BIO 11 Lab: ZOOLOGY (Notes for 3rd Long Exam)
Chi Peñaranda 2nd Semester SY 2009-2010
Forms the outer coverings and inner linings of the body surfaces
Has tightly packed cells with very little intercellular material
For protection, selective absorption, and secretion
A. Covering and lining epithelial membranes: 1. Squamous epithelium – ‘like floor tiles’; flattened cells; thin and leaky e.g., lining of blood vessels and air sacs of lungs 2. Cuboidal epithelium – ‘like dice’ e.g., epithelium of kidney tubules and many glands; bile ducts 3. Columnar epithelium – ‘like bricks’ e.g., lining of the intestine 4. Ciliated epithelium – with cilia e.g., lining of the upper respiratory tract
Cuboidal Squamous
Ciliated
Columnar
B. Glandular epithelium – specialized for production of secretory substances 1. unicellular glands e.g., goblet cells in the lining of the intestine (and respiratory tracts) – secretes mucin (becomes mucus when dissolved in water) which has protective function against infectious agents and toxins Goblet cell: intestine slide
2. multicellular glands – surface epithelia that grew inward or became infolded; for large amounts of secretions
S i m p l e : cutaneous gland; gastric gland
C o m p o u n d : salivary gland; mammary gland; exocrine (with
ducts) and endocrine (ductless) glands
specialized for movement
Terminology: 1. Mu sc le f ib er s – muscle cells (long, spindle-shaped
thread-like structures) with oval-shaped nuclei 2. Sar c o p las m – muscle cell cytoplasm 3. Sar c o l em m a – muscle cell membrane 4. My o f i b r i ls – contractile element of muscle cells 5. My o fi lam en ts – finer filaments within myofiblrils made up
of proteins actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments)
1. Nonstriated (smooth) muscles - found in the visceral organs except the heart - are i n v o l u n t ar y m u s c l e s
2. Skeletal muscles -
striated, voluntary
-
muscles that are attached to the bones
-
characterized by the presence of dark bands (anistropic or A-discs) and light bands (isotropic or I-discs)
-
has multinucleated condition or s y n c y t i u m (occurs when cell divides without undergoing cytokinesis)
3. Cardiac or Heart mucles -
striated, involuntary
-
has functional syncytium (but not structurally syncytial!)
-
has intercalated disc fibers; form an intricate network
Multinucleated cell (syncytium)
Cardiac
Skeletal muscle, striated, voluntary
Smooth muscle, nonstriated, involuntary
Squamous
Types of Muscles Cardiac muscle, striated,
Characterized by the presence of a large amount of intercellular material and paucity of cells
Intercellular material secreted by the connective tissue cells is used to: 1. Attach or connect parts
2. Support or bear weight 3. Provide a medium through which tissue fluids containing nutrients and wastes may diffuse
formed
by fibrocytes (connective tissue cells) that has ovoid nuclei
intercellular
material that is secreted by the connective tissue cells are
composed of amorphous ground substance (matrix) and connective tissue fibers
Connective tissue fibers
fibrocyte
matrix
1.
chondrocytes (cartilage cells) located in spaces called lacunae
2. solid intercellular substance (matrix) May be:
hyaline – ventral ends of ribs; in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi; and on the articular surface of bone
fibrous – tendons and ligaments elastic – outer ear, larynx, and epiglottis
lacuna
chondrocyte
matrix
Mammalian hyaline cartilage
Bone – mineralized connective tissue
composed of osteocytes (bone cells) embedded in a calcified matrix, containing fine collagen fibers
Lacunae – small space containing an osteocyte or cluster of osteocytes
Canaliculi – tiny canals between lacunae of ossified bones; where protoplasmic processes of immature bone cells used to pass
Haversian canal – tiny, interconnecting, longitudinal channels in bone tissue through which blood vessels, nerve fibers and lymphatics pass
Haversian canals are interconnected by means of Volkmann’s canals
Lamella – thin plates of bone matrix; lines creating ring-like appearance represent periods of inactivity of bone formation
canaliculi
Haversian canal
Also
considered as belonging to the connective tissues group
Made
up of:
1. plasma – liquid component (liquid extracellular matrix) 2. blood cells: a. RB C – contains hemoglobin carry/transport
oxygen and help transport carbon dioxide b . W B C – function in defense and immunity (against invading pathogens); fight infections M aj o r t y p e s : lymphocyte, monocyte, neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil
3. Platelets – cell fragments; aid in blood clotting
Frog RBC (erythrocytes): darkly stained nuclei
Human RBC (erythrocytes): no nuclei, biconcave discs
Frog WBC (leukocytes): smaller in size than frog RBC, fewer in numbers
Human WBC (leukocytes): larger in size than human RBC; fewer in numbers
1. Lymphocytes nuclei are large, somewhat spherical; there is only narrow rim of cytoplasm around the nucleus
2. Monocytes nuclei vary from slightly indented ovals to horseshoe-shaped structures have larger amounts of cytoplasm than lymphocytes
3.
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) or granulocytes or polymorphs
irregular nuclei with a variety of shapes
A. Neutrophils
nuclei is made up of 2 to 5 or more thin lobes connected by slender chromatin thread granules are fine and does not stain well at neutral pH
B. Eosinophils
nuclei are made up of 2 oval lobes linked by thread like chromatin granules are coarse and stain pinkish red with acid stains
C. Basophils • •
nuclei stain very faintly has coarse cytoplasmic granules that stain blue with basic dye
Frog Blood
Types of Vascular Tissue
nerve
cell is called a neuron
cytoplasm
is drawn out into long nerve fibers, the dendrites and the axon dendrites axon
carry impulse toward the cell body
carries impulse away from the cell body
Nerve is a bundle of nerve fibers bound by connective tissues
epineurium is the loose connective tissue covering the nerve
inside are the fascicles or nerve bundles
each fascicle is covered by a perineurium, a dense connective tissue
individual nerve fibers are enclosed in the endoneurium
Nerve fibers carry sensory stimuli and motor impulses from the central nervous system (CNS) to an effector (eyes, glands, muscles and other parts of the body)
Layers: 1. Epidermis
made up of epithelial tissue
a . S t r at u m c o r n e u m
b.
outermost layer of the epidermis made up of squamous epithelia
S t r at u m g e r m i n a t i v u m
has rows of spherical cells and a deeper layer of columnar cells, which give rise to new cells
Cutaneous gland Chromatophore
Stratum corneum
Stratum spongiosum
Stratum germinativum
Epidermis
Dermis
Stratum compactum
Layers: 2. Dermis/Corlum S t ra tu m s p o n g i o s u m /S t ra tu m l ax u m
a layer of connective tissue contains chromatophores and cutaneous glands
chromatophores are cells containing pigment granules
Black – melanophores; yellow/gold -- xanthophores
Cutaneous gland (mouth, neck, body) – i n f r o g s : s e c r et es m u c u s t o k e e p s k i n m o i s t (b i g g l a n d s s e c r e t e p o i s o n ) ; higher vertebrates: sebum, tears, sweat, etc
S t ra tu m c o m p a c t u m
made of tightly packed horizontal strands of connective tissues with alternating vertical connective tissue strands
Skin Frog Skin
Skin Cutaneous Gland
Parts: 1. Liver cells polygonal in cross section; have darkly stained spherical nuclei 2. Pigment granules brown in color; scattered irregularly over the liver 3. Veins and Arteries veins are thin-walled (generally filled with blood corpuscles) and larger than thick walled arteries 4. Bile ducts lined with cuboidal epithelium 5. Arterioles and Venules may be found together with bile ducts 6. Sinusoid endothelial tubes occurring in-between liver cells; appears like spaces between liver cells
Sinusoids Vein (thin-walled with RBC)
Pigment granules
Bile duct
Liver (HPO) (Bile Duct Area)
Valves of Kerkring
Appears round in cross-section Has circular folds, valves of Kerkring, in the inner wall
Tunica mucosa
Tunica submucosa
lines cavity of lumen made up of simple columnar epithelial cells and goblet cells
muscular coat made up of two layers of muscles stratum circulare – thick inner circular layer stratum longitudinale – thin outer longitudinal layer
Tunica serosa
outermost covering a thin layer of loose connective tissue covered with mesothelium
Frog intestine (LPO)
Tunica mucosa
Tela submucosa
Tunica muscularis: Stratum circulare Stratum longitudinale Tunica serosa
appears
round in cross-section
inner
wall has large wavy folds called rugae
1. Tunica mucosa • •
has inner layer of columnar cells and outer layer of loose connective tissue, the lamina propia chief cells and parietal cells (in gastric glands) are found in this layer
2. Muscularis mucosa • •
lies outer to the lamina propia has stratum circulare and stratum longitudinale
3. Tela submucosa •
contains large blood and lymph vessels
4. Tunica submuscularis •
thick and made up of circular layer of smooth muscles
5. Subserosa •
narrow layer of connective tissues containing few longitudinal muscle strands
6. Tunica serosa •
made up of loose connective tissue covered with mesothelium
Frog stomach, LPO Simple columnar epithelium Lamina propia (connective tissue)
Tunica mucosa
Stratum circulare Muscularis mucosa Stratum longitudinale
Submucosa
Tunica muscularis
Outer muscular layer s u b s e r o s a and outermost covering
Gastric pit
Gastric glands
Gastric Pits: Indentations in the stomach which denote entrances to gastric glands Gastric glands: Simple, branched tubular glands in tunica mucosa layer of stomach: 1. Parietal cells – secrete gastric acid (and intrinsic factors) that lowers the pH of the stomach causing proteins from food to lose their folded structure exposing the peptide bonds; g a s t r i c acid activates p ep s i n o g en i n to p e p s in
2. Chief (zymogenic cells) – secrete pepsinogen and rennin
Parts: 1. Adrenal gland • mass of epithelial cells in the ventral depression of organ; • Part of endocrine system (secretes hormone like cortisol and adrenaline)
2. Malpighian bodies • made up of network of capillaries, the glomerulus, with in a cup-shaped double membrane, the Bowman’s capsule
3. Uriniferous tubules • where gumelular filtrate passes through
4. Wolffian duct/Mesonephric duct • where urine passes through going to the urinary bladder
5. Renal portal vein • located at the lateral margin of the kidney
Bowman’s capsule
Glomerulus
Frog kidney
Malpighian body Uriniferous tubule
Adrenal gland
Frog kidney (LPO)
Frog Kidney, HPO (xs) Malpighian body or renal corpuscles glomerulus
Bowman’s capsule
Urinifer ous
Two distinguished regions 1. white matter: made up of loosely arranged nerve fibers and supporting cells or neuroglia 2. gray matter: made up of cell bodies of neurons and supporting neuroglia
has 2 dorsal projections called dorsal cornua (dorsal gray horns)
has 2 ventral projections called ventral cornua (ventral gray horns)
Central canal
Neuroglia (glial cells)
located at the center of the gray matter Cerebrospinal fluid-filled space lined by e p en d y m a l c e ll s (create and secrete cerebrospinal fluid)
Non-neuronal cells that maintain homeostasis
Motor cells
most prominent neurons in spinal cord concentrated in ventral gray horn Much bigger than glial cells and have chromophilic bodies (Nissi bodies)
Dorsal gray horn
G l i al c e l l s s h o u l d b e t h e s m a l l er cells (not visible in the photo)
Dorsal fissure
Motor cells Central canal
Ventral fissure Ventral gray horn Ventral spinal artery
Spinal Cord (xs)
Dura mater cylindrical covering of spinal cord
Subdural space lies beneath the dura mater
Pia mater Closely investing the spinal cord Thin layer of connective tissue (with a number of blood vessels)
Dorsal fissure
Ventral fissure Contains ventral spinal artery
Ventral spinal artery Blood vessel that supplies most of the blood in the spinal cord
Subdural space Dura mater
Pia mater
Universal - Spherical
Radial - Arranged in a central axis
Bilateral - Longitudinal: divides into the dorsal (back) and ventral side (front) -Transverse: divides into the anterior (head end) and posterior side (tail end) - Sagittal: divides into the lateral sides (left and right)
Regular
repetition of body parts along the antero-posterior axis Divided into segments, metameres, or somites Has external and internal aspects
Earthworm: both external and internal metamerism Humans: internal metamerism of vertebral column, spinal and cranial nerves
Metamerism
Having parts of the body more or less differentiated into recognizable zones, such as the head, trunk and tail Cephalization: The nervous system and sense organs tend to concentrate in the head
cephalization
• Cephalic appendages may be in the form of antennae, tentacles, horns, antlers, lophophores, etc. • Other appendages: limbs, wings, etc • May be segmented or unsegmented
Antennae
External anatomy of the frog
External nares (nostril) – where air primarily enters and exits the frog’s respiratory system Tympanum – eardrum situated externally; imporant for hearing Pes (webbed) – aids in swimming
Snout
Head Tympanum Trunk
Anus External Nares Upper arm Forearm Manus
Thigh Shank
Pes
Integuments protect an animal’s body from damage; comprised of the skin and its appendages (including hair, scales, feathers, and nails) Integumentary system functions: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Waterproof, cushion and protect the deeper tissues Excrete wastes Regulate temperature Attachment site for sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure and temperature
Mantle (of Mollusks) - soft integument - some may be muscular or may contain hard substances like chitin or conchiolin - It secretes a shell
Rigid integument (of Arthropods) - chitinous - impregnated with lime or calcium carbonate
Slimy epithelium or Planaria - simplest form - allows diffusion of gases.
- In earthworms, the epithelium secretes a cuticle and allows diffusion of gases
Echinoderm’s skin -Comparable to the vertebrate skin -Varied vivid colors produced by skin pigment cells
‘Naked’ skin of frogs
Corals calcareous Mollusks’ shells calcareous: made of calcium carbonate single piece (univalve) or two piece (bivalve) Crustaceans and Insects chitinous Turtle Shells Dorsal Carapace (bony) and Ventral Plastron (horny) Fishes Bony Scales Snakes, Lizards, Crocodiles Horny shields form a continuous mat Birds Plumage (feathers) Mammals Pelage (covering of hairs) Cattle, Buffalos True Horns; hollow Dear Antlers; bony, shed periodically Lizards, birds, cats, dogs claws Monkeys, apes, man nails Horses, cattles hooves
Bivalve
Horny Shields
SHELL Calcareous Univalve Pelage Plumage
Carapace
Plastron
Claws
Antlers Bony Scales Hoof
Nails
True Horns
Squid and Cuttlefish Pen Sea Urchin Test or Corona: calcareous; composed of dermal plates; covered by integument
Test
Vertebrate Endoskeletal System • Bones principal elements of endoskeletons • Cartillage or gristle portions which require flexibility • Ligaments fibrous structures that bind bones together
1.Skull 2. Atlas (C1) 3. Abdominal vertebrae 4. Sacral vertebra 5. Urostyle 6. Suprascapula 7. Ilium 8. Ischium 9. Humerus 10. Radio-ulna 11. Carpals 12. Metacarpals 13. Phalanges 14. Femur
Metacarpals
Metatarsals
Cranium hollow middle portion
Olfactory capsules anterior to the cranium
Otic capsules posterior to the cranium; lodges the inner ear
Orbit on each side of the cranium; houses the eyeball
Occipital Region Posterior end of the skull Foramen Magnum large hole at the center; where the spinal cord passes through Occipital Condyles articulated with the 1st vertebra; ventrolateral to the foramen magnum Maxillary arch bordering the orbit laterally Premaxillary process adjoins the paired triangular bones of the cranium
Rear end of the Adult Skull
Olfactory Capsule Premaxillary Process Orbit Otic Capsule Occipital Region Occipital Condyle Foramen Magnum
(1) Atlas articulated with the occipital condyles; cervical vertebra (2) (2-8) Typical Vertebra centrum body of the vertebra; concave in front; convex behind neural arch dorsal to the centrum, forming a canal neural canal contains the spinal cord neural spine posteriorly directed transverse processes extend laterally and help support the body wall (junction of centrum and neural arch) zygapophyses pre-zygapophyses (hidden), post-zygapophyses (covers the pre) (9) sacral (10) urostyle
Pectoral Girdle Suprascapula most dorsal, flat trapezoidal and cartilaginous Scapula articulating the suprascapula; smooth concavity on its proximal end Glenoid fosa where the upper arm bone fits Fenestra articulate with the scapula on its proximal end Clavicle anterior to the fenestra; where an inverted y-shaped bone belonging to the sternum rests Coracoid posterior to the fenestra and shaped like the scapula; contributes also to the glenoid fossa Epicoracoid cartilages joins the two halves
Sternum
Set of bones and cartilages lying in the mid-ventral axis Two positions: anterior and posterior to the pectoral girdle Episternum flat, rounded cartilage Omosternum inverted y-shaped bone, with its two arms resting on the clavicle Mesosternum bone wedged between the coracoids in its anterior end Xiphisternum cartilage lying posterior to the mesosternum
mesosternum xiphisternum
Phalanges Metacarpals Carpals Radio-ulna Humerus
Strengthens the posterior region of the body and provides support to the hind limbs Each half is called an os innominatum (innominate bone) Acetabulum cup-shaped depression; where the proximal end of the thigh bone (femur) fits; formed by the convergence of the raised edges of the bones comprising the girdle Ilium forms the anterior border of the acetabulum and articulates with the lateral processes of the 9th vertebra Ischium fan-shaped bone contributing to the posterior border of the acetabulum and wedged between the ilium and the pubis Pubis triangular bone (cartilaginous in young frogs) wedged ventrally between the ilium and ischium
Femur long bone whose rounded proximal end articulates with the acetabulum Tibio-fibula (thigh bone) slightly longer bone distal to the femur Tarsals arsals (ankle (ankle bones) bones) consisting of a proximal row of two elongate bones and a distal row of two or three short bones Metatarsals (sole bones) a row of five elongate bones Phalanges
Muscles are contractive tissue which are responsible in general for motion and locomotion 2 Types of Muscles: 1. Skeletal - attached to skeletons; comprising the bulk of the body 2.
Visceral - those that form part of the wall of internal organs
Skeletal Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Skeletal muscles are bound by a connective tissue called fascia, these continue to the ends of the muscles as tendons.
The middle fleshy part of the muscle is called the belly.
Point of attachment, more or less fixed, is called the origin.
Point of insertion, the relatively movable end.
When there is more than one point of origin, it is called the head.
Several points of insertion are slips.
1. Gluteus 2. Piriformis 3. Tr ic ep s f em o r is 4. Sem i m am b ran o su s 5. B ic ep s f em o ris
1. Sar t o ri u s 2. A d d u c to r l o n g u s 3. A d d u c to r m ag n u s 4. Grac i li s m ajo r 5. Grac i li s m in or
6. Semitendinosus
1. Gas tro c nem i us 2. Per o neu s
1. Gas tr oc nem i us 2. Tib ial is p o s tic us
3. Extensor cruris 4. Tib ial is an ti c us 5. Tib io fi bu la (b o ne)
In animals with segmented appendages the extensive welldifferentiated musculature works together with a rigid skeleton to produce locomotion.
Earthworms – absence of rigid skeleton, the primitive musculature, works together with coelomic fluid which acts as “hydrostatic skeleton”
Flatworms – interstitial fluid that fill the spaces between parenchymatous cells functions also as a hydrostatic skeleton
Mode of locomotion of worms are often slow and inefficient compared with animals with segmented appendages
Locomotion of Planaria illustrate the origin of the dynamic functions of hydroskeleton
are capable of “looping” in the manner of leeches and use pedal locomotory waves, perfected by land snails and slugs.
Locomotion in Gastropod Mollusks locomotion is by means of a flattened muscular foot through pedal locomotory waves
foot is analogous to the whole body of the flatworm but while the flatworm body has a constant volume, the gastropod foot may be inflated by blood
Locomotion in Earthworms
exemplify the highest form of a locomotor system dependent on a hydrostatic skeleton
contraction of the circular muscles on the anterior end of the body extends to a number of segments
contraction of the circular muscles makes the segments longer and thinner, while contraction of the longitudinal muscles shortens the segments in preparation for next phase of muscle contraction
Demonstration of Muscle Action Action – specific movement produced by the muscle - for ever action there is a corresponding reaction Antagonists – group of muscles whose actions are opposite Synergists – those acting in concert Ex. adductor moves a part towards the axis of the body, an abductor produces and opposite action, flexor bends a part, extensor extends a part, levator raises a part, depressor lowers it, a constrictor closes an aperture, a dilator opens it * Indoctorium – used to demonstrate muscle action of a frog
Synergistic muscles: 1.
Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus – extends foot
2. 3.
Peroneus and tibialis anticus – bends foot Rectus abdominis and external oblique – compress abdomen
4.
Sterno-radialis, pectoralis, and deltoid – draw arm toward chest
1 and 2 antagonistic
Antagonistic muscles: 1. 2.
Depressor mandibulae (lowers jaw) vs temporalis (raises lower jaw) Latissimus dorsi (draw arm away from body) vs sterno-radialis, pectoralis, and deltoid (draw arm toward chest)
3.
Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus (extends foot) vs peroneus and tibialis anticus (bends foot)
Undulatory or Swimming - body is thrown into waves that pass along the animal, generally from head to tail , brought about by the contraction of the trunk musculature
Pedal locomotion - movement is achieved by contraction of limb muscles - quadruped – animals that walks on all four limbs - biped - when only one pair of limbs is involved - movements may be in the form of leaping, marching, running, etc. True flight - achieved by birds and bats - Volplane - flying lemurs and flying squirrels, as in kites and skydivers
