AGR 303
(2+1)
AGRONOMY AGRONOMY OF FI ELD CROP CROP S – I
Lecture Notes Prepared By Dr.K.R.Latha Course Teachers Dr.P.Kalaiselvan Dr.C.R.Chinnamuthu Dr.N.Sakthivel
Department Department of Agronomy Centre for Soil and Crop and Management Studies Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Coimbatore-641003
2004
SYLLABUS THEORY Agronomy of field crops - importance importa nce - origin - soil and climatic requirement - area, production and productivity in World, India and Tamil Nadu. Systems of cultivation. Crop management - season, varieties, seed rate, seed treatment, sowing, density and geometry, growth stages, critical stages for input requirement - nutrient, nutrient, irrigation and weed management - after cultivation - harvest and processing- storage - byproducts - cropping systems Cereals-Major crops: Cereal- Minor crops:
Rice, Wheat, Maize,
Millets -Major
Sorghum, Pearl millet, Finger millet,
Oats, Barley, Rye, Triticale* Minor: Barn yard millet, Foxtail millet, Little millet, Kodo millet, Common millet
Pulses
Redgram, Blackgram, Greengram, Bengalgram, Soybean, Cowpea, Lab-lab, Beans, Horsegram, Lentil, Grain peas
Forages
Guinea grass, Cumbu Napier, Water grass, Cenchrus, Dinanath grass, Fodder Sorghum, Pearl millet, maize, Teosinte, L ucerne, Berseem, Desmanthus, Stylosanthus, Cowpea, Siratro, Fodder trees* - preservation preservation
Green manures*
Sesbania spp, spp, Sunnhemp, Kolinji (Tephrosia), Pillipesara,
Green leaf manures*
Gliricidia, Pungam, Neem, Calotropis, Ipomoea
* Short account of crop production only
LECTURE SCHEDULE THEORY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
6.
7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
13.
14. 15.
Importance of cereals, millets, pulses, green manure, green leaf manures and forage crops Area, production and productivity productivity of major cereals, millets, pulses and forage crops crops of World, India and Tamil Tamil Nadu Rice - importance importanc e - origin, distribution - soil and climatic requirement, requirement , season and varieties Rice - growth growt h stages - systems of rice cultivation - methods of sowing - nursery preparation and management - seed rate, seed treatment a nd sowing sowing in nursery Rice - main field preparation for wet and dry cultivation, Methods of crop establishment - Direct sowing under wet and dry condition – Transplanting, Throwing seedlings, seedlings, plant density and geometry, management of aged seedlings Nutrient Nutrie nt management in rice – manures manu res and manuring - time and method of fertilizer application - application of biofertilizers - Azolla, Bluegreen algae, Azospirillum Azospirillum and Phosphobacteria Rice - weed control - irrigation irrigati on - after cultivation - cropping system - harve harve sting, sting, threshing, drying and storage - byproducts Rice - cultivation of Hybrid rice - deep water rice – Ratoon management Maize - origin origin and distribution - soil and climatic climatic requirements - season, season, varieties – types of maize m aize - field preparat ion - sowing - manures and manuring - weed control Maize - irrigation irrigatio n - after cultivation - harvest, threshing, drying and storage Agronomic practices for f or Baby corn - cropping system Wheat - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements - season, varieties varieties Wheat - field preparation - seeds and sowing, seed treatment - manures and manuring weed control - irrigation - after cultivation - harvest, threshing, drying and storage cropping system Oats, Barley, Rye and Triticale* - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements requirements - season, varieties var ieties - field preparation - sowing - manures and manuring - weed control irrigation - after cultivation - harvest, threshing, drying and storage- cropping system Sorghum - importance importa nce - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements – season, varieties var ieties -seeds and sowing – nursery preparation Sorghum - main field preparation - transplanting – manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivat ion – irrigat ion - harvest harvest and storage
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16. Sorghum - Agronomic Agronomic practices for rainfed and ratoon sorghum - croppi ng system 17. Mid - Semester Examination 18. Pearl millet - importance - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements season, varieties var ieties - nursery - seeds and s owing – main field preparation and planting 19. Pearl millet - manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation cultivation - irrigation harvest and storage – Agronomic Agronomic practices for rainfed pearl millet - cropping crop ping system sys tem 20. Finger millet - importance - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements season, varieties - nursery - seeds and sowing - main field preparation and planting manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - irrigation - harvest and storage – Agronomic practices for rainfed crop - cropping system 21. Barnyard millet - Foxtail millet - Kodo millet - importance - origin and di stribution - soil soil and climatic requirement requirement - season - varieties - field preparation - seeds and sowing manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - harvest harvest 22. Little millet and Common millet - importance - origin and distribution - soil and climatic requirements - season, varieties - field preparation - seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed cont rol - after cultivation - harvest harvest and storage 23. Redgram – importance - origin and distribution - season, varieties - field preparation – seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control control - after cultivation cultivation – irrigation irrigation - harvest and storage - cropping cropping system 24. Blackgram and Greengram - importance - origin and distribution - season, varieties field preparation - seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation – irrigation - harvest and storage 25. Bengalgram and Horsegram Horsegram - import ance - origin and distrib ution - season, varieties field preparation - seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - irriga tion - harvest and storage 26. Cowpea, Lab-lab, B eans and Grain peas* - importance - origin and distribution season, varieties variet ies - field prepara tion - seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - irrigation - harvest and storage 27. Soybean - importance - origin and distribution - season, varieties - field preparation seeds and sowing - manures and manuring - weed control - after cultivation - irrigation – harvest and storage 28. Agronomy of Lentil - Agronomy of rice fallow pulses 29. Green manure crops* - importance - soil and climatic require ment for Sesbania aculeata, Sesbania speciosa and Sesbania rostrata, Sunnhemp, Kolinji, Pillipesara, Agronomic practices - biomass production - time and method method of incorporation and nutrient conte nt 30. Green leaf manure crops* - importance - Gliricidia, Pungam, Neem, Calotropis and Ipomoea - method of incorporation and nutrient content 31. Forage crops – Forage grasses - importance - soil and climatic requirement for Guinea grass, Napier grass, Water grass, Blo u-buffel grass, Dinanath grass - season, varieties – agronomic practices - time of harvest – biomass production (fodder yield) and nutrient content 32. Cereal and legume forage crops - importance - soil and climatic requirement requirement for Fodder sorghum - pearl millet - maize and teosinte and legumes such as lucerne, berseem, desmanthus, stylosanthes, siratro and cowpea – agronomic practices - harvest biomass production (fodder yield) and nutrient content 33. *Fodder trees and their importance 34. Preservation of fodder – hay and silage - Seasonal pastures Byproduct of crops studied above * Short account only PRACTICAL Maintenance of crop cafeteria - Identification of crop plants, varieties and seeds Acquiring skill in different operations for various crops - nursery preparation - seed treatment sowing - preparation of main field - methods and depth of sowing / planting - use of sowing equipments - maintenance of plant density and geometry - time and methods of application of manures and fertilizer s, biofertilizers, irrigation and weed management - after cultivation. Assessment of maturity - Harvest and processing – Hay and Silage making -Cost of cultivation and economics for important crops - Observations on growth and estimation of yield. Visit to farmers' field.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
Maintenance of crop cafeteria involving cereals, millets, pulses, green manures and forage crops for identification of crops and acquiring skill in various operations Identification of crop plants and varieties of cereals, millets and pulses Identification of crop plants and varieties of green manures, green leaf manures and forage Practicing various nursery preparation in rice Acquiring skill in nursery preparation for sorghum, pearl millet and finger millet Practicing main field preparation, sowing and manuring of important cereals under pure and intercropping system Practicing main field preparation, sowing and manuring of important pulses under pure and intercropping system Acquiring skill in hay and silage making Practicing main field preparation, sowing / planting of important green manures and forage crops Estimation of plant population per unit area for important crops Acquiring skill in foliar nutrition to pulses – Diammonium Phosphate spray Acquiring skill in seed treatment practices for cereals, pulses, green manures and forage crops Observation on growth and yield parameters and assessing maturity, estimation of yield of important cereals, millets, pulses, green manures and forage crops Cost of cultivation and economics of importa nt cereals Cost of cultivation and economics of important millets and pulses Biomass estimation of important green manures, forage crops and incorporation of green manures Practical examination
REFERENCE BOOKS 1. Ahlawat,I.P.S., Om Prakash and G.S.Saini.1998. Scientific Crop Production Production in India. India. Rama Publishing House, Meerut. 2. Chatterjee,B.N. Chatterjee, B.N. and K.K.Bhattacharyya.1986. K.K.Bhattac haryya.1986. Principles and Practices of Grain legume production. Oxford and IBH Publishing Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 3. Chatterjee,B.N. and P.K.Das.1989. P.K.Das.1989. Forage crop production - Principles and Practices. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 4. Chidda Singh.1997. Singh.1997. Modern techniques techniques of raising field crops. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 5. Singh,R.V.1982. Singh,R.V.1982. Fodder Trees of India. Oxford and and IBH Publishing Co. Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 6. Singh,S.S.1997. Crop management under irrigated and rainfed conditions. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi. 7. Srivastava,H.C., S.Bhaskaran, S.Bhaskaran, K.K.G.Menon, K.K.G.Menon, S.Ramanujam and M.V.Rao.1984. M.V.Rao.1984. Pulse production - Constraints and opportunities. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 8. Thakur,C.1980. Scientific crop production. Vol.I Metropolitan Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. 9. Thakur,C.1981. Thakur,C.1981. Scientific crop production. production. Vo l.II. Metropolitan Metropolitan Book Book Co. Pvt. Ltd., Ltd., New Delhi.
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RICE ( O r y z a s a t i v a ) Rice belongs to genus Oryza and family Poaceae. The genus includes 24 species of which O. sativa and O. glaberrima are cultivated. O. sativa has three sub species viz; Indica, Japonica and Javanica. 1.
Indica: Indigenous to India is adapted to subtropical to tropical regions. In India, the varieties are very tall, photosensitive, lodging poor fertilizer response and moderate filling. They are late maturing. The morphological morphological differences between between the varieties are very wide and awn less.
2.
Japanica: It is confined to subtropical temperate region (Japan, China, Korea). Varieties are very dwarf, erect, non-lodging, photo insensitive, insensitive, early maturing, high yielding and fertilizer responsive. responsive. The morphological morphological difference between the varieties is very narrow and awnless. (Hence crosses were made betwe en Indica and Japanica – first cross is ADT 27 during 1964)
3.
Javanica: It is known as a wild form of rice and is cultivated in some parts of Indonesia. Varieties are the tallest, erect, poor fi lling and awned.
Origin: Origin : De candolle (1886) and Watt (1862) thought that South India was the place where cultivated ri ce is originated. Vavilov (1926) suggested that India and Burma should be the origin of cultivated crop. Importance 1.
It is the staple food crop for more than 60% of the wor ld people.
2.
In other countries attractive ready to eat products, which have, long shelf life eg. popped and puffed rice, instant or rice flakes, canned rice and fermented products are produced.
3.
Protein is present in aleuron and endosperm 6 to 9% and average is 7.5%.
4.
Rice straw is used as cattle feed, used for thatching roof and in cottage industry for preparation of hats, mats, ropes, sound absorbing straw board and used as litter material.
5. Rice husk is used as animal animal feed, for paper making, as fuel source sourc e 6.
Rice bran is used in cattle and poultry feed , defatted bran, which is rich in protein, can be used in the preparation of biscuits and as cattle feed.
7.
Rice bran oil is used in soap industry. Refined oil can be used as a cooling medium like cotton seed oil / corn oil. Rice bran wax, a byproduct of rice bran oil is used in industries.
Recovery % Head rice
Broken+ Bran+ Husk
Total Tot al
Ordinary hulling
61-65
35
72-75
Modern hulling
67 - 71
Broken – 3
77
Bran – 5 Gem - 2 Distribution It grows from the tropics to subtropical and warm temperate countries upto 40 ?S and 50 ?N of the equator. Most of the rice area lies between equator and 40?N and 70 ? to 140 ? EL. Highest yields were recorded between 30 ? and 45? N of the equator. India, China and Egypt lying between 21 ? to 30 ? N, the average yield ranges from 2.0 to 5.7 t/ha. The countries near the equator shows an average yield of 0.8 to 1.4 t/h. Area, Production and Productivity In terms of area a nd production, it is second to wheat. Maximum area under rice is in Asia (90%). Among the rice growing countries, India has the largest area (43.4 m ha) followed by China - Bangladesh - Thailand. The area, production, productivity productivity of rice for some of the the important countries and the world is tabulated below.
5
County County
Area (million ha)
Production (m. t)
Productivity (t/ha)
China China
31.4 31.4
187.2 187.2
5.96
India
41.2 41.2
111.0 111.0
2.69 2.69
Indonesia
10.9
47.9
4.38
Bangladesh
10.9
28.0
2.57
Vietnam
6.5
22.3
3.45
Thailand
9.0
19.1
2.13
World World
147.5 147.5
527.4 527.4
3.58
India Acreage Acreag e
: WB > UP > MP > Bihar > Orissa > AP
Total Production
: WB > UP > AP > Punjab > TN
Average Yield
: Punjab(3.39t/ha)>Haryana(2.96t/ha)>TamilN Punjab(3.39t/ha)>Haryana(2.96t/ha)>TamilNadu adu (2.69t/ha)
In India rice accounts for about 22% of the tota l cropped area under cereal and about 31% of total area under food grain. It forms 41% of India’s total out put of the grain and forms roughly 46% of total output of the cereal. Rice growing areas in India ca n be grouped into 5 regions. 1. Northeastern region: Comprises of Assam, West West Bengal, South Bihar Bihar and Orissa. Orissa. Rice grown in the basins of Brahmaputra, Ganga and Mahanadhi rivers and known for the highest intensity of cultivation in the country. country. This region enjoys heavy heavy rainfall and here mostly rice is grown mainly under rainfed conditions. 2. Southern region: Comprises of deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Tambraparani Tambrapa rani rivers and non-deltaic rainfed areas of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is grown under irrigated conditions conditions in the de ltaic regions. 3. West Coast region: Comprises of Kerala and the coastal districts of Karnataka and Maharastra. There is heavy rainfall during the monsoon period. Rice is grown under rainfed conditions. 4. Central region: Comprises of Madhya Pradesh, Telengana Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh Pradesh and parts of Karnataka. Except in Andhra Andhra Pradesh, rice is grown as rainfed crop by broadcasting in this region. 5. Northern region: Comprises of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and North Bihar. These areas have have low winter temperatures temperatures and only a single crop of rice is raised from May Ma y-June to September-October. S eptember-October. The area, production and productivity of rice in different states of India are tabulated below (1996-97). States
Area
Production
(l. ha)
(l. ha)
Productivity (kg/ ha)
Andhra Pradesh
39.7
106.86
2494
Assam
24.9 24.9
33.28
1336
Bihar
50.7 50.7
72.81
1427
Gujarat
6.4
9.46
1474
Haryana Haryana
8.3 8.3
24.63
2969
Jammu Kashmir
2.8
4.31
1567
Karnataka Karnataka
13.5 13.5
32.12
2338
6
Kerala Kerala
4.3 4.3
8.32
1941
Madhya Pradesh
52.9 52.9
59.39
1172
Maharashtra Maharashtra
14.8
26.14
1769
Orissa
44.6 44.6
44.38
981
Punjab Punjab
21.6 21.6
73.40
3397
Tamil Nadu
22.7 22.7
58.05
2672
Uttar Pradesh
55.5 55.5
117.71
2121
West Bengal
58.0 58.0
126.37
2179
In Tamil Nadu rice research being carried out in the following research stations of Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. 1.
Paddy Breeding Station, Coimbatore
2.
Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthurai
3.
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai
4.
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Trichy
5.
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Killikulam
6.
Rice Research Station, Tirur
7.
Rice Research Station, Ambasamudram
8.
Agricultural Research Station, Paramakudi
9.
Agricultural Research Station, Ramanathapuram
10.
Agricultural Research Station, Thirupathisaram
From these Research Stations till January 2000, 149 varieties and 3 hybrids were released. Another 25 high yielding varieties in the pipeline are already introduced making making the total varieties at 174 with 3 rice hybrids. Climatic and soil requirements for rice Rice can be grown in different loca tions under a variety of climates. The Indicas Indicas are widely grown in tropical regions. Japonicas, which are adapted to cooler areas, are largely grown in temperate countries. countries. Both Indica and japanica japanica rices are grown in subtropical subtropical regions. However their crosses grown through out the world. Rice needs hot and humid climate. It is best suited to regions, which have high humidity, prolonged sunshine and an assured supply of water. Temperature, solar radiation and rainfall influence rice yield by directly affecting the physiological processes involved in grain production and indirectly through diseases and pests. Temperature Extreme temperatures are destructive to plant growth and hence depended on the environment under under which the life cycle cycle of the rice plant can be completed. completed. The critical low low and high temperatures for rice are normally below 20 ?C and above 30 ?C, which vary from one growth stage to another. The critical temperatures for different growth stages of rice are tabulated below.
Growth stage
Temperature ? C Low
High
Optimum
Germination
10
45
20-35
Seedling and emergence
12-13
35
20-30
Rooting Rooting
16
35
25-28
Leaf elongation
7-12
35
31
7
Tillering
9-16
33
25-31
Panicle initiation
15
-
-
Anthes Anthesis is
22
35
30-33
Ripening
12-18
30
20-25
Temperature Tempera ture affects the grain yield by affecting tillering, spikelet formation and ripening and it influences the growth rate just after germination and increases almost linearly with increasing temperature within a range of 22 to 31?C. At later stages it slightly affects tillering tillering rate and the relative growth rate. During reproductive stage, the spikelet number per plant increases as the temperature drops. Solar radiation The solar radiation requirements of rice crop differ from one growth stage to another. Shading during vegetative stage slightly affects yield and yield components. Shading during reproductive stage however has a pronounced pronounced effect on spikelet spikelet number. During ripening, it it reduces grain yield considerably because of decrease, in the percentage of filled spikelets. spikelets. Solar Solar radiation at the reproductive stage has the greatest effect on grain yield. The minimum requirement of solar radiation is 300 cal/cm 2 /day. Rainfall Under rainfed rice culture rainfall is the most limiting factor in rice cultivation. When irrigation is provided the growth and yield is determined by temperature and solar radiation. Water stress at any growth stage may reduce the yield. The rice plant is most most sensitive to water deficit from the reduction division stage to heading. Day length Rice is a short day plant. Long day prevents or delays flowering. Eg. GEB 24 is a photosensitive and season bound variety. However the latest varieties released are photo insensitive. Wind Moderate wind is beneficial for crop growth. Wind velocity of 0.75 to 2.25 cm/sec is not conducive for photosynthesis. High wind at maturity may cause lodging of the crop. Soils Rice is a semi aquatic plant and grows best under low land condition. In India it grows in all most all type of soils; alluvial, red, lateritic, laterite, black, saline and alkali, peaty and marshy soils and in acid soils. But the soil is having good retention capacity with good amount of clay and organic matter and ideal for rice cultivation. Clay and clay loam soils are most suited. It tolerates a wide range of soil reaction from 4.5 to 8.0. It grows well in soils having pH range of 5.5 to 6.5. It can be grown on alkali soil af ter treating them with gypsum or pyrites. RI CE ECOSYSTEMS ECOSYSTEMS Based on land and water management practices, rice la nds are classified as low land (wet land) and upland (dryland). In India , the principal system of rice growing are 1.
Dry system (upland)
2. Semi-dry system 3.
Wet system (lowland)
Dry system or Upland rice In India it is normally grown in Eastern part of India, Assam, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and central part of India (M.P., part of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra). This system is called Aus in West Bengal, aus/ahu in Assam, beali in Orissa, bhadi or Kuari in Uttar Pradesh. In Tamil Nadu it is mainly grown in Chengleput, , Virudhunagar, Sivaganga, Nagapatinam, Thiruvallur, Kanchipuram, Pudukkottai and Kanyakumari districts. It is grown in areas where the rainfall is more than 850 mm and it is well distributed. In North India, it is mainly grown in South West Monsoon seasons and in Tamil Nadu, it is grown during N.E. monsoon seasons / bimodal rainfall areas of Kanyakumari districts. Field preparation
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The field is ploughed and harrowed to fine tilth taking advantage of summer rains and ear ly monsoon showers. Application of gypsum at 1.0 t/ha is recommended whenever soil crusting and soil hardening problem exists. During the last ploughing organic manures at 12.5 t/ha is applied and incorporated. Season: May-June is S.West monsoon area August/ Sept in N.E. monsoon dominant area. Varieties: Varieties having 90 to 110 days are recommended. 1.
TKM 9 : Red rice, 100 to 105 days duration, short, bold grain, 5 t/ha.
2.
T P S 1: 1: Red rice, 110 to 115 days duration, short bold grain, average yield is 4.8 t/ha
3.
TPS 2 : 125 days duration, non-lodging, average yield is 5 t/ha, suitable for kumbapu season
4.
T P S 3: 3: 135 days duration, non-lodging, non-lodging, average average yield is kumbapu season.
5.
M D U 5: 5: 95 to 110 days, average yield is 5 t/ha, multiple resistant to pest pest and diseases.
6.
PKM 1: 1 : 110 to 115 days, dull white rice, pigmented, coarse grain and high protein, average yield is 3.2 t/ha.
5.3 t/ha, suitable for
Seed rate: 75 to 100 kg/ha. Seed treatment: treatment: The seeds are treated with any one of the fungicides Bavistin or Thiram @ 2g/kg of seeds, 24 hours before sowing and the seeds are treated with Azospirillum at 3 pockets (600g) per ha of seeds. Sowing 1.
Broadcasting: The seeds are sown by broadcasting when the moisture is at the marginal level and the surface soil is compacted by a light roller for compacting the seeds with moist soil.
2. Line sowing: sowing : Sowing /dibbling /dibbling behind the the country plough. Line sowing is better than broadcasting. Using seed drill to ensure optimum population, reduce the seed rate and for early intercultivation. After cultivation : Thinning and gap filling should be done 10 to 12 DAS, taking advantage of immediate rains. Manures and manuring: In Tamil Nadu, P is applied at 25 kg/ha as enriched FYM at the time of last ploughing. N at 50 kg/ha and K at 25 kg/ha should be applied in two splits viz. 20 to 25 DAS and the second at 40 to 45 DAS. Weeds and W eed control: control : Under upland condition, weeds reduce the yield to the extent of 50 %. First weeding should be done at 15 to 20 DAS and second weeding may be done on 45 DAS. Under unfavourable rainfall conditions, application of Thiobencarb 2.5l/ha or Pendimethalin 3.0 l/ha 8 DAS as sand mix if adequate adequate moisture is available followed followed by one hand hand weeding on 30 to 35 DAS. Intercropping: Intercropping: Raising one row of blackgra m for every four rows of rice. Special types: A primitive type of shifting cultivation called Punam cultivation in Malabar, Kumari in South Kanara, Podu in Circars, Jhum in Assam hills is being done in scrub jungles on small scale. The bushes are cut and burnt. The land is ploughed with pre monsoon showers and rice is sown as pure or mixed crop. The land is abandoned after the harvest of rice and allowed to recoup its fertility. Fresh jungle land land is broken up for cultivation every year. SEMIDRY RICE CULTIVA CULTIVA TION It is p racticed in the district of Chengleput, Ramnad, Kanyakumari and Pudukottai district. Season 1. July – August
?
Chengleput and Kanyakumari districts
2. August
?
Thanjavur and Pudukottai districts
3. Sept Sep t – Oct
?
Ramanathapuram district
Varieties Chengleput
: TKM 9, IR20, PMK 1, PMK 2, TKM10 and TKM11
9
Pudukottai
: ADT36, Rasi, PMK-1, PMK-2, TKM9
Kanyakumari Kanyakum ari
: TKM 9, ADT36, Rasi, ASD17, TPS-1, TPS 2, TPS 3
Ramnad
: TKM9, ADT36, Rasi, PMK1, PMK2, MDU5.
Field preparation i.
On the receipt of show er, during the month of M ay-June ay-June repeated ploughing should be carried out so as to conserve soil moisture, destroy weeds and break the clods.
ii.
Apply FYM at 12.5 t/ha. Application of 750 kg of FYM enrichedwith 50 kg P 2O5 can be applied as a basal dose in clay soils of Thanjavur dist rict.
Seed rate
: 80 to 100 kg ha-1
Seed treatment
: "As give give n in upland rice"
Sowing 1.Broadcasting as dry crop and compacting with Gundaka 2.Drilling : Sowing by using seed drill at 20 cm r ow spacing. Whenever water is available after strengthening monsoon, it is treated as wet paddy usually in July-August, when S-W monsoon is active, the rain water is impounded in the fields. In command area, anticipating the release of water, rice crop can be raised under semi dry condition up to a maximum of 45 days. Then the crop in converted in the wet condition on receipt of water. In Chengelput and Ramnad districts, the crop is irrigated from 30 to 35 days onwards after impounding water in tanks After cultivation: Thinning and gap filling should be done on 25 th to 30th day after receipt of sufficient rain or impounding water in the field from the adjoining tanks. Manures and M anuring: 100: 50: 50 kg N:P 2O5:K2O/ha is recommended. recommended. P2O 5 at 50 kg/ha is applied as basal as enriched FYM. Nitrogen is applied in three splits. K is applied at 50 kg/ha as basal. 50% of N at basal, 25% at maximum tillering stage and remaining 25% 25% at panicle initiation stage. The first top dressing should should be done immediately immediately after the receipt of sufficient rain on canal water. Weed management: Integrated weed management management of pre -emergence application application of Thiobencarb (Saturn 50 EC) at 3.0 lit/ha (1.5 kg ai/ha) or Pendimethalin 4.0 lit/ha (stomp 30 EC) on the 8 th day after sowing as sand mix it adequate moisture is available, followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 DAS. Spraying of insecticides and fungicides may be need based. Harvest: Timely harvest ensures good quality grain and prevents different losses. Harvest is done by using sickle, threshed and dried in the sun for 3 to 4 days up to 10 to12% moisture for storage. WET SYSTEM OR LOW LAND RICE In India, low land rice is established by 1. Transplanting the seedlings in which separate nursery nursery is 2.
Direct seedling of sprouted seeds in the puddled soil
Types of nursery 1. Wet nursery 2. Dapog nursery 3. Dry nursery I. Wet nursery Seed rate :
For short duration
: 60 kg/ha
Medium duration
: 40 kg/ha
Long duration
: 30 kg/ha
1. Pre-treatment of seeds: Before sowing a. Dry seed treatment:
10
raised (or)
Mix any one the fungicide at 2 g/kg of seed. (Thiram, Captan, Carboxin or Carbendazim). Carbendazim). Treat the seeds at least 24 hrs prior to soaking for sprouting. The seeds can be stored for 30 days with out any loss in viability. 2. Treatment of seeds at the time of soaking the seeds for sprouting b. Wet seed treatment : Treat the seeds in Carbendazim or Pyroquilon or Tricyclozole solution at 2g/lit of water for 1 kg of seed. Soak the seeds seeds in the the solution for 2 hours. hours. Drain the solution, solution, sprout the seeds and sow in the nursery bed. It gives protection to the seedlings seedlings upto 4o days from seedlings disea se such as blast and it is better than dry seed treatment. z o s p i r i ll ll u m : c. Seed Seed treatment w ith A zo
Three packets (600 g/ha) of Azospirillum of Azospirillum culture are to the mixed with sufficient water, wherein seeds are soaked over night before sowing in the nursery bed. bed. The bacte rial suspension after decanting may be poured over the nursery area itself. s e u d o m o n a s f l u o r e s c e n s e for management of rice blast d. Seed Seed treatment w ith P se
Three packets (600 g/ha) of Pseudomonas peat culture should be added in water wherein seeds are soaked over night before sowing in the nursery bed. It can be mixed with Azospirillum culture, as it is not inhibitory to Azospirillum. Azospirillum. Soaking and sprouting the seeds i.
Soak the seeds for 10 hrs and drain excess water. Should not soak the seeds in running water, which removes the minerals and nutrients.
ii.
Keep the soaked seeds in gunny bag in dark r oom and cover with extra gunnies for 24 hrs for sprouting. Should not cover with thick material, which develops heat and reduces the aeration.
Preparation Preparation of nursery for for sow ing Nursery are required : 20 cents (800 m2) for planting one ha. - Raise the nursery near the water source. -
Apply 1000 kg of FYM or compost to 20 cents of nursery and spread the manure uniformly
-
Before ploughing, allow water to a depth of 2.5 cm. Plough and bring it the a puddl e.
-
Before last puddling, apply 40 kg of DAP @ 2 kg DAP/cent
-
Basal application of DAP is recommended when the seedlings are to the pulled out in 20 to 25 DAS
-
If the seedlings are to be pulled out after 25 days, application of DAP is to be done 10 days prior to pulling out
-
Clayey soils, where root snapping is a problem, DAP has to be applied at 1 kg/cent 10 days after sowing.
Forming nursery beds -
Mark out plots, 2.5 m broad with channels, 30 cm wide i n between
-
Collect the mud from the channel and spread on the seedbed and level the surface of seedbed so that water drains into the channel.
Sowing: Having a thin film of water in the nursery, sow the sprouted seeds uniformly on the seedbed. Water management 1.
Drain the water 18 to 2 4 hrs after sowing
2.
Allow enough water to saturate the soil from 3 rd to 5 th da y
3.
From 5 th day onwards, increase t he quantity of water to a dept h of 1.5 cm depending on the height of seedlings
4.
Afterwards maintain, 2.5 cm depth of water.
Weed management in nurs nurs ery: Apply any one of the following pre -emergence herbicide on 8 DAS to control weeds in the nursery. 1.
Butachlor or Thiobencarb 2.0 lit/ha
2.
Pendimethalin 2.5 lit/ha
11
3.
Anilophos or 1.25 lit/ha
Keep thin film of water at the time of herbicide application and s hould not drain the water after application Top dressing w ith fertilizers: fertilizers: If the seedlings show the symptoms of 'N' deficiency and if the growth is not satisfactory, apply urea at 500 g/cent of nursery, 7 to10 days prior to pulling. If DAP is applied 10 days prior to pulling, urea application is not necessary. Optimum age of seedling for transplanting Short duration varieties
: 18 to 22 days
Medium duration varieties
: 25 to 30 days
Long duration varieties
: 35 to 40 days
Main field preparation for w et system: Wet rice requires a well puddled soil. Ploughing under submerged soil condition is called puddling. The land is ploughed repeatedly 3 or 4 times with an interval of about 4 days between each puddling by country plough or mould board plough or tractor drawn cage wheel or by using power tiller with a standing water of 3 to 5 cm. Optimum depth of puddling is 10cm for clay and clay loam soils. Application of organic manures i) Apply 12.5 t of FYM or compost / ha and spread the manure before applying the water.
evenly on the dry soil
ii) If FYM or compost is not available, apply green manure/green leaf manure at 6.25 t / ha. Compute the green matter using the formula. Yield / m2 in kg x 10,000. iii) The yield of green manure are as follows Daincha
:10 to 15 t/ha
Sunhemp
: 8 to 15 t/ha
Kolingi
: 6 to 7.5 t/ha.
iv) Incorporation of green manure Sesbania rostrata: rostrata: Growing stem nodulating S. rostrata in the month of March to April. Adopt seed rate of 50 to 60 kg/ha. Treat the seeds with rhizobial culture. Cut the crop at 45 to 60 th day to have maximum green matter (25 to 30 t/ha). v) Plough the green manure or green leaf manure directly in to the soilusing mould board or tractor. Then maintain 2.5cm of water in the field. Incorporate the green manure to a depth of 15cm using Burmese Setturn and allow to decompose for 7 days. vi) When the green manure is applied, rock phosphate can be used as cheaper sour ce of ‘P’. It also harness the decompositions of stubbles in the second second crop. Finally level the fie ld using levelling board. Transplanting - Puddle and level the fields after applying basal fertili zers. - Seedlings are dibbled at desired spacing and depth. Plant density and geometry: It varies with soil fertility, genotypes and soils. To exploit the full potential of any genotype, optimum plant population is to be adopted. Varietal duration
Low and Medium
Spacing
High Fertility
Spacing
Fertility (Plants / ha )
(cm)
Plants / ha
(cm)
Short
8 lakhs
12.5 x 10
5.0 lakhs
20x10
Medium
5.0 lakhs
20x10
3.3 lakhs
20x15
Long
3.3 lakhs
20x15
2.5 lakhs
20x20
Depth of Planting Clay soil
: 5 to 6 cm
Shallow soil
: 2.5 to 3.0 cm
12
Number of seedings/ seedings/ hill Wet nursery
: 3 to 4 seedling / hill
Dapog
: 6 to 8 seedling / hill
Saline soil
: 4 to6 seedling / hill
Management of aged seedling ?
Increase basal Nitrogen by 25%.
?
Closer spacing.
?
80 hills/m2
?
Increasing the number of seedlings / hill.
Transplanting shock: It occurs when the seedlings are pulled out from the nursery and planted in the new environment. For recovery f rom shock, it will take minimum of 5 to 7 days under tropics. ?
Shallow planting reduces the period.
?
Mild temperature after transplanting also reduces the period.
?
Hot weather period delays recovery.
?
Very cold weather period al so delays re covery. covery.
?
Best temperature: <300 C maximum and > 200 C minimum.
Root dipping: In rice, root nematode is a problem. Dip the seedlings roots in the phosphomidon 0.02% solution for 20 minutes prior to planting. For saline soils: Use saline tolerant variety. ?
25 days old seedling instead of 18 to 22 days.
?
4 to 6 seedlings / hill.
?
Apply 25% more ‘N’ than recommended.
?
Application ZnSo 4 at 32.5 (25% extra) kg/ha at the time of planting.
Application of biofertilizer to Rice 1.
A z o l l a is a water fe rn which is used as a biofertilizer for rice and has been found effective. Blue green algae, Anabaena azolla lives in the dorsal cavity of azollae and fix 'N'. It is also able to reduce reduce the 'N' bill to the the extent of 25 to 30 kg / ha. ha. It is raised as a dual crop and also appl ied as green manure .
2. Blue green algae: Broadcast at the rate of 10 kg/ha of powdered blue green algae flakes 10 days after transplanting. Maintain thin film of water. Blue green algae multiplies well from March to September and can be used for any variety raised during period. 3. Dipping roots in A z o s p i r i l l u m slurry. Prepare the slurry with 5 pockets (1000 g/ha of Azospirillum inoculant in 40 lit of water and dip the root portion of the seedling for15 to 30 minutes in bacterial suspension and tra nsplant the seedlings. 4. Soil application of A z o s p i r i l l u m I : Mix 10 pockets (2000g/ha of Azospirillum inoculant with 25 kg FYM and 25 kg of soil and broadcast the mixture uniformly in the main field before transplanting. Water management in low land rice: Among the cereal crops, the productivity per mm of water used is very low in rice, which is about 3 to7 kg/ha mm of water. Total water required for rice from nursery to main field (up to maturity) is 1200 to 1500 mm which depends on the duration of crop, soil type and climate. ?
At the time of transplanting, shallow depth of 2 cm is adequate, since higher depth of water results in reduction in tillering
?
Upto 7 days maintain 2.0 cm of water
?
At establishment stage, 5.0 cm submergence of water has to be continued through out the crop growth period
?
For loamy soil one day disappearance of ponded water during summer and winter 3 days after disappearance
?
For clay soil, immediately after disappearance during summer and 1 to 2 days after disappearance during winter
?
Critical stages for water requirement are
13
1.
Primordial initiation 2. Booting 3. Heading 4. Flowering
At boot leaf stage, excess water 75.0 cm, l eads to delay in heading and reduction in growth of panicle. Stop irriga tion 15 days ahead of harvest. Nutrient management management for low land transplanted transplanted rice i)
As for as possible, apply fertilizer as per soil test recommendation. If it is not followed, adopt blanket recommendation as follows in Tamil Nadu. Varieties
N
P 2O 5
K2O
Short duration
120 :
38:
38 kg/ha
Medium and Long duration
150:
50:
50 kg/ha
ii)
All P2O 5 and K2O should be applied as basal at the time of puddling as quartering method only in course textured (low CEC), K may be applied in two splits 50% at basal and 50% at maximum tillering stage/panicle initiation stage.
iii) iii)
In clay soil, 'N' should be be applied in three splits. 50% basal + 25% at max. tillering + 25% at panicle initiation stage
iv)
Application 25 kg of ZnSo 4 at the time of sowing. Should not incorporate micronutrient. P and K should be applied as q uartering method
Different losses of 'N' in paddy soil 1. Denitrification loss
5. Run-off
2.Fixation by microbes
6. Ammonium fixation
3. Leaching loss
7. Crop uptake
4. Volatilization loss Among the losses, denitrification and leaching losses losses are more in paddy soil under submerged due to low redox potential. How w ill you increase increase N use efficiency efficiency 1.
C h o i c e o f f e r t i l i z e r : Ammonium Sulphate > Ammonium chloride > Ammonium sulphate nitrate > Urea > CAN. In India, 85% of production is urea and further unit cost is less.
2.
splits depending depending on soil type increase NUE. NUE. Sp l i t a p p l i c a t i o n of 'N' either 3 or 4 splits
3.
S l o w r e l e a s e f e r t i l i z e r : Use of chemically manufactured slow release N fertilizers to increase the NUE by slow release of N . Example: IBDU - Isobutylidene di urea and UF-Urea formaldehyde
4.
Slow release by C o a t e d u r e a with physical/mechanical physical/mechanical means. Eg. a) sulphur coated urea b) neem coated urea
5.
P l a c e m e n t o f u r e a s u p e r g r a n u l e s : Bigger size urea super granules are placed directly in to the reduced zone (below 10cm depth). Higher NUE NUE due due to less denitirification loss.
6.
Use of nitrification inhibitors: To control the convertion of NH4+ to No 3- by inhibiting the activity of nitrosomonas and nitrobacter. Eg: AM, N-Serve 2 chloro-6 trichloro methyl pyridine, but these are not a vailable in India.
7.
If green manure is applied, skip basal application of N. Under this situation, 'N' as top dressing in 3 splits at 10 days interval between15 and 45 days after transplanting is recommended for short and medium duration varieties.
Phosphorus management: management: It is essential for root growth, for early ripening, production of efficient and early tillers. Upland rice responds to more 'P' than low land rice, since submergence increases the availability of different forms of fixed 'P' in the soil. 80 to 90 % of P is absorbed upto flowering. Source of P Single super phosphate (SSP) is the best source for neutral and saline soil. Rock Phosphate is the best source for a cid soil. 1.
Time and method of application: application: Since 'P' is an immobile element and crop needs 'P' especially in the early stage, basal application at the time of puddling is superior.
14
2.
Rate of application: 50 kg/ha for medium medium and long long duration varieties varieties and 40 kg/ha kg/ha for short duration varieties.
3.
'P' use efficiency increased with green manuring
4.
When DAP is applied in the nursery, 1/3 rd of recommended dose of 'P' can be applied to main field
Potassium: Compared to N and P, rice absorb absorb more of K. Potassium absorption absorption is up to dough stage. stage. Ne arly 50 to 60% of K is absorbed absorbed from seedling seedling to jointing jointing stage (20 to 25 days). days). So entire 'K' is applied as basal in clay soil. In light soil, K is applied in two splits viz. viz. 50% basal and 50% at maximum tillering or panicle initia tion stage. Source of K: K: K2So4 is more effective, but unit cost is very high. Hence KCl is r ecommended. Zinc: Zinc : It is more important for rice next to N, P and K. The deficiency occurs in sodic soils, alkaline soils, sandy soils and during continuous submergence. High amount of Ca and Mg reduces Zn uptake. Zn deficiency causes the following physiological disorders disorders 1) Khaira disease 2) Akagare Akaga re – Type II Zn deficiency can be corrected by 1.
Dipping rice roots in 1% ZnO (Zi nic oxide)
2.
Basal application of ZnSO 4 at 25 kg/ha (only surface application and no incorporati on)
3.
If basal application is not done, it is better t o apply as foliar spray
4.
0.5 % concentration at 20, 30 and 40 DAP for short duration varieties at 30, 40 and 50 DAP for medium and long duration varieties.
Akiochi disease is due toxicity of H2S when high organic matter is present along with Fe toxicity. Weed management in Low land rice The weeds reduce the yield of transplanted rice by 15 to 20%. Crop weed competitions: Up to 20 to 30 days for short duration varieties and 30 to 40 days for long duration varieties after transplanting. Weed control measures 1.
Through land preparation : Summer ploughing and puddling reduce weed population.
2.
Straight row planting: It is more effective to operate rotary weeder or wheel hoe in between rows rows of crop. Now IRRI has developed single single and double double row Conoweeder which can uproot and burry the weeds and are faster.
3. Flooding paddy at effective root depth: Proper water management of 6 to 8 weeks submergence control control the weeds effectively. effectively. Aquatic and broad leaved weeds are not affected by this method. 4. Hand pulling : It is laborious and is not economical 5.
Weed control by Chemicals is quicker and less laborious. laborious. Large area can be covered in a short time with a limited amount of labour and it is cheaper.
Disadvantages: 1.No herbicide will kill all the species of weeds 2. Initial cost is higher. Integrated weed management management for rice i. Use Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Thiobencarb 2.5 lit/ha or P e n d i m e t h a l i n 3 lit/ha or A n i l o p h o s 1.25 lit / ha as pre -emerge -emergence nce application on 3 rd day of planting as sand mix (50 kg of sand) followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after planting (or) ii.
Use herbicide mixture: Pre emergence herbicide mixture viz; Butachlor 1.20 l /ha + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit/ha (or) Thiobencarb 1.20 l + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit / ha (or) Pendimethalin 1.5 l + 2,4 DEE 1.5 lit/ha as sand mix (or) Anilophos + 2,4 DEE ready mix at 1.25 l/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after planting as sand mix will have a broad spectrum of weed control in transplanted transplanted rice.
iii.
Maintain 2.5 cm of water at the time of herbicide application. drained for 2 days (or) fresh ir rigation should not be given.
Water should not be
iv. Weed management – post emergence: If herbicides are not used as pre -emergence, -emergence, 2,4 D sodium so dium salt (Fernoxone 80% WP) at 1.25 kg / ha dissolved in 625 lit of water, is sprayed 3 weeks after transplanting using high volume sprayer.
15
Harvest and post harvest operations I. Harvesting 1.
In the tropics, harvesting is to be done in optimum time, otherwise, there is loss of grain shedding, scattering, lodging and also damaged by birds, over maturity and lodging.
2.
Timely harvesting ensures good grain quality, a high market value and improved consumer preference / acceptance
3.
In India, harvesting between 27 and 39 days after flowering gave maximum head rice recovery. Harvesting before or after that period resulted in increases in broken rice. The moisture content at the time of harvest is 18 to 20%.
4.
Taking the average duration of crops as an indication, drain the wate r from the field 7 to 10 days before the expected harvest as the drainage hastens the maturity and improves harvesting conditions.
5.
When 80% of the panicles turn straw colour (or) most of the grains at base of the panicle in the selected tillers are in hard dough stage, the crop is ready for harvest.
6.
Maturity may be hastened by 3 to 4 days days by spraying 20% Na Cl a week before harvest to escape monsoon rains.
Method of harvest: Rice straw is usually cut with a sickle at 15 to 25 cm above the ground. In Indonesia and Philippines, only panicles are removed. Now combined harvester is available for harvesting, threshing, winnowing and cleaning the seeds. Post harvest Technology: Post harvest technology encompasses an array of handling and processing processi ng system from the stage of maturation till consumption of the produce and includes threshing, cleaning, grading, drying, parboiling, curing, milling, preservation, storage, processing, packing, transportation, marketing and consumption system 1. Threshing: The methods are generally classified as manual, animal or mechanical. The common method of separating grains from panicle is hand beating (hand threshing or using mechanical thresher (small or big thresher). A loss under manual threshing is 8%. IRRI designed a portable thresher. 2. Drying: It is the process that removes moisture from the grain mass for safe storage and preservation of quality, viability a nd nutritive value. Drying should begin within 12 hours but not later than 24 hours after harvesting. Rice is normally harvested harvested at moisture moisture content content of 20% or more. If the moisture content content is not reduced to below below 14% shortly after threshing threshing the grain quality is deteriorate because of microbial activities and insect damage . The grains should be dried to 12 to 14% moist level (drying on the threshing threshing floor). In general, 4 to 5 days of seed drying are required. 3. Winnowing and cleaning: Presence of impurities like foreign seeds and trash is more likely to deteriorate in storage and reduce milling recovery rate. Cleaning is mostly done by hand winnower, which takes advantage of wind for removing impurities. Now mechanical winnower winnower is available. Combine harvester is a multipurpose one, which is useful for harvesting, threshing, winnowing and cleaning cleaning in one operation. It is highly profitable and economical. TNAU winnower costs Rs. 400/- with 90% efficiency. 4. Grading: Grading : The grains are graded for uniformity in size, shape and colour. Seed Seed cleaner cleaner cum cum graders are also available for effective cleaning and grading. 5. Storage: Low temperature and low moisture are necessary for long term storage of rice for seed. Rice seed of 10 to 14% moisture content can be stored in good condition at 18°C for more than 2 years. Rice processing 1 . Parboiling: In the process, rough rice is soaked, steamed and redried before milling. Advantages of parboiling: 1. Easy dehusking 2. low incidence of pests and diseases 3. by milling of raw rice, rice, 80% of fat and18% and18% of crude protein protein are lost, but but starch increases increases by 5%. 2 . Curing:The Curing: The new ri ce has low swelling swelling capacity and has the tendency to yield a thick viscous gruel during cooking. To overcome the above defect in newly harvested paddy, methods have been developed to hasten the ageing in fresh rice and such process is called as curing. Steaming for 15 to 20 minutes is sufficient to bring satisfactory curing effect.
16
3 . Milling: Rice milling involves the removal of husks and bran from rough rice to produce polished rice. Time of harvest and season af fect the milling yield of rice. 4 . Polishing: Removal of very fine bran (often called whitening ) 2 to 3 times.
17
PA CKAGE OF PRACTI CES FOR WET SEEDED RICE ?
Varieties recommended for different seasons
?
Main field prepar ation – puddling
?
Application of organic manure / green manure
?
Seed treatment and sprouting of seeds.
Similar to transplanted rice
Perfect leve leve lling is most important for direct seeded rice. Seeds and sowing Seed rate : 75kg Sprouted seeds are sown in lines using drum seeder. It is more economical and labour saving. Cost of drum see der is Rs. 2000/-. Maintain Maintain thin film of wate r at the time of sowing. Nutrient requirement requirement (kg/ ha)
Kuruvai / kar / sornavari
N
P 2O5
K2O
100
50
50
(Short duration crops) ?
50% N at 20 days after sowing
?
25% N at maximum tillering
?
25% N at panicle initiation stage.
?
ZnSo 4 at 25 kg/ha at basal at the time of sowing. For both the rops application of Azolla at 1.0 t/ha at 15 days after sowing and then incorporation on 3 rd week after application.
?
For light soil, potassium can be applied in two splits, 50% basal + 50% at tilling/ panicle imitation.
Water management 1.
Maintain thin film of water at the time of sowing
2.
Drain the water, where the water is stagnating
3.
Allow enough water to saturate to soil f rom 3 rd to 5 th day
4. From the 5 th day onwards increasing depth of water to 1.5 cm 5. Then after war ds maintain 2.5 cm of water upto tillering tillering 6.
Then maintain 5.0 cm of water throughout the crop growth
7.
Stop irrigation 10 days before harvest.
Weed management: The most critical period is 15 to 30 DAS. Conventional weed control: Handy weeding thrice 20, 40 to 60 DAS. Integrated weed management: management: Pre -emergence -emergence application of Pretilachlor at 0.45 kg ai/ha (Sofit 50 EC) or Thiobencarb at 1.25 kg ai/ha (2.5 lit of commercial product – saturn 50 EC) on 6 th / 8 th days after sowing followed by one late hand weeding on 40 th day. da y. Pre emergence application of pretilachlor 0.3 kg ai/ha + safner is more effective for control of weeds in wet seeded rice followed by one hand weeding. Butachlor 1.25 kg ai/ha + Safener + one hand weeding.
18
AGRO TECHNIQUES TECHNIQUES FOR CULTIVATION OF HYBRI D RI CE With an advent of cytoplasmic male sterile lines, China released first hybrid during 1976. More than 100 hybrids have been released in China. But out of 33.0 m.ha, only 17.6 m.ha is under hybrid rice. From 33.0 m.ha, China produces about 197 m.t. of rice. India so far produced 9 hybrids and the details are given in the table. S.No.
Hybrid
Year of Release
Duration (days)
Average yield (t/ha)
1.
CORH 1
1994
110-115
6.08
2.
APRH 1
1994
130-135
7.14
3.
APRH 2
1994
120-125
6.02
4.
KRH 1
1994
125-130
7.49
5.
CNRH 3
1995
125-130
7.49
6.
KRRH 1
1996
125-130
7.30
7.
KRH 2
1996
130-135
7.40
8.
ADRH 1
1998
110-115
6.43
9.
CORH 2
1998
120-125
6.07
Hybrids recorded additional yield ranges from 0.85 to 2.3 t/ha compared to check. Private companies viz., Boro. Agro, Pioneer etc released 8 hybrids. The success of hybrid rice cultivation in India depends on the success of seed production. The seed production programme should be efficient and economics. So far India coul d achieve achieve seed yield of 1.5 to 2.0 t/ha as aga inst China which recorded higher average yie ld of 2 to 3 t/ha for Indian hybrid and 3.6 t/ha for Japonica hybrid. AGRONOMIC PRACTICES FOR TAMIL N ADU RICE HYBRIDS Hybrids CORH 1
:
(110 TO 115 days),
CORH 2
:
(125 days and 6.1 t/ha),
ADTRH1
:
( 115 days and 6.4 t/ha)
Season
:
CORH1 & ADTRH 1
:
Kar, Kuruvai, Sornavari
CORH 2
:
Samba, Late Samba, Navarai
Nursery
:
Seed rate
:
All hybrids : 20 kg/ha ( 1 kg/cent)
Seed treatment
:
Carbendazin 2 g/kg of seed
Manure to Nursery
:
FYM /compost 1t/20 cents or green manure 500 kg, DAP 2 kg/cent at last ploughing.
Bio fertilizer
:
Seed treatment with Azospirillum and an d Phosphobacteria each 3 pockets ( 600 g/ha).
Weed control
:
Butachlor/Thi obencarb at 200 200 ml/20 cent or Anilophos 100 ml/20 cent 8 DAS as sand mix
Seedling age
:
CORH 1 and ADTRH 1 : 25 days CORH 2 : 25 to 30 days
Main field
:
Preparation similar to that of wet rice (transplanted rice)
Fertilizer schedule
N
P 2O 5
K2O
19
kg/ha
CORH 1 and ADTRH 1
150
50
50
Apply 50% N and 100% P and 50% of K as basal. Remaining 50% N in 3 splits viz. 15 DAT, 30 DAT and 45 DAT. Remaining 50% of K should be applied at 30 DAT
CORH2
:
N
P 2O 5
K2O
:
150
60
60
kg/ha
50% N, 100% P and 50% K as basal, Remaining 50% N in 3 splits viz, 15 DAT, 40 DAT and 60 DAT. Remaining 50% of K at 40 DAT. ZnSo 4
:
For both hybrids, at 25 kg/ha as basal
Weed control
:
Similar to that of transplanted rice
Irrigation
:
5 cm depth of irrigation. Stop irrigation 10 days before harvest.
Critical stages
:
Panicle initiation ( 50 days ) and heading ( 75 to 80 days)
:
One
ii) Spacing
:
20 x 10 cm
iii) Population / m 2
:
50 hills
iv) Planting depth
:
2 to 3 cm
Harvest
:
When 80% of panicles turn yellow
Yield
:
ADTRH 1 : 6.4 t/ha
:
CORH 2
Planting i) No of seedlings /hill
: 6.1 t/ha
Super rice A plant type to raise the harvest index to around 0.6 and the biomass to 22 t/ha. Such a plant type is expected to have a yield potential of 13 t/ha. To achieve these objectives, a new plant type was conceived with following attributes. ?
The new plant type should have lower tillering capacity of producing 3 to 4 tillers when direct seeded and 8 to 10 tillers when transplanted and all other should be ear bea ring. ring.
?
Each panicle should have 200 to 250 grains and plants with sturdy stem should grow to the height of 90 to 100 cm.
?
It should have multiple disease and insect resistance and produce grain of acceptable quality.
Rice based cropping systems: In North Eastern part of India, rice in grown under rainfed condition. Rice based intercropping system under rainfed condition Rice + Pigion pea Rice + green gram (moong bean)
3 :1 or 4: 1 ratio
Rice + Black gram, urd bean In Tamil Nadu, Rice + Black gram 3:1 ratio Ratooning in Rice Ratooning :It is the cultivation of crop regrowth. Rice ratooning is common in USA, but not in India. Varieties suitable 1.
Bhavani : 4.0 t/ha. It yiel ds 58% of main crop yield.
20
2.
Other varieties are : CO 37, ACM 8, ACM 10, ADT 36, ASD 16, PMK 1
Stubble height : 20 cm stubble height Nutrient response : Ratoon crop responds from 120 to 150 kg N /ha. Application of complete basal fertilizer application is immediately after harvest of plant crop registered higher yield than split application. WHEAT ( T r i t i c u m a e st s t i r u m o r T. T. V u l g a r e ) Importance Wheat is world’s most widely cultivated food crop. It is a rabi (winter) season crop. In India it is the second important staple cereal food. It is mostly eaten in the form of chapaties. Wheat is also used for manufacturing bread, flakes, cakes, biscuits etc. Wheat straw is a good source of feed for cattle. Wheat contains more protein (8-15%) than in other cereals. Wheat proteins are of special significance. The protein contained in wheat wheat includes albumins, albumins, globulins, globulins, glutinous and gliadines. Albumins dissolve in water. The other protein forms are insoluble in water and are called gluten. The gluten content in wheat is the highest (16-50%). Because of gluten, wheat flour is used for baking bread. Origin De candolle believed that wheat originated in the Euphrates and Tigris and spread from there to China, Egypt and other parts of the world. Vavilov concluded that origin of durum wheat was Abyssinia and the whole group of soft wheat originated in the region of Pakistan, Southwestern Afghanistan and the southern parts of mountainous Bokhara . Area and distribution
India
Area
Production
Productivity
(m.ha)
(m.t)
(kg/ha)
25.93
69.3
2671
Classification of w heat 1. Emmer Emmer w heat: T r i t i c u m d i c o cc cc u m This wheat is grown in Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. It is grown in Spain, Italy, Germany and Russia. It was developed f rom T. diccoides koru., a wild form. 2. Macaroni w heat: T r i t i c u m d u r u m It is drought tolerant and cultivated in Punjab, M.P., Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, W.B and H.P. It is used for suji preparation. It is grown in Italy, USA, Canada, and Russia. They are descended from emmer wheat. 3. Common Common bread w heat: T r i t i c u m v u l g a r e It is a typical wheat of alluvial soils of Indo Gangetic plains i.e. Punjab, U.P., Bihar and parts of Rajasthan. Bulk of Indian crop consist s of this type. cc u m 4. Indian dwarf w heat: T r i t i c u m s p h e r o c o cc
This is found in limited areas of M.P., U.P. of India and in Pakistan. They are characterized by very short and compact heads having shorter grains. This belongs to the club wheat of western countries. 5. Bread Wheat : T r i t i c u m a e s t i v u m This is the type presently grown in India in almost all the wheat-growing zones. It is introduced in India by Dr. N.E. Borlaug of Mexico and called as Mexican dwarf wheat. It is the bread wheat. Growth stages of wheat plant 1. Pre establishment stage a) P r e em e m e r g e n c e : Sprouting of seeds by giving rise to seminal roots and coleoptiles. b) E m e r g e n c e : Appearance of coleoptiles from germinating seeds above the soil surface. 2. Vegetative stage a) S e e d l i n g: The young plants establish larger root systems in this stage. The stage may be further differentiated as one leaf, two leaf, three leaf and four leaf stage.
21
b) Cr o w n r o o t s t a g e : This coincides with three or four leaf stage in which the crown roots appear. c)
T i l l e r i n g: Plants develop crown and branch out into tillers from their base at soil surface.
d) J o i n t i n g : This is the stage at which the plants start elongating when the nodes start developing above the crown node. 3) Reproductive stage a) B o o t i n g : In this stage the uppermost leaf swells out into flag holding the spike into it. b) H e a d i n g : The spikes start emerging out from the leaf sheath at this stage. c)
F l o w e r i n g : Anthesis of florets and fertilizat ion of ovaries takes place at this stage.
4) P ost anthesis stage stage a) F i l l i n g : The ovaries after fertilization star t elongating in to seeds and pass through milk, soft dough and hard dough stages. b) M a t u r i t y : Colour of the glumes changes and kernels become fairly hard at this stage. Important varieties Sonora 64 is dwarf variety introduced to India from Mexico. It is early ripening, resistant to lodging, grown well in late crop rotation with sugarcane or sweet potato. Its grain contains 12.4 to 14.4% protein. When irrigated it yields 6 to 7t/ha. Lerma Rojo is a semi dwarf variety, strongly tillering. The period form blossoming until ripening is short. The resistance to rust is high. Sowing time is late. The yields are high (7t/ha under optimal conditions). Kalyan Sona is a dwarf variety of Indian selection. Bushy, late ripening, very productive under favorable conditions (up to 8t/ha). Sonalika is a short stem, medium bushy, early ripening and high yielding variety distributed (the yields are up to 7t/ha). Soil and climatic requirem ents Soil: Wheat is grown in a variety of soils in India. Well drained loam and clay loams are good for wheat. However good crop of wheat are raised in sandy loams and black soils also. Soils should be neutral in reaction. Heavy soils with good drainage are suitable for wheat cultivation under dry condition. In I n India wheat-growing areas can be divided in to 5 soil divisions. 1.
the Gangetic alluvium of U.P. and Bihar.
2.
the Indus alluvium of the Punjab and Haryana
3.
the black soil regions of central and southern India comprising M.P., and parts of Maharashtra and Karnataka
4.
the hilly regions of the Himalayas and else where and
5.
the desert soils of Rajasthan
Climate: Wheat has wide adaptability. It can be grown not only in tropical and sub tropical zones but also in temperate zones and the cold tracts of the far north. It can tolerate severe cold and snow. It can be cultivated from sea level to as high as 3300 m. The optimum temperature range for ideal germination of wheat seed is 20-25 ?C though the seed can germinate in the temperature range of 3.5 to 35 ?C. It can be grown in regions where rainfall varies from 25 to 150 cm/year. The wheat plants require medium (50-60%) humidity for their growth. But at the time of maturity crop requires less humidit y and warm season. At the time of maturity the pla nts require 14-15?C. Season and varieties Varieties Zone
Irrigated Timely sown th
15 to 30 Hilly zone
th
Nov.
Girija,HB208, Girija,HB208, Sonalika, Shailaja
Rainfed
Late sown Up to 25
th
Timely sown Dec.
Sonalika UP 1109
22
Up to 15
th
Late sown
Nov.
Kalyanasona, HD 2204, Ridley
UP 1109
NW Plain zone
Sonalika, Arjun, Jairaj, HD 2204
Sonalika, Swati, HD 2270
Kundan, Pratap, Mukta, Sujata
-
NE Plain zone
HD 2402, Janak
Sonalika, Sonali
Pratap, WL 410
K 8962,HDR 77
Centra Centra l zone
HD 2381,HD 4530,
Sujata, Meghdoot, Kalyansona
-
Jairaj, LOK-1 LOK-1
HD2327,Sonalika, LOK-1 Swati
Peninsular zone
HD 2189, DWR 39
HD 2610,
Meghdoot,
-
DWR 195
Mukta
Southern hills zone
HW 741
NP 200
NP 200
Saline soils
KRL 1- 4
HW 972
-
HW 517 -
-
-
Raj 3077 Time of sow ing: Temperature during growing season and at grain filling is one of the several factors deciding the sowing time. However, ideal temperature requirement values from plant type and stages of growth. The dwarf varieties require the following temperature for their growth and development. Growth stages
Temperature requirement
Germination
20 - 25 ?C
Tillering
16 - 20 ?C
Accelerated growth
20 - 23 ?C
Proper grain filling
23 to 25 ?C
Wheat plants are very sensitive to very cold and frost injury at any stage of growth particularly at reproductive growth if temperature is below 15 ?C. Indigenous wheat
:
Last week of October
Long duration dwarf wheat like
:
First fortnight of November
Short duration dwarf wheats like Sonalika, Raj 821 etc.
:
2nd fortnight of November
Late sown condition
:
1st week of December
Kalyan sona, Arjun etc.
(under unavoidable circumstances sowing may be delayed up to first fortnight of December beyond which it is not advisable) Systems of Wheat culture 1) Irrigat Irriga ted wheat cultivation
2) Rainfed wheat cultivation
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR FOR I RRIGATED WHEAT Land preparation In general, wheat requir es a well-pulverized, but compact seedbed for good and uniform germination. In irrigated areas, wheat is sown after kharif crops, hence the field is ploughed with disc or mould board plough followed by 2 or 3 harrowing and 2 to3 planking should be given. One pre sowing irrigation 7 to10 days before seeding is necessary to ensure good germination. Seed rate:
Normal sowing : 100 kg/ha kg/ha Bold seed / later sown condition : 125 kg/ha
Seed treatment : Treat the seeds with any one of the fungicides at 2g/kg of seed 24 hours before sowing.
23
Spacing :
For normal sown crop : 20 to 22.5 cm between the rows For delayed sowing : 15 to 18 cm.
Depth of sowing : Since the coleoptiles length is 5 cm, depth of sowing should not more than 5 cm and the optimum depth of sowing is 2.5 to 5.0 cm. Method of sowing a)
Broadcast sowing : Seeds are broadcasted and then worked in by harrowing to cover the seeds. Germination is very poor and plant stand is often irregular, since the seeds are not placed in the moist zone. High seed ra te and it is an inefficient met hod.
b)
Sowing behind behind the country plough: plough: A majority of farmers use this method. method. The seed is dropped in furrows by hand and it is called as 'Kera method' and when it is dropped through a 'pora', a special set of attachment with local plough it is called " Pora method". method". In this method seeds are dropped at 5-6 cm depth.
c)
Drilling: Seeds are sown by seed drill or ferti seed drill. In ensures uniform depth of sowing, proper placement of fertilizers and good germination.
d)
Dibbling : This method is used in the case where supply of seeds is limited, using the implement is called "Dibbler". It is not a common co mmon method, method, because because it is time consuming.
e)
Transplanting : It is not a common practice. When the sowing delays beyond I st week of December, seedling are raised in the nursery and transplanted on 25 DAS at 2 or 3 seedling per hill at the row sp acing of 15 cm x 5to 7.5 cm. The varieties Kalyansona and Sonalika are best for transplanting.
Seed rate : 125 kg/ha. Manures and Fertilizer: A crop of wheat yielding 50 q/ha (5 t/ha) removes 100-150 kg N/ha, 70-80 kg P2O 5 and 120-150 kg K2O/ha from the soil. Fertilizer application should be made based on the soil test recommendation. FYM or compost : 12.5 t/ha at last ploughing and incorporated Condition
Recommended dose (kg/ha)
Time and method of application
N : P 2O 5 : K2O Timely sown condition
120:40:40 120:40:40
50 % N and 100 % P and K drilled 5 cm below the seed and the remaining 50% 'N' at first irrigation.
Late sown
80:40:40
50 % N and 100 % P and K drilled 5 cm below the seed and the remaining 50% 'N' at first irrigation.
Irrigated if followed by legume crop
80:40:40
50 % N and 100 % P and K drilled 5 cm below the seed and the remaining 50% 'N' at first irrigation.
for light soil, 'N' should be applied in 3 equal splits viz 1/3 at basal, 1/3 at I st irrigation and 1/3 at 2 nd irrigation. Weed Management: Critical weed free period up to 30 DAS. Post emergence application of Isoproturon (Tolkan 50% WP or Arelon 50% WP) on 30 to 35 at 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by one hand weeding or combined application of Isoproturon 0.75 kg ai/ha + 2,4-D at 0.5 kg ai/ha on 30 to 35 days is more effective for control of monocot and dicot weeds or pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 days is more efficient and economical method. Water Management: Management: Wheat requires 440 to 460mm of water. Irrigation at 50% available soil moisture or 50% depletion of available soil moisture is optimum. The critical stages of crop for irrigation 1.
Crown root initiation (21-25 days)
2.
Tillering (45-60 days)
3.
Jointing (60-70 days)
24
4.
Flowering (90-95 days)
5.
Milky stage (100-108 days)
6.
Dough stage (120-125 days)
Of these, irrigation at CRI stage is the most important and delay of every day results in reduction of 1.4% grain yield/day. It has also been noticed that if any of following irrigation is delayed or missed, the yield is reduced to the extent of 5 to 10 kg / ha. Number of irrigation One
Two
Three Three
Four
Five Five
CRI
CRI
CRI
CRI
CRI
Boot leaf
Tillering
Tillering
Tillering
Boot leaf
Boot leaf
Jointing
Milky stage
Flowering and Milky stage
Cropping Cropping syste m Wheat +sugarcane (4 to 5: 1)
Wheat + pea (4:2)
Wheat + gram (1: 1)
Wheat + chick pea (4:2)
Wheat + lentil (4:2)
Wheat + mustard (8:2)
Wheat + linseed (4:2) Wheat may be grown as relay crop in potato after earthing up especially in case of early crop of potato. Harvesting and threshing: Harvest when the leaves and stems turn yellow and becomes fairly dry. Harvest when there is about 20-25% moisture content. Harvesting is done by using sickle or bullock driven reapers or by using using Combine Harvester. After threshing and cleaning, the grain is dried in the sun for 3 t o 4 days for getting 10 to 12 % moisture for storing. Time of harvest
Hilly zone
: May to June
North Western plain zone : Mid April North Eastern plains zone : March to April Central zone zone : February to March Peninsular zone: February. Yield: 4.5 to 5.5 t/ha Post Harvest Technology : Wheat is usually ground into flour before use used d as food. Earlier days stone grinding was done. Nowadays steel roller mills are available for grinding. Process of milling: Before milling wheat is tempered by adding water about 24 to 48 hours earlier to milling so that the the moisture of grains comes around 14%. This allows better separation of bran from the endosperm. Wheat is eaten as atta in the north and west, in the south and east as maida maida and suji. Rava is consumed mainly in the south. Pasta is a mixture of flour and salt. Pasta products products comprise comprise vermicelli, noodles, macaroni and spaghetti. Storage: If the moisture content of gra in is more than 12% they are eaten up by storage pests. There is marked deterioration in weight, taste, nutrients or nutritive value and germination of wheat grains when they are stored. Safe storage means ensuring that the stored grains retain their original weight, taste, nutritive value and germination.
25
MAI ZE ( Z e a m a y s . L ) Maize is one of the important cereal crops in the world's agricultural economy both as food for men and feed for animals, because of its higher yield potential compared to other cereal it is called as “Queen “Queen of Cereals”. Cereals ”. Classification : Classification is largely based on the character of the kernels. Classified into seven groups. 1. Flint Corn: Z e a m a y s i n d u r a t a : Starchy endosperm enclosed with hard hard hammy endosperm. Kernel size is large with flat bottom and round at the top. High proportion of starch. Colour may be white or yellow. This is the type mostly gr own in India. 2. Dent Corn : Z . m a y s i n d e n t a t a Because of formation of dent on the top of kernal having white or yellow. Maize kernels have both soft and hard starches. The hard starch extends on the sides and the soft starch is in the centre and extends to the top of the kernels. Depression or dent in the crown on the seed is the result of drying and shrinkage of soft starch. This type is widely grown in USA. 3.
Pop Corn : Z . m a y s a v e r t a Kernel size is small. Presence of hard and corneous endosperm.
4. Sweet Corn : Z . m a y s s a c ch c h a r a t a The sugar and starch make the major component of the endosperm that results in sweet taste of kernels. It is mainly grown in Northern half of USA. The cobs are picked up green for canning and table pur pose. 5. Flour Corn : Z . m a y s a m y l a c e a e It resembles to the flint corn in appearance and ear characteristics. The grains are composed of soft starch and have little or no dent are called as “Soft Corn”. It is widely grown in USA and South Africa. 6.
Pod Corn : Z . m a y s t u n i c a t a Each kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk in an ear, which enclosed in husks, like other types of corn.
7. Waxy Corn : Z . m a y s c e r a b i n a The kernel looks to have waxy appearance and gummy starch in them, because of amylopectin. Starch is similar to that of Tapioca starch for making adhesive for articles. Orig in : - Mexico and Central America . C I M M Y T : - Centro International de Mejorimiento de Maizy Trigo (International Centre for the improvement of Maize and Wheat) situated in Mexico. Economic Importance and their uses ?
Most important cereal crops in the worlds’ agricultural economy. 85% is consumed as human food.
?
Several food dishes viz Chapathi are prepared from maize flour.
?
Green cobs are roasted and eaten by the people.
?
Popcorn is used for popped form; green cob for table purpose.
?
Corn has low fibre content, more carbohydrate and most palatable.
?
Widely used in preparation of cattle feed a nd poultry feed.
?
It can be used as green fodder It has no HCN content.
?
Can be preserved as silage.
?
Food product : Corn meal, Corn flakes.
?
Industrial product : Alcohol, Corn Starch (Dextrose), Glucose, Corn oil , corn syrup
?
Used in canning Industry, pr oduction of polymer, making paper, paper,
?
paper boards, bread etc.
?
Maize grain contains
Protein - 10%
Carbohydrates Carbohydrat es - 70%
Oil
Albuminoides
-
Crude fibre
4%
- 10.4%
- 2.3%
Maize protein “Zein “ Zein”” is deficient in two essential amino acids viz., Lysine and Tryptophane. Maize grain has significant quantity of vitamin A, nicotinic acid, riboflavin and vitamin E. Maize is low in Calcium, but fairly high in ‘P’.
26
Area and Production Area : 130 m.ha.
Production : 580 m.t.
Maize grow ing Countries Countries USA > China > Brazil > Mexico > India. USA ranks first in area, production and productivity. India : India occupies 5 th place in area and 11 th place in production. Area : 6.25 m.ha (1996 – 97)
Production : 10.61 m.t
Average Productivity : 1698 kg/ha. Area
: U.P. > Rajasthan > M.P. > Karnataka > Bihar.
Production
: U.P. > Bihar > Karnataka. Karnataka recorded the highest average yield of 3379 kg/ha.
Tamil Nadu : (1997 – 1998) Area
: 81,800 ha
Production
: 1,32,900 tonnes
Productivity : 1625 kg/ha. Mainly cultivated in Coimbat ore, Erode, Salem, Madurai, Trichy, Thanjavur, Pudukottai districts. Rainfed Condition : Southern districts, Dindigul areas. Climatic requirement ?
It is essentially a tropical crop.
?
It is a C 4 short day plant.
?
Though it is a tropical crop, it has got high adaptability to wider climate. 55? N to 45? S . It can be grown up to 2500 m above MSL.
?
This crop is not suitable when night temperature drops below 15.6 ? C.
?
Maize requires moist and warm weather from germination to flowering.
?
Most suitable temperature for germination is 21 ?C and for growth is 32? C.
?
Extremely high temperature and low RH at flowering desiccate the pollen resulting in poor pollen grain formation.
?
Temperature more than 35?C reduce the pollen germination. Temperature < 15 ? C delays silking and tasseling.
?
Rainfall of 500 to 750 mm of well distributed ra in is continue to proper growth.
Soil : Maize is best adapted to well drained sandy loam to silt loam soil. Water stagnation is extremely harmful to the crop, therefore proper drainage is must. must. Maize can not thrive on heavy soil especially on low lands. pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.5. The alluvial soils of U P, Bihar and Punjab are very suitable for growing maize crop. Salinity and water logging are harmful at seeding stage. Continuous water logging 3 days reduce t he yield by 40 to 45%. Growth stages of Maize : 1. Seedling stage
: 1-14 days from sprouting to 2 to 4 leaves.
2. Vegetative phase
: 15-39 days. (30-35 days is knee high stage)
3 Flowering phase 4. Maturity stage 5. Ripening
: (40-65 days). : 66-95 days. Includes soft and hard dough stage. stag e. : 96-105 days. days .
Varieties recommended for cultivation cultivation : All India Co-ordinated Maize Improvement Project was started in 1957 in collaboration with Rockefeller foundation.. Hybrids : 100 to 105 days. Deccan, Ganga Safed, Ganga-4, Ganga-5, Ganga-7,9, Histarch, Sangam, In Tamil Nadu, CoH1, CoH2 and CoH3 Hybrids, 5.5 to 6.0 t/ha. Promising Composites : 100 to 105 days. Amber, Vijay, Kisan, Sona, Vikram, Jawahar. 5.0 to 5.5 t/ha. t /ha. Shor S hortest test duration composite : K1(80 to 85 days Co1 (105 days) Cropping system
27
1.
Maize – Potato
2. Maize – Berseem 3. 4.
Maize – Chickpea/Safflower (Rainfed) Maize – Potato – Wheat Wheat
Tamil Nadu 1.
Maize – Greengram Greengram
2.
Maize – Cotton Cotton
3. Maize – Onion
Rainfed Intercropping Maize + Greengram
Maize + Groundnut
Maize + Soybean
Miaze + Cowpea
Maize + Redgram
In North India Short duration Maize, Kathri and Sathi (65 to 75 days) grown as intercrop in sugrcane in UP. Time of sowing: sowing: In India, it is gr own in 3 seasons . 1. Kharif – Jun e – July (85% of rainfed area) 2.
Rabi – Peninsular India and Bihar. Oct – November
3. Spring : Nor th India. Jan J an – Feb. Irrigated condiiton. Yield of maize is more during Rabi and Spring season. Tamil Nadu : Optimum time of sowing is 1) Winter/Rabi Winter/Ra bi
: End of December to Ist week of January.
2) Kharif
: First fortnight of June or First fortnight of August.
3) Rainfed
: End of September to October Ist week.
System of Maize cultivation 1) Rainfed (78% area)
2) Irrigated (22% area)
MANAGEMENT PRACTICE FOR IRRI GATED MAIZE Field preparation: The crop does not require fine tilth. Field is ploughed to a depth of 25 to 30cm using mould board plough, followed by 3 or 4 ploughing with desi plough or harrow. In clay soils main problem is the formation of hard pan. Chiseling reduces the hard pan formation and there is increase in yiel d of 25 to 30%. Varieties and hybrids recommended for Tamil Nadu CO 1
: Composite, 105-110 105-110 days, suited for Coimbatore, Coimbatore, Periyar, Pudukottai and Thanjavur. Yield : Irrigated : 4 t/ha. Rainfed : 3 t/ha.
K1
: Composite, 80-85 80-85 days. Highly tolerant to drought, suited for Pudukottai district.
Hybrids (Irrigated) : 4 t/ha, Rainfed 3 t/ha. C O H 1 : Hybrid, 90-95 days, suited for all locations. Highly Highly drought tolerant and and resisitant to downy mildew. Yield: Irrigated: 5 t/ha.
Rainfed
: 3.7 t/ha.
C O H 2 : 100 to105 days. Best suited for all locations. Resistant to downy mildew. Yield : Irrigated : 5.4 t/ha. Rainfed : 3.5 t/ha. COH3 : 90 to 95 days. Irrigated:6.0t/ha, Rainfed: 4.3 t/h. COBC1 : For dessert and canning, 55 to 65 days. All areas of Tamil Nadu, Yield : 6 to7 t/ha, Green fodder : 32 t/ha. (Multiple cobs 2 -3) [ 7pickings at interval of 2 days]. Land shaping : Among the different land shaping methods, methods, ridges and furrow system is more more effective. Because water logging is less in this system. Method of sowing : Mostly direct seeding, sowing/dibbling behind country plough is adopted.
28
Transplanting is adopted in problem areas like Dharmapuri and Pudukottai, where red ferrugenious and laterite soils exist. Studies reveal that 5 days old seedling increased the grain yield by 11 to 14% during kharif and kharif and summer season over direct seeding. Pai Nursery technique is advocated. Raised bed is formed and above the seed bed spread compost and s and at 1:1 ratio and dibbl e the seeds. Cover it, spri nkle the water for 3 to 4 days. Pull out the seedling on 5 th day. There will be 100% germination. Seed treatment with fungicide followed by Azospirillum (3 pockets) Seed rate : Composite :
20 kg/ha , Hybrids Hybrids : 5 kg/ha
Spacing : 60x20cm. 83,333 plants/ha. plants/ha. For maximum yield : 1.1 l/ha l/ha with (60x15cm). Fertilizer management : Among the cereals, it is the heavy feeder. If there is no soil test recommendation, blanket recommendation of NPK at 135:62.5:50 kg/ha is recommended for irrigated maize, besides application of 12.5 t of FYM/ha. Method of application : Apply fertilizer 5cm below the soil and 10cm away from the root zone. Time of application of fertilizers : 100% P and K should be applied as basal. ‘N’ should be applied in 3 splits. Why ?. In all the cereal crops, there is 2 peak stages of uptake, where as in Maize, there are 3 peak stages of uptake. Ist pea k
30-35 days. (Knee high stage)
IInd pea k
50-60 days
( Tasselling)
70-80 days
( dough stage).
rd
III pe ak
Hence ‘N’ should be applied in 3 splits.
?
basal,
?
at 25th day,
?
rd
at 45th day.
Bio fertilizers : Seed treatment with 3 pockets of Azospirillum followed by soil application of Azospirillum @10 pockets (2 kg/ha) with FYM at 50 kg/ha , For transplanted crop ‘N’ should be applied 50% basal and 25% at knee high stage and 25% at taselling stage. ZnSo4 : Apply ZnSo 4 at 25 kg/ha at the time of sowing. If not possible to apply at basal, foliar spray of 0.5% ZnSo 4 at critical stages is recommended.‘Zn’ deficiency cause “White bud” in Maize. For getting maximum yield: For irrigated crop adopt 1.1 lakh plants (60 x 15cm) with 200:100:80 kg NPK /ha (N and K application in 3 splits) + 25kg ZnSo 4 /ha. Water management ?
Requires 500 to 600 mm of water.
?
Based on IW/CPE ratio, irrigating at 0.8 IW/CPE ratio recorded higher yield. Under intercropping situation, 0.6 IW/CPE ratio is optimum.
?
Critical stages for irrigation are taselling and silking. Peak consumption of water also occurs dur ing this period (taselling and silking).
?
Water shortage for 2 days in this stage, reduce the yield by 20%.
Number irrigation required :Clay/clay loam : 8 irrigations Light soil
: 10 irrigations
Irrigation for germination germination : 1 (Irrigation after sowing) 2 (Life irrigation 4 th day) Vegetative phase: phase :
1st irrigation on 12 th day 2 nd irrigation on 25th day 3 rd irrigation on 36 th day.
Flowering phase :
1st irrigation on 48 th day 2 nd irrigation on 60th day
Maturity phase
1 irrigation on 72nd day
For light soil two more irrigations are needed. Weed management ?
Maize crop should be kept weed free condition up to 45 days.
29
?
Among the herbicides, pre emergence herbicide, Simazine and atrazine ar e more selective.
?
Hence integrated weed management of pre-emergence application of atrazine 0.25 kg/ha followed by one hand hoeing and weeding on 30 to 35 DAS is effective and economical compared to two hoeings and weedings (Conventional methods).
?
For intercropping systems, atrazine should not be used.
?
For maize + pulse intercropping system, pre -emergence application of pendimethalin 1.0 kg kg ai/ha followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 DAS. ?
Spraying should be done within 3 days
?
There should be adequate soil moisture
?
Should not disturb the soil immediately after application
?
Use high volume sprayer fitted with deflect ed type or flat fan nozzle can be used.
?
If pre-emergence herbicides is not applied, post emergence application, 2,4 D Na salt (Fernoxone 80 WP) at 1.0 kg/ha on 2 or 3 rd leaf stage for sole maize, should not use when intercropped with legumes.
?
For maize + soybean/pulse intercropping system, pre-emergence application of alachlor at 2.0 kg ai/ha (Lasso 50% EC) + one ha nd weeding.
Chemical Chemical name
Trade Name
ai/ ha
Commercial Product
Atrazine
Atratop 50%WP
0.25 kg/ha
500 g/ha
Pendemethalin
Stomp 30% EC
1.0 kg ai/ha
3.3 l/ha
Fernoxone 80% WP
1.0 kg ai/ha
1.25 kg/ha.
P r e em em e r g e n c e
P o st st e m e r g e n c e
2.4D Na salt
Thinning and gap filling : Leave one healthy healthy seeding seeding per hill and and remove others others on 7th or 8 th day of sowing. Where seedings are not germinated, dibble 2 seeds per hill and immediately pot water it. The crop should be earthed up after application fertilizer at 30 to 35 DAS to prevent lodging. Harvesting and an d grain shelling : The grain cob is harvested when cob sheath turns brownish, grains become hard and they do not contains more then 20% moisture and t hey are piled up for 24 hours and then dried in the sun for 5 or 6 days to reduce the moisture to 10 to 12%. Shelling : Common practice is hand shelling, but efficiency is very poor. Now corn shellers of greater efficiency, which are manually driven, tractor drawn, electricity operated are available. The left over plants are used as green fodder or straw.
30
BARLEY ( H o r d e u m v u l g a r e L . em e m e n d , L am am .) It belongs to genus Hordeum. Classification of barley : Cultivated barley varieties a re classified based on number of rows of grain and their arrangement. arrangement. 1. Six rowed barley
:
Hordeum vulgare
2. Two rowed barley
:
Hordeum distichum
3. Irregul Irreg ular ar barley barl ey
:
Hordeum irregular
Of these, six rowed barley is the most commonly cultivated type. Origin
i) Core group of investigators considered Abyssinia as the centre of origin for hulled, awned type. ii) Another group considered South-East Asia particularly, China, Tibet and Nepal as centre of origin for hull less six rowed varieties.
Economic importance : Barley is a rabi cereal crop ?
It is the most important cereal of the world and it is the major source of food for large number of peoples in cooler semi arid parts of the world. It is the staple food crop of people in Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. In European country, it is used only a s break fast food.
?
Important food crop in higher altitude.
?
Flour is used for making ‘Chapati’ along with wheat flour or gram flour and used as “Missi Rotti”.
?
Used for prepar ation of malt, beer, w hisky and industrial alcohol, alcohol, vinegar.
?
Mainly used in malt and brewing industries.
?
Grain is broken and roughly ground in to pearl ba rley to be used in soup.
?
Excess grain is used as cattle feed and horse feed.
?
Medicinal value, used for biscuit making.
?
Nutritive value : Protein – 11.5%, Carbohydrates - 74%, Fat – 1.3%, Crude fibre – 3.9%, Ash – 1.5% (3.69).
Area and distributions World : It is grown in many countries viz., Russia, Canada, Germany, France, China, USA, Turkey, India, Australia, Spain etc. Area
:
76.2 m.ha
Production Produc tion
:
171.9 m.t
Productivity
:
2.26 t/ha.
USSR ranks first in acreage and production. India : Area
:
Production Produc tion
:
Productivity
:
8.84 l.ha (1995 – 1996) 16.54 l.ton 1.87 t/ha.
Of the total area, 61.0% area is under irrigated condition and 39% is under rainfed condition. Area :
Production :
UP
>
Rajasthan
(4.4 l ha)
(1.6 l ha)
50% of area
20% of area
UP
>
>
MP
>
Rajasthan
>
Punjab
Haryana
>
Rajasthan
Haryana
(8.48 l.t) Productivity : Punjab > (3.15 t/ha) Tamil Nadu : It is grown in a smaller area in Nilgris Nilgris and Palani hills. Climatic requirement : Similar to Wheat. Comes up well in cool climate. Warm and moist condition are not conducive. It requires around 12-15 ? C during growing period and around 30 ? C during maturity. It cannot cannot tolerate frost. Frost and Hailstorm at flowering are detrimental.
31
Rain at the time of ripening causes discolouration of grain and it is not good for malting or seeding. The crop posses possesses ses high degree of tolerance to drought and Sodic condition. Edaphic or Soil requirements : Sandy to moderately heavy loam soil of Indo-Gangetic plains having neutral to Saline in reaction and medium fertility are most suited for barley. Being a salt tolerant crop, it is the best substitute for sodic soils and also for saline coastal soils in West Bengal and black soils of Karnataka. A higher spot with efficient drainage would be best location for barley. The soil should not be very fertile which causes lodging odging and reduce the yield. Acidic soils are not suitable. Season Rainfed crop
: Before end of October or first week of November.
Irrigated
: Ist or IInd week of November
Late sown
: Up to December
Hilly Zones (2000 m): Ist week of November. Seed Rate Irrigated
: 75 to 100 kg/ha.
Rainfed : 80 to t o 100 kg/ha. kg/ha . Saline soil
: 100 kg/ha.
In very high altitude of 2000 m above MSL, grown only as summer crop. Sowing during end of April or I st week of May . Similar to Wheat. Spacing :
Irrigated crops : 23cm row spacing Rainfed crops
Depth of Sowing :
: 23-25cm row spacing
rrigated crops : 5cm depth Rainfed crops : 6 to 8cm depth
Varieties recommended : Two type of varieties are sown i) Huskless and ii) Hulled Hulled barley I . Su i t e d f o r h i l l y a r e a s : (Northern ( Northern hills ) 1.
Himami : Developed at Simla. Medium to lower hills. 140 -145 days, 3.2-3.6 t/ha. t/ha .
2.
Dolma : Medium to high elevation. 140-150 days. Resistant to yellow rust. 3.5 to 4.0 t/ha.
3. Kailash: Kailash: Six row hulled variety. Medium to lower elevation. 145-150 days. Resistant to yellow rust. Yield:4.0 t/ha. II . Rainfed areas 1.
1.Ratna: 1.Ratna: Six rowed hulled variety. Developed at IARI. 125-130 days, 2.5 -3.0 t/ha – UP. Grown in WB, Bihar.
2.
Vijay : Developed at Kanpur, 120-125 days,. 3.0-3.5 t/ha. Suited for cultivation in UP, Delhi, MP, Punjab.
3.
Azad: Developed at Kanpur. Resistant to yellow rust. 115-120 days. days. 3.5-3.8 t/ha.
4.
Ameru: Developed from Kanpur, 130-133 days, 2.5-3.0 t/ha. Best for production of Malt for brewing.
III . Irrigated areas 1.
Jyoti: Six rowed r owed hulled h ulled variety. variety. Developed from from Kanpur. 120-125 days, 3.5-4.0 3.5 -4.0 t/ha.
2.
Ranjit : Six rowed, semi dwarf, non non lodging.125-130 days. 3.0-3.5 3.0 -3.5 t/ha. Recommended for commercial cultivation.
3.
Clipper : Two row barley variety. 135-140 days, 28-30 q/ha. Best for malt production and brewing purpose.
4. Karan 18 and 19 : 5.0 –5.6 t/ha. Best varieties. Dual purpose varieties (Fodder and grain): Ra tna, Karan 2 , Karan 5 and Karan 10. Selection of variety for malt production ?
Plumpy, medium, good quality seeds
32
?
Select the seeds having 1.2 to 1.5% N
?
Timely sowing. Avoid late sowing.
?
Fertile soil should be avoided.
Land preparation : Barley being a shallow rooted crop responds well to light textured, fine seed bed. One ploughing ploug hing with soil turnin g plough followed by 2 or 3 pl oughings with desi desi plough or 2 or 3 harrowings by tractor or or bullock power. In areas where termites are problematic, mix the soil with BHC 10% at 20 -25 kg/ha or aldrin 5% dust at 10 to15 kg/ha. Seed treatment : Treat the seeds with either Captan/Thiram/Bavistin @ 2g/kg of seeds. In the case of saline and rainfed areas, sowing of overnight soaked seeds results in a quick germination and also ensures better stand. Fertilizer management : Condition
Apply FYM at 12.5 t/ha during last ploughing
Recommended N
P 2O 5
K2O
Irrigated crop
60 :
30 :
20
Malt production
30 :
20 :
20
Rainfed
40 :
20 :
20
Method and Time of application: 50% N and 100% P and K as basal. Remaining 50 % N at 30 DAS (Ist irrigation). In rainfed and saline soils, entire fertilizer should be drilled below 8 to10cm depth as basal. Light Textured soil: soil : N should be applied in 3 splits. during second irrigation.
?
as basal +
?
during first irrigation +
?
Method of Sowing : Similar to Wheat 1) Broadcasting 2) Pora and Kera method. Water management: management: It requires 200-250 mm water. 2-3 irrigations are adequate. Light soil requires 4 irrigations. Following are the critical growth stages for irrigat ion. 1.
Seedling or sprouting stage
2.
Active tillering stage ( 30-35 DAS) DAS)
3. Flag leaf 4.
Milling Milling stage or soft d ough stage.
Of these active tillering stage around 30 -35 DAS and grain filling (60-65 DAS) are most critical. Weed management : Up to 30 days is critical. Monocot and dicot weeds found are similar to that of wheat. 1) Post emergence application of Isoproturan 0.75 kg/ha + 0.5 kg/ha 2,4-D combination on 35-40 days (3-5 leaf stage) effectively control both dicot and monocot weeds + one hand weeding or pendimethalin (pre emergence) 1.0 kg/ha + one hand weeding is economical than that of two hand weedings. Barley based cropping system system:: Barley being a short duration crop is more suitable for rotation than wheat. The following are the common rotations. Paddy - bar ley
Cotton - barley barle y
Jowar - barley barle y
Maize - bar ley
Bajra - barley
Urdbean - barley barl ey
Barley is grown mixed with crops like 1.
Chickpea + barley
4. Mustard + barley
2.
Pea + barley
5. Linseed + barley.
3. Lentil + barley Harvest : Similar to that of wheat. Timely harvest ensures quality grain and prevent different losses. Threshing Threshing either by using animal or mechanical threshers. Then winnowing and cleaning are done. Storage of grains at 10-12% moisture level. Yield
:
Grain: 3.0-3.5 t/ha Straw
:4.0-5.0 t/ha
33
?
Hulled barley is not accepted by consumers. Now two improved huskless varieties viz., Karan 18 and Karan 19 19 have been been released and there is a great demand for them among among the farmers.
34
OATS ( A v e n a s a t i v a) Oat belongs to genus A v e n a Classification of oats :
According to their chromosome number.
Group I: I: A.brevis: short oats grown in Southern Europe for green fodder, hay Group II : A.abyssinica. “Abyssinian oat” grown in several parts of North North Africa for fodder. Group III: III: “Common Oat”. It occupies 80% of total acreage under oat. A . Sa S a t i v a : 80% of total world acreage is under Common Oat. Oat. A . b y z a n t i n a - “red oat” grown around Mediterranean region, Europe and North Asia and warmer sub tropical area for both grains and fodder. It also cultivated in India, next to A. satira. satira. Heat tolerant. A . c h i r e n s i s : Chinease naked oat extensively grown in hilly parts of China China for grain. A . s t r i g o s a : called “sand oat”.
Dual purpose : Grain and fodder. Grown in Mediterranean region. Of this, 80% of area is under A. Sativa and the remaining area by A. byzantina. byzantina. Economic importance ?
It is one of o f the most important rabi/winter cereal fodder crops of India.
?
It is used as green fodder, straw, hay or silage.
?
Oat grain makes a good balanced concentrate in the ra tions for Poultry, Cattle, Sheep and Horse.
?
Green fodder conta contains ins about 10-12% protein and 30-35 percent dry matter.
?
It is fed to animals mixed with berseem or Lucerne green fodder. Its fodder and grain are highly nutritious and preferred for milch cattle and draft a nimal.
?
Very small portion of oat grain is processed in to food is the form of “rolled oats and oatmeal” for human consumption.
Origin: Perhaps originated in Asia Minor. Area and Distribution World: World : Area : 26.8 m.ha. Production : 40.3 m.t. The leading oat producing countries countries are USSR, USA, Canada, Poland, China, France, Australia. India : It is cultivated on large scale in Punjab, Haryana, U.P. and a limited area in certain part of HP, Maharastra, M.P., Orissa, Bihar and West Bengal. In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in Nilgris. Nilgris . Climate : It requires cool temperature during germination, tillering, booting and heading. High temperature at blooming increases empty spikelets and reduces the seed yield. Oat requires about 15-25º C temperature for its optimum growth. Oat requires more moisture to produce a given unit of dry matter than any other cereal except rice. Rainfall should not exceed 760 m.m. and should be well distributed. Soil: Soil : It can be grown on all types of soils except the alkaline and water logged ones. Oats generally make their best growth on loam soils, but produce satisfactory yield on heavy or light soil. Varieties 1.
Kent : Introduced from Australia Mid late variety resistant to blight, rust and lodging. Dual purpose, flowering taken place between 112 – 116 days, fodder yield 60 – 65 t/ha. Grain 3 to 3.5 t/ha.
2.
Algerian : For irrigated areas. Slow growing 145 to150 days, green fodder yield: 40 to45 t/ha.
3.
Bunker 10 : Mid season variety. Suitable for moisture shortage Condition. Resistant to loose smut. Green fodder yield: 40 t /ha
4 . Coachman : Introduced from USA. Erect habit. Green fodder Yield:50 t/ha 5.
H F O 114 : Erect type, multicut variety. Green fodder yield: 50 to 55 t/ha, grain yield: yield: 2.5 t/ha. Suitable for Haryana .
35
6. UPO. 50 : Medium late and semi erect variety variety released from Pantnagar. Pantnagar. Resistant to rust, blight bligh t and lodging. Fodder yield : 45 to 50 t/ha. Suitable for cultivation in U.P. Time of sowing : Optimum time of sowing is from middle of October to middle of November for getting higher yield. Oct. middle for fodder production and Nov.middle for seed productio n Seed rate : 100 kg/ha. Drill sowing is better than broadcasting. Field preparation: preparation: The field should be thoroughly prepared to secure a fine and firm seed bed. One deep ploughing followed by 3-4 harrowings and planking are sufficient to get good seed bed. Long narrow beds may be laid out across the field so that only single irrigation channel along the upper side of the field may serve the pur pose. Spacing : 20 to t o 23 cm for fodder 23 to 25 cm for grain Manures and fertilizers: fertilizers : The crop responds to organic manures apply 15.0 to 20.0 t/ha. Recommended NPK : 80:40:0 kg NPK/ha. Apply entire ‘P’ as basal and ‘N’ should be applied as follows 60 kg N/ha as basal 10 kg N/ha at I st irrigation (25 to 30 DAS) 10 kg N/ha after Ist cutting. Water management : Lowest WUE next to rice, require high amount of of water. The crop irrigated once in 20 to 25 days, 4 to 5 irrigations are needed. Generally irrigation is necessary after each cutting. Critical stage is tillering stage for oat. Weed Control : Usually one weeding after 3 to 4 weeks of sowing is enough. Harvesting : The crop needs about 120 to 150 days to mature (4½ to 5 months). It is common practice to take 2 or 3 cuttings of fodder and then to allow the crop to grow for seed. But normally only two cuttings are taken from the seed or grain crop. Of these two cuttings, first is taken after 60 to 65 days and second after 90 days of sowing or at the flowering stage of the crop. Then plants are allowed to grow and set seeds. Yield : If it has given two cuts, Green fodder: 50 to 60 t/ha and seed / grain yield : 200 to 400 kg/ha. Threshing, winnowing and cleaning of the grain as per wheat. Rotation and Inter cropping 1.
Jowar – Oat – Maize
2.
Maize – Oat – Maize
3. Cowpea – Oat+Mustard – Miaze+Cowpea Miaze+Cowpea 4. Jower+Cowpea – Oat+Lucerne Oat+Lucerne Yield : If the crop is allowed after Ist cut for seed set, then fodder yield : 25 to 30 t/ha. Seed: 3 to 3.5 t/ha. Straw: 2.5 to 3 t/ha
36
Rye ( S e ca ca l e c e r e a l e ) Minor rabi cereal. Mainly used for green fodder, pasture crop, green manure crop and cover crop. The flour of rye is mixe d with wheat flour for making bre ad. Rye straw is used for bedding and packing material. Area and distribution : In the world, it is cultivated in an area of 16.3 m.ha with a productivity of 40.7 m.t. 60% of area is in USSR, followed by Germany, Austria, Hungari, USA, Canada, Poland, Turkey etc. In India, it is gr own in Punjab, Haryana and U.P. Origin : Compared to wheat, rye is a relatively new crop. The earliest cultivation appears to have been in Western Asia and Southe rn USSR. Climate : It can with stand all adverse weather conditions except heat. Commonly called as “Winter “ Winter hardy cereal” cereal ” and is the earliest of all cereals. Soil : Rye is the only one rabi cereal best suited for sandy soil. Season : Winter season and spring season. season. Rye Varieties : Rye varieties are not so numerous as Wheat, Barley and Oats. For Winter Season:
Forage type: Athens, Common, Abruzzes Grain type : Rosen, Dakold, Balba
Spring Rye : Prolific, Merced. Time of of sowi ng :
For Forage crop
: October is the best time.
Grain crop
: November.
For Pasture or green manure or cover crop: August. Seed rate : 75 to 95 kg/ha for forage and 55 to 65 kg/ha for grain. Land preparation: preparation: Summer ploughing is recommended. Stubble mulching to over come the erosion. Method of sowing: sowing: Broadcasting and Drill sowi ng. Depth 2.5 cm. 20 to 25 cm row spa cing. Fertilizers: Fertilizers : It responds to 30 to 90 kg N, 35 to 55 kg P and 65 kg K2O. ‘N’ is applied in two splits. Application of BHC 10% or Aldrin 5% at 15.20 kg/ ha for termite. Water Management Management : CRI and heading are the critical stages. Six irrigations are recommended. 1.
Sowing irrigation
2.
20 to 25 DAS Vegetative (CRI)
3.
40 to 45 DAS (Tillering)
4.
70 to 75 DAS (Late Jointing stage)
5.
Flowering stage
6.
Dough stage (115 th day).
If only one irrigation is available - Irrigate at CRI. If 2 irrigations , CRI and flowering. If 3 irrigations, CRI, Late jointing and flowering stage. Harvest For Forage crops : Two harvests. 50 to 55th day and at Dough stage. Forage cum grain crop : 50 to 55 th day and allowed for seed set. Yield :
50 to 55 t/ha [Only fodder purpose]. Dual Crop : 25 t/ha fodder,
2.5 t/ha grain and 2.5 t/ha straw. TRITICALE
Rye, a member of the Poaceae family, is popularly grown as fodder in foreign countries and the same is found on the North Indian hills. It has characteristic feature of growing very profuse with exceptionally more number of tillers per plant under poor fertility status of soil having marginal or no irrigation facilities. facilities. Breeders took rye for crossing crossing with wheat wheat and the resultant offspring was named as man made cereal or ryewheat scientifically known as triticale. This was done with a view to reduce the required input in wheat production and to increase the per unit area. Besides these, triticales have about 20 per cent protein and a very high biological value but the greatest drawback was that the grain colour was dark-red, seeds were very
37
wrinkled with low viability and the plants had a very high degree of sterility. The grains are also susceptible to store grain pests. In the present day breeding these points are being taken into active consideration and probably in near future the farmers would be having a good number of triticale varieties for the cultivation. l o r ) JOWA R or SORGHUM SORGHUM ( So r g h u m b i c o lo
It is an annual crop belonging to family Poaceae and genus, Sorghum. Classification of Sorghum Sorghum:: Harlen and classification based on spikelet type.
de Wet (1971) gave a modified and simple
a. Basic races : 1. bicolor, 2. guinea 3. caudatum 4. kafir 5. dur ra. Now cultivated sorghum is Sorghum biclor. b. Hybrid races : Guinea bicolor, Caudatum bicolor etc. Origin :
Warth War th (1937) (193 7)
: Africa
Decandolle(1984)
: Abyssinia
Economic importance 1.
Sorghum is one of the major food crops of the world, particularly Africa and Asia. In India, it ranks third in major food crop, especially central and peninsular.
2.
It is used in various forms, similar to rice as cooked food, malted, flour for Dosai and making Chapathi or Rotti, popped, semolina.
3.
Very good dry and green fodder.
4.
Good concentrate for cattle and poultry feed.
5.
Raw material for starch Industries.
6.
Used in production of alcohol similar to corn.
7.
Used for preparation of sorghum syrup (20 to 25% sugar) from sweet sorghum varieties.
8.
Used for production of Jaggery.
9.
It contains high amount of a conitic acid which prevents the crystallization of sugar.
Quality of sorghum: sorghum : It contains 72.6% mineral and contains more of fibre.
carbohydrate, 10 to 12% protein, 3% fat, 1.6%
Bad Qualities 1.
It contains high amount of Niacin, which interface with the synthesis of Tryptophane which is the precursor for synthesis of IAA.
2. “Pellagara”: nutritional disorder due to presence of high amount of Leucine : iso-leucine ratio (3.4). When it is reduced, yield is also reduced. This disease is common in Africa. 3.
It contains considerable amount of oxalic acid which interface with absorption of Calcium and metabolism of calcium.
4.
Phytin ‘P’ is not utilized due to high oxalic acid. Oxalic acid also affects the ir on uptake.
5.
Low digestability and low palat ability due to presence of phenolic compounds and glucosides tannin and lignin.
6.
Sorghum contains “cynogenic glucoside” called “Dhurin”. This glucoside is converted in to HCN HC N in the stomach of of ruminants. It causes causes blo blo ating and reduce the transfer of O2 to the blood steam and causes death of the animal. It is called “sorghum poisoning” poison ing” or “sorghum effect”. effect ”. HCN content is more than 100 ppm in the early stage. Critical level is 50 ppm. It (50 ppm) normally occurs during 60 to 65 days after sowing or at heading stage. If it is harvested earlier, it should be dried and fed to cattle.
7.
“Sorghum injury” : Sorghum stubbles / roots have high C:N ratio (50:1), ie., it contain low amount of ‘N’. Hence microbes take the soil ‘N’ for decomposition than from the decomposed stubble, which causes temporary immobilization immobilization of soil ‘N’. ‘N’. Hence succeeding crop after sorghum is affected due to N deficiency in the early stage called sorghum injury. Succeeding crops need higher N.
Important Important characters of sorghum
38
?
It has the capacity to withstand dr ought or excess moisture (92% of sorghum is grown under rainfed.
?
Comes up well even in marginal soil under moisture stress
?
It does well in low rainfall areas
?
It makes comparatively quick growth than than maize.
?
It is dormant during stress condition and it resumes it growth, when optimum condition occur.
Climatic requirement : It is a short day plant. Long day condition delays flowering and maturity. It is a C 4 plant. It is a warm weather plant and is grown to as high as 1500 m from MSL. Sorghum can tolerate high temperature throughout their life cycle, better than any other cereal. It is highly resistant to desiccation. It can tolerate water logging. Low temperature at flowering affect the seed set. Rainfall at maturity affect the quality of grain. Low temperature with cloudy weather at flowering induce sugary disease. Edaphic or soil requirement : It is grown under variety of soil. Soil with clay loam or loamy texture having good water retention are best suited. It does not thrive in Sandy soils, but does better in heavier soils. It does well in pH range of 6.0 to 8.5 as it tolerates considerable salinity and alkalinity. The black cotton soils of Central India are very good for its cultivation. In TamilNadu, 60% of soil is alfisol, where sor ghum is grown. Area, Production and Productivity During 1997, world production : 147 mt. Production USA
>
(74.2mt)
Brazil
>
(26.5)
Argentina Argentina
>
(14.5mt)
China (13.5)
In India, it is staple food crop of North Karnataka, Maharashtra, AP, Gujarat, MP and Rajasthan. It is mainly grown as kharif crop and smaller extent as Rabi crop in Maharashtra, Karnataka, AP and MP. India: India : (1996 – 1997) 1997) Area:11.5 m.ha, Production:11.08m.t Production:11.08m.t Productivity: 950 kg/ha. In India, 92.0% of the area is under rainfed. Area : Maharashtra Maharasht ra > Karnataka (61.6 l ha)
> MP
> AP
(20.8 l ha)
In Maharashtra, Karnataka, MP and AP sorghum is grown in both kharif and kharif and rabi. Tamil Nadu : Area:5.06 l. ha, ha, Production: 4.86 l.t and Productivity: 960 kg/ha. At present, Maharashtra has the largest area accounting 43% of Indian area under sorghum and 51% of total production. In Tamil Nadu, it is largely grown in Trichy, Coimbatore, Salem, Dharmapuri, Madurai, and Tirunelveli (undivided district). North Arcot and Erode districts. In Tamil Nadu 85% of area is under r ainfed and 15% is irrigated. MANAGEMENT P RACTICES FOR RAI NFED SORGHUM SORGHUM 1.
Rainfall: Rainfall : Average and well distributed rainfall of 250 to 300mm is optimum for rainfed sorghum.
2. Distribution : Madurai, Dindigul, Theni, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi, Virudhunagar, Sivagangai, Trichy, Erode, Salem, Namakkal, Coimbatore and Dharmapuri districts. 3.
Season :
1) S . W m o n s o o n : entire North India “Kharif crop” (June to July)- Salem and Dharmapuri in Tamil Nadu. 2) N . E m o n s o o n : All the district except Salem. (Sept to Oct to Dec to Jan) 3) R a b i : North India October and Dharmapuri.
Field preparation : Field has to be prepared well in advance taking advantage of early showers.
39
FYM @) 12.5 t/ha applied at last ploughing. i) Chiselling the soil with hand pan or shallow soil once in three years. ii) Depending on the rainfall and soil type, different land shaping methods may be adopted for conservation of the moisture. Black soil having high rainf all areas and hence form broad bed and furrow. In Black soils having low rainfall, form compartmental bunding or sow the seeds in flat bed and form furrows between crops during inter cultivation or during third week after sowing for both the soil types or form dead furrow at 3 m interval. Varieties : CO26 (105-110), COH3, (105-110), K 8(85 days), CO19 (145 days Lexpark), K10 (110-115), Pa iyur-1 iyur-1 (140-145), ( 140-145), Pai yur-2 yur-2 (Sencholam) (90-95 (90-95 days). Varieties: Varieties : APK 1 (105-110 days), BSR1 (105-110 days) Southern districts : [Irungu cholam belt] –Traditional variety Variety
Duration (days)
Grain yield (t/ha)
Fodder yield (t/ha).
Co26
105-110
4.5
14.00
K10
110-115
1.6 t/ha
16.00
Co25
115-120
3.68 t/ha
13.25
K.Tall
90
3.75 t/ha
11.25
K8
85
2.40 t/ha
7.30
APK1
105-110
2.60 t/ha
8.00
BSR1 BSR1
105-110
3.00 t/ha
7.20
Northern districts: districts :
K.Tall, COH3, COH4, CO25, CO26, BSR 1
Seed rate : 15 kg/ha. Seed treatment 1) Seed hardening : Soak the seeds in 2% Potassium di hydrogen phosphate (20 g in one litre of water or 500ppm of CCC or cycocel (1ml in one litre of water) for six hours and shade dry for 5 hours. Use 350 ml of solution for soa king one kg of seed. Seed hardening i)
It is a method by which drought tol erance is induced in plants by soa king the seeds in weak electrolytes or salt solution solution
ii)
Seed treatment with Azospirillum and phosphobacteria each 3 pockets (600 gm).
iii) In main field, apply 2 kg of Azospirillum and 2 kg of FYM + 25 kg of soil.
phosphobacteria with 25 kg of
iv) Treat the seeds with any one of the fungicides @ 2g/kg of seeds . (Thiram / Bavistin) Sowing : Sow the seeds before onset of monsson at 5cm depth with seed cum fertilizer drill or by seed drill or by country plough. Before sowing, the seed is pelletised with 15g of chlorpyriphos in 150 ml of gum and seeds are dried. Pre monsoon sowing / dry seeding seeding : Sowing a week or 2 weeks before on set of monsoon. District District
Optimum period
Coimbatore
37-38 th week (II – III week of September)
Erode
38th week (III week of September)
Sivaganga and Ramnad
40th week (Ist week of October) October)
Thoothukudi, Thoothukudi, Tirunelveli
39-40 th (Last week of September to first week of October)
Spacing Sole Sorghum
: 45x15 or 45x10 cm(1,80,000 plants/ha)
Intercropping and Paired row system
: 60//30x15cm. 60//30x15cm.
Fertilizer : Organic manure at 12.5 t/ha during last ploughing. NPK: 40:20:0 kg/ha. ‘P’ is applied as basal as Enriched FYM. ‘N’ may be applied in two splits. 50% basal + 50% at 25 DAS depending up on the rainfall.
40
For high rainfall of North India where sorghum is grown during S.W. monsoon (kharif season), the recommended NPK is: 80:40:40 kg/ha. 50% N and entire P and K should be applied as basal, remaining 50% N as top dressing at 25 to 30 DAS depending on the rainfall. During rabi season : NPK at 40:20:0 kg/ha. Entire fertilizer is applied as basal by drilling drilling the fertilizer. Growth stages of sorghum 1. Seedling stage
:
1-15 days
2. Vegetative stage (Grand growth (30-40)
:
16-40 days
3. Flowering/Reproductive Stage
:
41-65 days
4. Maturity Matur ity
:
66-95 days
5. Ripening
:
96-105 days
Weed management : Keep the sorghum fields free of weeds from second week after germination till 5th week. If sufficient moisture is available spray atrazine @ 500g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha) as pre -emergence -emergence within three days after receipt of soaking rain followed by one one late hand weeding/inter weeding/inter culture For sorghum based intercropping system with pulses, use pendimethalin (Stomp 30 EC) at 3.0 lit/ha as pre -emergence + one hand weeding/inter culture at later (35 DAS) Striga : Striga asiatica, S.lutea, S. hermonthica (Witch weed) It is a semi-root s emi-root parasite in sorghum and reduces the yield markedly. Control measures for striga in sorghum 1) Post emergence application of 2,4- D Na salt at 2. 0 kg/ha at 25 to 30 DAS 2) Intercropping with redgram 3) Crop rotation with trap crops like cotton sunflower, groundnut, cowpea, etc., which induce germination of weed seeds, but they are not themselves parasitised 4) Heavy application of N and FYM 5) Flooding the field 6) Spraying Urea 10% solution 25-30 DAS 7) Using germination stimulants like Str igol and Ethylene gas Cropping system: I ntercropping Ta am m il Nadu
Southern district
:
Sorghum + Cowpea (2:1) S. + blackgram (2:1)
2.Coimbatore
:
Sorghum + greengram (4:2) S. + Sunflower (4:2)
3. Arupukottai
:
Sorghum + fodder cowpea (1:1)
4. Dharmapuri
:
Sorghum + Lab-Lab (4:1) Sorghum + redgram (3:1)
N o r t h I n d i a Kharif Sorghum (S. W monsoon)
1.
Sorghum + Redgram
3:1 ratio
2.
Sorghum + Soybean
4:2 ratio
3.
Sorghum + Greengram: Greengram:
4:2 ratio. ratio .
Double cropping in rainfed areas 1.
North India
:
Sorghum – Chickpea/Safflower Grain legumes – rabi sorghum (Greengram / redgram)
2. Tamilnadu: 1.
Sorghum – Horse gram (Dharmapuri areas)
2.
Groundnut – Fodder sorghum (Pollachi tract)
41
All India Co-ordinated Co-ordinated sorghum sorghum Improvement Project (AI CSIP CSIP ) It developed 15 sorghum varieties : CSV1 to CSV 15 Hybrids : CSH1 to CSH 18 R CSH1, CSH6,CSH9 : best for kharif season CSH 15 R & 18 R : best fro rabi season.
Hybrids and Varieties recommended for different parts of Rainfed region in Ind ia Hybrids / Varieties
Grain yield (t/ha)
Dry fodder yield (t/ha)
Duration
3.0
7.5
95-100
CSH 6
3.4
8.1
95-100
CSH 9
3.9
9.8
105-110
CSH 11
4.1
9.2
105-110
CSH 13
3.9
14.4
105-110
CSH 16
4.2
9.1 9.1
110
CSH 17
4.2
10.4 10.4
103
CSH 18
4.1
13.1 13.1
112
Kharif
CSH 1
Season
Kharif season
(days)
(June - July)
Varieties 1. CSV 11
3.2
9.6
110-115
2. SPV 462 (Co26)
3.3.
9.7
110-115
3. CSV 15
3.6
12.1
107-112
Rabi season
(Oct – Nov)
Hybrid
1. CSH 13R
3.2
5.4
113
2. CSH 15R
3.2
5.6
110
1. CSV 14 R
2.3
5.5
117
2. CSV 8 R
2.2
4.8
120
3. Swati
2.2
5.3
117
Rabi season varieties
Kharif crop : Best time of sowing July first week Rabi crop
: October. Raised in stored soil moisture.
Thinning : It is a very important operation in sorghum. Thinning should be completed 10 to15 days after emergence leaving one one plant per hill. Harvesting and Threshing : Most of the high yielding varieties and hybrids mature in about 100 to 115 days. The right stage for harvest is , when the grain become hard having less than 25% moisture. Do not wait for s tubble and leave s to dry, because hybrid sorghum appear green
42
even after the crop is mature. Harvest may be done at physiological maturity. Harvesting is done by cutting the entire plant or removing the earheads first and cutting down the plants latter and is allowed to dry for 2 to 5 days. Threshing is done with the help of thresher or beating the earheads. The threshed grain is dried in the sun for a week to bring the moisture content to 10 to 12% for safe storage. Yield
:
Grain : 2 to 3 t/ha under rainfed condition. Dry Stover : 8 to 10 t/ha.
43
TECHNOLOGIES FOR IR RI GATED SORGHUM It is raised by either I) direct seeding or ii) transplanting. Varieties recommended 1.
CO25 - 115-120 days, Grain yield : 6.0 t/ha, Straw yield : 17.5 t/ha. Juicy stalk, semi compact ear head.
2.
CO 26 -105-110 days, Grain yield : 6.0 t/ha, Straw yield : 19.0 t/ha. t/ha. Juicy stalk.
3.
BSR 1 - 105-110 days, Grain yield: 6 to 6.5 t/ha, Straw yield: 9.6 t/ha.
Hybrids recommended 1.
CSH 5 : 100 days, Grain yield : 4.5 t/ha, Straw yield : 12.5 t/ha.
2.
CoH 4 : 105-110 days, Grain yield : 6.5 t/ha, Straw yield : 20.0 t/ha
3.
CoH 5 : 100 days, Grain yield : 6.8 t/ha, Straw yield : 19.0 t/ha.
Season :
1) January – Feb (Thaipattam) 2) April – May (Chithiraipattam) (In Thenkasi area) – very less area
Seed rate : Direct Direct sowing : 10 kg/ha
and
Transplanting : 7.5 kg/ha.
Irrigated transplanted crop has follow ing advantage ?
Main field duration is reduced by 10 days
?
Shoot fly attacks economically controlled in the nursery
?
Seedlings which show chlorotic a nd downy mildew symptoms can be eliminated.
?
Optimum population can be maintained as only healt hy seedlings are used
?
Seed rate is reduced by 2.5 kg/ha.
Nursery preparations : For planting one ha, 7.5 cent (300m2) nursery area is required, near the water source, where water will not stagnate. Apply 750 kg of FYM or compost for 7.5 cent nursery and another 500 kg for covering the seeds after sowing. Form raised beds of 2 m x 1.5 m with 30cm spacing to a depth of 15cm. Pre treatment of seeds for both direct seeded crop and raising in the nursery 1.
Treat the seeds 24 hours before sowing with carbendazim / captan / thiram @ 2g/kg of seed.
2.
Treat the seeds with 2% KH2 PO 4 for 6 hours and shade dry f or 5 hours
3.
Dissolve 0.5g gum in 20ml of water. Add 4ml of chlorpyriphos 20 EC or Monocrotophos 30 WSC. To this add one kg of seed, pellet and shade dry.
4.
Treat the seeds with 3 pockets of Azospirilllum (600 g/ha) using rice kanji as binder.
Sowing Form rills using fingers, broad cast the seeds and cover with 500 kg of FYM. Irrigation : Immedi Im mediat ately ely after sowing, 3 rd day, 7 th day, 12th day and 17 th day. Transplanting 1) Age of seedling 15 to 18 days 2) Dip the seedlings in Azospirillum solution (5 pockets (1000g) dissolved in 40 lit of water) for 15 to 30 minutes. 3) Plant at 45x15cm spacing at a depth of 3 to 5cm with one seedling per hill on the side of ridge. Main field preparation for both direct seeded and transplanted crop ?
Sorghum does not require fine tilth. Plough the field with an iron plough once and twice with a country plough.
?
To over come the sub sub soil hard pan in Alfisol, chiseling the field at 0.5 m interval to a depth of 40 cm on both the direction of the field followed by disc ploughing once and cultivator ploughing twice help to increase the yield.
?
Apply 12.5 t FYM or compost /ha with 2 kg of Azospirillum (10 pockets/ha) and incorporate the manure in the soil by working a country plough.
44
?
Form ridges and furrows at 45cm apa rt using ridge plough.
Fertilizer management Transplanted crop : If soil test recommendation is not available, follow the blanket recommendation of 90:45:45 kg NPK /ha. ?
50% N and entire P and K should be applied basally before planting.
?
Remaining 50% N on 15 days after planting.
Direct seeded crop : Blanket recommendation: 90:45:45 kg NPK /ha. ?
Apply 50% N and entire P and K basally
?
Remaining 50% N on 25 to 30 DAS
Micronutrient ?
For Zn deficient soils, apply 25kg ZnSo 4 /ha at the time of sowing/transplanting.
?
For Fe deficient soils, apply 50kg FeSO 4 at sowing or at planting.
Foliar spray of Micronutrient: Micronutrient: ?
If ZnSO 4 is not applied basally and if Zn deficiency is noticed, spray ZnSO 4 at 0.5% concentration.
?
Similarly FeSO 4 at 1% concentration at 2 or 3 stages.
Optimum plant population : 45x15cm, 1,48,000 plants/ha for both direct and transplanted crop. ?
For raising intercrop, paired row system, 60//30x15cm may be adopted. Raise one row of pulses in between 60cm row spacing.
Thinning and gap filling : In the direct sown crop, thin one seeding per hill and gap fill the thinned out seedlings 10 to 15 DAS, maintaining a spacing of 15cm between plants. Weed management ?
Apply pre emergence herbicide Atrazine 50 WP at 500 g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha) on 3 days after sowing using high volume sprayer followed by one hand weeding on 30 to 35 DAS.
?
Sorghum is slow growing growing in the early stage and is adversely affected by weed competition. Keep the fields free of weeds up to 45 days.
?
If pulse crop is raised as intercr op, do not use atrazine.
?
If herbicide is not used, for transplant ed crop, two hoeings and weedings on 10 day and 30 to 35 35 th day after planting.
?
In the case of direct seeded crop, 15 to 20 DAS.
?
Striga control.
th
day and second weeding on 35 to 40
Water management i)
Total water requirement : 450-500 450-500 mm.
ii)
Irrigation at 50% depletion of available soil moisture
iii)
0.6 IW/CPE ratio is sufficient.
Critical stages : 1) Seedling 2) Vegetative 3) Flowering iv) Dough stage. Stress at one week before and one week after flowering is very critical. Under moisture stress condition, 5 irrigations are sufficient. For normal condiiton, 8 irrigations are to be given . i.e. on Ist day, 4 th day, 15th, 28th, 40th, 53nd, 64th,76th and 88 th days. Stop irrigation after 88 to 90 DAS. Contingent plan: plan: Spraying 3% Kaolin (30 g in one litre of water) during periods of stress will mitigate the ill effects. Harvesting and processing ?
When the crop matures, leaves turn yellow and the grains are hard and firm and moisture content will be less than 25%.
?
At this stage, cut the earheads separately dried for 2 to 3 days and threshed using mechanical thresher thresher and dry t he grain to 12% moisture for safe stor age.
?
Cut the straw after a week, allow it to dr y and then stack.
45
Cropping system : In Tamil Nadu Sorghum – Ragi, Sorghum – Cotton, Sorghum Sorghum – Onion, Onion, Sorghum – Greengram. Intercropping :
Sorghum + Cowpea Sorghum + Greengram
46
AGRO-TECHNI QUES FOR SWEET SORGHUM 1.
Syrup production – HFSS
2. Jaggery production 3. Ethanol production Syrup production (HFSS): The sweet sorghum variety with relatively high reducing sugar (glucose, fructose) may be more suitable, when TSS (Total Soluble Solids) reaches above 14 degree at Rahuri. Rahuri. eg.:40 tons of green cane yields about 15,000 15,000 to 18,000 l/ha of juice.T.S.S. 19 ? (brix) . It gives 4 to 5 t of syrup. (or) If it is used for Jaggery, 3.0 to 3.5 t/ha, and crushing efficiency is 50-60%. The approximate stage for crushing is when the crop reaches 18 ? brix. The syrup can be as table syrup, bread spreads and in salad dressing, cakes, biscuits, ice cream topping. 2. Jaggery production : High TSS and ratio of sucrose to reducing sugars greater than 9 gave good quality Jaggery. Sweet sorghum varieties : SSV 84 (105 days), RSSV 16, NSS 104 Sweet Stalk Varieties SSV SS V 84
RSSV 16
NSS 104
36.0
38.0
41.0
2.3
2.3
2.0
8
19
20
Jaggery Jagger y yield (t/ha)
3.0
3.1
3.3
Ethanol yield (l/ha)
1851
1948
2101
Green cane yield (t/ha) Grain yield (t/ha) Juice Brix
Production of starch : 592 kg/ton of grain (Glucose = Starch x 1.11) Glucose production : 657 kg/ton of grain Alcohol production : 380 lit/ton of grain. Technology : Seed rate, population, manures and fertilizers and irrigation are similar to irrigated crop/ similar to rainfed crop. Time of harvest : Harvest the earhead at physiological maturity and dry it. The green stalk or cane should be harvested within 12 hours after harvest of earhead and crushed immediately. Physiological maturity maturity is the stage at which net photosynthesis photosynthesis is zero zero or there is no translocation of carbohydrate to sink.
47
MANAGEMENT P RACTICES FOR FOR RATOON SORGHUM SORGHUM 1.
Varieties for ratooning : CO25, CO26, CSH5, K.Tall. Sorghum is highly amenable for ratooning.
2.
Ratooning technique i) Harvest the main crop leaving 15cm stubble ii) Remove first formed two sprouts from the main crop and allow only the latter formed two sprouts to grow. Allow two tillers per hill.
3.
Hoeing and Weeding i) Remove the weeds immediately after harvest of main cr op. ii) Hoe and weed on 15 th and 30th day after cutting.
4.
Application of fertilizers : 100:50:0 kg NPK /ha. i) Apply 100 kg N/ha in two splits doses. ii) Apply Ist dose on 15 th day after cutting and second on 45 th day after cutting. iii) Apply 50 kg P 2O 5 along with first application of N.
5.
Pest and disease management : Since the ratoon crop invites pests and diseases in early stages, plant protection measures have to be resorted to.
6.
Water management i) Irrigate immediately after cutting the main crop. ii) Irrigation should not be delayed for more than 24 hours after cutting. iii) irrigate 3 rd or 4 th day after cutting. iv) Subsequent irrigation once in 7 to10 days. v) Stop irrigation 70 to 80 days after ratooni ng.
7.
Harvest : Similar to sown crop bu t duration is 10 to 15 days lesser than mai n crop.
8.
Yield : equal or slightly higher than sown crop.
48
FINGER MILLET (RAGI, MANDUA) El e u s i n e c o r a c a n a L. Gaertn. Cultivated mainly in Asia and Africa and is predominantly grown in the Peninsular Indian sta tes of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Importance 1. Staple food crop in many hilly regions of the country 2. Grown both for grain and forage 3. In Northern hills grains are eaten in the form of chapaties 4. In South India grain flour is used for preparing g ruel, cakes or puddings, porridges, sweets etc.
unleavened
bread,
5. Germinating grains are malted and fed to infants and good for
pregnant woman.
6. Considered as nutritive food for adults of different ages 7. Grain contains 9.2% protein, 1.29% fat, 76.32% carbohydrates, 2.24% minerals 3.% ash and 0.33% Ca. Contain vitamins A and B with small amount of P. 8. Good for persons suffering from diabetes. 9. Green straw suitable for making silage. Origin: Origin :
India
Distribution : India, Africa, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China and Japan Area and Production India: India : Area
19.1 lakh ha
Production 27.62 lakh t
Productivity 1440 kg/ha
Area: Are a:
Karnataka
> Orissa
> TN
> UP
(In lakh ha)
9.64
2.29
1.62
1.38
Production:
Karnataka
> TN
> UP
>
(In lakh tones)
16.3
3.16 > UP
Average Productivity: Productivity:
TN
> Karnataka Karnataka
(In kg/ha)
1950
1690
> AP
Orissa
> AP
Soil And Climatic Climatic Requirem ent ?
Grown wide variety soils and thrives best in well-drained loam or clay loam
?
Tolerates salinity better than other cereals
?
Tropical and sub-tropical crop, grows from sea level to 2100m on hill slopes
?
Grown in areas having having average rainfall 50 to 100cm
?
In higher rainfall areas raised as transplanted crop.
Season: Kharif, Rabi and summer. Kharif and Rabi crops are rainfed while summer crop is irrigated. In Karnataka, AP and TN, grown in Rabi (Sep to Oct) as irrigated crop. Varieties: Godavari, Indaf 5, Sarada, PR 202, BR 407, EC 4840, Co 7, Co 11, Co 12 Particulars Particulars Duration (days) Grain yield
(Irrigated)
Indaf 5
Co 11
Co 12
Co 13
105-100
90-95
110-120
95-100
4000
4750
4750
3600
Kg/ha
(RF)
2500
3250
3250
2300
Straw yield
(Irrigated)
7500
8750
8750
10000 10000
Kg/ha
(RF)
5200
6250
6250
7500
Growth Stages Stages Vegetative Phase (Nursery)
80 days crop
100 days crop
120 days crop
1 to 16
1 to 18
1 to 20
49
Vegetative Phase (Main field)
1 to 18
1 to 20
1to 22
19 to 40
21 to 55
23 to 69
Beyond 40
Beyond 55
Beyond 69
Flowering Flowering phase Maturity phase Nursery Management a. Seeds and sowing ?
Seed rate: 5 kg/ ha for transplanting and 8 -10kg for direct sowing sowing
?
12.5 cents (500 m 2) nursery area required/ha
?
Prepare land and mix 37.5kg super phosphate and 500 kg FYM or compost
?
Form raised beds of 3.0x1.5m with 30cm channels
?
Seed treatment with fungicides done 24 hours prior to sowing
?
Azospirillum seed treatment @ 3 packets/ha seed rate (600g/ha)
?
Make rills of1cm depth, broadcast and cover the seeds with 500kg powdered FYM
?
Do not sow the seeds deeply as germination will be adversely affected
b. Schedule the irrigation as given below for nursery No. of irrigations
Red soil
Heavy soil
1 st
Immediately after sowing
Immediately after sowing
2nd
3rd day after sowing
4th day after sowing
3rd
7th day after sowing
9th day after sowing
4th
12 th day after sowing
16th day after sowing
5th
17 th day after sowing
c. Pulling out seedling: Pull out on 17 th 20 th day of sowing Main Field Preparation Manuring And P lanting ?
Plough the field thoroughly to get a good tilth
?
Incorporate 12.5t/ha of FYM or compost or composted coir pith
?
Apply NPK as per soil test or adopt a blanket recommendation of 60:30:30 kg/ha of NPK
?
Apply half N and full P and K basally and incorporate in last ploughing
?
Apply 10 packets/ha (2000g) by mixing with 25 kg sand and 25kg FYM before transplanting
?
Form beds of 10 or 20 m2 with suitable i rrigation channels
?
Apply 12.5 kg micronutrient mixtur e with enough sand and do not
?
incorporate
?
Let water in to the bed and level the bed
?
Plant 18 to 20 days seedling, 2 per hill at a depth of 3cm spacing 15x15cm
?
Root dip for 15 to 30 minutes minutes with Azospirillum 5 pkts ( 1000g) in 40 lit water wat er
?
Top dress the remaining half N in two equal splits on 15 th and 30th day after transplanting coinciding the weeding
?
Aged seedlings beyond 21 days increase the seedlings to 3/hilland increase nitrogen by 25% to reduce the loss
W ater Management: Management: Regulate irrigation according to growth phases. Stages
Days
No. of irrigation
Crop duration 80 Days
100 Days
120 Days
1
1st da y
1 st da y
1 st da y
2
5th da y
5 th da y
5th da y
Heavy soils Establishment
1-7
50
Vegetative phase
Flowering phase
8-20
21-55
1
18 th day
20 th day
20 th day
2
31 st da y
33 rd da y
30 th day
1
41 st da y
42 nd day
37 th day
2
51 st da y
52 nd day
44 th day 63 rd da y
3 Maturity phase
56-120
61 st day
1
62 nd day
78th day 93 rd da y
2 Light soils Establishment
Vegetative phase
Flowering phase
1-7
8-20
21-55
1
1st da y
1 st da y
1 st da y
2
5th da y
5 th da y
5th da y
1
15 th day
16 th day
16 th day
2
26 th day
28 th day
28 th day
1
36 th day
36 th day
36 th day
2
45 th day
45 th day
45 th day
54 th day
54 th day
69 th day
78th day
3 Maturity phase
56-120
1
58 th day
2
70 th day
93 rd da y
Stop irrigation there after. Critical stages: Tillering and pre -flowering Weed Management Management ?
Apply Butachlor 2.5 l/ha or Fluchloralin 2 l/ha or pendimethalin 2.5 l/ha as pre -emergence -emergence and if sufficient moisture is not available irrigate immediately
?
If pre emergence is not a pplied hoe hand weed on 15 th and 30 th day after transplanting
?
For rainfed directed seeded crop apply post emergence herbic ide 2,4-DEE or 2,4-D Na salt at 0.5 kg/ha on 10 th day after sowing depending on moisture availability
Cropping System ?
Intercropped with legumes such as field beans, cowpea, fodder sorghum or occasionally with other millets
?
4 to 5 rows of ragi with a row of field bean is very common in Karnataka a nd AP
?
Sequenced with groundnut, horse gra m, cotton, tobacco or sesame
Harvesting ?
Does not mature uniformly and hence two stage harvest done
?
Ear head of main shoot and 50% of ear heads turn brown first harvest made
?
Dried ear heads dried, threshed and cleaned
?
Seven days after first harvest cut all the ea r heads including green ones
?
Ear heads cut with sickles first then the straw is harvested
?
Cure by heaping the harvested ear heads in shade for one day without drying to make greener ear heads mature
?
Then dry, thresh and clean
?
Harvested heads are threshed using conventional beating with sticks and treading under the feet of animals. Ma chine threshing is also common
51
PEARLMILLET (or) BAJRA ( P . g l a u c u m ) Tamil : Cumbu Cumbu Of the 150 sps of Pennesitum, of Pennesitum, P.glaucum is the cultivated species for grain and P.purpurea is the forage species. Origin:Origin :- Africa Economic importance ?
It is a stable food crop of about 100 million peoples in rural a reas of India and Sub Saharan Africa.
?
Roti or Chapati, which are unleaved flat breads pr epared using pearlmillet flour are common in Asia.
?
Porridges and cooked grains are also used.
?
In Northern India, it is prepared during winter while wheat becomes common in Summer diet.
?
Fried preparations, foods such as fermented products and beer.
?
Variety of pan cakes are prepared using pearlmillet flour in Africa and pearl millet beer is used throughout Africa.
?
Fura or cheese are the traditional African snacks prepared using steamed pearl millet flour and cream.
?
It is used as fodder in Africa and Asia.
?
Oxalic acid content is very high. So it is not relished by cattle.
?
Quality of grain: grain: Rich in protein (12.6%) and rich in fat (5%), fibre 1.2% and 60.70% of Carbohydrate. Carbohydrate.
?
Normally rich in in Ca, Vit.Riboflavin and rich in Carotenoides Carotenoides
?
In Central America, it is mainly cultivated for forage purpose.
?
It is grown as pasture grass.
Area, Production and Distribution World : It is largely grown in India. The important pearl millet producing countries are India, Africa, Pakistan, China, Sudan and Egypt. In I ndia (1996-97) (1996-97) Area : 10 m.ha, Production: 7.9 m.t and
Productivity: 791 kg/ha
Area Rajasthan >
Maharastra
(4.7 m.ha)
(1.95 m.ha)
>
Gujarath (1.0 m.ha)
> UP (0.8m.ha)
Production Rajasthan > Maharastra > Gujarat > TN > UP Tamil Nadu Area
:2.3 l.ha, Production: 2.5 l.ton and Productivity: 1226 kg/ha.
In Tamil Nadu, it is grown in all the districts, except Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur and Nilgiris. Stages of Crop Crop grow th 1. Seedling stage
:
1-18 days
2. Tillering Tilleri ng stage
:
19.35 days
3. Flowering phase
:
36-55 days
4. Maturity Matu rity phase
:
56-85 days
Climatic requirement: It is a rapid growing, warm weather crop. It has high degree of resistance for drought. The best temperature for the growth of bajra is between 20? and 28? C. It can withstand even desiccation. It is suitable for the areas having rainfall ranges from 400-750 mm. Even 150 mm of rainfall is sufficient for the productivity. productivity. Rainfall Rainfall during vegetative vegetative phase is highly highly favourable, while while
52
rainfall at flowering is not conducive, as it washes off the pollen and there is poor seed setting. The crop does better in light showers followed by bright sunshine. Usually bajra is grown, where it is not possible to grow sorghum because of high temperature and low l ow ra infall. It is grown as kharif crop in Northern India, while in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Punjab, it is grown under irrigated condition during summer. Edaphic requirement : It is grown in a wide variety of soils, but being sensitive to water logging, It does best on well drained sandy loams. It is sensitive to acidic soil. It is grown successfully on black cotton soil, alluvial soils and red soils of India. Time of sowing : India Kharif (rainfed)
:
June to October
Winter (rainfed)
:
Nov to Feb
Summer(rainfed Summer(rainfed )
:
March to June
During summer, it is grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Punjab and Gujarat as an irr igated crop. Hybrids: Under All India Co-ordinated Research project many hybrids have been developed. Using Cytoplasmic male sterile line (CMS line) five hybrids have been developed. Among them HB3 is the best. But all hybrids are susceptible to downy mildew. mildew . To overcome the downy mildew, CMS line MS.5071 was used and five New Hybrid bajra were developed. Among them, NHB.5 is the best for disease re sistance and wide adaptability besides giving higher yield. In Tamil Nadu, using CMS line MS 5141 A, two hybrids X6 and X7 were evolved and are recommended for cultivation. X6 : 90-100 days. Irrigated crop : 3236 kg/ha. kg/ha. Rainfed condition condition : 2394 2394 kg/ha. Resistant Resistant to downy mildew. 1000 grain weight: 7.7 to 8.8 g X7 : 90 days, both irrigated and rainfed. Irrigated Irrigat ed crop : 3295 kg/ha. Rainfed : 2513 kg/ha. Resistant to downy mildew. 100 grain weight 8-9g. Composite : W C.C C.C 75 (World Cumbu Composite developed at ICRISAT, Hyderabad). Suit ed for both irrigated and rainfed. Duration : 95 days. Irrigated crop : 3.0 t, Rainfed 2.0 t/ha. Variety : Co7 : 90-100 days, Rainfed : 2.5 t/ha. Irrigated 3.5 t/ha. Resistant to downy mildew. K3 : 85 days. Tamil Nadu : Season and Varieties I
Irrigated Crop
Variety and Hybrids
1. March – April:
WCC 75, K3,
(All district except Kanchipuram,
CO7, X6, X7.
Tiruvallur and Nilgris) 2. Jan – Feb
:
WCC 75, CO7, X6, X7.
(except Kanchipuram, Tiruvallur and Nilgris) II
Rainfed 1. June – July :
WCC 75, k3, Co7, X6, X7, K4HB
2. Sept – Oct
------ do -------------
:
Method of raising Crop 1) Irrigated condition : a. Raising seedling in the the Nursery and transplanting. b. Direct Direct sowin sowin g. 2) Rainfed crop: Seed rate :
Direct seeding either broadcasting or sowing behind country plough.
Direct sowing : 5 kg/ha. Transplanting : 3.75 kg/ha.
Seed Treatment 1) Using salt solution (1 kg of NaCl in 10 lit of water) remove ergot affected seeds and sclerotia to prevent primary infections and shade dry. 2) Seed treatment with fungicides 2g/kg of seed . 3) Azospirillum seed treatme nt (3 pockets or 600 g/ ha seed rate)
53
Nursery preparation for transplanted crop :Nursery :Nursery area required is 7.5 cent (300 m2) for one ha. Plough the land and bring it to fine tilth. Apply 750 kg of FYM or compost and incorporate. Form raised beds of 3.0 m x 1.5m with 30 cm channel. Open small rills not deeper than 1cm on the raised bed. Sow 3.75 kg of seeds in 7.5 cents at the rate 0.5 kg/cent and cover the seeds and sprinkle 500 kg of FYM or compost f or covering the seeds. Irrigation
Light Soil
st
I
2
Heavy Soil
immediately after sowing
nd
3
rd
immediately after sowing 3rd DAS
DAS
3rd
7th day
9th da y
4th
12 th day
16th
5th
17 th
-----
Field preparation for both irrigated and Rainfed crop i)
Deep ploughing with Iron plough and with country plough twice to bring fine tilth.
ii)
If there is hard pan, use chisel plough.
iii) Incorporate 12.5 t/ha of FYM or compost during last ploughing. iv) Apply Azospirillum to the soil @ 10 packets/ha (2 kg). Land Shaping: Shaping: For irrigated crop (transplanting) either form ridges and furrows at 45cm apart or beds of convenient size depending upon the water availability. For rainfed crop,flat sowing is followed. For rainfed crop, Pora method of sowing is better than Kera method. Transplanting *Optimum age of seedling for planting is 15 -18 days days ?
Adopt spacing of 45 x 15cm for all the varie ties except Co7.
?
For Co7, spacing is 35 X15cm. (similar row spacing is adopted for rainfed crop also)
* Dipping the roots in bio-fertilizer Slurry (dissolve (dissolve 5 pockets of Azospirillum Azospirillum in 40lit 40lit of water) for 15-30 minutes. * Plant one seedling per hill to a de pth of 3 to 5 cm Direct sow n crop * Soaking the seed is 2% potassium chloride or 3% NaCl for 6 hours followed by shade drying for 5 hours. ?
Adopt spacing of 45 x 15cm for all varieties except Co7 and for Co7, adopt 35 x 15 cm row spacing.
?
If pulse is intercropped, adopt spacing of 35 x 15cm for cumbu and 30 x 10cm for cowpea and other pulses.
* Seed rate 5kg/ha. Optimum population : 1,45,000 plants/ha. Fertilizer management: management: If soil test recommendation is not available, follow the blanket recommendation. Irrigated crop :
Hybrids
80 : 40 :40 kg N : P 2O5 : K2O/ha.
Varieties
70 : 35 : 35 kg N : P 2O5 : K2O/ha.
Rainfed crop:
40 : 20 20 : 0
kg N : P2O5 : K2O/ha.
Apply 50% and 100% P and K as basal at 5cm depth and the remaining 50%N at 15 days after planting for transplanted crop and 30 DAS for direct sown crop. Bajra removes about 90 kg N, 20 to 25 kg P 2O5 and 160 kg K 2O. Micronutrient: For Zn deficient soil, apply Z nSo 4 at 25 kg/ha. Iron deficiency occurs in saline and calcareous soil. Based on the level of deficiency, 12.5 to 25 kg of FeSo 4 is recommended. If it is not applied basally, foliar application of FeSo 4 at 1% concentration at vegetative phase is recommended. Water management : Highly drought tolerant crop. Water requirement : 300 to 350 mm.
54
Irrigation at available soil moisture of 50% Optimum IW/CPE ratio 0.4 is sufficient. Critical Stages: Stages : Tillering and Flowering. Normally 5 irrigations are recommended. Tillering, Panicle irrigation, Flag leaf, Flower ing, Dough stage in addition to sowing irrigation. Unde r limite d moisture moisture condition : 3 irrigations can be recommended. Panicle initiation, Flag leaf, Flowering in addition to sowing irrigation. Thinning and gap filling : In the direct sown crop, after Ist weeding at the time of irrigation gap fill and thin the crop to a spacing of 15cm between plants. In rainfed crop, thinning should be done 10 to15 days after sowing. Weed Management : It reduces the yield by 50% crop weed competition is up to 35 days. Pre-emergence application of atrazine 500 g/ha (atrazine 0.25 kg/ha) followed by hand weeding on 30 to 35 days after transplanting or sowing. If the her bicide is not used, hand weed on 15 th day and again between 30 and 35 days after transplanting. For direct sown crop, hoeing and weeding may be done on 20 to 25 th day and second weeding on 35 th to 40th day after sowing. *Atrazine should not be used for intercropping systems. Cropping system : Some of the important crop rotations are 1. Bajra - Barly
Intercropping system in North India
2.
Bajra - Whe at
Bajra + Groundnut
3.
Bajra - Gram
Bajra + Blackgram
4.
Bajra - Pea
Bajra + Greengram
5.
Bajra - Potato
Bajra + Castor Bajra + Cowpea
Harvesting and Threshing :When the leaves turned yellow colour and when the seeds become hardened and having 20% moisture. Harvesting is done b y removing the earheads first and cutting down the plants latter on. The earheads after harv esting should be dried well in sun before threshing. The grains are separated either by beating the earheads by sticks or by trampling by bullocks. The threshed grain should be cleaned and dried in the sun to bring the moisture to12-14% for safe storage. Yield
Grain Yield
Stover Stover Yield (t/ ha)
Irrigated :
3.0 to 3.5 t
10.0 t/ha
Rainfed
1.2 to 1.5 t
7-7.5 t/ha
:
55
SMALL MILLETS ?
Also called as minor millets
?
Have potentiality to grow even under adverse ecological condition
?
Successfully grown under very poor agro -climate where main food crops cannot be grown
?
Area : 18.52 lakh ha.
?
Area: MP (10.0)
?
Production: MP (2.51) > UP (1.38) > TN > Maharastra
?
Average yield: yield:
?
The five small millets are
Production : 8.22 l t
Productivity: 440 kg/ha
> UP > TN > Maharastra Arunachal Pradesh (1230)> UP > TN
1.
Italian millet (Thenai, Kakun, Fox tail): Setaria italica
2.
Kodo millet (Varagu): Paspalum scrobiculatum
3.
Common millet (Panivaragu, Cheena): Panicum millaceum
4.
Little millet (Samai): Panicum milliare
5.
Barnyard millet (Kudiraivali, Sawan): Echinochloa frumentacea ITALI AN MI LLET (Thenai, Kakun, Fox Fox tail) S e t a r i a i t a l i c a
Importance ?
Generally Generall y grown as rainfed crop
?
Grains cooked like rice and utilized
?
Grain flour used in the form of chapaties
?
Grain contains 12.3% protein, 4.7% fat, 60.6% carbohydrates and 3.2% ash
?
Grains are fed to cage birds
?
Straw is thin stemmed and is liked by cattle (not good for horses)
?
In China it is important next to rice and wheat and provides approximately 15-17% of the total food consumed in China.
Origin: China Area and Distribution ?
India, China, Eastern Europe, Southern parts of USSR and some extent in African and American countries
?
In India cultivated in Karnataka, AP, MP and UP
Soil and Climatic requirements ?
It can grow in poor soils but requires fairly fertile soils for good yields
?
Light soils including red loams, alluvial and black cotton soil are all suitable for its cultivation but it thrives best on rich, well dr ained loam soils.
?
Cultivated in tropical and temperate regions up to 2000 m altitude
?
Requires moderate temperature and grows successfully with 50-75 cm rainfall
?
Although water requirement is less has no capacity to recover after long spell of drought KODO MILLET (Varagu) P a s p a l u m s c r o b i c u l a t u m
Importance ?
Coarsest food grains covered with horny seed coat which should be removed before cooking and highly drought resistant crop
?
Immature and molded grains are po isonous isonous
?
Easily preserved and proves as good famine reserve
?
Recommended as a substitute for rice to patients suffering f rom diabetes
?
Grain contains 8.3% protein, 1.4% fat, 65.6% carbohydrates and 2.9% ash
56
Origin: India Area and Distribution ?
Grown mostly in AP, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and UP
soil and climatic requirement ?
Grown from gravelly and stony upland poor soils to loam soils
?
Adverse conditions in poor soils yield some grain & straw
?
Thrives best on sandy loam to loam soils which are well d rained
?
Makes rapid growth in warm and dry climate & req. rainfal l of 40 to 50 cm.
?
Highly drought tolerant can be grown in areas where rainfall is scanty and errat ic COMMON MI LLET (P anivaragu, Cheena, Cheena, proso millet) P an a n i c u m m i l i a c eu eu m
Importance ?
Evade drough droughtt by its quick maturity
?
Offers better prospects for intensive cultivation in dry land areas
?
Grain contains high protein (12.5%), 1.1% fat, 68.9% carbohydrate, 2.2% crude fibre and 3.4% ash
?
Rich in lysine (4.6%), which is inadequate in most cereals
?
Used as cooked grain, flour for making chapaties, perched grains etc.
?
It makes good poultry feed and stra w is good fodder
Origin: India Area and Distribution ?
Grown extensively in India, Japan, China, Egypt, Arabia and Western Europe
?
India largely grown in MP, Eastern Eastern UP, Bihar, TN, TN, Maharastra, AP and Karnataka
Soil and Climate Climate requirem ent ?
Well drained loam or sandy loam free of kankar and rich in organic matter ideal
?
Can be grown both in rich and poor soils having variable texture ranging between sandy loam to cla ys of black cotton soils
?
Warm climate crop grown extensively in warm regions of the world
?
Highly drought resistant and can be grown in areas where there is scanty rainfall and withstand water stagnati on also to some extent BARNYAR D MI LLET (Kudiraivali, (Kudiraivali, Sawan) Sawan) Ec h i n o c h l o a f r u m e n t a c e a
Importance ?
Very drought resistant & also capable of withstanding water logging condition
?
Grains consumed just like rice
?
Used in making rice pudding
?
Grain contains 6.2% protein, 9.8% crude fibre, 65.5% carbohydrates, 4.4% ash
?
Mostly eaten by poor class people
?
Sometime brewed for beer
?
Used as feed for cage birds & straw makes good fodder for cat tle
Origin: India Area and Distribution ?
Grown in India, China, Japan, Malaysia and east Indies and some extent in Africa and USA
?
In India grown in MP, UP, TN, AP, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Bihar
Soil and climate requirement ?
Can be grown in soils of marginal fertility and partially waterlogged condition
57
?
Thrives best on sandy loam to loam soil
?
Grown from sea level to 2000 m on the Himalaya slo pes
?
Warm and moderately humid climate is good
Cultivation details of small millets Particulars
Italian millet (Thenai)
Season and varieties (Rainfed)
June-July
CO5,K3, CO6 Sep-Oct CO4, CO5, CO6, K2 Seeds Seeds rate Line planting: 10kg/ha and broadcasting: 12.5kg/ha Seed drill Gorru seed drill is recommended Seed treatment 2 g Thiram or Carbendazim
FYM Nitrogen Phosphorus Spacing Weeding Thinning Harvesting Yield kg/ha
Kodo millet (Varagu)
Common Millet (Panivaragu
Littlemillet (Samai)
K1, CO3, PV196&162,K1, CO2, CO3 APK1, CO2, CO3, CO4 K1, CO3 Niwas1, Pali and K2
Barnyard Millet (Kudiraivali)
IP149, VL1 CO1, K1, UPT8, IP149
-do-
12.5 t/ha (Basal) 44 kg/ha(Basal) 22 /ha(Basal) 22x10 cm 45x10cm 25x10 cm 25x10 cm 25x10 cm th 15 DAS – First 40 th DAS - Second Secon d 20 DAS Whole plant or earhead is sickled, staked and dried and threshed with stone roller or trampling under feet of bullocks 1200-1800 1200 -1800 1500-1800 1200-1500 700-1300 1250-1750
58
PULSES Importance of pulses ?
India largest producer and consumer
?
Dried edible seed of a cultiva ted legume is known as pulse.
?
Legume derived from Latin "legere" means "to gather"
?
Constitutes 10 to 12% of Indian diet.
?
WHO recommend 80 g/day/person ICMR recorded 47g but actual is 30-35g
?
Used as fodder, food crops, green manure, cover crop, catch crop
?
N fixation improves soil fertility and Leucaena leucocephala aid in reclamation
?
Protein content ranges from 17 to 25% (Soybean : 40 to 43%)
?
Provides thiamine, riboflavin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B comple x and ascorbic acid.
?
Early maturity, relative thermo and photo insensitivity and better canopy structure (nonspreading) makes them included in multiple cropping
Area and distribution ?
Accounts 33% area and 22% production of world
?
Mostly grown as rainfed only 8% of pulse area is irrigated in India.
?
In 1996-97 pulse Area 22.39 m ha, Production 14.24 m.t, Productivity 623 kg/ha.
?
Area: Ar ea:
?
Production:
?
Average productivity: Nagaland>UP>Haryana Nagaland>UP>Haryana
?
Yield potential: 2500-3500kg ha -1 but Indian productivity is 550 to 625 kg ha-1 as against 1600 kg in USA, 1400 kg in China and world average is 900kg ha -1.
?
Production (1997-98) : 13.5 m.t. India imported 9.97 l.t valued Rs.1184 crores
MP(5.1m ha)>Rajasthan>Maharastra ha)>Rajasthan>M aharastra MP>UP>Maharastra>Rajasthan
CAUSES FOR LOW PRODUCTION PRODUCTION OF PULSES a) Ecological factors ?
Mostly rain fed and only 8% irrigat ed and depend on residual soil moisture
?
Pulses are sensitive to excess soil moisture, salinity, alkalinity and acidi ty
b) Lack of agronomic management ?
Grown with poor management and Lack HYV (HI 0.1 to 0.2 and f or wheat 0.5)
?
Improper sowing time, inadequate seed rate and defective method of sowing
c)
Basic research factors ?
Break through in production possible if HYV / hybrid developed with synchronous flowering, multiple multiple resistance resistance to pests a nd diseases and response to inputs.
d) Socio-economic constraints ?
Grown by resource poor farmers often as catch crop mixed crop or in rotation with commercial or high yielding cereal crop, Un assured market
e) Constraints in post harvest technology Pulses in I ndia (19 96-97) 96-97) Pulse Chickpea (Gram) White chickpea
Area (m.ha) 7.1
Production (m t) 5.75
Productivity (kg/ha) 810
0.6
59
Major states MP > Rajastan > UP > Maharastra > Haryana > Karnataka Guntur and Prakasam dt. of AP
Pigeon pea
3.61
2.7
747
Urd bean
3.15
1.33
423
Moong bean
3.04
1.17
386
Lentil Horse gram Moth bean
1.14 1.07 1.46
0.8 0.42 0.4
702 393 273
Peas (Dried)
0.74
0.63
860
Khesari (Chicklig pea) Rajmash (red)
0.95
0.58
609
Maharastra>UP>Karnataka> MP > Gujarat > AP MP > Maharastra > AP > TN > UP > Orissa Maha > AP > Raj > Orissa >Bihar > Karnat > TN UP > MP > Bihar Karnataka > Maha > MP>TN MP>TN > AP Rajasthan(80%) > Maha >Gujarat UP > MP > Bihar > Assam > Orissa MP > Bihar
0.25
AP > Kashmir > Maha > HP > UP > MP
RED GRAM ( Ca j a n u s c a j a n ) C.cajan var. flavous –Tur (Early),
C.cajan var bicolour – Arhar (late)
Importance a.
Primarily used as dal, while the tender gr een seeds are consumed as vegetable, crushed dried seeds as animal feed and green leaves as fodder.
b.
Stems used as fuel wood and t o make huts and baskets, Used for paper pulp
c.
Leaves can be used to feed silkworm and plants are used to culture lac insect
d.
Serves as wind break and live fence, Canned for export by freez ing
e.
Venezucla local soft drink known as 'Chicha' is made .
f.
Accounts for 12% pulse area,
g.
17% pulse production and 90% world production
h.
After gram second most important pulse crop
Origin: Origin : India Area and Distribution ?
Africa, West Indies, Ceylon, Australia and Malaya, India, Indo China
?
India
?
States
?
Production
Maharastra > UP > Gujarat > MP
?
Productivity:
Haryana > UP > Bihar
?
Tamil Nadu
Area : 1.40 l .ha,
?
Productivity : 864kg /ha /ha
: Area 3.61 mha Production 2.7mt Productivity 747 kg/ha (1996-97) Maharastra (16.5lha) (16.5lha) > UP(5.0lha) UP(5.0lha) > Karnataka > MP > Gujarat Gujarat > AP
Production
:1.20
l. t
Soil and Climate Climate requirem ent ?
Grown wide range of soil fr om sandy loam to clay loams.
?
Best soils are fertile and well drai ned loamy soils, Suitable pH range is 5 to 8
?
Grows 1500m and well distributed rainfall 500 to 900mm in tropics and subtropics
?
Temperature ranges 10 to 40?C and the optimum is 20 to 28?C.
Season and Varieties Kharif: June -Aug
Rabi : Sep-Nov
CO5, CO6, Vamban 1, Vamban2 (resistant to sterility mosaic) BSR 1,SA1 and CO4 – Suitable for bund planting. Hybrids: ICPH 8 from ICRISAT, yields 4 t/ha, COH1, COH2 Seeds and sowing (Depth of seeding : 5cm) Vertisols: Vertisol s: Broad Bed Furr ows are best with 90cm be ds and 60 cm shallow furrow .
60
Long and medium duration varieties
:75x30 cm
Short duration
: 45x30 cm
Rain fed
: 90x30cm
Seed rate rate
: 20 to 30kg/ha
Bund planting
: 50g/100 metre row
SEED SEED TR EATMENT ?
Canbendazim or Thiram @ 2g/kg seed 24 hours before sowing (or) Trichoderma virdie @4g/kg of seed (or) Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10g/kg
?
Fungicide treated seeds should be again treated with 3 pockets bacterial culture 15 minutes before sowing
APP LICATION OF FERTILIZERS FERTILIZERS ?
For a production level of 2 t grain, 6 t stalks redgram removes 132 kg N, 20 kg P 2O5 and 53 kg K 2O per ha.
?
P is the most limiti ng & Response is about 6 to 10 kg grain/kg grain/kg of applied app lied P.
?
Apply fertilizers basally before sowing
?
Rain fed:
12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 /ha
Irrigated: Irriga ted:
25kgN + 50 kg P 2O 5 /ha.
Soil application of 25 kg DAP/ha and foliar application of 25 kg DAP/ha with 25 kg sulphur as gypsum (110 kg/ha) or 2% urea in two sprays at flower commencement and 15 days after may be given.
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Spray Fluchloralin 1.5 l/ha (or) Pendimethalin 2 l/ha 3 DAS + one hand weeding may be given on 30 to 35 days after sowing.
?
If no herbicide is applied, give two hand weeding on 15 and 35 DAS
WATER MA NAGEMENT NAGEMENT ?
WUE legume 500 kg water/kg DMP while cereals 300 to 350 kg water/ kg DMP.
?
High plant densities water requirement is 50 to 60 cm
?
To produce 1 ton of grain, 20 to 25 cm water is used
?
Irrigate immediately after sowing, 3 rd day after sowing, bud initiation, 50% flowering and pod development stages, Water stagna tion should be avoided.
CROPPING SYSTEMS SYSTEMS Intercropping Sorghum + redgram, Ragi + redgram, Redgram + Urd, Redgram + groundnut Crop rotation Maize/rice – redgram, Redgram - wheat HARVESTING THE CROP Harvest the plants when 80% of the pods are mature. Sta ck the plants for a few days. Separate the pods with sticks and gra ins are separated from husk and dried to optimum moisture level (10-12%) YIELD Yield of sole crop ranges from 2 to 4 t/ha
61
BENGALGRAM ( Gram, Chickpea) Chickpea) Ci c e r a r i e t i n u m TWO TYPES Kabuli types: Large seeds (>26g/100g seeds) more or less rounded, pale cream colour, constitutes 15% production Desi types
: Smaller seeds (17 to 26g/100 seeds) irregular shapes and various colors, constitutes 85% production
IMPORTANCE ?
Most important pulse crop of India, constitutes 37% area and 50% production of pulses & nearly 75% in acreage and production
?
Predominantly consumed as dhal or for preparing variety of snack foods, sweets and condiments
?
Fresh gram serves as vegetable and eaten raw
?
Bhusa used as cattle feed
?
Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed
?
Contains 17 to 21% protein, 4.5% fat, 61.0% carbohydrate
?
An acidic liquid from glandular hairs of the plant are collected at night, night, which contain 94% maleic acid and 6% oxalic acid has medicinal value and used in preparat ion of vinegar
ORIGIN: South west Asia, probably Afghanistan and/or Persia DISTRIBUTION ?
India, Pakistan, Myanmar, Ethiopia, Turkey
?
States in India are Bihar, Bihar, Haryana, MP, Maharastra, Maharastra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Rajasthan, UP
SOIL AND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT ?
Grown on wide range of soils from medium to heavy black soils, mixed red and black soils or in alluvial soils but requires well drained loam or sandy loam
?
Generally grown in areas which receive annual rainfall is 800mm
?
Grown from sea level to 1800 m
?
The pH range is between 5.5 to 8.6 ,Optimum pH range is 5.7 to 7.2
?
Does not withstand water logging, saline alkaline conditions
?
Long day plant and optimum temperature is 24 ?C to 32 ?C
?
Rainfall requirement is 60 to 90cm/annum
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels
?
To tide over surface soil crusting apply lime @ 2t/ha along with 12.5t/ha FYM or composted coir pith to get additional yield of 15 – 20%
SEASON AND VARI ETIES: Mid October to early November is the optimum time of sowing in India Desi varieties
: Radhey, G-24, BR-78, RS-11, Ujjain-24, Chaffa, Co-2, Co-3, Co-4
Kabuli varieties
: HC-3, K-5, C-104, L-550, L -144
SEEDS AND SEED SEED TREATM ENT ?
Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser biofertiliser with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing
62
?
Instead of chemical treat with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10g/kg followed by biofertilizer
?
Seed rate Kabuli type 80 to 100kg/ha and desi type is 60 to 75 kg/ha
?
Seeds soaked in 1% KH 2PO4 for 4 hours and then shade dried before sowing
FERTILISER APPLICATION ?
Apply fertilizers basally before sowing
?
Rainfed:
12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
?
Irrigated: Irrigat ed:
25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
SOWING ?
Spacing Kabuli type 45x10 cm and Desi type 30x10 cm
?
Depth of sowing suggested is 10cm
?
Pora method is better than broadcast and fur row covering should be followe d with plank
WATER MA NAGEMENT NAGEMENT ?
Grown mostly as rainfed crop
?
Flowering and pod filling stages are critical periods of irrigation
?
Avoid water stagnation especially at all stages
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre -emergence -emergence 3DAS followed by one hand weeding 30DAS
?
If herbicides are not applied give two hand weed ing on 15th and 30 th DAS
CROPPING SYSTEMS ?
In Tamil Nadu intercropping after paired row planting one or two rows of coriander give higher net return
?
Intercropped with cotton, wheat barley and sunflower is common
?
Rotations are Paddy-chickpea, Maize-chickpea, Groundnut-chickpea, chickpea, sesame -chickpea and black gram-chick gram-chickpea pea
green
gram-
HARVESTING ?
Harvesting the plants when all the pods are matured and stack and thresh the pods and extract seeds
?
Present average yield is 0.7 t/ha. A good crop of desi variety can yield 1.5 to 2.0t/ha while Kabuli varieties can yield 2.5 to 3.0 t/ha. TN varieties yield 1.0 t/ha
63
GREEN GREEN GRAM ( V ig ig n a r a d i a t a ) (Moong, Mung, Golden gram) IMPORTANCE ?
Relished for easy digestibility as dhal or split seeds and green pods used as vegetables
?
Haulms used as fodder
?
Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed
?
It makes a good cover crop and soil binder
?
Excellent green manure easily decomposed when incorporated (Biomass has 1.5% N)
?
Contains 24% protein, 1.15% fat, 62.6% carbohydrate
?
Seeds are boiled and used in soups, made into porridge with rice or wheat
?
Sprouted seeds consumed as salad which are ric h in vitamins
?
Flour is used in cakes and deserts
?
Starch is used in making noodles
?
The low content of oligosaccharides result in low flatulence
?
Being short duration fit well in many intensive crop rotations
ORIGIN India and Central Asia DISTRIBUTION ?
India (45% world production), Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, Indonesia, China
?
States in India are AP, Orissa, MP, Maharastra, Bihar and Gujarat
SOIL AND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT ?
Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and saline alkali soils are not suitable suitable
?
Annual rainfall is 60-75cm 60-75cm
?
Grown from sea level to 2000 m
?
Can be grown in temperature 20 ?C to 40 ?C and optimum temperature is 28 ?C to 30 ?C
?
Short day plant
?
Optimum pH range is 6.5 to 7.5
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds beds and channels
?
To tide over surface soil crusting apply lime @ 2t/ha along with 12.5t/ha FYM or composted coir pith to get additional yield of 15 to 20%
SEASON SEASON AND VARI ETIES Grown as Kharif and summer crop in north India but is South and Sou th west it is al so grown as rabi crop In Tamil Nadu Season
Month
Kharif (Adipattam)
June – July
Rabi (Purattasipattam) Rice fallows Summer
Sept - October January - February February - March
Varieties Co4, Co5, KM2, T9, VBN1, Paiyur 1 K1, Co5, KM2, VBN1, Paiyur 1 ADT2, ADT3 ADT3 Co4, KM2, Paiyur 1
64
Other important varieties in India : Type 44, Pusa Bai sakti, Jawaha r-45, r-45, K-851, Sheela, PS-16, PS-16, Pant Mung-1, Mohini (S8) SEEDS SEEDS AND SEED SEED TREATM ENT ?
Seed rate 20kg/ha for pure crop, 10kg/ha for mixed crop, crop, Rice fallows 25kg /ha and for bund sowing 50g/100m length
?
Chemical seed treatment with carbandazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium bioferti liser with rice gruel 15 1 5 minutes minute s before before sowing
?
Instead of chemical treat with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10g/kg followed by biofertilizer
FERTILISER APPLICATION ?
1 ton of green gram removes43 kg N, 3 -4kg P and 10-12kg 10 -12kg K
?
Apply fertilizers basally before sowing as below
?
Rainfed
12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
?
Irrigated
25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
SOWING ?
Dibble the seeds adopting spacing of 30x10cm
?
Rice fallows broadcast in the standing crop 5-10 days before the harvest uniformly at optimum moisture condition condition (seeds should get embedded in the waxy mire)
?
On wetland bunds dibble at 30 cm spacing
WATER MA NAGEMENT NAGEMENT ?
Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
?
Irrigate at interval of 10 -15days depending on soil moisture conditions
?
For wet land bunds pot water daily for a week after sowing
?
Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
?
Avoid water stagnation at all stages
FOLIAR SPRAY OF DAP AND NAA (Rice fallows) ?
Spray 2% DAP at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later
?
Spray 40ppm NAA at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 da ys later
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre -emergence -emergence 3DAS followed by one hand weeding 30DAS
?
If herbicides ar e not applied give two hand weeding on 15th and 30 th DAS
CROPPING SYSTEMS SYSTEMS ?
Intercropping is common practice where one or two rows of black gram with maize, pearl millet, sorghum, pigeon pea, cotton and sugarcane
?
Rotated with wheat, potato
HARVESTING: Harvesting the plants when 80% of the pods are mature and stack the plants for few days before sowing Yield : Rainfed :700 to 900 kg/ha, irrigated: 1500 kg/ha and rice fallows: 500 kg/ha
65
BLACKGRAM BLACKGRAM ( Urd) V i gn gn a m u n g o IMPORTANCE ?
Consumed as dhal or split seeds, husked and unhusked
?
Chief constituent of 'papad'
?
Haulms used as fodder
?
Husk and split beans are useful as livestock feed
?
Possesses deep root system binds soil particles and prevent erosion
?
Also used as green manure crop
?
Contains 25% protein, 1.83% fat, 61.0% carbohydrate
?
Peculiarity is when ground with water develop muscilagenous character giving additional body to the mass
?
Husked dal is ground into a fine paste a nd allowed to ferment wit h rice flour to make 'dosa' and 'Idli'
?
Being short duration fit well in many intensive crop rotations rotations
ORIGIN: India DISTRIBUTION ?
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka
?
States in India are MP, Maharastra, AP, TN, UP, Orissa
SOIL AND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT ?
Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam
?
Generally grown in area s which receive annual rainfall is 800mm
?
Grown from sea level to 1800 m
?
Optimum pH range is 5.5 to 7.5
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels
?
To tide over surface soil crusting apply lime @ 2t/ha along with 12.5t/ha FYM or composted coir pith to get additional yield of 15 to 20%
SEASON SEASON AND VARI ETIES Grown as Kharif and summer c rop in north India but is South and South west it is also grown as rabi crop In Tamil Nadu Season Kharif (Adipattam) Rabi (Purattasipattam) Rice fallows Summer
Month June – July Sept - Octo January February February - March
Varieties Co4, Co5, KM2, T9, VBN1, VBN2 K1, Co5, KM2, VBN1, VBN2 ADT2, ADT3, ADT4, ADT5, TMV1, Co4, Co5, KM2, T9, TMV1, ADT5
Other important varieties in India : Type-9, Type -27, Type-56, Type-56, Pusa -1, Mosh-48, Pant-430, Gwalior-2, Khargone-3, Ujjain-4, Naveen, Krishna, Sarla, UG218 SEEDS SEEDS AND SEED SEED TREATM ENT ?
Seed rate 20kg/ha for pure crop, 10kg/ha for mixed crop, Rice fallows 25kg/ha and for bund sowing 50g/100m length
66
?
Chemical seed treatment with carbandazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser biofertiliser with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing
?
Instead of chemical treat with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10g/kg followed by biofertilizer
?
For Pre-monsoon sowing seeds treated with paste made of ash (500g/kg of seeds) plus 3% gum followed by 5 hrs drying is recommended
FERTILISER APPLICATION ?
Apply fertilizers ferti lizers basally basa lly before before sowing
?
Rainfed
12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
?
Irrigated
25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
SOWING ?
Dibble the seeds adopting spacing of 30x10cm
?
Rice fallows broadcast in the standing crop 5 to 10 days before the harvest uniformly at optimum moisture condition (seeds should get embedded in the waxy mire)
?
Wetland bunds dibble at 30 cm spacing
WATER MA NAGEMENT NAGEMENT ?
Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
?
Irrigate at interval of 10 to15days depending on soil moisture conditions
?
For wetland bunds pot water da ily for a week after sowing
?
Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
?
Avoid water stagnation at all stages
?
Apply KCl at 0.5% as foliar spray during vegetative stage if there is moisture str ess
FOLIAR SPRAY OF DAP AND NAA (Rice fallows) ?
Spray 2% DAP at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later
?
Spray 40ppm NAA at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 da ys later
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre -emergence -emergence 3DAS followed by one hand weeding 30DAS
?
If herbicides are not applie d give two hand weedings on 15 th and 30 th DAS
CROPPING SYSTEMS SYSTEMS ?
Intercropping is common practice where one or two rows of mung bean is inter cropped with maize, pearl millet, sorghum, pigeon pea, cotton and sugarcane
?
Rotations are Maize -wheat-urd, whe at-urd, Maize-potato-urd, Maize-potato-urd, Paddy-whe Paddy-whe at-urd
HARVESTING ?
Harvesting the plants when 80% of the pods are mat ure and stack the plants for few days before sowing
?
Yield: Rainfed :600 to 700 kg/ ha, Irrigated 1000 to 1300 kg/ha and Rice fallows: 500 kg/ha
67
HORSEGRAM (kulthi) M a cr cr o t y l o m a u n i f l o r u m IMPORTANCE ?
Predominantly a South Indian crop and termed as poor man's legume here
?
Serves the farmer excellently under subsistence farming conditions
?
Suited to marginally poor soils and those deficient in Nitrogen
?
Richer in protein source and utilized for human consumption
?
Cooked seeds possess an earthy fiavour and the soups are nutritious
?
Roasted grains are salted and consumed as confectionary items
?
Greater Grea ter use as animal feed particularly horse and cattle, boiled, salted and fed
?
Freshly cut plants are excellent fodder source in South India
?
Contains 22% protein, 1.0% fat, 62.0% carbohydrate
ORIGIN: ORIGIN : India DISTRIBUTION ?
South East Asian crop predominantly grown in South India
?
States in India are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
?
Less frequently grown in central states a nd in the hilly slopes of HP and UP
SOILAND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT ?
Has excellent adaptabi lity to drought and hars her environments prevailing in semi-arids semi-arids
?
Grown scanty rainfall of less than 750mm
?
Grown on wide range of soils such as sandy, loamy or even deep vertisols and first crop on marginal lateritic soils
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Prepare the land to get fine tilth and in general kept to minimum to sa ve investment
SEASON SEASON AND VARI ETIES ?
October - November
?
Tamil Nadu: Co-1, Paiyur-1, Paiyur-2 Paiyur-2
?
Other states: Hebbal Hurali-2, HPK-2, HPK-2, VZM-2PGH-9, BGM-1
SEEDS SEEDS AND SEED SEED TREATM ENT ?
Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing
?
Seed rate 20-25 kg/ha and if grown primarily for fodder use 40 kg/ha
FERTILISER APPLICATION ?
Apply 12.5 t/ha of compost or FYM and 12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O5 / ha fertilizers basally before sowing
SOWING ?
Spacing 30x10 cm Dibble the seeds at 30 cm row spacing and thin it to 10 cm in the row
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
One hand weeding and hoeing between 20 to 25 DAS
68
HARVESTING ?
Matured pods suitable for harvest are slightly brittle and straw coloured. Plants are uprooted at harvest, stacked for few days to dry, later threshed by beating to separate the grains by winnowing
?
Yield range from 0.5 to 0.8 t/ha. Green fodder yield is 10t/ha
69
COWPEA ( V i g n a u n g u i c u l a t a ) (Lobia, Black eyed pea, China pea) IMPORTANCE ?
Grains used for human consumption and green pods used as vegetables
?
Being rich in protein and other nutrients known as vegetable meat
?
It makes a good cover crop and prevents soil e rosion
?
The leaves and haulms are rich sources of fodder and hay is more digestible than alfalfa
?
Excellent green manure
?
Contains 23.4% protein, 1.8% fat, 60.3% carbohydrate. Al so rich in Ca and Fe
?
Alternate pulse crop for dryland farming
ORIGIN: Africa Africa (Nigeria) DISTRIBUTION ?
Mainly grown in Africa (90%) and Nigeria i s the world's largest producer
?
Cultivated through out Sub-Saharan Africa, South East Asia, Latin America, Australia and the USA
?
Mainly grown in central and peninsular India and in Northern India it is grown in UP, Punjab, Delhi and Haryana
SOIL AND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT ?
Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and sa line alkali soils are not suitable
?
Thrives best between temperature of 27 ?C to 35 ?C
?
Optimum pH range is 6.0 to 7.5
?
Withstand drought to certain extent
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds and channels
SEASON SEASON AND VARI ETIES Grown in Kharif, Rabi and summer crop In Tamil Nadu Season
Month
Varieties
Kharif (Adipattam)
June – August
Co2, Co3, Co4, Co6, KM1, Paiyur 1
Rabi (Purattasipattam)
Sept November
Co2, Co3, Co4, Co6, KM1,VBN1&2, Paiyur 1
Summer
February March
Co2, Co4, VBN2
Other important varieties in India: C-152, Pusa Sawani, Gujarat Cowpea1 and 2, PTB1(Kanakamani), PTB2(Krishnamani), Highly valued vegetable cowpea is 'Pusa Baisaki' SEEDS SEEDS AND SEED SEED TREATM ENT ?
Seed rate 20kg/ha for pure crop, 10kg/ha for mixed crop, Fodder and green manure crop 40kg/ha
70
?
Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing
?
Instead of chemical treat with Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg or Pseudomonas fluorescence @ 10g/kg followed by biofertilizer
FERTILISER APPLICATION ?
Apply fertilizers basally before sowing as below
?
Rainfed
12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
?
Irrigated
25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
?
Application of 20kg K2O/ha is beneficial for lateritic soils in increasing the yield
SOWING ?
Dibble the seeds adopting spa cing of 30x15cm or 45x15cm depending on variety
WATER MA NAGEMENT NAGEMENT ?
Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
?
Irrigate at interval of 10 to15days depending on soil moisture conditions
?
For wetland bunds pot water daily for a week after sowing
?
Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
FOLIAR SPRAY OF DAP AND NAA (Rice fallows) ?
Spray 2% DAP at the time of first appearance of flower and 15 days later
?
Spray 40ppm NAA (Planofix) at the time of first appearance of flo wer and 15 days later
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Spray fluchloralin 1.5l/ha or pendimethalin 2.0 l/ha as pre-emergence 3 DAS followed by one hand weeding 30 DAS
?
If herbicides are not applied give two hand weed ing on 15th and 30 th DAS
CROPP ING SYSTEMS SYSTEMS ?
Usually mixed with maize, sorghum, millets, cassava
?
Maize-wheat-cowpea, Paddy-whe Paddy-whe at-cowpea, at-cowpea, Cowpea-wheat-cheena, Jowar+cowpeaberseem-maize+cowpea
HARVESTING ?
Harvesting the plants when 80% of the pods are mature and thresh after drying
?
Yield :1000 to1500 kg/ha and if raised for fodder yiel ds 25 to 35t/ha green fodder
71
GARDEN GARDEN LAB LAB (Avarai) L ab ab l a b p u r p u r e u s v a r . t y p i c u s IMPORTANCE ?
Mostly the green pods used as vegetables
?
Grains are also used for human consumption
?
The leaves and haulms are also used as fodder
SOIL AND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT ?
Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and sa line alkali soils are not suitable
?
Thrives best between temperature of 27 ?C to 35 ?C
?
Optimum pH range is 6.0 to 7.5
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Prepare the land to get fine tilth and form beds a nd channels for bushy types and pits of one cubic foot for Pandal types
SEASON SEASON AND VARI ETIES Grown in Kharif, Rabi and summer crop Season
Month
Varieties
Kharif (Adipattam)
June – August
CO3, CO4, CO5, CO6, CO8, CO9, CO10, CO11, CO12, CO13
Rabi (Purattasipattam)
Sept - November
-do- + CO7
Summer
February - March
-do-
SEEDS SEEDS AND SEED SEED TREATM ENT ?
Seed rate :CO3, CO4, CO5, CO7, CO6, CO8 : 4kg/ha
?
Seed rate CO9, CO11, CO12 : 20kg/ha and for Co10 and Co13: 25kg/ha for pure crop, crop, 50% for mixed crop
?
Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing
FERTILISER FERTILISER APPLICATIO N ?
Apply fertilizers basally before sowing as below
?
Rainfed
12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
?
Irrigated
25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
?
For pandal varieties, 115 g each in Ammonium sulphate and superphosphate may be applied
SOWING ?
Dibble the seeds adopting the fo llowing spacing
?
CO3, CO4, CO5 : 90x90 cm (Climber)
?
CO6, CO7, CO8, CO9, CO10, CO11 a nd CO12 : 45x15 cm
?
CO13
: 45x30 cm
WATER MA NAGEMENT NAGEMENT ?
Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
72
?
Irrigate at interval of 15 to 20 days de pending on soil moisture moisture conditions
?
Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Give two hand weeding first between 20 to 25 DAS and second at 45 DAS
PRUNI NG TECHNIQUE TECHNIQUE ?
Spacing of 10 feet between lines and four feet between plants is adopted
?
Pits are dug (one cubic foot) and two to three seeds ar e sown in the middle of the pit
?
One healthy seedling allow to grow and rest removed
?
The vine is propped with a stick
?
When the vine reaches the pandal the terminal bud is nipped
?
Allow the branches to trail over the pandal. Each branch may be pruned at three feet length so that pandal is cover with vines. Branches arising on the main vine below the pandal are removed. When flowering starts, prune the tip of the branches bearing the inflorescence having three nodes from the productive axils. Continue the procedure through out the reproductive phase
HARVESTING ?
Pick the pods when they are completely dry.
?
Thresh the pods and clean the beans
?
Pick the tender pods once in a w eek for vegetable use
?
Yield of grain 5.0 to 7.5 t/ha and green pod yield 10 to15 t/ha
73
FIELD LAB LAB L a b l ab ab p u r p u r e u s v a r . l i g n o s u s (Mochai) IMPORTANCE ?
Grains are also used for human consumption and found to possess all the aminoacids required for disease resistance
?
The leaves and haulms are also used as fodder
SOIL AND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT ?
Ideal soils are well drained loam or sandy loam and sa line alkali soils are not suitable
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Prepare the land to get fine tilth
SEASON SEASON AND VARI ETIES Grown in Kharif, Rabi and summer season Season
Month
Varieties
Kharif (Adipattam)
June – August
CO1 and CO2
Rabi (Purattasipattam)
Sept - November
CO2
Summer
February - March
CO2 - All through the year
SEEDS SEEDS AND SEED SEED TREATM ENT ?
Seed rate CO1 : 20 kg/ha for mixed crop 10 kg/ha
?
Seed rate CO2 : 25 kg/ha for mixed crop 12.5 kg/ha
?
Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertilizer with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing
FERTILISER APPLICATION ?
Apply fertilizers basally before sowing as below
?
Rainfed
:
12.5 kg N + 25 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
?
Irrigated :
25.0 kg N + 50 kg P 2O 5 / ha ha
SOWING ?
Dibble the seeds adopting the following spacing
?
Co1 : 90x30 cm and mixed crop 200 x30 cm
?
Co2 : 45x15 cm and mixed crop 200 x15 cm
WATER MA NAGEMENT NAGEMENT ?
Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
?
Irrigate at interval of 15 to 20 days depending on soil moisture conditions
?
Flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Give two hand weeding first between 20 to25 DAS and second if required at 40 DAS
74
HARVESTING ?
Dry pods may be collected for grain purpose
?
Green mature pods may be collected a nd extracted for vegetable purpose
75
SOYBEAN (Bhat, Ramkulti) G l y c i n e m a x IMPORTANCE ?
Soybean serves as an important fat and protein source f or large population residing in Asia and American continents
?
China and USA together contributes 60% of worl d production
?
Contains 20% 20% o il and 40% high quality protein
?
Large number of Indian and Western dishes are prepared using soybean
?
Soybean oil is used for making vanaspathi and several other industrial products
?
Used for making high protein food for children
?
Widely used in the industria l production of antibiotics antibiotics
?
Builds up soil fertility by N fixation (as high as 160 kg/ha Average 100kg/ha)
?
Can be used as fodder, forage can be made into hay and silage
?
Cake are excellent nutritive foods for livestock and poultry
?
Soybean is the richest, cheapest and easiest source of best qua lity protein and fat and having a vast multiplicity of uses as food and industrial products and hence called as wonder crop.
ORIGIN: Eastern Asia or China DISTRIBUTION ?
Grown in USA, China, Brazil, Mexico and USSR
?
In India restricted to MP, UP, Mahar astra, Gujarat and also grown in HP, Punjab
SOIL AND CLIMATE REQUIREMENT ?
Well drained fertile loam soil s with pH 6.0 to7.5 are most suitable
?
Saline and sodic soils inhibit germination while acidic soils require lime applicati on
?
Water logging is injurious
?
Optimum temperature is 26.5 to 30 ?C and grown in wide range 5 ?C to 40 ?C
?
Grows well in warm and moist climate
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Prepare the land to get fine tilth
SEASON SEASON AND VARI ETIES ?
North India soybean can be planted f rom third week of June to first f ortnight of July
?
Grown in Kharif, Rabi and summer crop in T amil Nadu
?
Rice fallows sow from middle of January to middle of March
Season
Month
Varieties
Kharif (Adipattam)
June – August
Co1, Co2
Rabi (Purattasipattam)
Sept - November
Co1(Irrigated), Co2
Summer (Masipattam)
February - March
ADT1 (Rice fallows), Co1, Co2
Rice fallows
Jan - March
UGM21, UGM37, ADT1
SEEDS SEEDS AND SEED SEED TREATM ENT ?
Seed rate Co1 : 80 kg/ha
76
?
Seed rate Co2 : 60 to 70 kg/ha
?
Chemical seed treatment with carbendazim or thiram @ 2g/kg of seed then after interval of 24 hours treat with 3 packets (600g) suitable strains of Rhizobium biofertiliser biofertiliser with rice gruel 15 minutes before sowing
?
Coat the seeds with ZnSO4 @ 300mg/kg using 10% maida solution as adhesive (250ml/kg) or gruel and arappu leaf powder (250 g/kg) as carrier to increase the field stand
FERTILISER APPLICATION ?
Apply 20 kg N, 80 kg P 2O 5 and 40 kg K2O along with 40 kg of S as gypsum (220kg/ha) per hectare as basal dressing
?
Give 40 kg P 2O 5 as foliar f oliar spray (2% DAP) on 40 40 DAS
?
Salicylic acid at 100 ppm (50g/500 t/ha) as foliar spray on 30 th and 45 th day to increase the yield
?
For rainfed 20:40:20 NPK kg/ha as basal
SOWING ?
Dibble the seeds adopting spacing of 30x5 cm and for rainf ed 30x10 cm
?
Depth of sowing is 2 to 3 cm
WATER MA NAGEMENT NAGEMENT ?
Irrigate immediately after sowing followed by life irrigation on the third day
?
Irrigate at interval of 7 to 10 days during summer and 10 to 15 days in winter days depending on soil moisture conditions
?
Should not suff er due to water stress from flowering to maturity
?
To alleviate moisture stress spray Kaolin 3% or liquid paraffin 1% on the foliage
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Fluchloralin 2.0 lit/ha or pendimethalin 3.3 lit/ha 3 DAS followed by one one hand weeding on 30 DAS
?
If herbicide is not applied give two hand weeding first at 20 DAS and second at 35 DAS
?
In case of labour availability restricted for timely weeding use fluchloralin 1kg ai/ha or alachlor 2.0 kg ai/ha
MICRO NUTRIENT APPLI CATION ?
For Zn deficient soils apply 25 kg ZnSO 4 along with 12.5 t FYM basally
?
For Mn deficient soils apply 25 kg MnSO 4 along with 12.5 t FYM basally and if basal application is not given spray 1% MnSO 4 on 20 to 30 DAS and 40 DAS
CROPPIN G SYSTEM SYSTEM ?
Recommended for intercropping with sugarcane, maize, soghum cotton
?
Rotated with wheat/potato/gra m/tobacco and potato - wheat
HARVESTING ?
Yellowing of leave and shedding indicate the maturity
?
Cut the entire plant when most of the pods have turned yellow
?
Dry the pods adequately in sun and thresh with sticks to separate the grain
?
Hand thresh for seeds purpose and dried to 8% moisture, treated with Thiram @ 2g/kg and packed in 300 gauge thick poly lined gunny bag or ordinary gunny bag to maintain germination of 70% for 8 months
77
MOTH BEAN (Dew gram) P h a se se o l u s a c o n i t i f o l i u s IMPORTANCE ?
Important pulse crop in desert region and drought tolerant
?
Suited to arid and semiarid
?
Grown for fodder, as green manure, a s cover crop
?
Improves soil fertility
ORIGIN: ORIGIN :
India
DISTRIBUTION ?
India, Thailand, China, Africa and Southern USA
?
In India states are Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat
SEASON: SEASON : July VARIETIES ?
Majority are local
?
Spreading habit and indeterminate
?
Viny and late maturing
?
Prone to shattering and susceptible to yellow mosaic Rajasthan :
Jadia
Gujarat
Baleswar 12, Mevi
:
Fodder type:
J 3, RMO 40
SOIL AND CLIMATE ?
Sandy loam with neutral pH
?
Saline and alkali soils are not suited
?
Warm weather crop and grown in summer
FIELD PREPARATION ?
Needs minimum land preparation
?
Pre -sowing irrigation for proper germination
SEED SEED RATE AND SPA CING ?
Pure crop
12 to 15kg/ha
40 to 50 cm between rows
?
Mixed crop
4 to 5 kg/ha
10 to 15 cm between plants
?
Fodder
20 to 25 kg/ha
?
Seed treatment may be done as per other pulses
?
Sowing behind the country plough with dept h 4 to 5 cm
MANURES A ND FERTIL ISERS ISERS ?
FYM: 8 to10 t/ha, 15 to 20 kg N and 40 to 45 kg/P 2O 5 as basal
?
For saline soils 15 to 20 kg Zn SO4/ha once in 3 years
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Fluchloralin @ 1kg ai ha as pre -emergence or
?
Hand weeding twice 20 to 25 and 30 to 35 DAS
78
CROP ROTATION Rainfed
Irrigated
Sorghum – moth bean – barley
Moth bean – potato – whe at
moth bean – pearl millet – mustard
Moth bean – radish – whe at
moth bean – gram
Moth bean – toria - potato
moth bean b ean - mustard mustard
Y I E L D: D:
600 to 800 kg/ha
79
PEAS P i s u m s a t i v u m (Garden pea and Field pea) Garden pea : P . sa s a t i v u m var. h o r t e n s e ?
Also known as table pea
?
Harvested in immature condition to be cooked as green vegetables
?
White flowered
?
Seeds are bold and wrinkled with yellowish, whit ish or bluish green in colour
Field pea : P . s a t i v u m var. a r v e n s e ?
Mature seeds are used as whole or split
?
Grown as forage crop for cattle
?
As green manure crop for soil improvement and cover crop to reduce soil erosion
?
Flowers are coloured
?
Seeds are rounded and little angular with grayish to brown / green / yellow in colour
ORIGIN: ORIGIN : ?
Mediteranean region of S. Europe and Western Asia
DISTRIBUTION: DISTRIBUTION: ?
China (ranks first), USSR, Ethiopia, USA.
?
Indian states are UP (major area), MP, Bihar, Punjab, Haryana
SOIL AND CLIMATE ?
Well-drained soil with pH ra nge of 6.0 to7.5 and optimum 6.5
?
Highly sensitive to water logging
?
Requires cool growing season with moderate temperature
?
Can be successfully produced in temperate and semi-arid zones
SEASON SEASON AND VARI ETIES ?
Rabi season crop.
Under North Indian conditions ?
Field pea
: Second fort night of October
?
Garden peas
: First fortnight of November
?
Table varieties
: Arkel, Bonnville. Early Badger, Early December
?
Filed pea varieties
: Type 163, PG 3, Aparna, Hans, Swarna Rekha
FIELD PREPARATION Prepare a well pulverized seed seed bed SEED SEED RATE ANDS SPACI NG Pea type
Varieties
Seed rate (kg/ha)
Row spacing
Field peas
All
60-80
30 cm
Garden peas
Early maturing and dwarf
100-125
20 cm
Late maturing and tall
75-80
30 cm
WEED MANAGEMENT
80
?
Fluchloralin Fluchlorali n 0.75 kg ai/ha o r hand weeding twi twice ce
CROPPING SYSTEMS SYSTEMS ?
Peas mixed with wheat, barley, oats, r ape seed and mustard
?
Rotation after Maize, paddy, cotton, jowar, bajra
YIELD Green pods: 10 to 12.5 t/ha Field pea: 2 to 3 t/ha
81
LENTIL ( L e n s c u l i n a r i s ) IMPORTANCE ?
It is an important rabi pulse.
?
One of the oldest and most nutritious pulse
?
It has the potential to cover the risk of rainfed farming.
?
It is also used as a cover crop to check soil erosion.
?
It is eaten as dal.
?
The split dal are deep orange (or) orange yellow in colour.
?
It contains cont ains protein 25.0%, carbohydrate carbohydrate 60.0% and Fat 1.8%
?
It is rich in calcium, iron and niacin.
?
Being a leguminous crop fix atmospheric nitrogen and improve soil fertility.
?
Whole pulse is known as Malka masoor.
ORIGIN: ORIGIN : Eastern Mediterranean consists of Asia Minor, Greece and Egypt. DISTRIBUTION ?
India, Turkey, Syria, Pakistan, Spain, a nd Bangladesh.
?
India ranks first in Area and Production f ollowed by Turkey.
?
In India, it is mostly grown in central and eastern parts of India, i.e. M.P, U.P, Bihar and West Bengal.
Classification 1. Small seeded group
sub sp. microspermae (masuri)
2. Bold seeded group
sub sp macrospermae (malkamasur)
SOIL AND CLIMATI C REQUIREMENT REQUIREMENT ?
It requires cold climate sown in winter season.
?
Can be cultivated up to 3000m above MSL.
?
Not affected by rain at any stage.
?
Can be raised with moisture conserved during monsoon period.
?
It is a very hardy plant
?
Can tolerate frost and severe winter
?
Requires cold temperature during vegetative growth and warm temperature at the time of maturity.
?
Optimum temperature for growth is 18 to 30C.
?
North India-Light India -Light loams and alluvial soils, M.P a nd Maharashtra - Well drained, moderately deep, light black soils, Punjab-undulated lands.
?
The crop can with stand moderate amount of alkalinity.
?
Acid soils are not suitable.
VARIETIES Pusa varieties
Punjab varities
UP varieties
Pusa1 100-140 days
L912, LL56
Type 8 : 120-125 days days
150-160 days. days .
Pusa4 130-140 days
Type36: 130-140 days
Pusa6 130-135 days
82
LAND PREPARATION ?
Soil should be made friable.
?
Proper moisture in soil for proper germination
SEED RATE AND SOWI NG ?
Normal sown: 30 to 40 kg/ha
?
Late sown: 50 to 60kg/ha
?
Seed treatment with Fungicide Fungicide and Bacterial culture
?
Time of sowing Second fortnight of October
?
Delayed sowing Heavy yield reduction after 15 th November
?
Yield reduction can be minimized by Closer spacing Higher seed rate.
METHOD OF SOWI SOWI NG ?
Line sowing
:
30cm row spacing (behind country plough)
?
Broad casing
:
just like rice fallow pulses
?
Late sown condition
:
20cm spacing
?
Depth of sowing
:
2 to 3 cm
W ATER MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT ?
1 to 2 irrigation
?
1st irrigation : 40 DAS
?
2nd irrigation : at flowering (or) pod formation
NUTRIENT MAN AGEMENT AGEMENT ?
N:
20 to 25 kg/ha
?
P:
50 to 60 kg/ha
?
Whenever cultivated after rice 0.5% ZnSo4
WEED MANAGEMENT ?
Fluchloralin 0.75kg ai/ha as pre -planting spray (or) Hand weeding twice at 30 DAS and 60 DAS
HARVESTING ?
When the plants dry up, pods mature and moisture reaches 12%.
Y I E L D : 1.8 to 2.0 t/ha
83
GREEN GREEN MANUURIN G Why green manuring? ?
Asia in last 20 years changed from a region of food scarcity to food sufficiency by increased fertilizer use with subsidized prices
?
But use of organic manures including green manure, declined substantially
?
Inorganic fertilizers are becoming more expensive
?
Sustainability of soil productivity become a question
?
Hence, alternate sources to supplement inorganic fertilizers are thought
?
Green manuring low cost but effective technology in minimising cost of fertilizers and safeguarding productivity
Green manure crops Crops grown for the purpose of restoring or increasing the organic matter content in the soil are called Green manure crops Green Manuring Use of Green manure crops in cropping system is called 'Green Manuring' where the crop is grown in situ or brought from outside and incorporated when it is purposely grown. Green leaf manuring Consists of gathering green biomass from nearby loca tion and adding to the soil. Objectives of green manuring To add N to the companion or succeeding cr op and to add to or sustain organic ma tter in the soil. Subsidiary objective a. Catch Crops Legumes ar e inter-sown in standing crop before or after harvest, to utilize nitrates or the left over moisture b. Shade Shade cro ps Sown in young orchards with the object of shading the soil surface and , preventing the rise of temperature. Otherwise Othe rwise tender roots of fruit plants may be affected by the high soil temperature. In plantation like tea and coffee, coffee, Glyricidia is is used as shade shade crop first and incorporated as green manure. c. Cover crops Green manure crops grown with the objective of clothing the surface with a vegetative cover, especially in hill slopes dur ing the rainy season to avoid soil erosion a nd run off. d. Forage crops Legume are grown for taking cutting of green fodder for catt le in early stages and later as GM. Pillipesara seeds are broadcasted in the standing rice crop (3-5 days before harvest) in coastal Andhra Pradesh. Advantage of green manuring ?
Has positive influence on the physical and chemical properties of soil.
?
Helps to maintain the organic matter status of arable s oil.
?
Serves as source of food and energy for the microbes multiplies rapidly not only decompose the GM but also result in release of plant nutrients in available forms for use by the crops.
?
Improves aeration in rice soils by stimulating activities of surface film of algae and bacteria
?
Additional use as source of food, fee d and fuel.
84
Soil Structure and tilth improvement ?
Green manuring builds up soil structure and improves tilth
?
Promotes formation of crumbs in heavy soils leading to aeration and drainage
?
Increases the water holding capacity of light soils.
?
Form a canopy cover over the soil and reduce the soil temperature and from erosive action of rain and water
Fertility improvement of soils ?
Absorb nutrients from the lower layer and leave them in surface when ploughed
?
Prevent leaching of nutrients to lower layers.
?
Harbour N fixing bacteria, rhizobia, in root nodules and fix atmospheric N (60 to 100 kg N/ha)
?
Increase the solubility of lime phosphates, trace elements etc., through the activity of the soil microorganisms and by producing organic acids during decomposition.
Amelioration of soil problems ?
Sesbania aculeata (daincha) applied to sodic soils continuously for four or five seasons improves the permeability and helps to leach salts & fit to grow crops.
?
Argemone mexicana & Tamarindus indica has a buffering effect when applied to sodic soils.
Impr ovement in crop yield and quality ?
Increases the yield of crops to 15 to 20 %
?
Vitamin and protein content of rice increased
Pest control ?
Pongamia and Neem leaves have insect control effects.
Classification of green manures Green manures Legumes
Non-legumes
Green manure
Green leaf manure
Green manure
Green leaf manure
(eg)Daincha
(eg) Gliricidia
(eg) Sunflower
eg) Calotropis
Sunhemp
Cassia
Kolinji
Pongamia glabra
Buck wheat
Adath oda Thespesia
Characteristics desirable in legume green manure crops ?
Multipurpose use
?
Short duration, fast growing, high nutrient accumulation ability
?
Tolerance to shade; food, drought and adverse temperatures.
?
Wide ecological a daptability
?
Efficiency in use of water
?
Early onset of biological nitrogen fixation
?
High N accumulation rates
?
Timely release of nutrients
?
Photoperiod insensitivity
?
High seed production
85
?
High seed viability
?
Ease in incorporation
?
Ability to cross -inoculate or responsive responsive to inoculation
?
Pest and disease resistant
?
High N sink in underground plant parts.
Leguminous green manures Local name Sesbania Dhaincha Sunhemp Wild Indigo Pillipesara Cowpea Cluster bean (Guar) Green gram (Mung bean) Black gram Berseem Madras Indigo
Botanical name Sesbania speciosa Sesbania aculeate Crotalariajuncea Tephros purpurea Phaseolus trilobus Vigna unguiculata (Syn. V sinensis) Cyamopsis tetragonoloba Vigna radiata (Syn Phaseolus aureus) Vigna mungo (Syn. Phaseolus mungo) Trifolium alexandrinum Indigofera tinctoria
Common shrubs and trees used as green leaf manures Cassia auriculata Derris indica Ipomoea cornea Jatropha gossypifolia Tephrosia Tephrosia candida candid a
Thepesia pop ulnea Azadiracta indica Glyricidia maculata Cassia tora Vitex negundu
Leucaena leucocephala Calotropis gigantea Delonix regia Cassia Occidental Hibiscus viscosa
Non-conventional green manures ?
Leguminous or non-leguminous annuals, shrubs and trees providing large biomass and can supply considerable quantity of plant nutrients
?
Initial set back may be seen in crops after the incorporation of organic residues with wide C-N ratio
?
High lignin content which resist easy decomposition and release of higher proportion of organic acids during decomposition adversely affect establishment of young seedlings can be overcome by extra addition of N or use suitable microbial inoculants.
Nutrient content of non-conventional green manure Green Green manure Trees (leaves or twigs) Azadirachta indica Delonix elata Delonix regia Peltophorumferrugenum Cassia nigricans Weeds Adathoda vesica Parthenium hysteroph orus Eicchornia crassipes T portulacastrum Ipomoea cornea Calotropis gigantea Cassia pistula
Total Total N (% )
C:N C:N Ratio
Total P (% )
Total Total K(%)
2.83 3.51 2.76 2.63 2.73
70:1 27:1 32:1 34:1 -
0.28 0.31 0.46 0.37 0.18
0.35 0.13 0.50 0.50 0.50
1.32 2.68 3.01 2.64 2.01 2.06 1.60
60:1 30:1 29:1 32:1 43:1 64:1 120:1 120:1
0.38 0.68 0.90 0.43 0.33 0.54 0.24
0.15 1.45 0.15 1.30 0.40 0.31 1.20
86
Criteria for selection green manure Criteria High biomass production Deep rooting system
Fast initial growth More leaf than wood Low CN ratio
Nitrogen fixing Good affinity with mycorrhiza Efficient water use Non-host for crop related pests and diseases No rhizomes Easy and abundant seed formation Useful by products(e.g. fodder, wood )
Effects Mobilisation of nutrients from soil into vegetation; suppression of weeds Pumping up of weathered and/or leached nutrients from soil layers not occupied by roots of main crop Quick soil cover for effective soil protection; suppression of weeds Easy decomposition of organic matter Leading to enhanced availability of nutrients for succeeding crops; easy to handle during cutting and/or and /or incorporation incorporation into the soil. Increased nitrogen availability Mobilisation of phosphorus leading to improved availability for crops. Possibility to grow after main cropping season on residual soil moisture or with less rainfall Decrease in pest and disease populations Controllable growth Propagation in fanner's fields Integration of animal husbandry and forestry
Forms of green manuring ?
Improved fallow, i.e. replacing natural fallow vegetation with green manure
?
Alley cropping quickly growing trees, shrubs (usually legumes) or; grasses are planted in rows and: are regularly cut back
?
Integration of trees into crop land, as is found in several t raditional farming systems,
?
Relay fallowing by sowing bush legumes among the food crops
?
Live mulching, in which the rows of foo d crops are sown into a low but dense cover crop of grasses or legumes, strips of the cover crop are removed by hand or killed by herbicides when the food crops are to be sown, thus reducing soil tillage operat ions to zero;
?
Shaded green manures (in fruit orchards, coffee plots, multistory kitchen gardens etc); Nitrogen content and accumulation of green manures
Local Local name Sithagathi Dhaincha Manila agathi Sunnhemp Pillipesara Wild Indigo
Botanical Botanical name Sesbania speciosa Sesbania aculeata Sesbania rostrata Crotalaria juncea Phaseolus trilobus Tephrosia purpurea
N (% ) 2.29-3.10 2.55-3.21 3.20-3.37 2.80-3.15 2.16-2.77 2.90-3.22
N accumulation 115-160 kg/ha 130-185 170-220 80-130 85-125 70-115
Biomass 20.2 t/ha 26.3 24.9 16.8 17.6 16.8
Constraints of Green Manuring ?
In intensively cropped areas, farmers do not wish to set apart 6 -8 weeks exclusively for growing a green manure crop with no direct cash benefit benefit .
?
When rice is grown after wheat, farmers find it difficult to do the farm operations in the intense heat of May and June.
?
The most costly item in green manuring is the seed. Inadequate availability of quality seeds of desired species at reduced cost is one of the major problems in the adoption of green manuring practice.
?
Benefits of green manuring are not perceptible to the farmers because it is not directly visible as in the case of fertilizer N.
?
Intercropped green manures compete for growth resources of main crop .
87
AGRONOMY OF GREEN MANURE CROPS Sithagathi ( S e s b a n i a s p e c i o s a ) Season
Grown all seasons, March – April sow ing best
Soil
Grown in all types of soil conditions
Seed rate
30 – 40 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 15 kg/ha
Seed treatment
Mix seeds with specific rhizobium strain @ 5 pkts /ha
Spacing
Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 45 x 20 cm
Irrigation
Once in 15 – 20 days
Harvest
Incorporate the green mater 45-60 DAS & for seed collect the seeds 130 DAS
Yield
Green biomass – 15-18t/ha, 15-18t/ha, Seed – 400-600 400-600 kg/ha
Dhaincha ( Se s b a n i a a c u l e a t a ) Season
Grown all seasons when sufficient moisture is available, March – April sowing best for seeds production
Soil
Grown in all soil conditions
Seed rate
50 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 20 kg/ha
Seed treatment
Mix seeds with specific rhizobium stra in @ 5 pkts /ha
Spacing
Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 45 x 20 cm
Irrigation
Once in 15 – 20 days
Harvest
Incorporate the green mater within 45-60 DAS & collect seeds from 100 DAS
Yield
Green biomass – 25 t/ha, Seed – 500-600 kg/ha
Manila agathi Se s b a n i a r o s t r a t a ?
Aquatic leguminous crop has nodules both on the stem and roots
?
Introduc Introdu ced to India in 1980's from the IRRI, Philippines
?
Tropical legume thrives well under flooded and water logged conditions
?
Naturally propagated by seeds, seedlings and root stem cuttings can also be used as planting material.
Season
Grown all seasons February-May sowing biomass yield is more, March – May sowing best for seeds production
Soil
Black & red soils suitable, Saline alkaline soils not suitable
Seed rate
40 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 7-8 kg/ha
Seed treatment
Seeds to be scarified with concentrated H2SO4 (100 ml/kg) by soaking for 10 minutes then wash thoroughly(10-15 times). Mix seeds with specific rhizobium strain @ 5 pkts /ha
Spacing
Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 45 x 20 cm
Irrigation
Once in 15 – 20 days
Nipping
For seed purpose it should be done 60 DAS to increase branching and seed yield
Harvest
Incorporate the green mater within 45-50 DAS & Seeds can be collected collected from 100 DAS (3-4 harvest)
Yield
Green biomass – 20 t/ha, Seed – 500-600 kg/ha
88
Sunnhemp ( Cr o t a l a r i a j u n c e a) ?
Quick growing green manure-cum-fibre crop
?
Does not withstand heavy irrigation or continuous wat er logging
Season
Grown in all seasons, March – April sowing best for seeds production
Soil
Loamy soils are suitable
Seed rate
25-35 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 20 kg/ha
Seed treatment
Mix seeds with specific rhizobium strain @ 5 pkts /ha
Spacing
Broadcasted or 30x10cm, seed purpose adopt 45 x 20 cm
Irrigation
Once in 30 days
Harvest
Incorporate the green mater within 45-60 DAS & for seed collect the seeds from 150 DAS
Yield
Green biomass – 13-15 13-15 t/ha, Seed – 400 kg/ha
ep p h r o s i a p u r p u r e a ) Wild Indigo ( T e ?
Slow growing green manure crop not grazed by cattle
?
If continuously continuously raised for two to four seasons in the same field, it becomes becomes self sown in the subsequent years and there is no need of any fresh sowing
?
Hardy and drought resistant and suited for summer fallows
Season
Grown all seasons, March – April best for seeds production
Soil
Grown all soils, sandy soils are suitable
Seed rate
15-20 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 10 kg/ha
Seed treatment
Soak the seeds in concentrated sulphuric acid (100 ml /kg seed) for 30 minutes and then thoroughly wash the seeds in water for 10-15 times and shade dry
Spacing
Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 30 x 10 cm
Irrigation
Once in 30 days
Harvest
Incorporate within 60 DAS & for seed collect from 150 DAS
Yield
Green biomass – 6-7 t/ha, Seed – 400 - 500 kg/ha
se o l u s t r i l o b u s) Pillipesara ( P h a se ?
Dual purpose crop yielding good fodder and green manure
?
Herbaceous creeper grows into a short dense cover crop if sown thick
?
Does not produce a bulky yield, it is capable of being cut twice or thrice before being ploughed into the field
Season
Grown in all seasons, March – April best for seeds production
Soil
Rice fallow clay soils are suitable
Seed rate
10-15 kg/ha for green manure, Seed purpose 10 kg/ha
Spacing
Broadcasted, for seed purpose adopt 30 x 10 cm
Irrigation
Once in 25-30 days
Harvest
Incorporate the green mater within 60 DAS & for seed collect colle ct the seeds from 150 DAS
Yield
Green biomass – 6-7 t/ha, Seed – 400 - 500 kg/ha
89
AGRONOMY OF GREEN LEAF MANURE CROPS Glyricidia ( G l y r i c i d i a m a c u l a t a Syn. G . s e p i u m ) ?
Introduced shrub & spread by massive campaign in India during 1950s
?
Under favo urable urable conditions of soil and climate, it t akes up a tree habit
?
Quick growing tree and often used for shade and gr een leaf manure in tea, coffee and cocoa plantations
?
It can be planted on alternate field bunds of wetland, 1 to 2 m apart, or as a thick hedge by close planting in three to four r ows at 0.5 m spacing or along field border as tall shrubs giving support to the fence line or along farm roads on both sides for the production of green leaf
?
For green leaf purposes, the shr ub could be kept low by pruning or lopping at convenient heights
?
The shrub is pruned two to three times a year and it withstands r epeated lopping and the height is restricted to 2 - 3 m
?
Do not affect the growth of cultivated crops with their shade effe ct.
?
Glyricida can be propagated by p lanting stem cuttings or seedlings
?
Each plant gives 5 to 10 kg of green leaves annually
c a Sy Sy n . P o n g a m i a g l a b r a ) Pungam ( D e r r i s i n d i ca ?
Leguminous, moderate sized ever green tree
?
It grows in coastal forests, on river banks and on tank bunds mostly along streams, wastelands and road sides
?
Trees are established by means of planting two to three months old seedlings, 4 to 5 m apart
?
Lopping may be taken once or twice a year
?
A tree yields approximately 100 to 150 kg of green material per lopping.
I p o m o e a co co r n e a ?
Quick growing, profusely branching and highly drought resistant weed
?
It gives abundant green leafy material in short time
?
It is multiplied by means of mature stem cuttings
?
Two to three lopping can be taken in a year
?
Each plant will give about 5 to 7 kg o f green matter per lopping.
Neem ( A z a d i r a c h t a i n d i c a ) ?
Profusely branching, large ever green tree and gives plenty of foliage
?
It comes up in all types of soil
?
The trees are grown along field borders, rivers banks, roads, waste lands and also in garden lands and homestead gardens.
?
Trees are establis hed by planting seedlings at a spacing of 5 to 6 m
?
One or two lopping in a year are taken in favourable seasons, each lopping weighing about 150 to 200 kg of green matter.
90
Vadanarayan ?
Tropical ever-green ever-green tree tree which thr ives in all types of soil s
?
It is propagated by stem cuttings
?
Two or three lopping of green leaves are taken in a year during f avourable seasons
?
Tree possess medicinal value
91
AGRONOM Y OF FORAGE CROPS AND GRASSES GRASSES The term forages or forage crops denote plants either cultivated or wild that are used as stock feed for domestic animals, which are allowed to graze or fed with cut grasses in stalls. Forage crops include pastures, which is used for grazing animals, str aw, haulms, foliage of trees and shrubs. Although forages and fodder crops are synonyms, yet often latter is termed to the cultivated crops crops like cereals cereals and legumes. legumes. The term fodder fodder is generally applied to non non traditional forage crops used for livestock feed eg. maize, sorghum, bajra, guar etc are primarily the grain crops, but also raised as soiling crop (Greed fodder, which is cut and fed to cattle). Hay : Dried green fodder Silage : The green fodder is cut and is preserved or ensiled under anaerobic condition and fed to the cattle cattle w ith out loss in nutrient.
Green fodder
Dry forage
1.
Estimated forage production
513 m.t
400 mt.
2.
Actual requirement
1083 mt.
676 mt.
Forages account for 4.4 % of total arable land in the country. Cereal fodders/ forages belong to family Poaceae and legumes belong to family Fabaceae. The gap of demand and supply of forages needs to be bridged by maximizing forage production. 1.
in space and time (intensificati on)
2.
identifying new avenues of forage production
3.
integration of forage crops in existing cropping
4.
utilization of marginal, sub marginal degraded and problem land for forage production through pastures, and sylvipasture
5.
enrichment of poor quality roughages and by products.
6.
conservation of seasonal surplus fodder.
Forage crops are divided into 6 groups for ease of understanding 1.
Grass (Perennial)
fodder
:
2.Cereal fodder (Annual)
:
3.Legume fodder
:
4.Tree leaf fodder
:
5. 6.
: :
Dry fodder Miscellaneous fodder
i) Hybrid cumbu Napier grass or Elephant grass ii) Guinea grass iii) Para (water)grass or buffalo grass iv) Kolukattai grass / Blou buffel grass 1. Summer Cereal fodder i) Sorghum ii) Bajra iii) Maize iv) Teosinte 2. Winter cereal fodder : Oats i) Annual summer fodder eg. Cowpea ii) Annual winter fodder eg. Berseem i) Perennial – summer summer fodder eg. eg. Desmanthus, Stylosanthus iv) Perennial winter legume eg. Lucerne eg. Subabul (Lucaena) Acacia sp. (Velvel, Karuvel) Agathi etc. Sorghum, Cumbu, Paddy, Maize, Ragi straw Most farm products products except except straw and hays – eg. sugarcane tops, amaranthus and number of non conventional fodder a nd feed.
92
Ant nutritional factors or toxic constituents in forages Hydrocynic acid (HCN) poisoning : It causes sudden death with in 1 -2 hours. Etiology: It is found in sorghum, cynodon, Johnson grass and Sudan grass. Young leaves contains more than 500 ppm. Critical level: Less than 20 mg HCN / 100 gram of feed mate rial (<200 ppm) ?
Harvest for fodder at heading stage / 50% flower ing.
?
Drying or hay making
?
Ruminants are more susceptible than horse and Figs.
Nitrate poisoning: Forage that accumulated more than 1.5% of NO 3 (0n dry matter basis are classified as potentially toxic). Causes: Salivation, teeth grinding, high pulse rate abdominal pain, dif ficult breathing and finally death of ruminants . Etiology : Found in immature green oats, Hybrid cumbu Napier grass, rye, Para grass etc. Management practices ?
Irrigation management to prevent long spell of drought
?
Dilution of high NO 3 water and cattle shed washings
?
Avoid 'N' fertilizer application particularly during drought period
?
Delayed cutting cut ting – allow over maturity
?
Application of FYM / Compost.
Oxalates: Oxalic acid present in Napier Napier grass and rice straw (contain 1.5 to 1.6%). 1.6%). Young leaves of bajra contains more oxalic acid than mature d leaves. Young leaves contain upto 7%.Toxic limit : 3% Symptom ?
Causes negative 'Ca' balance
?
Precipitation of calcium in the blood
?
Impairs P, Mg and Na nutrition.
Management ?
Ensiling or hay making the napier grass
?
Combine with legume fodder
?
Supplemental with chalk or supernated lime water at 1.0 lit / animal may be given along with drinking water.
Mimosine : Atoxic aminoacid found in subabul and mimosa pudica. pudica. Critical level : <0.75%. Symptoms: Infertility, Infertility, goiter, low birth weight and death of new b orn.
93
Control : Mixing with other cereal forages / feeding 1% FeSo 4 in the diet / supplemented with Iron. Saponins: Biologically active glycosides of steroid rich in Lucerne, berseem – bloating bloating in in ruminants) feeding dry roughage prior to feeding b) spraying oil. Tanins : Sorghum, Subabul, Acacia reduce digestibility of protein. Forage grasses 1.
Napier or Elephant grass
:
Pennisetum glaucum
2.
Guinea grass
:
Panicum maximum
3.
Water or Para grass or Buffalo grass
:
Brachiaria mutica
4.
Blou Buffel grass grass (Neelakollukattai)
:
Cenchrus glaucus
5.
Dennanath grass
:
Pennisetum pedicerllatum
NAPI ER GRASS GRASS 1. Cumber Nap ier: ( P . g l a u c u m ) It is a tall growing (200-300 cm) erect, stout, deep rooted perennial hybrid grass derived from P. glaucum x P. purpureum). purpureum ). Origin: Native of Rhodessia and South Africa. Distribution : It is widely distributed in tropical and sub tropical regions of Asia, Africa, Southern Europe and America. In India, it is grown in Punjab, UP, Haryana, Gujarat, MP, Bihar, Orissa and W .B. .B. Climate : It grows best under warm tropics. Soil : Loamy soil with good drainage. It can with stand saline condition to some extent. Crude Protein : 10.1% Season : Through out the year under irrigation. Varieties BN 2 (Green fodder yield: 250 t/ha/year) NB21 (Green fodder 250 to 225 t/ha/year) CO 1 (250 to 300 t/ha/year) CO 2 (350 to 385 t/ha/year) CO 3 (380 to 400 t/ha) higher foliage. Low oxalic acid content 2.8 to 2.9% Non lodging, profuse tillering, more leafy. Seeds: Vegetative propagation by two noded stem cutting or by root slips. For sole crop: 40,000 slips or stem cuttings / ha. For inter cropping with one row of Desmanthus : 30,000 slips/ha. Field preparation: Plough the field with Iron plough 2 or 3 times to obtain good tilth.
94
F Y M : Apply and spread 25 t/ha of FYM / compost and incorporate. Forming ridges : Form ridges and furrows using ridge plough (Ridger), 6m long and 50 cm apart. Application of fertilizer: Apply as per soil test recommendation. If it is not done, follow blanket recommendation of 50:50:40 of NPK kg/ha. Apply full dose of NPK NPK before planting by opening furrow 5cm deep on the side of the ridges and cover. Transplanting ?
Irrigate through furrows and plant one rooted slip per hole and at a depth of 3 to 5cm on the side of the ridges
?
Maintain spacing of 50x50 cm with 40,000 slips/ha
?
As a mixed crop, 3 rows of cumber Napier hybrid and one row of Desmanthus can be raised to increase the nutrient value.
Water Management: Management: Give life irrigation on 3 rd day and there a fter once in 10 days,. Sewage or waste water can also be used for irrigation. After cultivation: Hand weeding and hoeing on 30 th day thin and gap fill to maintain plant population. Subsequent weeding as and when required. Earthing up once after 3 cuts and remove dried leaves once a year. Harvest: First harvest on 60 th day after planting and subsequent harvests at interval of 45 days. Top dressing: After each harvest, apply 100 kg N/ha. Note I : Quartering has to be done every year or whenever the clumps become un widely and large. Note II : Wherever necessary to countermand the ill effects of oxalates in this grass, the following steps are suggested. ?
feeding 5 kg of leguminous fodder per day per animal along with these grasses.
?
Provide calcium, bone meal or mineral mixture to the animal or
?
Giving daily half litre of superannuated clear lime water along with the drinking water or sprinkling the water on the seed.
Green fodder yield : 380 t/ha /year. Inter cropping 1.
CNH + Desmanthus 3:1
2.
CNH + Lucerne + oat
3.
CNH + Velvet beans
4.
CNH + Cowpea + berseem
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GUIN EA GRASS ( P a n i cu cu m m a x i m u m ) It is a tall growing, vigorous, tufted perennial gr ass. Origin : Tropical and sub tropical Africa Propagation: By rooted slips and mostly by seeds. Germination of fresh seed is low, but can be increased by storing the seed in dry condition for 6 months. Variety : CO1 Importance 1.
High tillering and more no. of leaves
2.
Easily digestible and high yielding (250 to 280 t/ha)
3.
Can be grown with mixed crop with Desmanthus (Velimasa l)
4.
Comes up well under coconut garden
5.
Not toxic to animals
Quality : Crude protein : 10%, Ca : 0.56%, P :0.33% Soil and Climate: All type of soils with good drainage ?
loamy soil is preferred
?
wide range of climate from tropical to sub tropical and spread even to humid tropics and sub tropics
Season Irrigated : Throughout Rainfed : Monsoon season (J une – July to Sept – October) Field preparation: Apply 25 t FYM/ha. Plough once with Iron Iron Plough and twice with with country plough, form ridges and furrows at 50 cm apart. Manures and Manuring: FYM / Compost 25 t/ha NPK on STL recommendation. followed, adopt NPK at 50:50:40 kg/ha at the time of plant ing.
If not
Seeds and Sowing: Seeds: 2.5 kg/ha or Rooted slips: 40,000/ha plant the rooted slips to a depth of 3 cm on the side of ridges adopting 50x50 cm spacing. After cultivation: Hoeing and weeding on 30 th day thin and gap fill to maintain spacing. Earthing up once after three cuts. Remove dried tillers once in a year. Irrigation: At the time of planting / sowing and life irrigation on 3 rd day. There after once in 10 days or as required. Harvest: First cut 80 days after planting and subsequent cuts : once in 45 days. Green fodder yield : 250 to 280 t/ha/year. Top dressing: After each harvest, apply 50 kg N/ha.
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Cropping system ?
Guinea grass + Cowpea
?
Guinea grass + Velvet bean
?
Guinea grass + Lucerne
?
Guinea grass + Berseem
?
Guinea grass + Desmodium
?
Guinea grass + Stylosanthus
?
Guinea grass + Rice bean.
PARA GRASS (w ater grass) B r a c h i a r i a m u t i c a (Buffalo grass) Origin : Tropical Africa and Tropical South America and spread over to tropics and sub tropics. Importance: It is a perennial grass and grows to a height of 2.5 m. height. Grows on moist soils and withstands prolonged flooding or water logging. C rude protein: 6.9% 6.9%.. Season ; Irrigated: Throughout the year Soil : All type of soils Field preparation : Same as in Guinea grass Manures and manuring: FYM or compost 25 t/ha. NPK at 20:40:0 kg / ha. Apply entire dose prior to planting.Top dressing N : Apply 20 kg N / ha af ter each cutt ing. Seeds and sowing: Form ridges and furrows at 50 cm apart. Propagated by stem cuttings. Number of rooted slips required for planting one ha: 40, 000/ha. Spacing : 50x50 cm. Plant to a depth of 3 cm on the side of ridges. After cultivation and Irrigation: Harvest:
Similar to that of Guinea grass.
First cut 60 days after planting Subsequent cut : Once in 45 days Green fodder yield : 200 to 240 t/ha/year
Cropping system ?
Para grass + cowpea
?
Para grass + velvet bean
?
Para grass + berseem
?
Para grass + Lucerne
?
Para grass + rice bean.
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BLOU BU FFEL GRASS ( Ce n c h r u s g l a u c u s ) It is a promising green grass type which perform well in dry lands under raifned condition. Two species, C. ciliaris (white kollukottai) and C. setigerus (Black) are two commonly grown species, but are low yielding. C. glaucus (Neela Kollukattai) is the type which yields better than other two species. Origin : North East Africa and India India Importance : Drought resistant, perennial pasture grass, 4-6 cuts a year. Adapted Adapted arid and semi arid tropical climate wit h long dry spell. ?
Contains 9.06 % Protein, 0.59 % Ca,
?
Easily digestible
?
As mixed crop with Stylosanthus scabra at 3:1 ratio
?
Best suited for hay of silage making.
Variety : Co 1 Season : Rainfed : monsoon season (June – July) or (Sept – Oct) Soil : Well drained soil with high calcium or ca lcarious soil. Field preparation: Plough the field twice or thrice to obtain good tilth. Seeds and Sow Sow ing : Seed rate : 6 to8 kg / ha Spacing : 50x30 cm Manures and Manuring : FYM 12.5 t/ha and NPK at 25:40:20 kg/ha Entire dose as basal. Top dressing: After each cut, if sufficient moisture is available " N "at 25 kg/ha should be applied. Seeds and Sowing: Adopt a spacing of 50x30 cm. Se eds are to be sown at a shallow depth (1cm) and cover with soil. Care to be taken for the seeds not to be blown away by wind while sowing. Seeds are mixed with soil and used. After cultivation : One HW on 30 DAS Harvest : First cut on 70 to75 days and subsequent 4 to 6 cuts depe nding on the growth. Note: Intercropping with Stylasanthus, or Clitoria or Sirato or Desmantus will help to improve fodder quality. Yield: Pure crop yield 40 t/ha/year in 4 to 6 cuts.
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CEREAL CEREAL FORA GE CROPS FODDER SORGHUM ( So r g h u m b i c o lo l o r ) It is a favorite fodder in many parts of the country. To improve the nutritive value, it should be grown mixed with leguminous fodder crops like cowpea, cluster bean, gr een gram etc. Utilization: Crude protein content 9.2 to 9.8%. Used as green fodder, stover, silage and hay. It is an excellent silage crop. Since it contains HCN, it should be harvested at 50% flowering. Origin: Africa. After wards China and India. Tropical or sub tropical climate Season 1. Irrigated (Jan to Feb and April to May in al the districts) 2. Rainfed (June (J une - July : S.W monsoon) (Sept - Oct : N.E monsoon) Varieties Irrigated : CO 11 (37 t/ha), CO 27 (44 t/ha) Rainfed : K7 (33 t/ha), CO 27 Soil:
All soils, but loamy soils with good drainag e are best suited.
Field preparation: Plough once with Iron plough and twice with country plough for rainfed crop Field should be prepared is advance taking advantage of early showers. Apply FYM @ 12.5 t/ha to be the crop and incorporated Apply 10 pockets of Azospirillum (2kg/ha) (2kg/ha) for irrigated irrigat ed crop. Forming ridges and furrows for irrigated crop 1.
From ridges and furrows of 6 m long and 30 cm apart
2.
Form irrigation channels across the furrows using a ridge
3.
If ridges and furrows are not made form beds of size 20m2 depending on the availability of water.
Application of fertilizer For irrigated crop
N
P
K kg/ha
Basal Bas al
30:
40:
20
Top dress on 30 DAS
30:
-
-
60:
40:
20
Total:
For rainfed crop: 40:20:0 kg/ha. Entire dose as basal Seed rate Irrigated crop : 40 kg /ha Rainfed crop : 75 kg /ha Treat the seeds with 3 pockets of Azospirillum of Azospirillum (600 g/ha) Spacing : 30 x15 cm for both the crops. Irrigated crop: Sow the seeds to a depth of 3 cm and cover t he seeds
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Dry Crop: Use seed drills for sowing at 5 cm depth or use country (pre monsoon sowing) plough and sowing behind the country plough. Water management for irrigated crop: Irrigated immediately after sowing, life irrigation on 3 rd day and there after irrigated irrigate d once in 10 days. Weed management: management: Along with hand weeding, thin the seedling and use it for gap filling and maintaining the spacing of 15 cm between plants. Ist weeding : 20 DAS IInd weeding : 30-40 DAS if necessary. Harvesting: If it is a single cult, it should be harvested at 60 to 65 days (50% flowering) and if it is a multicut variet y, the first cut is at 60 DAS and a s econd cut 40 days after Ist cut. Yield: First cut : 45 t/ha (green) IInd cut : 25 t/ha (green).
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FODDER MAI ZE ( Z e a m a y s ) Origin :Africa :Africa Salient Features: Quickly growing, emerging fodder, suited to wide of range of climate, No HCN content. High yield and digestibility obtained when harvested at 50% flowering to dough stage. ?
Highly palatable and nutritious
?
Suitable for high altitude.
Season:
Irrigated through out the year. Rainfed : Kharif / NE monsoon season.
Field preparation: Like fodder sorghum. Soil: All soils with good drainage. Manures and Manuring:
FYM/compost : 25 t/ha N
P
K (kg/ha)
Basal Bas al
30:
40:
20
Top dress on 30 DAS
30:
-
-
Total:
60:
40:
20 kg/ha
Form ridges and furrows using ridger, 6m long and 30 cm apart / form beds depending on the availability of water.
Varieties/
African Tall
Ganga –5
1.Green fodder yield
42 t/ha
34 t/ha
2. Crude protein %
9.8 %
10.6 %
Hybrid
Seed and Sowing: Sowing:
Maintain seed rate of 40 kg/ha and dibble one seed to spacing of 15 cm between the seeds in the row to a depth of 4 cm
Spacing : 30 x 15 cm Seed treatment: treatment: Treat the seeds with 3 pockets (600 g) Azospirillum inoculant before sowing. Weed management: Hand weeding on 20 th day and subsequent weedings if necessary. Water management: Irrigate immediately after sowing and life irrigation on 3rd day and thereafter once in 10 days. Harvesting: Harvest the crop when the cob is in the milling stage (50% flowering to dough stage). Green fodder yield : 40 to 45 t/ha When mixed with cowpea , fodder quality will be better.
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FODDER FODDER CUMBU / Bajra ( P en en n i s e t u m g l a u c u m ) Origin : Africa Variety : CO 8 Features ?
High yielding, sweet stemmed, high tillering
?
At any stage, cut and fed to animals (free of toxic)
?
Short duration, fall growing, drought resistant
?
Non lodging.
As a rainy season crop, it is grown in well drained light soils of TN, AP and Punjab. It is one of the quick growing crops and it responds to multicut. Hence it has to be cut before flowering stage, so that 2 to 3 harvests can be taken. The fodder is not as paltable as that of sorghum or maize. But recently evolved Co8 is palatable and sweet. CO 8 contains high protein of 12.56%. Seed rate : 10 kg/ha Spacing : 30 X 10 CM Manures and Manuring FYM : 25 t/ha,
NPK : 50:40:20 kg/ha.
25:40:20 kg/ha applied as basal prior to sowing. And the remaining 25 kg N as top dressing on 25 th day. Seed and Sowing: Sow the seeds to a depth of 2 to 3 cm and cover / broad broad cast and cover with country plough. Hand w eeding eeding : 20 DAS and subsequent subsequent as and when required. Irrigation: At sowing + Life irrigat ion + Once in 10 to15 days Top dressing N: 25 kg N/ha on 25 to 30 days Harvest: Ist cut 40 to 45 after sowing at b oot leaf stage. Yield: 30 to 35 t/ha/cut. 3 to 5 cuts can be taken in CO 8. It can be intercropped with fodder cowpea to improve the fodder quality.
TEOSINTE TEOSINTE ( Eu c h l a e n a m e x i c a n a ) This is relative to maize (monocious) and introduced from Central America . It is a tall, succulent annual growing to a height of 1.8 to 3.6m in large clumps with numerous branching tillers. The leaves are 90cm long and 5.0t to 7.5cm broad. It was first introduced to India in 1881. It is un affected by any serious pests or diseases. The seeds are about 8 m.m long, some what angular and vary in colour from dark brown to cre amy white. It is also used for hay and silage making. In Punjab, it is recommended for growing during fodder scarcity month of May to June and October Octobe r to November. November.
102
Climate: Being a tropical species ca n be grown in warm humid regions with annual rai nfall of >1000m.m. Soil: It needs rich well-drained loamy soil for best growth. Season: Usually grown in kharif season. Best time of sowing in North India is June 25 th to July15th . It is also grown in rabi season. Sowing: Sowing : Seed rate 40kg/ha. Either board cast or drill sowing adopting 30cm row spacing. Manures and Manuring: 12.5t/ha or FYM. NPK at 20:40:40 kg/ha Entire NPK at basal before sowing.. After cultivation: cultivation: One intercultivation. It requires higher water compa red to maize 4 to 5 irrigations are grain. Harvest: Harvest : At 110 to 120 days. Sometimes second cut after 6 to 7 weeks after Ist is also taken. Fodder yield: 40 to 50 t/ha.
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LEGUME FORAGES Fodder legumes also referred as masals have immense value in animal nutrition, because of their higher protein content (19-24%), vitamin’s specific minerals like P, Calcium etc. and r ich in crude protein content. Legume f orages are near equal t o concentrates a nd are likely ikely to be substituted for the latter. Importance 1.
Short duration in nature
2.
Raised as catch crop in between two crops
3.
Improve soil fertility by way of ‘N’ fixation
4.
Suitable for inter or mixed cropping
5.
Dual purpose green manure and fodder value Eg.) Sunhemp, Berseem
6.
Increase intake of fodder by improving fodder availability
7.
Rich in protein, calcium, ‘P’ and minerals
8.
Capable of replacing concentrates in animal rations and save feeding costs. In I ndia, important leguminous forage crops are
Annual
Summer growing Eg. Cowpea Stylosanthus hamata annual
Perennial 1. Desmanthus 2. Lucerne 3. S. Scabra 4. S. hamata (perennial) Winter growing Eg. 1. Berseem 2. Lentil
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COWPEA: ( V i g n a u n q u i c u l a t a ) Origin: India Variety: Co5 (only for fodder purpose) Salient features ?
Grown in irrigated / rainfed conditions
?
Withstand shade
?
It has 19% crude protein, 2.13% ca.
Season Irrigated throughout the year Rainfed: September - October Soil: All soil types with gored drainage. Field preparation Plough 2 or 3 times and form ridges and furrows at 6m.long and 30cm apart or beds of 20m2. Manuring FYM or compost: 25t/ha NPK at 25:40:20 kg/ha Band application application prio prio r to sowing is preferred. Seeds and sowing Seed rate : 40kg/ha Spacing: 30 X 10cm Seed treatment: Rhizobium: 3 Pockets Sowing: Sow to a depth of 3cm on the side of the ridges. After cultivation: Hoeing and weeding on 20DAS. Subsequent weeding as and w hen required. Irrigation:
Sowing + life irrigation + once in 10 days
Harvest: 50-55 days (50% flowering) Green fodder yield: 20-25 t/ha Note : Mixed or intercropping with sorghum/maize or cumbu will help to improve fodder yield as well as quality.
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BERSEEM BERSEEM or EGYP TIA N CLOVER ( T r i f o l iu i u m a l e x a n d r i n u m )
Origin: Indigenous to Egypt and introduced to India (1904) In India, it is an important rabi forage crop in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajesthan, Gujarat, UP etc., Importance ?
winter forage crop
?
20% crude cr ude protein / 70% drymatter digestibility
?
Rich in Ca and P
?
Used as green mane for improving physical, chemical and biological properties of soil
?
Decrease bulkdensity and better soil aggregation
?
Very good fodder for milch milch animals and horses
Climate requirement: Requires dry and cool climate. When the temperature goes around 30 to 33 ?C, regrowth after cutting is not possible. It cannot with stand drought and frost. It cannot be grown in damp and heavy rainfall areas. Soil: All type of soils except very sandy soils. Well-drained medium loam soils rich in ‘P’ and calcium. It performs well in acid soil. Field preparations: Once with Iron plough plough and thrice with country plough and marke it to fine tilth. Form ridges and furrows / beds. Varieties 1) Diploid i) Mescari (C.10) : 6.0 to 7.0 t/ha. Adapt ed in Punjab, Haryana, H.P. ii) Berseem Ludhiana 1: (BL.1). A week earlier than Mescari. 0t/ha 2) Tetraploid Winter Hardy, quick growing. Vey leafy and succulent. However regrowth after cutting is not possible if temperature goes > 27?C. eg.) i) Pusa Giant : from IARI :10-15% more yield than Mescari, winter hardy and frost resistant. Manners Manuring:
FYM 15 t/ha and NPK: 25:60:0 kg/ha entire basal.
Seeds and Sow ing: Seed rate: 20 to 25 kg/ha. Late/ Late/ early early sowing: 30 kg/ha to 35 / kg/ha Rhizobium treatment should be given. Time of sowing: Ist fortnight of October. For better growth and yield, diploid and tetraploid varieties should be mixed with 1:1 or 2:1 ratio. Sowing: Broad cast, mixed and covered. For Fo r getting higher yield of good quality fodder, mix 1.8kg of mustard seed with full rate of berseem seed. Irrigation: Sowing and life irrigat ion and then once in 15 to 20 days. Weed control: Pre plant incorporation of Basalin 1.0 lit/ha in 500 lit of w ater/pre emergence emergence
106
Harvesting: Ist cut: 60 days old crop. Subsequent cuttings 25 to 35 days interval depending on vegetable growth (After taking two cuttings, allow it for seed production) Yield: Yield : 8 to 11 t/ha of green fodder wit h 18 to 20% of Dry matter.
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HEDGE LUCERNE ( D e sm sm a t h u s v i r g a t u s ) V el e l i m a s al al It is introduced from South America. It is a perennial fodder legume. With stand repeated cuttings. Better suited for growi ng as mixed crop with Cumbu Napier Hybrids. ?
Contains 19.2% crude protein.
?
27% dry matter, No toxic principles.
Season: As an irrigated crop, it can be grown through out the year. Under rainfed condition, it can be grown during June to October. Soils: All types of soils. Field preparations: Plough 2 times to obtain good tilth. Form ridges and furrows at 50cm apart. Manuring:
Apply 12.5 t FYM / ha. Rhizobium : 3 pockets/ha as seed treatment NPK: 10:60:30 kg/ha and entire dose as basal.
Seeds and Sowing Seed rate: 20Kg/ha. Spacing: 50cm X solid sowing. Sowing: Soak the seeds in hot water for 4 minutes (80?C) and then soak in cold water overnight. Deep sowing will results in lower germination. Plan to a depth of 1.0 to 1.5 cm. Irrigation: Immediately after sowing, life Ir rigation and then once in a week. After cultivations: Hoeing and weeding on 30 th day. There after HW after each cut. Harvest: First cut at 90 days at 50cm height and, subsequent cut at an interval of 40 days. Green fodder yield: 125 t/ha STYLOSANTHES (Muyal Masal or Stylo) Origin: Origin : South America Varieties: Varieties :
Stylosanthes hamata (Perennial) Stylosanthus scabra (Perennial)
Stylos are drought resistant pasture legumes coming up well in areas receiving a minimum rainfall of 450 to 840 mm annually. These can be grown in a wide range of soil . ?
Crude protein content ranges ra nges from 15 to 18%
?
Suited for inter cr op or mixed crop with blou – buffel or guinea grass
Season: Through out the year (irrigated) June – July / September – October( Rainfed)
108
Field preparation: Plough 2 to 3 times to obtain good tilth. Manures and Manuring: FYM or compost: 10t/ha. NP K : 20:60:15 kg/ha and the entire dose as basal. Seed rate : 10kg/ha Spacing: 30 X 15 cm. Seed treatment: Soak the seeds in hot water (80?C) for 4 minutes and soak it in cold water over night. Sowing: Sow to a depth of 1cm. Deep sowing should be avoided. After cultivation: Weeding on 25 th day. Irrigation: For Irrigated crop: Immediately after sowing, life irrigation , + 7 to 10 days internal / Rainfed Crop. Harvest: First cut on 75 th day at flowering and s ubsequent cut depending upon the growth. Green fodder Yield: Irrigated: 50t/ha. First year yield will be poor. Second and subsequent years: 30 to 35 t/ha. t/ha. LUCERNE or ALFALFA: M e d i c a g o s at a t i v a (Kudirai masal) ?
It is a perennial leguminous plant and may supply green fodder for 3 to 4 years from the same field.
?
Being a deep rooted crop, it extracts water from deeper zone.
?
High crude protein (20 to 24%) with 72% digestibility. amount of vitamin vitamin A, B and D, and Calcium.
?
Lucerne crop supplies green fodder for a long period (November to J une)
1.5% Ca and 0.2% P. High
Origin: South West Asia. Distribution: USA, Canada, Argentina, India. In India, it is mostly mostly grown is irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, UP, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Ta mil Nadu. Climate: It thrives best under ward, dry and sunny condition up to 2500 m altitude . It can withstand fairly low temperature. Soil:
Febrile loamy soil with good drainage.
Season: Throughout the year for irrigated condition and middle of October is the best time of sowing. Varieties: CO1, IGFRI.112 (for all areas), Anand 2,3 a nd Anand1 (for hills)
109
Manures and Manuring: FYM or compost 25t/ha, NPK: 25:120:40 kg/ha. Band placement is preferred prior to planting. Lucerne requires high ‘P’. Seeds and sowing Seed rate :15 to 20 kg/ha. Spacing:
25cm X solid line Rhizobium seed treatment: 3 pockets. pockets.
Sowing: Sow to a depth of 2cm on the sides of the ridges or above the fertilizer band. After Cultivation: Hand weeding on 20DAS, thin and gap fill. Subsequent weeding if necessary. Irrigation:
Sowing + life irrigation +once in a week.
Harvest:
Ist cut, on 60 days after sowing and subsequent cut: 25 to 30 days interval.
Green fodder yield: 80 to100t/ha (in 12 to 13 cuts) Seed yield: 150 to 200kg/ha.
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TREE FODDERS Impo rtance of Tree fodder ?
Fodder trees provide nutritious top feed in the form of legumes and pods rich in proteins and minerals to livestocks.
?
Provides variety of products such as fuel, timber fiber, human fund, medicine etc.
?
Provide shade for grazing animals.
?
Source of organic matter to soil and increasing soil N besides improving soil structure.
?
The fodder trees can serve as fence / hedge.
?
Serves as windbreak.
?
Prevent soil erosion and conserve soil moisture.
?
Provide shade for shade loving plants.
?
Increase the yield and improve the quality of grasses. Eg.) 1. Acacia sp (velvel, karuvel etc.) 2. Agathi, sithagathi, subabul (Leucanea ( Leucanea leucacaphala) leucacaphala )
SUBABUL/ SOUNDAL ( L e u c a e n a l e u c o c e p h a l a ) Variety: Co1 Salient features ?
Leaves and pods are nutritious
?
Crude protein 26%, Easily digestible (45%)
?
Crude fibre is low
?
Withstand drought/quick growing/fixes atmorpheric ‘N’
Season: Irrigated : June to July, Rainfed: September to October. Soil:
Soil with high Ca and P is preferred.
Field preparation: preparation: Plough the field 2 or 3 times and form ridges and spacing.
furrows at 100cm
Manuring: Manuring: FYM or compost :25t/ha ,NPK at 10:60:30 kg/ha For rainfed crop: ½ the dose of NPK. Seed rate : 10kg/ha Spacing: 100 X 30cm Seed Treatment: Soak in hot water (80?C) for 5 minutes and then over night in cold water. Irrigation: For better establishment, the soil should be sufficiently moist for 5 to 6 months. In summer, irrigation once in 6 weeks is adequate. Harvest:
1) Irrigated crop: First cut 6 months after sowing. Subsequent cut in 45 to 60 days interval
111
2) Rainfed crop: First cut 2years after sowing. Subsequent cut 60 -80 days days Green fodder yield:
Irrigated: 75 to100 t/ha Rain fed: 40t/ha
Average farmers yield : Actual yield obtained by the farmer
Gap I Research gap Gap II Extension gap
Potential yield
Research yield
Gap III Socio economic constraints
Potential farmers yield
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Average farmers yield
PASTURE MANAGEMENT Terminologies 1. Agrostology: A science which deals with the study of grasses, their classification, management and utilization. 2. Forage crops: Crops which are primarily grown for live stock feed for making hay or silage or utilized as green fodder or grazed by animals. 3. Fodder crops: Crops which are harvested and used for stall feeding. Mostly these cops are grown for both fodder as well as grain purpose eg) fodder sorghum, fodder maize, fodder cowpea, horsegram etc. 4.
Silage: It is the product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suitable container and allowing it to ferment under anaerobic conditions with out under-going much loss of nutrients.
5.
Ensiling: The process of making silage
6.
Hay: It can be defined as conversion of green forage in to dry farm without affecting the quality of original material.
7. Ley farming: Annual arable crops are rotated with biennial / perennial pastures, which is used for soil moisture conservation and grazing.eg: sorghum – pasture – caster. I year -II & III year – IVth year. 8. Quartering: Removal or thinning of excess tillers from the clump is called quartering. It is generally done from 3 rd year on wards is grasses like cumbe r Napier grass and CN Hyderabad. 9.
Soiling: Feeding harvested fodder directly to cattle.
10. Paddock: Small forced field used for grazing purpose. Pasture M anagement: anagement: Pastures may be 1. Natural pastures 2. Seeded pastures Pastures are the grass lands where domestic animals are allowed to roam about and graze for them selves. Native pastures are highly degraded ones. Their improvement and management involves a set of technical and social interventions. The important technical interventions are 1. Identification and introduction of suitable grass and legume species. Suitable pastur e species species for drought prone areas. Sl.No. Sl. No. 1.
Pasture species
Sewan grass (Lasiurus sindicus) sindicus ) 2. Marvel grass (Dicanthium annulatum) annulatum ) 3. Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris ) 4. Sain grass (Sehima nerrosum) nerrosum) 5. Dinanath grass (Pennisetum pedicellatum) pedicellatum ) Perennial legumes Stylo. Stylosanthus hamata S. scabra Siratro: Macroptilium atropurpureus
Soil type
Seed rate (kg/ha) 3 to5
Dry forage yield (t/ ha) 3.5 t/ha
Medium to heavy soil Vertisols Vertisols
4 to5
2.5 t/ha
5 to6
4.0 t/ha
Red and black soil Vertisols – All types
7 to 8
2.5 t/ha
8 to 9
3.0 t/ha
Light to Medicaid Medicaid soil Light to Medium soil
5 to 7 4 to 6 7 to 8
3.5 t/ha 2.5 t/ha 2.8 t/ha
Light soil
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2. Improved moisture conservation Forming contour furrows (60cm wide and 22cm deep) at a distance of 8 to 10m across the slope of the grassland increased forage production of perennial grass by 130% over non furrowed grass lands. 3. Using suitable establishment techniques a) Re seeding: seeding: Due to poor germination of seeds of Sewan and Marvel grass, the sowing of mixture of seeds of Cenchrus species and Sewan grass and of Cenchrus species and Marvel grass was found advantages for large scale development of pasture in arid region of Rajasthan. b) Transplanting : The establishment of Sewan grass and Marvel grass was found more assured by transplanting of rooted slips, or seedlings compared to direct seeding. c) Dry seeding : Cenchrus ciliaris seed sown in dry soil before on set of rain gave 36% higher forage yield over monsoon sowing. d) Pelletin g forage seeds for higher seed germinations: germinations : Pellets are prepared by mixing grass seeds with cow dung, clay and sand in proportions of 1:1:3:1 using sufficient quantity of water for preparing round pellets of size of about 0.5cm diameter. 4. Fertilization in pasure lands Application of of fertilizers to pasture grasses increased the forage yield as well as seed yield. Application of 20 kg Nto Cenchrus pastures resulted in 83% increase in dry forage yield. In well rainfall distributed area, application of NPK at 40:20:0 is recommended. For stylo, application app lication of "P" at 30kg/ha is recommended. The protein content of fertilized pastures was higher than that of unfertilized ones. 5. Regulating the grazing pressure and using an optimum stocking rate: The access of line stock to pastures should be controlled, so that grazing pressure could be managed. Carrying Capacity : The native pasture can carry only 2 sheep/ha. But improved pasture, can carry up to 6 sheep/ha in a continuous grazing system. The quality of pasture can be evaluated in terms of number of lambings and lamb weight at birth. The improved pastures produced more number of lambs (2.78) than natural pastures (1.56), because of better quality of forages. 6. Rotational grazing: grazing : It is one in which the pasture land is divided in to number number of compartments The sheep are allowed to graze first in one compartment. After completion of grazing in the first compartment, the sheeps are allowed to graze in the second compartment and then in third compartment. This is recommended for the grassland having annual grass species.. But this system requires additional investments. This system has several advantages. 1.
There is no wastage compared to continuous grazing.
2.
The pastures get enough of re-growth period.
7. Increasing the grazing period through intro duction of top feed tree species: A major shortcoming of most of common pastures is lack of production during hot summer lean period. A traditional way to over come this is to use tree leaf fodder during this period. In the pasture lands, lot of trees are seen growing. It these are replaced with top feed species, that would prolong the grazing period and improve carrying capacity of pasture. Top feed trees suited for sylripastoral system: 1. Semi arid regions: a) Acacia senegal
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b) Acacia aneura c) Acaeia nilotica d) Leucaena (Subabul) (Subabul) 2. Arid regions:
a ) Prosophis cineraria b) Zizyphus nummularia c) Acacia totilis d) Acacia senegal
8. Improving the quality of fodder by inclusions of legume pasture: Preservations of fodder: fodder : With availability of high fodder yielding varieties of season-bound and perennial fodder crops, there is a glut/abundance of fodder availability during peak-periods of growth (rainy season/monsoon season) and scarcity during other periods. The best way to regulate the supply of palatable and nutritive fodder during the lean period of October and November and May to July is to conserve conserve the surplus fodder in the form of 1) Hay (Hay making) 2) Silage (silage making) I.
Hay Making: Hay can be defined as the conversion of green forage in to dry form with out affecting quality of original material.
It is the most common, easy and safe method of preserving the excess green fodder (grasses) for long time.The quality of hay largely depends on the a) species b) the stage of harvesting and c) freedom from moulds and bacteria. Steps for making hay : 1. Good quality hay is prepared by adopting the following procedure. a) quality of hay is mainly depends on the stage of harvest: The fodder crops namely cowpea, velvet bean, guar, moth bean, J owar, Bajra, Teosi nte and oats should be cut at flowing stage for hay making. b) Pasture and cultivated grasses are cut at 50% flowering or slightly ear lier to prevent the lignifications of cellulose, losses of protein and palatability. c)
Lucerne and Berseem are cut for hay making at 30 to 40 days interval.
2. The fodder crop should not be harvested immediately after irrigation. They should be harvested in the after noon and before applying irrigation. 3. Though the fodder species may be dried as such in the field it self, the best quality hay is made by chaffing in to small pieces by hand driven machine or with a power drivers chaff. Either chaffed or un chaffed material is spread evenly in their layers and is turned two or 3 times daily. In the evening half dried material is raked and collected or heaped in the form of cone so as to prevent exposure of the material to dew fall at night. On the second day, the material is again spread evenly after the dew has disappeared. The material is turned frequently depending on the climatic conditions. During summer, the hay of lucerne, cowpea, berseem etc., may preferably be made in shade so that bleaching action may be reduced to the minimum. 4. The hay made by adopt ing ab ove steps and possessing about 15% moisture is finally transported to t he ha y-barn. y-barn. It should retain green colour, good aroma and flavour.
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5. It should be preferably stored at low temperature and humidity so as to prevent the losses owing to oxidations of carbohydrates. For rainy seasons, hay curing sheds are recommended. 6. In order to minimize the space for storage and for effective long term storage, the hay is turned in to bales of suitable sizes with manually operated or power drivenhay-bales. Losses of fodder quality : ?
Shattering of leaves (mostly in legumes)
?
Fermentation ; Normal loss is about 6% of dry matter
?
Oxidation leads to loss of carotenes
?
Leaching : Loss of protein, N free extract minerals and vitamins. There by crude protein increases and a nd digestibility decreases.
II . SILAGE SILAGE MAKING Silage is a product obtained by packing fresh fodder in a suita ble container (Silo) and allowing it to ferment under anaerobic conditi ons with out under going much loss of nutrients. Fermentation under anaerobic condition preserves the nutritive value and enhances the keeping quality of the fodder. The process of conserving the green fodder in this way is termed as ‘Ensiling’. Methods/ Systems Systems of Hay making 1.
Hay curing structures : In some countries, hay making is done in hay barns, barns , which are specially designed structures in which hot air is circulated for drying the material quickly. However, in India, the most prevalent systems are a s fallows
2.
Fence method : In this method, fodders are cut and spread evenly and thinly over the fences of the paddocks or fields or specially erected fences. This method helps to dry the material quickly and turning of the material after every 2 or 3 hours daily can be avoided.
3.
Tripod method : In this system, tripods of convenient heights are erected by using local materials. Eg: wood or galvanized iron poles. In between these poles, horizontal supports are erected to increase the carrying capacity. Un chapped fodders are dried in the manner described under the fence method..
4.
Ga bl e shaped shaped structure: structure : The gable shaped structures are made by using galvanized woven-wire fencing material of desired width and angle iron poles. The fencing material is fixed in such a way as to provide a slopping support and good ventilation for quick drying. This system also permits the excessive shedding of leafy material with less handling unlike the ordinary ground method. The structure ca n be made economical further by using netted ropes of medium diameter and wooden poles.
5.
Hay curing shades : Hay curing curi ng shades of convenient size of 18m X 9m X 3m with a slanting rod supported by pillars are constructed with corrugated asbestos. Chain like fencing of 5cm X 5cm mesh and 1 to 1.2m in width is arranged length wise in a 4 or 5 tier system. This type of sheds are good for making hay during the monsoon and summer. The cost is further reduced by thatching the roof and by using wooden poles for support.
6.
Ground method: In this method, the chaffed or un chaffed material is thinly and evenly spread over a pucca floor so as to prevent soiling. The material is turned 2 or 3 times daily till it dries completely.
Qualities of good silage a) A good silage should be greenish or yellowish brown, with pleasant odour, possess high acid content (pH ranges from 3.5 to 4.2)
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b) Silage having acidic taste and odour, being free from butyric acid, moulds with ammoniacal “N” less than 10% of the total nitrogen. Crops suited for silage making ?
Generally, the fodder crops rich in soluble carbohydrates and low to medium in protein conte conte nt are ideally suited for silage making.
?
High content of soluble carbohydrates provides excellent growth medium for the anaerobic bacteria to form abundant acids which increases the keeping quality of the silage.
?
Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Guinea grass, Para grass and Napier grass are highly suitable for making good quality silage.
?
On the other hand, leguminous fodders, which normally have high moisture and high crude protein and low soluble carbohydrates, are not considered fit for silage making.
Types of silos: silos : 1. Tower silos: They are permanent type and are costly. They are constructed above the ground level in the form of cylindrical towers. The diameter and height vary according to the needs. The loss of dry matter in such silos is 5 to 10% only. 2. Bunker silos : These silos are constructed on on the surface of the ground. ground. They should always built on firm soils having good surface and sub surface drainag e. 3. Pit or Trench silos: Pit silos are less costly than tower silos and are widely adopted for silage making. Pits of desired sizes are dug according according to the availability availability of green fodder. fodder. Pits silos are not suited where there is higher water ta ble areas. Steps for making silage 1.
A pit size of 20’ x 20’ x 20’ is suff icient for 50 to 55 t green f odder.
2.
The fodder crops should be harvested and chaffed at proper stage of growth. The early harvesting of crops affects the production of different acids. Thus the green fodder should have about 30 to 35 % dry matter.
3.
In silo pits, their bottom and sides should be carpeted with dry grass or long straw of grasses or cereal crops etc, so as to make 5 to 6 cm thick carpet all around. This carpeting helps to prevent the direct contact between fresh chaffed material and soil.
4. The fodder to be ensiled should be chaffed chaffed in the small pieces pieces (1 to 2 cm) by using the the chaff cutter. 5.
The silo pits must be filled very quickly (say with in 3 to 4 days) and the materials must be compacted in such a way as to remove as much air as possible through constant pressing either by manual labour or bullocks or using tractor. The exclusion of air causes fermentation under anaerobic condition.
6.
The level of chaffed material should be about 1 to 2 metre above the ground level. During the course of fermentation, the material will gra dually settle settle down. do wn.
7.
Urea at the rate of 3 to 4 kg per tonne of chaffed material is mixed with or sprinkled evenly on different layers if the chaffed material happens to be very low in protein content in the case of cereal fodder.
8. The silo pits af ter filling and compacting compacting the material carefully, carefully, should be given a dom – like shape for drainage of rain water. 9.
Then thick layer of straw is put on the chaff ed material from all sides and over the straw a thick layer of moist soil (10 to 12 cm) is spread. The surface is covered either by mud plaster or polythene or Alkathene sheets.This avoids contact of atmospheric ‘N’ with ensiled material which prevent the anaerobic fermentation.
10. The silage is ready after 2 to 3 months
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11.A silo pit is opened and the material is removed daily by exposing little surface area to prevent sunlight. 12.The feeding of the silage should be regulated in such a way that the silage is used with in a reasonable period. Otherwise long exposure causes drying and deterioration in keeping quality. 13.Silage may be fed in small quantities (4 to 5 kg per cow) to start with and later quantity may be increased to 15 to 20 kg. 14.Under ideal condition, it can be stored easily for 1 year. Advantages 1.
It is more suited in those lean seasons when weather is not conducive for hay making
2.
Thick stemmed crops like sorghum and maize are better utilized
3.
Weeds are used as fodder, consequently the weed seeds are destroyed
4.
Highly palatable and nutritious
5.
Organic acids produced during ensiling are similar to those organic acid produced in the digestive tract of the animals (ruminants) and used in the same manner. (Lactic acid 3 to 13% and Butyric acid 0.2 to 0.5 %). EFFICIENT CROP ZONE
It is the zone / area where the productivity of a crop is higher and also stable due to prevalence of optimum condition for crop growth and yield. Rice Zone : 49% rainfed and 51% irrigated. In India, Punjab, T N and AP are the potential zone for irrigated / low land rice. North eastern part of the country (Assam, WB, Tiripura, Mahalaya, Orissia and Bihar is the potential area f or upland / rainfed rice. In Tamil nadu major rice growing zones are: 1.
Cauvery delta zone (Trichy and Thajavur)
2.
North Eastern Zone (South Arcot and Chengleput district)
3.
Western Zone (LBP command area)
4.
Souther Zone (Vaigai command and Thambirabara ni command areas)
Semi dry rice at chenleput and Ramanad district. Wheat zone : Efficient wheat zones zones are UP, Punjab, Haryana, MP and Bihar. Higher production of wheat from UP, but Punjab recorded the highest average product ivity. Now 85% of the wheat is grown under irrigated condition. Sorghum zone: Nearly 94% of sorghum is grown under rainfed condition. In India, potential zone for rainfed sorghum are Maharastra, Maharastr a, MP, Karnataka, AP and TN. Irrigated sorghum is raised is le sser extent is southern part of India. In TN, concentration concentration of sorghum sorghum is more more pronounced.in 1.
North Western zone (Salem and Dharmapuri)
2.
Western Zone (Coimbatore and Periyar )
3.
Southern zone (Tirunelvelli and Madurai districts).
Sorghum yields are higher in Southern zone (zone 5). Some area under sorghum in black soils, are diverted for more remunerative crops such as sunflower in zone 5 and maize in zone 3. (Western zone). Maize zone : In India, 85% of area is under rainfed. Efficient Efficient zones are Karnataka, UP, UP, Rajasthan, Bihar and MP. MP. The average productivity productivity is higher in Karnataka. Karnataka. Area under maize is in increasing trend in Western Zone of TN (Coimbatore and Periyar), North Western zone and
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Southern Zone. In TN, it is mainly grown as irrigated crop during Dec – Jan and July and August months for higher higher yield. During Sept – Oct it is grown as rainfed crop. Bajra zone : More than 95% of the area is under under rainfed condition. It is cultivated is drought prone low rain fall and shallow soil. The potential area is North North Western part of India (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharastra and Part of UP). Rajasthan is the potential area for bajra. In TN, it is largely grown in North Eastern, Western and Southern zones. Finger millet (Ragi): It is an important course cereal cereal in Karnataka. It is extensively grown in Karnataka, TN, AP, Orissia, Bihar and in hilly hilly areas of UP. In TN, it is largely grown as rainfed crop in Dharmapuri District. It is also grown as irrigated crop in SA, Chengleput, Coimbatore and Erode districts. Pulse zone: India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world and accounts 33% of world area and 22% of world production. Nearly 90% pulses are grown under rainfed condition. In India, potential production production of pulses is from MP, UP , Maharastra, Rajasthan Rajasthan and Karnataka. In, TN, Cauvery delta zone is the efficient area for the production of rice fallow pulses viz green gram and black gram. The other areas / zone are North Western Zone, Western and Southern zone of TN. Chick pea : MP, Rajasthan and UP. In, India, Western zone. Red gram (P i g e o n p e a ) : Karnataka, Maharastra, Maharastra, AP. In TN, Southern Southern zone , Western zone zone and North Western zone. Green gram: Efficient area are maharastra, AP, UP. In TN, Cauvery Delta zone, Southern zone and western zone. Black gram: In India, Maharastra, Maharastra , AP, TN, Orissia. In TN, Cauvery Delta zone and Southern zone. Horse gram : Karnataka, TN, Maharastra. In India, potential area is North Western zone zone and Western zone. Forage crops : Efficient areas and Punjab, Haryana, UP, Bihar and Gujarat. In TN, it is largely cultivated / grown in North Western and Southern Zones. Potential productivity and constraints in crop production Potential Yield : It is the maximum possible economic yield for a crop from a unit land, when all the factors affecting the crop growth and yield are ava ilable with out any constraints. (OR) This is the maximum possible yield that could be obtained under controlled condition. Here all the environmental factors ar e provided to the crop to express the full potential. potential.
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Average farmers yield : Actual yield obtained by the farmer
Gap I Research gap
Potential yield
Gap III Socio economic constraints
Gap II Extension
Potential farmers yield
Research yield
Average farmers yield
Research Yield : The yield obtained in the research station under correct management and super vision by the scientist. Hence all the technologies technologies are being used by scientists to get maximum yield. Potential farmers yield: The yield obtained by the progressive farmers under the guidance of scientists using new techniques. Gap – I: The latest technologies deve loped by the scientists are not completely transformed transformed to the extension agency. The extension agency should fill up the gap by advocating the farmers by acquiring themselves with these improved method of cultivation. Gap – II: Here there is no input cons traints and only environmental environmental constraints exist. Gap – III: Variation in management of field and crop. Only few farmers get higher yield . Gap can be filled up by improving the socio-economic condition of the farmers. Constraints in crop production
I. Ecological
II. Production
III. Socio-economic constraints
1.
Weather
1.
Variety
1. Cost and return
2.
Pollution
2.
Weed
2.
3. Desertification
Credit
3. Pests and Diseases
3. Risk uncertainty
4.
Soil health (Problem soils)
4. Traditional attitude
5.
Water (poor quality)
5. Knowledge
6. Farm machinery
6. Input availability
7.
7.
Post harvest technology
Institution
8. Market facilities
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Yield Gap M odel in Rice (Gomez, 1971)
Gap II 1. Experimental station yield 2. Potential farmer’s yield 3. Actual farmers yield
1
2
3
Gap – I : The yield obtained in the research station is due to better management and optimum inputs under favourable environment. Gap – I is caused by environmental differences between exprimental research station and potential farmer’s land. The variety / technology may not be suitable to that environment environment or it is not economical for that station. Gap – II: This caused by biological / production constraints such as 1.
Variety / Improved seed
2.
Weeds
3. Pests and Diseases 4. Problem soil 5.
Water
6. Soil fertility 7. Cultured practices Socio – economic constraints 1. Cost and return 2.
Credit
3. Traditional attitude 4. Knowledge 5. Input availability 6.
Institution
7.
Risk
8. Market facilities. The main aim should be to fill or bridge the gap I and II. Here the role of extension agency is more important and has to effectively transfer the viable technologies among the farmers
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Crops
Page
Redgram
118
Bengalgram
121
G.G.
124
B.G.
127
Horsegram
130
Cow Pean
132
Garden lab lab
139
Field lab lab
138 check
Soybean
140
Moth
143
Pean
145
Lentil
147
Napien
164
Gui
166
Para
168
Blou
169
Cereal forzes
171
Fodder sorghum
173
Fodder maize
175
Fodder Teori
176
Legumes
177
Cowpea
178
Bersean
180
Hegelians
182
Stylosan
183
Lucer
184
Tree fodder
186
Lucerne
122
