies normally evaluate it compared to the established goals. An effective tactic in measuring the usefulness of the advertising campaign is to measure the pre-and post-sales of the company*s product. "n order to make this more effective, some companies divide up the country into regions and run the advertising campaigns only in some areas. !he different geographic areas are then compared (advertising versus nonadvertising), and a detailed analysis is performed to provide an evaluation of the campaign*s effectiveness. 1epending on the results, a company will modify future advertising efforts in order to ma$imize effectiveness. Summary
Advertising is the paid, nonpersonal promotion of a cause, idea, product, or service by an identified sponsor attempting to inform or persuade a particular target audience. Advertising has evolved to take a variety of forms and has permeated nearly every aspect of modern society. !he various delivery mechanisms for advertising include banners at sporting events, billboards, "nternet #eb sites, logos on clothing, magazines, newspapers, radio spots, and television commercials. #hile advertising can be successful at getting the message out, it does have several limitations, including its inability to (%) focus on an individual consumer*s specific needs, (&) provide in-depth information about a product, and (+) be cost-effective for small companies. ther factors, such as obectives, budgets, approaches, and evaluation methods must all be considered. 6ibliography
6oone, >. ;., and ?urtz, 1. >. (%@@&). Contemporary Marketing , th ed. 2ew Bork: 1ryden. 3hurchill, 0. A., and Peter, P. C. (%@@D). Marketing: Creating Value for Customers . 6oston: "rwin. Farese, >., ?imbrell, 0., and #oloszyk, 3. (%@@%). Marketing Essentials . ission
Advertising, !echni4ues and practices used to bring products, services, opinions, or causes to public notice for the purpose of persuading the public to respond in a certain way. #eekly newspapers in >ondon first carried advertisements in the %th century5 by the %=th century such advertising was flourishing. !he first advertising agencies were established in the %@th century to broker for space in newspapers, and by the early &'th century agencies were producing the advertising message itself, including copy and artwork. ost advertising promotes goods for sale, but similar methods are used in public service messages to promote causes, charities, or political candidates. "n many countries, advertising is the most important source of income for the media through which it is conducted. "n addition to newspapers, magazines, and broadcast media, advertising media include direct mail ( see direct-mail marketing), billboards and posters, transit advertising, the "nternet, and promotional items such as matchbooks or calendars. Advertisers attempt to choose media that are favoured by the advertisers* target audience. +ee also marketing5 merchandising. #hether trying to alter spending patterns or simply alert buyers to a firm*s e$istence, business has for centuries turned to advertising. As the type of media has changed, so too has advertising*s form. 6ut aside from a fundamental postEG#orld #ar " shift in the perception of advertising*s power, its function is the same today as it was in %'': Advertising aims to boost sales. 6uyers purchase a product presumably because they perceive a need or desire for it. !hey decide from whom and what brand to purchase. Awareness of their choices and an evaluation of which option is 7best7 influences their decisions. 8ntil the twentieth century, advertising sought only to convey information. 6ut modern advertising seeks to 7create demand7 by influencing buyers* perceived needs or desires. "efore )modern) Advertising
"n the American colonial period, advertisements were primarily signboards on inns, taverns, coffeehouses, and the like. !ravelers needed information about inns, but locals did not need advertisements in order to find the blacksmith. !he first newspaper to appear continuously, the 6oston !e,s-etter. was established in %'H. "t contained sporadic advertisements. eal estate advertisements, rewards for runaway apprentices, and notices of slaves for sale were all common, as were announcements of sale of cordage, wine, and cloth. !hese advertisements were limited to te$t5 they contained no photographs or drawings. 6enamin Franklin founded the Pennsylvania Ga/ette in %&=. !he Ga/ette included more advertisements than did any other colonial newspaper, with up to half the pages devoted to advertising. Franklin is credited with introducing the use of large-point headings, using white space to separate the advertisements from the te$t, and, after %D', including illustrations.
ver the ne$t century, there was little subse4uent change in advertising. Advertisements provided information about goods for sale, arrivals and departures of ships, and stagecoach schedules. Print advertisements were confined primarily within column rules5 advertisements spanning more than one column were yet to come. "n the %=I's, newspaper circulation increased, and magazine and periodical advertising began. Advertising volume increased markedly. ulticolumn display advertisements were designed5 their first use was to call attention to the transcontinental railroad bonds that were being sold to the public. 6y the %='s, multicolumn advertisements were common. Along with advertising, publicity also works when it comes to boosting sales. !he similar effects of advertising and free publicity were illustrated in the %='s by American showman P. !. 6arnum, who sought new patrons for his circus show. 6arnum owned a field near railroad tracks over which passenger trains passed. !o attract the attention of train passengers, he put an elephant to work plowing the field. 2ewspapers ran articles about the elephant. !he publicity generated such enthusiasm for his show that others sought to emulate his free-publicity-as-unpaid-advertising success. Industriali*ation and Advertising
1iffusion of steam power in the %=D's paved the way for a wave of technological change in the %='s and %=='s. !he American system of mass production characterized much of American manufacturing by %=@'. "ncreased mechanization generated increased fi$ed costs, creating an economic incentive to build large factories that could enoy economies of scale in production but which were dependent on mass demand. !he transcontinental railroad allowed relatively low-cost shipment of goods, making regional or national markets economically feasible. !elegraph wires allowed low-cost and fast nationwide transmission of information. anufacturers created brand names and sought to familiarize buyers nationally with their product. #here a housewife had once ordered a pound of generic baking powder , now she was encouraged to insist on known 4uality by re4uesting only oyal 6aking Powder. imilar national advertising campaigns were undertaken in the %=='s and early %=@'s by, among others, 3orticelli 6est !wist ilk !hread, Juaker ats 3ompany, and Procter K 0amble*s "vory soap. anufacturers believed that buyers were primarily interested in the 4uality of the product5 competition by price was uncommon. 2ational firms included drawings of sprawling factories and factory owners in their advertisements5 the larger the factory and thus the more successful the firm, the higher 4uality the merchandise could be presumed to be. inger ewing achines, teinway Pianos, and c3ormick
6usinesses needed methods to insulate themselves from cyclical downturns in sales and production. Advertising was one tactic they employed. !he 8.. population increased from +% million in %=I' to I million in %@''. nly &' percent of the population lived in urban areas in %=I', increasing to nearly H' percent by %@''. !he need for easy provision of consumer goods increased as more people therefore lived divorced from the land. tandardized production and transportation improvements further contributed to the development of the department store. tores such as . <. acy and 3ompany of 2ew Bork 3ity, Cohn #anamaker*s of Philadelphia, and arshall Field of 3hicago, all established by %=', advertised regularly in newspapers. ural families turned to mail-order catalogsELin essence, large books filled cover-to-cover with advertisements. ontgomery #ard*s first catalog was issued in %=&5 ears, oebuck and 3o. entered the field in %=@+. 6y %@'', advertising in newspapers was supplemented by advertising on streetcars, on billboards, and in magazines. Full-page advertisements, especially in women*s magazines, sought to influence women*s choices. adies0 (ome 1ournal. established in %==+ by 3yrus <. ?. 3urtis, led the way. !he 3rowell Publishing 3ompany founded 2omen0s (ome Companion# #illiam andolph
Advertising agents were middlemen in %=D': they bought advertising space from newspapers and resold it at a profit to a company seeking to place an advertisement. 6eginning in about %==', 2. #. Ayer and on of Philadelphia offered its customers an 7open contract7 under which Ayer would be the company*s sole advertising agent and, in e$change, would price advertising space at cost plus a fi$ed-rate commission. !he idea caught on. anufacturers were soon blocked from buying advertising space without an agent. "n %=@+, the American 2ewspaper Publishers Association agreed to not allow discounts on space sold to direct advertisers. 3urtis Publishing 3ompany, publishers of adies0 (ome 1ournal. inaugurated the same practice in %@'%, and other magazine publishers soon followed suit. !he cost-plus-commission basis for the agency was accepted industry wide in %@%@, with the commission standardized at %D percent. 8ntil the %=@'s, conceptualization and preparation of advertising copy were the responsibility of the firm placing the advertisement. 6ut as companies followed 2. #. Ayer K on*s cost-plus-commission pricing policy, agents could no longer compete with each other on price5 they needed some other means of distinguishing their services from those of competing agents. Advertising agents soon to be known as advertising agencies took on their modern form: writing copy5 creating trademarks, logos, and slogans5 and overseeing preparation of artwork. Ayer hired a full-time copywriter in %=@&5 Procter and 3ollier of 3incinnati did so by %=@I5 >ord K !homas of 3hicago did so by %=@=. 6y %@%', advertising agencies were universally characterized by the presence of full-time copywriters and artists.
Advertising slogans that lasted nearly %'' years came from these advertising specialists. "vory soap*s slogan 7@@-HH/%''M Pure7 appeared in %==D5 Prudential*s 7ock of 0ibraltar7 started in %=@I5 and 2. #. Ayer and on suggested the brand name 78needa7 to the 2ational 6iscuit 3ompany (later 2abisco) in %@''. !rademarks such as the orton 8mbrella 0irl made famous by orton alt did not become common until after %@'D, when federal legislation allowed the registration of trademarks for a period of &' years with provision for renewal. Advertising men were widely seen as no better than P. !. 6arnum*s sideshow barkers falsely hawking two-headed freaks rather than professionals presenting dignified, honest, and compelling images of bath soap. ne step in convincing others that advertising was a profession to be taken seriously was the %@% formation of the American Association of Advertising Agencies. !he Association crafted broadly defined industry standards. !hereafter, the industry was 4uickly afforded the respect it desired. "n %@&I, President 3alvin 3oolidge addressed the Association*s annual convention. For its ability to create mass demand, he credited advertising with the success of the American industrial system. Modern Advertising
odern advertisingELadvertising with the goal of creating desire for a product where none previously e$istedELbegan in the early twentieth century. #ith the blessing of leaders in the advertising industry, academic psychologists had begun applying principles of psychology to advertising content in the late %=@'s. "n %@'%, psychologist #alter 1ill cott, speaking on the psychology of advertising, addressed a gathering of businessmen. iberty and 9ictory 6onds, raise money for the ed 3ross, and more. ome advertising historians even credited the industry with shortening the war.
6y the mid-%@&'s, the two types of advertising peacefully coe$isted. eason-why copy was deemed appropriate for industrial advertising where decision-making rested on a 7rational7 profit motive. Atmosphere advertising dominated consumer goods advertising5 with increasing standardization of consumer products eliminating many of the real differences between brands, the emphasis of advertising shifted to the 7imagined7 advantages. A number of advertising te$tbooks appeared in the %@&'s, authored by professors of psychology whose academic affiliations were often with schools of business. urveys sought to ascertain the fundamental wants or desires of human beings. A typical list would include appetite, love, se$ual attraction, vanity, and approval by others. Atmosphere advertisements emphasized how a product could satisfy these desires. Advertisers increasingly looked upon themselves as 4uite set apart from the consumers who saw their ads. 3opywriters were male. 3onsumers were female. oland archand, author of Advertising t4e American "ream (%@=D), found that advertisers in the %@&'s and %@+'s were predominantly male, white, 3hristian, upper-class, well-educated 2ew Borkers who fre4uently employed servants and even chauffeurs, and whose cultural tastes ran to modern art, opera, and symphonies. !hey saw their audience as female, fickle, debased, emotional, possessing a natural inferiority comple$, having inarticulate longings, low intelligence, and bad taste, and being culturally backward. !he copy and visual imagery created by these advertising men often emphasized the woman*s desire to be loved or her desire to be a good mother. "ronically, ust at the time advertisers sought increased respect through formation of their own professional association, the advertisements they were writing conveyed ever more disrespect for their readers. any advertising historians note the postEG#orld #ar " change in advertising*s tone. Frederick >ewis Allen, author of the renowned history of the %@&'s 5nly 6esterday (%@+%) wrote: 7O"n the %@&'s, no longer was it considered enough to recommend one*s goods in modest and e$plicit terms and to place them on the counter in the hope that the ultimate consumer would make up his or her mind to purchase.EQ O!he copywriter was learning to pay less attention to the special 4ualities and advantages of his product, and more to the study of what the mass of unregenerate mankind wantedELto be young and desirable, to be rich, to keep up with the Coneses, to be envied. !he winning method was to associate the product with one or more of these ends, logically or illogically, truthfully or cynically. EQ7 (pp. %H%EG&) Advertising is often charged with creating a culture of consumerism in which people define themselves by the goods they buy. 3ertainly the first big boom in advertising volume and the rise of consumerism are coincidental: 3onsumerism first characterized the 8nited tates in the early twentieth century5 advertising volume increased at an annual rate of nearly @ percent between %@'' and %@&'. oreover, it was in this period that advertising first began emphasizing the ability of goods to meet emotional needs and,
more to the point, first began its efforts to create needs where none had previously been felt. !elevision and "eyond
!he function of advertising has remained constant since the advent of modern advertising but its form has evolved as new forms of media have appeared. adio broadcasting began in %@&& and with it, radio advertising. 6y %@+', H' percent of households owned a radio5 more than =' percent owned one by %@H'. adio advertising e$penditures doubled between %@+D and %@H' to R&%I million in %@H'. !elevision began in the %@D's and 4uickly found its way into almost everyone*s living room: %% percent of households owned a television in %@D' but == percent owned one ust a decade later. !elevision advertising e$penditures increased nearly tenfold between %@D' and %@I', reaching R%.I billion by %@I'. utdoor advertising increased with paved mileage. "n the decade after #orld #ar "" (%@+@EG%@HD), outdoor advertising e$penditures, adusted for inflation, increased D percent annually as paved mileage in the 8nited tates increased + percent annually. ne of the more famous billboard campaigns, begun in %@&D, was for 6urma-have, a brushless shaving cream manufactured by the American afety azor 3ompany. !heir ingles appeared one line per sign over the course of a mile or more, always ending with the name of the product: "f you think he likes Bour bristles #alk bare-footed !hrough some thistles 6urma-have !he introduction of the videocassette recorder (93) led to more changes in advertising. 2ew in %@=', by %@@' over two-thirds of 8.. households owned a 93. 9iewers could fast-forward through commercials when watching taped shows, presenting a new challenge to advertisers. 7Product placement7 was the result. Firms now paid to have their products used in television shows and films. !he practice was spurred by one phenomenal success: the use of eese*s Pieces candy in the %@=& film E# $# $4e E7tra$errestrial had increased candy sales by over ID percent. 6y &''', product placement was pervasive. !able +
Advertising ,olume SORC(. %@''EG%@', 8.. 6ureau of the 3ensus, (istorical +tatistics of t4e &nited
+tates: Colonial $imes to 89;. eries !HHH. %@@', &''', 8.. 3ensus 6ureau, +tatistical Abstract of t4e &nited +tates: <;;8. !able %&%.
%@'' %@&' %@&@ %@HI %@I' %@' %@@' &'''
Amount /billions of dollars0
Average rate of gro#th /percent0
'.D &.@ +.H +.+ %%.@ %@.I %[email protected] &+I.+
EL =.= %. -'.% @.D D.% @.@ I.&
!he most recent media development, the "nternet, was advertisement-free until the first banner advertisements were sold in %@@H. wnership of computers and use of the "nternet are both increasing rapidly5 by %@@@, +H percent of adults nationwide claimed access to the "nternet or an online service. "nternet advertising increases apace. 3onsumer obections to advertising and its tactics have resulted in legislation, lawsuits, and voluntary restraint. !he %@%H Federal !rade 3ommission Act empowered the Federal !rade 3ommission (F!3) with the authority to regulate 7unfair methods of competition.7 !he %@+= #heeler->ea Amendment e$tended the F!3*s powers to 7unfair or deceptive acts or practices.7 !he detrimental effects of billboards on the countryside inspired the federal aw as well as the Federal ;lection 3ampaign Act. Advertising Statistics
1ata on advertising e$penditure and employment in the industry is summarized in the annual +tatistical Abstract of t4e &nited +tates. available online and in any reference library. As seen in !able %, advertising e$penditure has had several periods of rapid growth: the %@%'s, %@D's, and %@='s. Advertising volume in &''' was ust over & percent of gross domestic product. ver H'',''' people worked in advertising in &''', a nearly threefold increase since %@='. Appro$imately H',''' establishments provided advertising and related services in &''', about one-third of which had paid employees.
#hat constitutes an advertisement has changed over time: a name on a wooden signboard5 an information-packed display in a newspaper5 a full-color glossy advertisement in a magazine5 a beautiful blonde singing about a new 3hevrolet5 candy scattered in a wood for an e$traterrestrial alien5 logos on the side of coffee mugs5 2ike swooshes on professional sports team uniforms5 pop-up advertisements on the "nternet. !he changes will continue as media opportunities develop. "ibliography
Fo$, tephen. $4e Mirror Makers: A (istory of American Advertising and Its Creators# 2ew Bork: orrow, %@=H. >aird, Pamela #alker. Advertising Progress: American )usiness and t4e %ise of Consumer Marketing# 6altimore: Cohns ?89@;# 6erkeley: 8niversity of 3alifornia Press, %@=D. 2orris, Cames 1. Advertising and t4e $ransformation of American +ociety. 8B=>?89<;# 2ew Bork: 0reenwood Press, %@@'. Pope, 1aniel. $4e Making of Modern Advertising# 2ew Bork: 6asic 6ooks, %@=+. Presbrey, Frank. $4e (istory and "evelopment of Advertising# 0arden 3ity, 2.B: 1oubleday, %@&@. cott, #alter 1ill. $4e $4eory of Advertising: A +imple E7position of t4e Principles of Psyc4ology in $4eir %elation to +uccessful Advertising# 6oston: mall, aynard and 3ompany, %@'+. DMart4a # 5lney
Advertising, in general, any openly sponsored offering of goods, services, or ideas through any medium of public communication. At its inception advertising was merely an announcement5 for e$ample, entrepreneurs in ancient ;gypt used criers to announce ship and cargo arrivals. !he invention of printing, however, may be said to have ushered in modern advertising. After the influence of salesmanship began to insert itself into public notice in the %=th cent., the present elaborate form of advertising began to evolve. !he advertising agency1 #or$ing on a commission basis , has been chiefly responsible for this evolution. !he largest group of advertisers are the food marketers, followed by marketers of drugs and cosmetics, soaps, automobiles, tobacco, appliances, and oil products. !he maor 8.. advertising media are newspapers, magazines, television and radio, business publications, billboards, and circulars sent through the mail. #ith the advent of the wide availability of electronic mail and access to the #orld #ide #eb in the %@@'s, the "nternet has also become an important advertising venue. ince many large advertising agencies were once located on adison Avenue in 2ew Bork 3ity, the term
ESadison AvenueE is fre4uently used to symbolize the advertising business. !he maor criticisms of advertising are that it creates false values and impels people to buy things they neither need nor want and that, in fact, may be actually harmful (such as cigarettes). "n reply, its defenders say that advertising is meant to sell products, not create values5 that it can create a new market for products that fill a genuine, though latent, need5 and that it furthers product improvement through free competition. !he Association of 2ational Advertisers and the American Association of Advertising Agencies, both founded in %@%, are the maor associations. 6ibliography ee . ayer, Madison Avenue. &#+#A# (%@D=)5 . 0latzer, $4e !e, Advertising (%@')5 .
9eterinary 1ictionary: advertising !op ibrary T Animal >ife T 9eterinary 1ictionary !he making of public statements about services offered and facilities available in a professional practice. Personal advertisement in this way is frowned upon because of the risk that there will be misrepresentation and that it will unfairly attract business to the detriment of the client. !he contrary view is that the public is disadvantaged because they will not be aware of the range of services offered and the fees attached to them. "n most countries now, in which it used to be controlled by the registering authority, the scope of personal advertising is left to the discretion of the individual. 3orporate advertising which advertises the profession as a whole is encouraged.
Advertising is a form of communication used to help sell products and services.
!ypically it communicates a message including the name of the product or service and how that product or service could potentially benefit the consumer.
bags, billboards, mail or post and "nternet. !oday, new media such as digital signage is growing as a maor new mass media. Advertising is often placed by an advertising agency on behalf of a company or other organization.Ocitation needed rganizations that fre4uently spend large sums of money on advertising that sells what is not, strictly speaking, a product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations, and military recruiters. 2on-profit organizations are not typical advertising clients, and may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as public service announcements.Ocitation needed oney spent on advertising has increased dramatically in recent years. "n &'', spending on advertising has been estimated at over R%D' billion in the 8nited tatesO& and R+=D billion worldwide,O+ and the latter to e$ceed RHD' billion by &'%'. #hile advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, it is not without social costs. 8nsolicited 3ommercial ;mail and other forms of spam have become so prevalent as to have become a maor nuisance to users of these services, as well as being a financial burden on internet service providers.OH Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child e$ploitation.OD "n addition, advertising fre4uently utilizes psychological pressure (for e$ample, appealing to feelings of inade4uacy) on the intended consumer, which may be harmful.
2istory
;do period advertising flyer from %='I for a traditional medicine called Finseitan ;gyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. 3ommercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. >ost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient 0reece and Ancient ome. #all or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa,
and outh America. !he tradition of wall painting can be traced back to "ndian rock art paintings that date back to H''' 63;.OI As the towns and cities of the iddle Ages began to grow, and the general populace was unable to read, signs that today would say cobbler, miller, tailor or blacksmith would use an image associated with their trade such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horse shoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city s4uare from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers or town criers to announce their whereabouts for the convenience of the customers. As education became an apparent need and reading, as well printing developed, advertising e$panded to include handbills. "n the %th century advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in ;ngland. !hese early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press5 and medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged ;urope. ouis
An %=@D advertisement for a weight gain product. At the turn of the century, there were few career choices for women in business5 however, advertising was one of the few. ince women were responsible for most of the purchasing done in their household, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women*s insight during the creative process. "n fact, the first American advertising to use a se$ual sell was created by a woman U for a soap product. Although tame by today*s standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message 7!he skin you love to touch7.O= "n the early %@&'s, the first radio stations were established by radio e4uipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed, many non-profit organizations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations, and included: schools, clubs and civic groups.O@ #hen the practice of sponsoring programs was popularised, each individual radio program was usually sponsored by a single business in e$change for a brief mention of the business* name at the beginning and end of the sponsored shows.
A print advertisement for the %@%+ issue of the Encyclopdia )ritannica !his practice was carried over to television in the late %@H's and early %@D's. A fierce battle was fought between those seeking to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should be considered a part of the commons U to be used only non-commercially and for the public good. !he 8nited ?ingdom pursued a public funding model for the 663, originally a private company, the 6ritish 6roadcasting 3ompany, but incorporated as a public body by oyal 3harter in %@&. "n 3anada, advocates like 0raham pry were likewise able to persuade the federal government to adopt a public funding model, creating the 3anadian 6roadcasting 3orporation. emon7 (which were used to describe the appearance of the car)V ushered in the era of modern advertising by promoting a 7position7 or 7uni4ue selling proposition7 designed to associate each brand with a specific idea in the reader or viewer*s mind. !his period of American advertising is called the 3reative evolution and its archetype was #illiam 6ernbach who helped create the revolutionary 9olkswagen ads among others. ome of the most creative and long-standing American advertising dates to this period.
!he late %@='s and early %@@'s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly !9. Pioneering the concept of the music video, !9 ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as J93,
!he %edEye newspaper advertised to its target market at 2orth Avenue 6each with a sailboat billboard on >ake ichigan. obile billboards are truck- or blimp-mounted billboards or digital screens. !hese can be dedicated vehicles built solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected by clients, or they can be specially-e4uipped cargo trucks. !he billboards are often lighted5 some being backlit, and others employing spotlights. ome billboard displays are static, while others change5 for e$ample, continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. obile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world, including:
!arget advertising ne-day, and long-term campaigns 3onventions porting events tore openings and similar promotional events 6ig advertisements from smaller companies thers
Public service advertising
!he same advertising techni4ues used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as <"9/A"1, political ideology, energy conservation, religious recruitment, and deforestation. Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. 7Advertising ustifies its e$istence when used in the public interest - it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes.7 - Attributed to
Public service advertising reached its height during #orld #ars " and "" under the direction of several governments
!ypes of advertising Media
Paying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising, as with this
A bus with an advertisement for 0AP in ingapore. 6uses and other vehicles are popular mediums for advertisers.
A 16A0 3lass %'% with 82"3;F ads at "ngolstadt main railway station 3ommercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes (7logoets7), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, ta$icab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and
supermarket receipts. Any place an 7identified7 sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising. ne way to measure advertising effectiveness is known as Ad !racking. !his advertising research methodology measures shifts in target market perceptions about the brand and product or service. !hese shifts in perception are plotted against the consumersW levels of e$posure to the companyWs advertisements and promotions. !he purpose of Ad !racking is generally to provide a measure of the combined effect of the media weight or spending level, the effectiveness of the media buy or targeting, and the 4uality of the advertising e$ecutions or creative.O%& ee also: Advertising media selection Covert advertising
ain article: Product placement 3overt advertising is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For e$ample, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority %eport , where !om 3ruise*s character Cohn Anderton owns a phone with the !okia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the )ulgari logo. Another e$ample of advertising in film is in I. %obot , where main character played by #ill mith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them 7classics,7 because the film is set far in the future. I. %obot and +paceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-)en/ logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. 3adillac chose to advertise in the movie $4e Matri7 %eloaded , which as a result contained many scenes in which 3adillac cars were used. imilarly, product placement for mega #atches, Ford, 9A", 6# and Aston artin cars are featured in recent Cames 6ond films, most notably Casino %oyale . )lade %unner includes some of the most obvious product placement5 the whole film stops to show a 3oca-3ola billboard. !elevision commercials
ain articles: !elevision advertisement and usic in advertising !he !9 commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format, as is reflected by the high prices !9 networks charge for commercial airtime during popular !9 events. !he annual uper 6owl football game in the 8nited tates is known as the most prominent advertising event on television. !he average cost of a single thirty-second !9 spot during this game has reached R+ million (as of &''@). !he maority of television commercials feature a song or ingle that listeners soon relate to the product. 9irtual advertisements may be inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. "t is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdropsO%+ or used to
replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience.O%H ore controversially, virtual billboards may be inserted into the backgroundO%D where none e$ist in real-life. 9irtual product placement is also possible.O%IO% Infomercials
!here are two types of infomercials, described as long form and short form. >ong form infomercials have a time length of +' minutes. hort form infomercials are +' seconds to & minutes long. "nfomercials are also known as direct response television (1!9) commercials or direct response marketing. !he main obective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. "nfomercials describe, display, and often demonstrate products and their features, and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals. Celebrities
ain article: 3elebrity branding !his type of advertising focuses upon using celebrity power, fame, money, popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for e$ample, when celebrities share their favourite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. 3elebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. Media and advertising approaches
"ncreasingly, other media are overtaking many of the 7traditional7 media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward consumer*s usage of the "nternet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (19*s) such as !i9o. Advertising on the #orld #ide #eb is a recent phenomenon. Prices of #eb-based advertising space are dependent on the 7relevance7 of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives. 1igital signage is poised to become a maor mass media because of its ability to reach larger audiences for less money. 1igital signage also offer the uni4ue ability to see the target audience where they are reached by the medium. !echnology advances has also made it possible to control the message on digital signage with much precision, enabling the messages to be relevant to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn, gets more response from the advertising. 1igital signage is being successfully
employed in supermarkets.O%= Another successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants.O%@ and malls.O&' ;-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. 8nsolicited bulk ;-mail advertising is known as 7spam7. pam has been a problem for email users for many years. 6ut more efficient filters are now available making it relatively easy to control what email you get. ome companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the "nternational pace tation. 3ontroversy e$ists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see propaganda). 8npaid advertising (also called publicity advertising), can provide good e$posure at minimal cost. Personal recommendations (7bring a friend7, 7sell it7), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of e4uating a brand with a common noun (in the 8nited tates, 7Xero$7 Y 7 photocopier 7, 7?leene$7 Y tissue, 79aseline7 Y petroleum elly, 7
!he 3# pioneered 7content wraps7 and some products featured were
Criticism of advertising 2yper-commercialism and the commercial tidal #ave
3riticism of advertising is closely linked with criticism of media and often interchangeable. !hey can refer to its audio-visual aspects (e. g. cluttering of public spaces and airwaves), environmental aspects (e. g. pollution, oversize packaging, increasing consumption), political aspects (e. g. media dependency, free speech, censorship), financial aspects (costs), ethical/moral/social aspects (e. g. sub-conscious influencing, invasion of privacy, increasing consumption and waste, target groups, certain products, honesty) and, of course, a mi$ thereof. ome aspects can be subdivided further and some can cover more than one category. As advertising has become increasingly prevalent in modern #estern societies, it is also increasingly being criticized. A person can hardly move in the public sphere or use a medium without being subect to advertising. Advertising occupies public space and more and more invades the private sphere of people, many of which consider it a nuisance. G"t is becoming harder to escape from advertising and the media. Z Public space is increasingly turning into a gigantic billboard for products of all kind. !he aesthetical and political conse4uences cannot yet be foreseen.LO&%
Ad creep: 7!here are ads in schools, airport lounges, doctors offices, movie theaters, hospitals, gas stations, elevators, convenience stores, on the "nternet, on fruit, on A!s, on garbage cans and countless other places. !here are ads on beach sand and restroom walls.LO&+ Gne of the ironies of advertising in our times is that as commercialism increases, it makes it that much more difficult for any particular advertiser to succeed, hence pushing the advertiser to even greater efforts.LO&H #ithin a decade advertising in radios climbed to nearly %= or %@ minutes per hour5 on prime-time television the standard until %@=& was no more than @.D minutes of advertising per hour, today itWs between %H and % minutes. #ith the introduction of the shorter %D-second-spot the total amount of ads increased even more dramatically. Ads are not only placed in breaks but e. g. also into baseball telecasts during the game itself. !hey flood the internet, a market growing in leaps and bounds. ther growing markets are [W product placementsWW in entertainment programming and in movies where it has become standard practice and [Wvirtual advertisingWW where products get placed retroactively into rerun shows. Product billboards are virtually inserted into aor >eague 6aseball broadcasts and in the same manner, virtual street banners or logos
are proected on an entry canopy or sidewalks, for e$ample during the arrival of celebrities at the &''% 0rammy Awards. Advertising precedes the showing of films at cinemas including lavish [film shortsW produced by companies such as icrosoft or 1aimler3hrysler. G!he largest advertising agencies have begun working aggressively to co-produce programming in conunction with the largest media firmsLO&D creating "nfomercials resembling entertainment programming. pponents e4uate the growing amount of advertising with a Gtidal waveL and restrictions with GdammingL the flood. ?alle >asn, one of the most outspoken critics of advertising on the international stage, considers advertising Gthe most prevalent and to$ic of the mental pollutants. From the moment your radio alarm sounds in the morning to the wee hours of late-night !9 microolts of commercial pollution flood into your brain at the rate of around +,''' marketing messages per day. ;very day an estimated twelve billion display ads, + million radio commercials and more than &'',''' television commercials are dumped into 2orth AmericaWs collective unconsciousL.O&I "n the course of his life the average American watches three years of advertising on television.O& ore recent developments are video games incorporating products into their content, special commercial patient channels in hospitals and public figures sporting temporary tattoos. A method unrecognisable as advertising is so-called [Wguerrilla marketingWW which is spreading [buzzW about a new product in target audiences. 3ash-strapped 8.. cities do not shrink back from offering police cars for advertising.O&= A trend, especially in 0ermany, is companies buying the names of sports stadiums. !he Arena and then the << 2ordbank Arena. !he tuttgart 2eckarstadion became the ercedes-6enz Arena, the 1ortmund #estfalenstadion now is the ignal "duna Park . !he former ky1ome in !oronto was renamed ogers 3entre. ther recent developments are, for e$ample, that whole subway stations in 6erlin are redesigned into product halls and e$clusively leased to a company. 1]sseldorf even has [multi-sensorialW adventure transit stops e4uipped with loudspeakers and systems that spread the smell of a detergent. watch used beamers to proect messages on the 6erlin !9-tower and 9ictory column, which was fined because it was done without a permit. !he illegality was part of the scheme and added promotion.O&& "tWs standard business management knowledge that advertising is a pillar, if not GtheL pillar of the growth-orientated free capitalist economy. GAdvertising is part of the bone marrow of corporate capitalism.LO&@ G3ontemporary capitalism could not function and global production networks could not e$ist as they do without advertising.LO% For communication scientist and media economist anfred ?noche at the 8niversity of alzburg, Austria, advertising isnWt ust simply a [necessary evilW but a [necessary eli$ir of lifeW for the media business, the economy and capitalism as a whole. Advertising and mass media economic interests create ideology. ?noche describes advertising for products and brands as [the producerWs weapons in the competition for customersW and trade advertising, e. g. by the automotive industry, as a means to collectively represent their interests against other groups, such as the train companies. "n his view editorial articles and programmes in the media, promoting consumption in general, provide a [cost
freeW service to producers and sponsoring for a [much used means of paymentW in advertising.O+' 3hristopher >asch argues that advertising leads to an overall increase in consumption in society5 7Advertising serves not so much to advertise products as to promote consumption as a way of life.7O+% Advertising and constitutional rights
Advertising is e4uated with constitutionally guaranteed freedom of opinion and speech.O+& !herefore criticizing advertising or any attempt to restrict or ban advertising is almost always considered to be an attack on fundamental rights (First Amendment in the 8A) and meets the combined and concentrated resistance of the business and especially the advertising community. G3urrently or in the near future, any number of cases are and will be working their way through the court system that would seek to prohibit any government regulation of ... commercial speech (e. g. advertising or food labelling) on the grounds that such regulation would violate citizensW and corporationsW First Amendment rights to free speech or free press.LO++ An e$ample for this debate is advertising for tobacco or alcohol but also advertising by mail or fliers (clogged mail bo$es), advertising on the phone, in the internet and advertising for children. 9arious legal restrictions concerning spamming, advertising on mobile phones, addressing children, tobacco, alcohol have been introduced by the 8, the ;8 and various other countries. 2ot only the business community resists restrictions of advertising. Advertising as a means of free e$pression has firmly established itself in western society. c3hesney argues, that the government deserves constant vigilance when it comes to such regulations, but that it is certainly not Gthe only antidemocratic force in our society. ...corporations and the wealthy enoy a power every bit as immense as that enoyed by the lords and royalty of feudal timesL and Gmarkets are not value-free or neutral5 they not only tend to work to the advantage of those with the most money, but they also by their very nature emphasize profit over all elseZ.aschWs culture of narcissm into the mental capitalism:O+ "n his essay ^Advertising at the ;dge of the ApocalypseG, ut Chally writes: G&'. century advertising is the most powerful and sustained system of propaganda in human history
and its cumulative cultural effects, unless 4uickly checked, will be responsible for destroying the world as we know it.O+= !he price of attention and hidden costs
Advertising has developed into a billion-dollar business on which many depend. "n &''I +@% billion 8 dollars were spent worldwide for advertising. "n 0ermany, for e$ample, the advertising industry contributes %.DM of the gross national income5 the figures for other developed countries are similar. !hus, advertising and growth are directly and causally linked. As far as a growth based economy can be blamed for the harmful human lifestyle (affluent society) advertising has to be considered in this aspect concerning its negative impact, because its main purpose is to raise consumption. G!he industry is accused of being one of the engines powering a convoluted economic mass production system which promotes consumption.LO+@ Attention and attentiveness have become a new commodity for which a market developed. G!he amount of attention that is absorbed by the media and redistributed in the competition for 4uotas and reach is not identical with the amount of attention, that is available in society. !he total amount circulating in society is made up of the attention e$changed among the people themselves and the attention given to media information. nly the latter is homogenised by 4uantitative measuring and only the latter takes on the character of an anonymous currency.LO+DO+I According to Franck, any surface of presentation that can guarantee a certain degree of attentiveness works as magnet for attention, e. g. media which are actually meant for information and entertainment, culture and the arts, public space etc. "t is this attraction which is sold to the advertising business. !he 0erman Advertising Association stated that in &'' +'.= billion ;uros were spent on advertising in 0ermany,OH' &IM in newspapers, &%M on television, %DM by mail and %DM in magazines. "n &''& there were +I'.''' people employed in the advertising business. !he internet revenues for advertising doubled to almost % billion ;uros from &''I to &'', giving it the highest growth rates. piegel-nline reported that in the 8A in &''= for the first time more money was spent for advertising on internet (%'D.+ billion 8 dollars) than on television (@=.D billion 8 dollars). !he largest amount in &''= was still spent in the print media (%H billion 8 dollars).OH% For that same year, #elt-nline reported that the 8 pharmaceutical industry spent almost double the amount on advertising (D. billion dollars) than it did on research (+%.D billion dollars). 6ut arc-Andr_ 0agnon und Coel >e$chin of Bork 8niversity, !oronto, estimate that the actual e$penses for advertising are higher yet, because not all entries are recorded by the research institutions.OH& 2ot included are indirect advertising campaigns such as sales, rebates and price reductions. Few consumers are aware of the fact that they are the ones paying for every cent spent for public relations, advertisements, rebates, packaging etc. since they ordinarily get included in the price calculation. Influencing and conditioning
Advertising for c1onald*s on the 9ia di Propaganda, ome, "taly !he most important element of advertising is not information but suggestion more or less making use of associations, emotions (appeal to emotion) and drives dormant in the subconscience of people, such as se$ drive, herd instinct, of desires, such as happiness, health, fitness, appearance, self-esteem, reputation, belonging, social status, identity, adventure, distraction, reward, of fears (appeal to fear ), such as illness, weaknesses, loneliness, need, uncertainty, security or of preudices, learned opinions and comforts. GAll human needs, relationships, and fears U the deepest recesses of the human psyche U become mere means for the e$pansion of the commodity universe under the force of modern marketing. #ith the rise to prominence of modern marketing, commercialism U the translation of human relations into commodity relations U although a phenomenon intrinsic to capitalism, has e$panded e$ponentially.LOH+ W3ause-related marketingW in which advertisers link their product to some worthy social cause has boomed over the past decade. Advertising e$ploits the model role of celebrities or popular figures and makes deliberate use of humour as well as of associations with colour, tunes, certain names and terms. Altogether, these are factors of how one perceives himself and oneWs self-worth. "n his description of [mental capitalismW Franck says, Gthe promise of consumption making someone irresistible is the ideal way of obects and symbols into a personWs subective e$perience. ;vidently, in a society in which revenue of attention moves to the fore, consumption is drawn by oneWs self-esteem. As a result, consumption becomes [workW on a personWs attraction. From the subective point of view, this [workW opens fields of une$pected dimensions for advertising. Advertising takes on the role of a life councillor in matters of attraction. (Z) !he cult around oneWs own attraction is what 3hristopher >asch described as [3ulture of 2arcissismW.LO+IO+ For advertising critics another serious problem is that Gthe long standing notion of separation between advertising and editorial/creative sides of media is rapidly crumblingL
and advertising is increasingly hard to tell apart from news, information or entertainment. !he boundaries between advertising and programming are becoming blurred. According to the media firms all this commercial involvement has no influence over actual media content, but, as c3hesney puts it, Gthis claim fails to pass even the most basic giggle test, it is so preposterous.LOHH Advertising draws Gheavily on psychological theories about how to create subects, enabling advertising and marketing to take on a [more clearly psychological tingeW (iller and ose, %@@, cited in !hrift, %@@@, p. I). "ncreasingly, the emphasis in advertising has switched from providing [factualW information to the symbolic connotations of commodities, since the crucial cultural premise of advertising is that the material obect being sold is never in itself enough. ;ven those commodities providing for the most mundane necessities of daily life must be imbued with symbolic 4ualities and culturally endowed meanings via the [magic system (#illiams, %@=') of advertising. "n this way and by altering the conte$t in which advertisements appear, things [can be made to mean 7ust about anything7W (cFall, &''&, p. %I&) and the [sameW things can be endowed with different intended meanings for different individuals and groups of people, thereby offering mass produced visions of individualism.LO% 6efore advertising is done, market research institutions need to know and describe the target group in order to e$actly plan and implement the advertising campaign and to achieve the best possible results. A whole array of sciences directly deal with advertising and marketing or is used to improve its effects. Focus groups, psychologists and cultural anthropologists are [WWde rigueurWWW in marketing researchL.OHD 9ast amounts of data on persons and their shopping habits are collected, accumulated, aggregated and analysed with the aid of credit cards, bonus cards, raffles and, last but not least, internet surveying. #ith increasing accuracy this supplies a picture of behaviour, wishes and weaknesses of certain sections of a population with which advertisement can be employed more selectively and effectively. !he efficiency of advertising is improved through advertising research. 8niversities, of course supported by business and in co-operation with other disciplines (s. above), mainly Psychiatry, Anthropology, 2eurology and behavioural sciences, are constantly in search for ever more refined, sophisticated, subtle and crafty methods to make advertising more effective. G 2euromarketing is a controversial new field of marketing which uses medical technologies such as functional agnetic esonance "maging (f") -- not to heal, but to sell products. Advertising and marketing firms have long used the insights and research methods of psychology in order to sell products, of course. 6ut today these practices are reaching epidemic levels, and with a complicity on the part of the psychological profession that e$ceeds that of the past. !he result is an enormous advertising and marketing onslaught that comprises, arguably, the largest single psychological proect ever undertaken. Bet, this great undertaking remains largely ignored by the American Psychological Association.LOHI obert c3hesney calls it 7the greatest concerted attempt at psychological manipulation in all of human history.7OH Dependency of the media and corporate censorship
Almost all mass media are advertising media and many of them are e$clusively advertising media and, with the e$ception of public service broadcasting are privately owned. !heir income is predominantly generated through advertising5 in the case of newspapers and magazines from D' to ='M. Public service broadcasting in some countries can also heavily depend on advertising as a source of income (up to H'M).OH= "n the view of critics no media that spreads advertisements can be independent and the higher the proportion of advertising, the higher the dependency. !his dependency has Gdistinct implications for the nature of media contentZ. "n the business press, the media are often referred to in e$actly the way they present themselves in their candid moments: as a branch of the advertising industry.LOH@ "n addition, the private media are increasingly subect to mergers and concentration with property situations often becoming entangled and opa4ue. !his development, which
#hile critics basically worry about the subtle influence of the economy on the media, there are also e$amples of blunt e$ertion of influence. !he 8 company 3hrysler , before it merged with 1aimler 6enz had its agency, Penta3om, send out a letter to numerous magazines, demanding them to send, an overview of all the topics before the ne$t issue is published to Gavoid potential conflictL. 3hrysler most of all wanted to know, if there would be articles with Gse$ual, political or socialL content or which could be seen as Gprovocative or offensiveL. Penta3om e$ecutive 1avid artin said: Gur reasoning is, that anyone looking at a &&.''' R product would want it surrounded by positive things. !here is nothing positive about an article on child pornography.LOD+ "n another e$ample, the ^8A 2etwork held top-level `off-the-recordW meetings with advertisers in &''' to let them tell the network what type of programming content they wanted in order for 8A to get their advertising.LODH !elevision shows are created to accommodate the needs for advertising, e. g. splitting them up in suitable sections. !heir dramaturgy is typically designed to end in suspense or leave an unanswered 4uestion in order to keep the viewer attached. !he movie system, at one time outside the direct influence of the broader marketing system, is now fully integrated into it through the strategies of licensing, tie-ins and product placements. !he prime function of many e$ecutive e >ay, former managing director of !F%, a private French television channel with a market share of &D to +DM, said: !here are many ways to talk about television. 6ut from the business point of view, letWs be realistic: basically, the ob of !F% is, e. g. to help 3oca 3ola sell its product. (Z) For an advertising message to be perceived the brain of the viewer must be at our disposal. !he ob of our programmes is to make it available, that is to say, to distract it, to rela$ it and get it ready between two messages. "t is disposable human brain time that we sell to 3oca 3ola.LOD 6ecause of these dependencies a widespread and fundamental public debate about advertising and its influence on information and freedom of speech is difficult to obtain, at least through the usual media channels5 otherwise these would saw off the branch they
are sitting on. G!he notion that the commercial basis of media, ournalism, and communication could have troubling implications for democracy is e$cluded from the range of legitimate debateL ust as Gcapitalism is off-limits as a topic of legitimate debate in 8.. political cultureL. OD= An early critic of the structural basis of 8.. ournalism was 8pton inclair with his novel !he 6rass 3heck in which he stresses the influence of owners, advertisers, public relations, and economic interests on the media. "n his book Gur aster*s 9oice U AdvertisingL the social ecologist Cames orty (%=@'U%@+) wrote: 7!he gargoyleWs mouth is a loudspeaker, powered by the vested interest of a two-billion dollar industry, and back of that the vested interests of business as a whole, of industry, of finance. "t is never silent, it drowns out all other voices, and it suffers no rebuke, for it is not the voice of AmericaN !hat is its claim and to some e$tent it is a ust claim...LOD@ "t has taught us how to live, what to be afraid of, what to be proud of, how to be beautiful, how to be loved, how to be envied, how to be successful.. "s it any wonder that the American population tends increasingly to speak, think, feel in terms of this abberwockyN !hat the stimuli of art, science, religion are progressively e$pelled to the periphery of American life to become marginal values, cultivated by marginal people on marginal timeN7OI' !he commercialisation of culture and sports
Performances, e$hibitions, shows, concerts, conventions and most other events can hardly take place without sponsoring. !he increasing lack arts and culture they buy the service of attraction. Artists are graded and paid according to their artWs value for commercial purposes. 3orporations promote renown artists, therefore getting e$clusive rights in global advertising campaigns. 6roadway shows, like [>a 6ohmeW featured commercial props in its set.OI% Advertising itself is e$tensively considered to be a contribution to culture. Advertising is integrated into fashion. n many pieces of clothing the company logo is the only design or is an important part of it. !here is only little room left outside the consumption economy, in which culture and art can develop independently and where alternative values can be e$pressed. A last important sphere, the universities, is under strong pressure to open up for business and its interests.OI&
"nflatable billboard in front of a sports stadium
3ompetitive sports have become unthinkable without sponsoring and there is a mutual dependency.
;very visually perceptible place has potential for advertising. ;specially urban areas with their structures but also landscapes in sight of through fares are more and more turning into media for advertisements. igns, posters, billboards, flags have become decisive factors in the urban appearance and their numbers are still on the increase. Gutdoor advertising has become unavoidable. !raditional billboards and transit shelters have cleared the way for more pervasive methods such as wrapped vehicles, sides of buildings, electronic signs, kiosks, ta$is, posters, sides of buses, and more. 1igital technologies are used on buildings to sport [urban wall displaysW. "n urban areas commercial content is placed in our sight and into our consciousness every moment we are in public space. !he 0erman 2ewspaper [\eitW called it a new kind of [dictatorship that one cannot escapeW.O&& ver time, this domination of the surroundings has become the GnaturalL state. !hrough long-term commercial saturation, it has become implicitly understood by the public that
advertising has the right to own, occupy and control every inch of available space. !he steady normalization of invasive advertising dulls the publicWs perception of their surroundings, re-enforcing a general attitude of powerlessness toward creativity and change, thus a cycle develops enabling advertisers to slowly and consistently increase the saturation of advertising with little or no public outcry.LOII !he massive optical orientation toward advertising changes the function of public spaces which are utilised by brands. 8rban landmarks are turned into trademarks. !he highest pressure is e$erted on renown and highly fre4uented public spaces which are also important for the identity of a city (e. g. Piccadilly 3ircus, !imes 4uare, Ale$anderplatz). 8rban spaces are public commodities and in this capacity they are subect to Gaesthetical environment protectionL, mainly through building regulations, heritage protection and landscape protection. G"t is in this capacity that these spaces are now being privatised. !hey are peppered with billboards and signs, they are remodelled into media for advertising.LO+DO+I Socio-cultural aspects. se3ism1 discrimination and stereotyping
GAdvertising has an Gagenda setting functionL which is the ability, with huge sums of money, to put consumption as the only item on the agenda. "n the battle for a share of the public conscience this amounts to non-treatment (ignorance) of whatever is not commercial and whatever is not advertised for. Advertising should be reflection of society norms and give clear picture of taget market. pheres without commerce and advertising serving the muses and rela$ation remain without respect. #ith increasing force advertising makes itself comfortable in the private sphere so that the voice of commerce becomes the dominant way of e$pression in society.LOI Advertising critics see advertising as the leading light in our culture. ut Chally and Cames !witchell go beyond considering advertising as kind of religion and that advertising even replaces religion as a key institution.OI= 73orporate advertising (or is it commercial mediaN) is the largest single psychological proect ever undertaken by the human race. Bet for all of that, its impact on us remains unknown and largely ignored. #hen " think of the mediaWs influence over years, over decades, " think of those brainwashing e$periments conducted by 1r. ;wen 3ameron in a ontreal psychiatric hospital in the %@D's (see ?8>!A). !he idea of the 3"A-sponsored 7depatterning7 e$periments was to outfit conscious, unconscious or semiconscious subects with headphones, and flood their brains with thousands of repetitive 7driving7 messages that would alter their behaviour over timeZ.Advertising aims to do the same thing.7O&I Advertising is especially aimed at young people and children and it increasingly reduces young people to consumers.OI@ For ut Chally it is not Gsurprising that something this central and with so much being e$pended on it should become an important presence in social life. "ndeed, commercial interests intent on ma$imizing the consumption of the immense collection of commodities have colonized more and more of the spaces of our culture. For instance, almost the entire media system (television and print) has been developed as a delivery system for marketers its prime function is to produce audiences for sale to advertisers. 6oth the advertisements it carries, as well as the editorial matter that acts as a support for it, celebrate the consumer society. !he movie system, at one time outside the direct influence of the broader marketing
system, is now fully integrated into it through the strategies of licensing, tie-ins and product placements. !he prime function of many ay and Pepsi3o.O' !he industry is accused of being one of the engines powering a convoluted economic mass production system which promotes consumption. As far as social effects are concerned it does not matter whether advertising fuels consumption but which values, patterns of behaviour and assignments of meaning it propagates. Advertising is accused of hiacking the language and means of pop culture, of protest movements and even of subversive criticism and does not shy away from scandalizing and breaking taboos (e. g. 6enneton). !his in turn incites counter action, what ?alle >asn in &''% called [WCamming the Cam of the CammersWW. Anything goes. G"t is a central social-scientific 4uestion what people can be made to do by suitable design of conditions and of great practical importance. For e$ample, from a great number of e$perimental psychological e$periments it can be assumed, that people can be made to do anything they are capable of, when the according social condition can be created.LO% Advertising often uses stereotype gender specific roles of men and women reinforcing e$isting clich_s and it has been criticized as Ginadvertently or even intentionally promoting se$ism, racism, and ageismZ At very least, advertising often reinforces stereotypes by drawing on recognizable 7types7 in order to tell stories in a single image or +' second time frame.LO+@ Activities are depicted as typical male or female (stereotyping). "n addition people are reduced to their se$uality or e4uated with commodities and gender specific 4ualities are e$aggerated. e$ualised female bodies, but increasingly also males, serve as eye-catchers. "n advertising it is usually a woman being depicted as
servants of men and children that react to the demands and complaints of their loved ones with a bad conscience and the promise for immediate improvement (wash, food) a se$ual or emotional play toy for the self-affirmation of men a technically totally clueless being that can only manage a childproof operation female e$pert, but stereotype from the fields of fashion, cosmetics, food or at the most, medicine doing ground-work for others, e. g. serving coffee while a ournalist interviews a politicianO&
A great part of advertising is the promotion of products dealing with the appearance of people, mainly for women (in the past almost only for women). !hus, the media put girls and women under high pressure to compare themselves with a propagated ideal beauty. 3onse4uences of this are eating disorders, self mutilations, beauty operations etc. !he ;8 parliament passed a resolution in &''= that advertising may not be discriminating and
degrading. !his shows that politics is increasingly concerned about the negative aspects of advertising. Children and adolescents as target groups
!he childrenWs market, where resistance to advertising is weakest, is the Gpioneer for ad creepL.O+ G?ids are among the most sophisticated observers of ads. !hey can sing the ingles and identify the logos, and they often have strong feelings about products. #hat they generally don*t understand, however, are the issues that underlie how advertising works. ass media are used not only to sell goods but also ideas: how we should behave, what rules are important, who we should respect and what we should value.LOH Bouth is increasingly reduced to the role of a consumer. 2ot only the makers of toys, sweets, ice cream, breakfast food and sport articles prefer to aim their promotion at children and adolescents. For e$ample, an ad for a breakfast cereal on a channel aimed at adults will have music that is a soft ballad, whereas on a channel aimed at children, the same ad will use a catchy rock ingle of the same song to aim at kids. Advertising for other products preferably uses media with which they can also reach the ne$t generation of consumers. OD G?ey advertising messages e$ploit the emerging independence of young peopleL. 3igarettes, for e$ample, Gare used as a fashion accessory and appeal to young women. ther influences on young people include the linking of sporting heroes and smoking through sports sponsorship, the use of cigarettes by popular characters in television programmes and cigarette promotions. esearch suggests that young people are aware of the most heavily advertised cigarette brands.LOIH GProduct placements show up everywhere, and children aren*t e$empt. Far from it. !he animated film, Foodfight, had [thousands of products and character icons from the familiar (items) in a grocery store.W 3hildren*s books also feature branded items and characters, and millions of them have snack foods as lead characters.GOI 6usiness is interested in children and adolescents because of their buying power and because of their influence on the shopping habits of their parents. As they are easier to influence they are especially targeted by the advertising business. G!he marketing industry is facing increased pressure over claimed links between e$posure to food advertising and a range of social problems, especially growing obesity levels.LO "n &''%, childrenWs programming accounted for over &'M of all 8.. television watching. !he global market for childrenWs licensed products was some %+& billion 8.. dollars in &''&.OHD Advertisers target children because, e. g. in 3anada, they Grepresent three distinct markets: %. Primary Purchasers (R&.@ billion annually) &. Future 3onsumers (6rand-loyal adults) +. Purchase "nfluencers (R&' billion annually) ?ids will carry forward brand e$pectations, whether positive, negative or indifferent ?ids are already accustomed to being catered to as consumers. !he long term prize: >oyalty of the kid translates into a brand loyal adult customerLO=
!he average 3anadian child sees +D',''' !9 commercials before graduating from high school, spends nearly as much time watching !9 as attending classes. "n %@=' the 3anadian province of Ju_bec banned advertising for children under age %+.O@ G"n upholding the consititutional validity of the Juebec 3onsumer Protection Act restrictions on advertising to children under age %+ (in the case of a challenge by a toy company) the 3ourt held: [...advertising directed at young children is per se manipulative. uch advertising aims to promote products by convincing those who will always believe.WLO=' 2orway (ads directed at children under age %&), and weden (television ads aimed at children under age %&) also have legislated broad bans on advertising to children, during child programmes any kind of advertising is forbidden in weden, 1enmark, Austria and Flemish 6elgium. "n 0reece there is no advertising for kids products from to && h. An attempt to restrict advertising directed at children in the 8A failed with reference to the First Amendment. "n pain bans are also considered undemocratic.O=%O=& Opposition and campaigns against advertising
6illboard in >und, weden, saying 7ne 2ight tandN7 (&''D) According to critics, the total commercialization of all fields of society, the privatization of public space, the acceleration of consumption and waste of resources including the negative influence on lifestyles and on the environment has not been noticed to the necessary e$tent. !he Ghyper-commercialization of the culture is recognized and roundly detested by the citizenry, although the topic scarcely receives a whiff of attention in the media or political cultureL.O=+ G!he greatest damage done by advertising is precisely that it incessantly demonstrates the prostitution of men and women who lend their intellects, their voices, their artistic skills to purposes in which they themselves do not believe, and Z. that it helps to shatter and ultimately destroy our most precious non-material possessions: the confidence in the e$istence of meaningful purposes of human activity and respect for the integrity of man.LO=H G!he struggle against advertising is therefore essential if we are to overcome the pervasive alienation from all genuine human needs that currently plays such a corrosive role in our society. 6ut in resisting this type of
hyper-commercialism we should not be under any illusions. Advertising may seem at times to be an almost trivial of omnipresent aspect of our economic system. Bet, as economist A. 3. Pigou pointed out, it could only be [removed altogetherW if [conditions of monopolistic competitionW inherent to corporate capitalism were removed. !o resist it is to resist the inner logic of capitalism itself, of which it is the pure e$pression.LO=D G9isual pollution, much of it in the form of advertising, is an issue in all the world*s large cities. 6ut what is pollution to some is a vibrant part of a city*s fabric to others. 2ew Bork 3ity without !imes 4uare*s huge digital billboards or !okyo without the 0inza*s commercial panorama is unthinkable. Piccadilly 3ircus would be ust a >ondon roundabout without its signage. till, other cities, like oscow, have reached their limit and have begun to crack down on over-the-top outdoor advertising.LO=I Gany communities have chosen to regulate billboards to protect and enhance their scenic character. !he following is by no means a complete list of such communities, but it does give a good idea of the geographic diversity of cities, counties and states that prohibit new construction of billboards. cenic America estimates the nationwide total of cities and communities prohibiting the construction of new billboards to be at least %D''. A number of tates in the 8A prohibit all billboards:
9ermont - emoved all billboards in %@'s *association _sistance l*Agression PublicitaireWO@% in France, where also media critic Cean 6audrillard is a renown author. O@& !he [Anti Advertising AgencyW works with parody and humour to raise awareness about advertising.O@+ and [3ommercial AlertW campaigns for the protection of children, family values, community, environmental integrity and democracy.O@H edia literacy organisations aim at training people, especially children in the workings of the media and advertising in their programmes. "n the 8. ., for e$ample, the [edia ;ducation FoundationW produces and distributes documentary films and other educational resources.O@D [edia#atchW, a 3anadian non-profit women*s organization works to educate consumers about how they can register their concerns with advertisers and regulators.O@I !he 3anadian [edia Awareness 2etwork/_seau _ducation m_diasW offers one of the worldWs most comprehensive collections of media education and "nternet literacy resources. "ts member organizations represent the public, non-profit but also private sectors. Although it stresses its independence it accepts financial support from 6ell 3anada, 3!90lobeedia, 3an#est, !;>8 and -9X.O@ !o counter the increasing criticism of advertising aiming at children media literacy organizations are also initiated and funded by corporations and the advertising business themselves. "n the 8. . the [!he Advertising ;ducational FoundationW was created in %@=+ supported by ad agencies, advertisers and media companies. "t is the Gadvertising industry*s provider and distributor of educational content to enrich the understanding of advertising and its role in culture, society and the economyLO@= sponsored for e$ample by American Airlines, Anheuser-6usch, 3ampbell oup, 3oca-3ola, 3olgate-Palmolive, #alt 1isney, Ford, 0eneral Foods, 0eneral ills, 0illette, ambert, advertising agencies like aatchi K aatchi 3ompton and media companies like American 6roadcasting 3ompanies, 36, 3apital 3ities 3ommunications, 3o$ ;nterprises, Forbes, oblaw, ?raft, attel, ac1onaldWs, 2estle, Pepsi, #alt 1isney, #eston as well as almost D' private broadcast partners and others.O%'' 3oncerned 3hildren*s Advertisers was e$ample for similar organizations in other countries like [edia smartW in the 8nited ?ingdom with offspring in 0ermany, France, the 2etherlands and weden. 2ew \ealand has a similar business-funded programme called [#illie unchrightW. G#hile such interventions are claimed to be designed to encourage children to be critical of commercial messages in general, critics of the marketing industry suggest that the motivation is simply to be seen to address a problem created by the industry itself, that is, the negative social impacts to which marketing activity has contributedZ. 6y contributing media literacy education resources, the marketing industry is positioning itself as being part of the solution to these problems, thereby seeking to avoid wide
restrictions or outright bans on marketing communication, particularly for food products deemed to have little nutritional value directed at childrenZ. !he need to be seen to be taking positive action primarily to avert potential restrictions on advertising is openly acknowledged by some sectors of the industry itselfZ. Furthermore,
Public interest groups suggest that Gaccess to the mental space targeted by advertisers should be ta$ed, in that at the present moment that space is being freely taken advantage of by advertisers with no compensation paid to the members of the public who are thus being intruded upon. !his kind of ta$ would be a Pigovian ta$ in that it would act to reduce what is now increasingly seen as a public nuisance. ;fforts to that end are gathering more momentum, with Arkansas and aine considering bills to implement such a ta$ation. Florida enacted such a ta$ in %@= but was forced to repeal it after si$ months, as a result of a concerted effort by national commercial interests, which withdrew planned conventions, causing maor losses to the tourism industry, and cancelled advertising, causing a loss of %& million dollars to the broadcast industry aloneL.O+@ "n the 8. ., for e$ample, advertising is ta$ deductible and suggestions for possible limits to the advertising ta$ deduction are met with fierce opposition from the business sector, not to mention suggestions for a special ta$ation. "n other countries, advertising at least is ta$ed in the same manner services are ta$ed and in some advertising is subect to special ta$ation although on a very low level. "n many cases the ta$ation refers especially to media with advertising (e. g. Austria, "taly, 0reece, 2etherlands, !urkey, ;stonia). !a$ on advertising in ;uropean countries:O%'%
6elgium: Advertising or billboard ta$ (ta$e d*affichage or aanplakkingstaks) on public posters depending on size and kind of paper as well as on neon signs France: !a$ on television commercials (ta$e sur la publicit_ t_l_vis_e) based on the cost of the advertising unit "taly: unicipal ta$ on acoustic and visual kinds of advertisements within the municipality (imposta communale sulla publicit) and municipal ta$ on signs, posters and other kinds of advertisements (diritti sulle pubbliche offisioni), the tariffs of which are under the urisdiction of the municipalities 2etherlands: Advertising ta$ (reclamebelastingen) with varying tariffs on certain advertising measures (e$cluding ads in newspapers and magazines) which can be levied by municipalities depending on the kind of advertising (billboards, neon signs etc.) Austria: unicipal announcement levies on advertising through writing, pictures or lights in public areas or publicly accessible areas with varying tariffs depending on the fee, the surface or the duration of the advertising measure as well as advertising tariffs on paid ads in printed media of usually %'M of the fee.
weden: Advertising ta$ (reklamskatt) on ads and other kinds of advertising (billboards, film, television, advertising at fairs and e$hibitions, flyers) in the range of HM for ads in newspapers and %%M in all other cases. "n the case of flyers the tariffs are based on the production costs, else on the fee pain: unicipalities can ta$ advertising measures in their territory with a rather unimportant ta$es and fees of various kinds.
"n his book G#hen 3orporations ule the #orldL 8.. author and globalization critic 1avid ?orten even advocates a D'M ta$ on advertising to counter attack by what he calls 7an active propaganda machinery controlled by the world*s largest corporationsL which Gconstantly reassures us that consumerism is the path to happiness, governmental restraint of market e$cess is the cause our distress, and economic globalization is both a historical inevitability and a boon to the human species.7O%'&
Regulation ain article: Advertising regulation "n the 8 many communities believe that many forms of outdoor advertising blight the public realm.O%'+ As long ago as the %@I's in the 8 there were attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside.O%'H 3ities such as o Paulo have introduced an outright banO%'D with >ondon also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays. !here have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. ome e$amples are: the ban on television tobacco advertising imposed in many countries, and the total ban of advertising to children under %& imposed by the wedish government in %@@%. !hough that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the ;uropean 3ourt of Custice, which had found that weden was obliged to accept foreign programming, including those from neighboring countries or via satellite. "n ;urope and elsewhere, there is a vigorous debate on whether (or how much) advertising to children should be regulated.. !his debate was e$acerbated by a report released by the ?aiser Family Foundation in February &''H which suggested that food advertising, such as that for fast foods, targeting children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood obesity in the 8nited tates. "n many countries - namely 2ew \ealand, outh Africa, 3anada, and many ;uropean countries - the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. !he general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is *legal, decent, honest and truthful*. ome self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising tandards Authority in the 8?.
"n the 8? most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of billboards is regulated by the 8? !own and 3ounty Planning system. 3urrently the display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of &,D'' per offence. All of the maor outdoor billboard companies in the 8? have convictions of this nature. 2aturally, many advertisers view governmental regulation or even self-regulation as intrusion of their freedom of speech or a necessary evil. !herefore, they employ a widevariety of linguistic devices to bypass regulatory laws (e.g. printing ;nglish words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article %&' of the %@@H !oubon >aw limiting the use of ;nglish in French advertising).O%'I !he advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms is subect to government regulation in many countries. For instance, the tobacco industry is re4uired by law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers about the health hazards of their products. >inguistic variation is often used by advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such re4uirements.
%uture 4lobal advertising
Advertising has gone through five maor stages of development: domestic, e$port, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business obectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, ma$imising local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the companyWs speed of implementation. 6orn from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising e$ecutions: e$porting e$ecutions, producing local e$ecutions, and importing ideas that travel.O%' Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. !he ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad that contributes to its success is how economies of scale are ma$imised. nce one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. arket research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of ;motion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad.O%'= !rends
#ith the dawn of the "nternet came many new advertising opportunities. Popup, Flash, banner , Popunder, advergaming, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) are now commonplace.
!he ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as !i9o) allow users to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded bo$ sets are offered for sale of television programs5 fewer people watch the shows on !9. ong !ail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. "n the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible.
"n the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that Gbig global clients don*t need big global agencies any moreL.O%%' !his trend is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as 3anadian business !AX" and A! in Australia and has been referred to as 7a revolution in the ad world7.O%%% "n freelance advertising, companies hold public competitions to create ads for their product, the best one of which is chosen for widespread distribution with a prize given to the winner(s). 1uring the &'' uper 6owl, Pepsi3o held such a contest for the creation of a +'-second television ad for the 1oritos brand of chips, offering a cash prize to the winner. 3hevrolet held a similar competition for their !ahoe line of 89s. !his type of advertising, however, is still in its infancy. "t may ultimately decrease the importance of advertising agencies by creating a niche for independent freelancers.Ocitation needed
Advertising research ain article: Advertising research
Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. "t entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaignsVpre-testing is done before an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-market impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. 3ontinuous ad tracking and the 3ommunicus ystem are competing e$amples of post-testing advertising research types.
See also Business and economics portal
Advertising Adstock Advertising to children American Advertising Federation
0raphic design "ntegrated arketing 3ommunications "nformative advertising enior media creative >ocal advertising arket overhang eta-advertising obile arketing Performance-based advertising Pseudo-event Public relations
eality marketing
3opywriting
; 3opywriting e$ in advertising hock advertising hockvertising !obacco advertising 9ideo commerce 9ideo news release 9iral marketing 9isual communication #eb analytics #orld Federation of Advertisers
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