- intercellular material that is secreted by the connective
Bio 11 Lab Exam 3 Reviewer
tissue cells are composed of amorphous ground substance (matrix) and connective tissue fibers
A. Histology
Types of Tissues a. Epithelial Tissues forms outer coverings and inner linings of body surfaces; tightly packed cells function: protection, selective absorption secretion a.1 Covering and lining epithelial membranes (outer body surfaces) i. Squamous Epithelium - tile-like flattened cells - found in the epidermis of the skin (upper layer) ii. Ciliated Epithelium - may be columnar or cuboidal - found in epithelia lining of upper respiratory tract iii. Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelia - found lining many internal cavities - cuboidal: bile duct = columnar: intestine a.2 glandular epithelium (inner body surfaces) function: production of secretory subtances i. Unicellular: goblet cells (lining of the intestine and respiratory tracts) secretes mucin (becomes mucus when dissolved in water) which has protective function against infectious agents and toxins ii. Multicellular glands: surface epithelia that grew inward or became infolded; for large amounts of secretions Simple: cutaneous gland; gastric gland Compound: salivary gland; mammary gland; exocrine (with ducts) and endocrine (ductless) glands b. Muscular Tissues function: movement through contraction of muscle fibers Parts: Sarcoplasm- muscle cell cytoplasm Sarcolemma- muscle cell membrane Myofibrils- contractile element of muscle cells Muscle fibers- muscle cells (long, spindle-shaped thread-like structures) with oval-shaped nuclei Myofilaments- finer filaments within myofiblrils made up of proteins actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments) Types: i. Smooth Muscles (Non-Striated) - found in the visceral organs except the heart; involuntary ii. Striated Muscles ii.a Skeletal Muscles - attached to the bones; voluntary - characterized by the presence of dark bands (anistropic or A-discs) and light bands (isotropic or I-discs) - has syncytium (occurs when cell divides without undergoing cytokinesis) ii.b Cardiac Muscles - involuntary; has functional syncytium but NOT structurally syncytial - has intercalated disc fibers; form an intricate network c. Connective Tissues Characterized by the presence of a large amount of intercellular material and paucity of cells function: attach or connect parts, support or bear weight and provide a medium through which tissue fluids containing nutrients and wastes may diffuse Types: i. Loose Connective Tissue - formed by fibrocytes (connective tissue cells) that has ovoid nuclei
ii. Cartilage Parts: chondrocytes- cartilage cells *Young (less differentiated): flattened = fully differentiated: big and round lacunae- spaces where chondrocytes are located solid intercellular substance (matrix) - hyaline: ventral ends of ribs; larynx, trachea and bronchi; articular surface of bone - fibrous: tendons and ligaments - elastic: outer ear and epiglottis iii.
Bones mineralized connective tissues Parts: Osteocytes- bone cells Cannaliculi tiny canals where protoplasmic processes of immature bone cells used to pass function: passageway of materials from blood vessels Haversian canal- tiny, interconnecting, longitudinal channels in bone tissue through which blood vessels, nerve fibers and lymphatics pass Volkmann’s canals - interconnect Haversian canals Lamella- thin plates of bone matrix; lines creating ring-like appearance represent periods of inactivity of bone formation d. Vascular (blood) Tissues function: provides nourishment to peripheral tissue via fluid medium Types: i. Erythrocytes (RBC) function: transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the lungs to other body tissues hemoglobin- color pigment in erythrocyte ii. leucocytes (WBC) function: engulfs pathogens via phagocytosis Kinds of WBC i. Lymphocytes 20-25% of total WBC; smallest of the WBC nuclei are large and spherical; there is only narrow rim of cytoplasm around the nucleus ii. Monocytes 3-8% of total WBC; largest of the blood vessesls nuclei varies from slightly indented ovals to horseshoeshaped structures larger amounts of cytoplasm than lymphocytes iii. Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes or Polymorphs irregular nuclei with variety of shapes iii.a Neutrophils 60-75% of total WBC nuclei is made up of 2 to 5 or more thin lobes connected by slender chromatin thread granules are fine and does not stain well at neutral pH iii.b Eosinophils 2-5% of total WBC nuclei is made up of 2 oval lobes linked by thread like chromatin granules are coarse and stain pinkish red with acid stains iii.c Basophils 0.5-2% of total WBC nuclei stains very faintly has coarse cytoplasmic granules that stain blue with basic dye
Comparison: Human Frog
RBC No nuclei; biconcave disk
WBC Larger in size than human RBC, fewer in #
Darkly stained nuclei
Smaller in size than frog RBC, fewer in #
e. Nervous Tissues neuron- nerve cells nerve fibers- elongated outgrowth of neuron; carry sensory stimuli and motor impulses from central nervous system to an effector nerve- bundle of nerve fibers bound by connective tissues Parts of neuron: dendrites- carry impulses toward the cell body axon- carries impulses away from the cell body Parts of Nerve: Epineurium- loose connective tissue covering the nerves Fascicles- number of nerve fibers Perineurium- covering of each fascicle Endoneurium- covering of each nerve fiber B. Microscopic Anatomy of Frog Organs
a. Skin 2 Main Regions: Epidermis- outermost layer Layers: i. Stratum Corneum - outermost layer of epidermis; squamous; non-living ii. Stratum Germinativum - columnar cells; living and growing layer - cells continuously divide and replace the constantly shed off stratum corneum Dermis Layers: i. Stratum Spongiosum i.a Chromatophore- pigment granules function: produce and control skin coloration in frogs i.b Cutaneous Glands- formed by infolding of stratum germinativum function: secrete mucus to keep skin moist ii. Stratum Compactum- deeper layer of dermis; made of connective tissue with alternating vertical connective tissue strands loose subcutaneous connective tissue- found below stratum compactum function: connect the skin with the underlying muscle b. Liver- largest gland of the body secretion: bile function: aids in absorption of fats and neutralizes acidity of chime(digested food) Parts: Liver Cells- polygonal; darkly stained spherical nuclei Pigment Granules- scattered irregularly Arteries- thicked-wall Veins- thinned-wall Bile Duct- lined with cuboidal epithelium function: emulsify fats Arterioles and Venules- smaller blood vessels Sinusoids- endothelial tubes occurring in-between liver cells; appears like spaces between liver cells
c. Intestine- where digestion takes place Parts: Valves of Kerking- circular folds of inner wall of intestine Tunica Mucosa- mucous coat; innermost layer; lines cavity of lumen; made up of: simple columnar epithelial cells & goblet cells Tunica Submucosa i. Stratum Circulare: thick inner circular layer; where spindleshaped smooth muscle cells are observed ii. Stratum Longitudinale: thin outer longitudinal layer; where cross-sections of muscle cells can be seen Tunica Serosa- outermost covering; covered with mesothelium * Mesothelium- pavement epithelial cells; lines internal cavity; derived from mesoderm d. Stomach Parts: Rugae- foldings of inner wall of stomach Comparison of Intestines and Stomach: circular folds are both present both contain tunica mucosa both lining are composed of alternating muscular and connective tissue Tunica Mucosa- composed of columnar cells (innermost) and lamina propria (outermost); where chief and parietal cells are found Parietal cells: secrete gastric acid w/c lowers pH and activates pepsinogen into pepsin Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen and rennin Muscalaris Mucosa- outer to the lamina propria; consists of inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscles function: contains mucous glands and gastric pits Tela Submucosa- contains large blood and lymph ve ssels Tunica Muscularis- thick and made of circular layer of smooth muscle function: facilitates movement of food particles Subserosa- narrow layer w/c contains longitudinal muscle strands; outer to the muscular layer function: secretion of blood vessels Tunica Serosa- outermost covering covered by the mesothelium e. Kidney- eliminates water, ions, nitrogenous waste and metabolic wastes of protein, carbohydrates and fat metabolism; ventral border (concave) Parts: Adrenal Gland- part of endocrine system Malpighian Bodies/ Renal Corpuscles- round masses on ventral part of the kidney Glomerulus- network of capillaries of Malpighian bodies Bowman’s Capsule- cup-shaped double membrane of glomerulus Uniferous Tubule- where reabsorption of water, amino acid, glucose and other subs. occurs Collecting Tubule- where uniferous tubule continue; fewer Mesonephric Duct- where collecting tubules open to Renal Portal Vein- adheres to lateral side of kidney renal vein- thin-walled; carries deoxygenated blood renal artery- thick-walled; carries oxygenated blood Path of blood: glomerulus Bowman’s capsule Glomerular artery Uniferous Tubules Collecting Tubules Mesonephric Duct f. Spinal Cord Parts: White Matter- outer layer made up of loosely arranged medulatted nerve fibers and neuroglia
Gray Matter- inner layer made up of cell bodies of neurons and neuroglia Dosal Cornua- 2 dorsal projection Ventral Cornua- wider and farther apart Central Canal- found in the center of spinal cord; contains cererbrospinal fluid Ependymal Cell- lines the central canal Neuroglia- small oval bodies scattered over spinal co rd Motor Cells- most prominent neurons; concentrated in ventral gray horn; bigger than neuroglia; have chromophilic bodies Dura Mater- cylindrical covering of spinal cord Subdural Space- lies beneath dura mater Pia Mater- Closely investing the spinal cord; thin layer of connective tissue (with a number of blood vessels) Dorsal and Ventral Fissure Ventral fissure- contains ventral spinal artery w/c supplies most of the blood in the spinal cord
C. Animal Forms
Type of Symmetry: a. Universal: exhibited by animals with spherical bodies; can be divided into 2 or more symmetrical parts by cutting thru the center of body ex. sea urchin b. Radial: similar parts regularly arranged about central axis; can be divided into 5 radial lines running from the center of the body orientation: oral/aboral (bears mouth faces the substratum) c. Bilateral longitudinal: dorsal (back) and ventral (front) transverse: anterior (head end) and posterior end (tail end) sagittal: lateral sides (left and right) Metamerism/ Segmentation- regular repetition of body parts along anterio-posterior axis * annelids and arthropods exhibit metamerism Regionalization Having parts of the body more or less differentiated into recognizable zones, such as the head, trunk and tail Cephalization: The nervous system and sense organs tend to concentrate in the head Appendages • Cephalic appendages may be in the form of antennae, tentacles, horns, antlers, lophophores (ciliated tentacles), limbs, wings, etc • May be segmented or unsegmented D. Animal Integuments function: waterproof, cushion and protect the deeper tissues; excrete wastes; regulate temperature; attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure and temperature
Thin, slimy epithelium of Planaria- simplest form of integument; allows diffusion of gases into the body Epithelium of earthworm- secretes cuticle; allows diffusion of gases Mantle of Mollusks- secretes shell Arthropods- with chitin Crabs and Lobster- arthropods with chitinous integument impregnated with lime or calium carbonate Echinoderms- comparable to vertebrate skin Animal Planaria Earthworm Mollusk
Kind of Integument Slimy epithelium Cuticle secreting epithelium Mantle
Skin Derivatives Cilia Setae Shell
Insect Shark Fish Snake Frog Bird Man
Chitinous integument Skin Skin Skin Skin (naked) Skin Skin
Chitin Placoid Scales Scales Scales Gland Feather/ Claws Hairs/ Nails
E. Skeletal Muscle Exoskeleton: Corals: calcareous Mollusks’ shells: calcareous -made of calcium carbonate; single piece (univalve) or two piece (bivalve) Crustaceans and Insects: chitinous Turtle Shells: Dorsal Carapace (bony) and Ventral Plastron (horny) Fishes: Bony Scales Snakes, Lizards, and Crocodiles: Horny shields form a continuous mat Birds: Plumage (feathers) Mammals: Pelage (covering of hairs) Cattle, Buffalos: True Horns; hollow Deer: Antlers; bony, shed periodically Lizards, birds, cats, and dogs: claws Monkeys, apes, man: nails Horses and cattle: hooves Endoskeleton: function: constitutes principal support of the body; leverage for locomotion; protection of delicate organ Squid and Cuttlefish: Pen Sea Urchin: Test or Corona – calcerous w/c composed of dermal plates and covered by integument locomotory organ: tube feet Vertebrate: bone (principal element); cartilage (flexibility); ligament (connects the bone together) Skeletal System of Frogs: Parts: a. Skull- chief skeleton of the head i. Cranium- hollow median portion of the skull function: encloses the brain and sense organs *separated by jagged lines (sutures) *synarthrosis- immovable type of joint Parts: Olfactory Capsules- anterior to the cranium Otic Capsules- lodges inner ear; posterior to the cranium Occipital Region- posterior end of skull Foramen Magnum- large hole at the center through which spinal cord passes Occipital Condyles- articulated with the 1st vertebra; ventrolateral to the foramen magnum ii. Maxillary Arch- borders the orbit laterally; anterior part of the teeth; constitutes upper jaw and is immovably fused to cranium Parts: Premaxillary Proccess- adjoins paired triangular bones of the cranium b. Lower Jaw/Mandible- bony arch that articulates with posterior end of skull c. Vertebrate- longitudinal row of irregular bones forming a column (vertebrate column) st Atlas- 1 vertebra; cervical vertebra; articulates occipital condyles nd th 2 to 10 vertebra (Trunk vertebra)
nd
th
Typical Vertebra- composed of 2 to 8 vertebrae Parts: i. Centrum- body of vertebra; front (concave) and back (convex) ii. Neural arch- dorsal to the centrum iii. Neural canal- contains the spinal cord iv. Neural spine- posteriorly directed v. Transverse Processes- extend laterally and help support the body wall (junction of centrum and neural arch) vi. Zygapophyses- posterior and anterior of neural arch Pre-zygapophyses (hidden); Post-zygapophyses (covers the pre) th Sacral- 9 vertebra th Urostyle- 10 vertebra Structure
Atlas
Neural spine Neural arch Neural canal Centrum Pre-zygapophyses Post-zygapophyses Transverse Processes
+ + + + +
Typical Vertebra + + + +
-
+
Sacral
Urostyle
+ + + + -
+ + + + -
+
-
Tibio-fibula (thigh bone)- slightly longer bone distal to the femur Tarsals (ankle bones)- consisting of a proximal row of two elongate
bones and a distal row of two or three short bones Metatarsals (sole bones)- a row of five elongate bones Phallanges
F. Musculature *Muscles- contractile function: for motion and locomotion 2 Types of Muscles: 1. Skeletal - attached to skeletons; comprising the bulk of the body *fascia: connective tissue that bound skeletal muscles 2. Visceral- those that form part of the wall of internal organs Origin: point of attachment that is fixed Insertion: point of attachment that is movable Head: more than one point of origin Slips: Several points of insertion
d. Hyoid- flat skeleton e. Pectoral Girdle- arch of bones and cartilages at shoulder region Parts: Suprascapula- most dorsal, flat trapezoidal and cartilaginous Scapula- articulating the suprascapula; smooth concavity on its proximal end Glenoid fosa- where the upper arm bone fits Fenestra- articulate with the scapula on its proximal end Clavicle- anterior to the fenestra; where an inverted y-shaped bone belonging to the sternum rests Coracoid- posterior to the fenestra and shaped like the scapula; contributes also to the glenoid fossa Epicoracoid cartilages- joins the two halves f.
Sternum- series of bones and cartilages anterior and posterior to pectoral girdle on its mid-ventral aspect Parts: Episternum- flat, rounded cartilage Omosternum- inverted y-shaped bone, with its two arms resting on the clavicle Mesosternum- bone wedged between the coracoids in its anterior end Xiphisternum- cartilage lying posterior to the mesosternum th
g. Pelvic Girdle- U-shaped structure with lateral processes of 9 th vertebra and posterior tip of the elongate 10 function: strengthens posterior region of body and provides support to hind limbs *os innominatum- each half of pelvic girdle Parts: Acetabulum- cup-shaped depression; where the proximal end of the thigh bone (femur) fits; formed by the convergence of the raised edges of the bones comprising the girdle Ilium- forms the anterior border of the acetabulum and articulates with the lateral processes of the 9th vertebra Ischium- fan-shaped bone contributing to the posterior border of the acetabulum and wedged between the ilium and the pubis Pubis- triangular bone (cartilaginous in young frogs) wedged ventrally between the ilium and ischium Hindlimb Parts Femur- long bone whose rounded proximal end articulates w ith the acetabulum
Muscle
Origin
Temporalis
mid- dorsal line
Depressor Mandibulae
mid-dorsal line
Mylohyoid
Median raphne
-
Median Raphne
-
Coccygeosacralis
-
Coccygeoilacus
-
Longissimus Dorsi
-
External Oblique
Lumbo-dorsal fascia
Taper towards anus Taper towards anus Taper towards anus Beneath muscles on ventral side of abdomen
Rectus Abdominis
Pubis
Sternum
Linea Alba
-
-
Inscriptiones Tendinae
-
-
-
Latissimus Dorsi
Fascia on anterior trunk
Shoulder joint and humerus
Draw arm away from body
Sterno-Radialis
Episternum
Proximal end of radio-ulna
-
Pectoralis
Pectoral girdle (1), sternum (2) & fascia of rectus abdominis (3)
Humerus
Draws arm toward chest
Deltoid
Coracoid
Triceps Brachii
Scapulocoracoid
Triceps Extensor Femoris
Posterior border of ilium; anterior border of acetabulum
Proximal end of tibia-fibula
Semimembranous
Ischium
Proximal end of tibia-fibula, back of knee
Biceps Femoris
-
-
Gracilis Major Sartorius
Posterior margin of ischium -
Insertion Posterior region of mandible Angle of lower jaw
Proximal end of humerus Humerus and proximal end of radio-ulna
Function Raises lower jaw Lowers the jaw Raises the floor of mouth -
Compresses the abdomen Compresses the abdomen
Draws arm toward chest Straightens forearm Straightens shank and bends thigh Draws thigh medially and bends shank Draws thigh medially and bends shank
Proximal end of tibia-fibula
Bends the leg
-
-
Adductor Magnus
Lower end of ilium
Proximal end of tibio-fibula
Bends the leg
Gastrocnemius
Small head and big head
Tendons of Achilles
Bends shank and extends foot
Peroneus
Distal end of femur
Tibialis Anticus
Distal end of femur
Tibialis Posticus
Entire length of tibia-fibula
Distal end of tibia-fibula and Proximal end of tarsals 2 tendons onto the tarsals Proximal end of tarsals
Straightens shank and bends foot Bends foot Extends foot
G. Movement and Locomotion Antagonist: actions are OPPOSITE Synergist: actions in concert Adductor: moves part TOWARDS axis of the bosy Abductor: produces OPPOSITE action Flexor: BENDS a part Levator: RAISES a part Depressor: LOWERS a part Constrictor: CLOSES an aperture Dilator: OPENS an aperture Rotator: ROTATES a part Synergistic muscles: 1. Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus – extends foot 2. Peroneus and tibialis anticus – bends foot 3. Rectus abdominis and external oblique – compress abdomen 4. Sterno-radialis, pectoralis, and deltoid – draw arm toward chest Antagonistic muscles: 1. Depressor mandibulae (lowers jaw) vs temporalis (raises lower jaw) 2. Latissimus dorsi (draw arm away from body) vs sterno-radialis, pectoralis, and deltoid (draw arm toward chest) 3. Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus (extends foot) vs peroneus and tibialis anticus (bends foot) Locomotion of Vertebra a. Undulatory Swimming- body is thrown into waves from head to tail due to contraction of trunk musculature; for fishes FISHES trunk and tail: propulsive fore pectoral and pelvic fins: brakes caudal fin: rudder dorsal fin: stabilizer b. Pedal Locomotion- due to contraction of the limb muscles c. True Flight- for birds and bats Locomotion in Gastropod Mollusks Locomotion: flattened muscular foot through pedal locomotory waves Foot is analogous to the whole body of the flatworm but while the flatworm body has a constant volume, the gastropod foot may be inflated by blood Locomotion in Earthworms exemplify the highest form of a locomotor system dependent on a hydrostatic skeleton contraction of the circular muscles on the anterior end of the body extends to a number of segments contraction of the circular muscles makes the segments longer and thinner, while contraction of the longitudinal muscles shortens the segments in preparation for next phase of muscle contraction
