UNIT -3
Wider concept of social responsibility: Cost-benefit analysis of corporate social responsibility and good corporate corporate citizenship citizenship (Social / moral obligations obligations and survival). survival). thics thics and human rights rights!! balance balanced d global global enviro environmen nment! t! concern concern of global global "armi "arming! ng! #udici #udicious ous use of natural natural resources. Wider Concept of CSR 1950s : Corporate Social Responsibility of !siness"an: $he obligations of businessmen to
pursue policies! to ma%e decisions or to follo" lines of action "hich are desirable in terms of the ob#ectives and values of society #Bowen (1953) Some socially responsible business decisions can be #ustified by the long-run economic gain of the firm! thus paying bac% for its socially responsible behaviour. Davis (1960)
&rivate contribution to society's economic and human resources and a "illingness on the part of business to see that those resources "ere utilized for broad social social ends. Frederick (1960)
19$0s%1 19$0s%19&0 9&0ss : Sta'e(o Sta'e(older lder
nstead d of strivi striving ng only only for larger larger return returnss to its approa approac( c( : nstea
shareholders! a responsible enterprise ta%es into account the interests of employees! suppliers! dealers! local communities and the nation as a "hole. Johnson (1971) (1971) T(ree di"ensional "odel : $he concept consists of corporate responsibilities (i.e.! economic!
legal! ethical and philanthropic)! social issues of business (e.g.! labour standards! human rights! environment environment protection and anti-corrup anti-corruption) tion) and corporate corporate actions actions (e.g.! reactive! defensive! defensive! accommodative and proactive). Carroll (1979) 19)0s-1990s: T(ree-di"ensional "odel of principles* policies and processes : ntegration of
the principles of corporate responsibility! the policies of social issue management and the process of action into an evolving system. s ystem. Wartick and Cochran (195) Insti Instit!t t!tio ional nal fra"e fra"e+or +or' ' and and e,ten e,tended ded corp corpora orate te actio actions: ns:
our our type typess of corp corpor orat atee
responsibilities (i.e.! economic! legal! ethical and philanthropic) "ere lin%ed to three institutional levels levels (i.e.! (i.e.! legal! legal! organi organizat zation ional al and indivi individua dual)! l)! "hile "hile corpor corporate ate action actionss are e*tende e*tended d to assessment! stoc%holder management and implementation management. Wood (1991)
000s: T(ree .o"ains /pproac(: $hree domains of corporate responsibilities: economic! legal
and ethical. !chwart" and Carroll (#003) Ne+ concept: + process to integrate social! environmental! ethical! human rights and consumer
concerns into business operations and core strategy in close corporation "ith the sta%eholders. !ropean Co""ission #011
$he emerg emerging ing concept concept of Corpor Corporate ate Social Social ,espon ,esponsib sibili ility ty (CS,) (CS,) goes beyond beyond charity charity and reuires the company to act beyond its legal obligations and to integrated social! environmental and ethical concerns conce rns into company's business process. usiness has today! emerged as one of the most po"erful institutions on the earth. Some of the biggest companies in the "orld are in fact! bigger in size than some of the developing develop ing countries of the "orld. lobalization ma%es the "orld smaller! and business! "orld"ide! is e*panding li%e never before. Companies are e*panding their operations and crossing geographical boundaries. ndian companies too have made their "ay into the business boom and are today globally ac%no"ledged as ma#or players. ndia is currently amongst the fastest gro"ing countries in the "orld. $he globalization and liberalization of the ndian economy has helped in stepping up gro"th rates. ntegration of the ndian "ith the global economy has also resulted in ndian businesses opening up to international competition and thereby increasing their operations. n the current scheme of things! business enterprises are no longer e*pected to play their traditional role of mere profit ma%ing enterprises. $he ever-increasing role of civil society has started to put pressure on companies to act in an economically! socially and environmentally sustainable "ay. $he companies companies are facing increased increased pressure for transparency transparency and accountabili accountability! ty! being placed on them by their employees! customers! shareholders! media and civil society. usiness does not operate in isolation and there is today! an increased realization that not only can companies affect society at large! but they are also in a uniue position to influence society and ma%e positive impact.
0ilton riedman! 1obel 2aureate in conomics and author of several boo%s "rote in 3456 in the 1e" 7or% $imes 0agazine that 8the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits9 and 8the business of business is business9. $his represented an e*treme vie" that the only social responsibility a la"-abiding business has is to ma*imize profits for the shareholders! "hich "ere cons consid idere ered d the the only only sta%e sta%ehol holde ders rs for for the the compan company y. o"e o"ever ver!! time time has has given given the the term term ;sta%eholder' "ider connotations. d"ard reeman defines! ;a sta%eholder in an organization is any group or individual "ho can affect affect or is affect affected ed by the achiev achieveme ement nt of the organi organizat zation' ion'ss ob#ecti ob#ectives. ves.'' $hus! the term term sta%eh sta%eholde olderr includ includes es (apart (apart from from shareh sharehold olders ers)! )! but not limite limited d to! custom customers ers!! employ employees! ees! suppliers! community! environment and society at large. $hese and a host of other such ideas have given rise to the concept of Corporate Social ,esponsibility (CS,). $he concept of CS, goes beyond charity or philanthropy and reuires the company to act beyond its legal obligations and to integrate social! environmental and ethical concerns into its business process. usiness for Social,esponsibility defines CS, as 8achieving commercial success in "ays that honor ethical values and respect people! communities! and the environment. t means addressing the legal! ethical! commercial and other e*pectations that society has for business and ma%ing decisions that fairly balance the claims of all %ey sta%eholders. n its simplest terms it is: 8"hat you do! ho" you do it! and "hen and "hat you say.9 + "idely uoted definition by the World usiness Council for Sustainable
$he emerging concept of CS, goes beyond charity and reuires the company to act beyond its legal obligations and to integrate social! environmental and ethical concerns into company's business process. What is generally understood by CS, is that the business has a responsibility = to"ards its sta%eholders and society at large = that e*tends beyond its legal and enforceable obligations. $he triple bottom line approach to CS, emphasizes a company's commitment to operating in an economically! socially and environmentally sustainable manner. $he emerging concept of CS, advocates moving a"ay from a ;shareholder alone' focus to a ;multi-sta%eholder' focus. $his "ould include investors! employees! business partners! customers! regulators! supply chain! local communities! the environment and society at large. T(e 'ey co"ponents of CSR +o!ld t(erefore incl!de t(e follo+in2:
Within n the ambit ambit of corpor corporate ate governa governance nce!! ma#or ma#or issues issues are the Corporate Corporate o4ernance: o4ernance: Withi accou account ntab abil ilit ity y! tran transp spar aren ency cy and and condu conduct ct in conf confor ormi mity ty "ith "ith the the la"s la"s.. ood ood corp corpor orat atee govern gov ernance ance policy policy "ould "ould enable enable the company company to reali realize ze its its corpor corporate ate ob#ecti ob#ectives ves!! protec protectt shareholder rights! meet legal reuirements and create transparency for all sta%eholders. !siness t(ics: ,elates to value-based and ethical business practices. ;usiness ethics defines
ho" a company integrates core values = such as honesty! trust! respect! and fairness = into its policies! practices! and decision ma%ing. usiness ethics also involves a company's compliance "ith legal standards and adherence to internal rules and regulations.'3 uman resou resource rcess are most importan importantt and critical critical to a Wor'place Wor'place and labo!r relation relations: s: uman company. ood CS, practices relating to "or%place and labour relations can help in improving the "or%place in terms of health and safety! employee relations as "ell as result in a healthy balance bet"een "or% and non-"or% aspects of employees' life. t can also ma%e it easier to recruit employees and ma%e them stay longer! thereby reducing the costs and disruption of recruitment and retraining. /ffir"ati4e action2ood practices: ual opportunity employer! diversity of "or%force that
includes people "ith disability! people from the local community etc.! gender policy! code of
conduct/guidelines on prevention of se*ual harassment at "or%place! prevention of >/+
to the company but to the entire supply chain involved in goods and services. f anyone from the supply chain neglects social! environmental! human rights or other aspects! it may reflect badly on the company and may ultimately affect business heavily. $hus! company should use its strategic position to influence the entire supply chain to positively impact the sta%eholders. C!sto"ers: $he products and services of a company are ultimately aimed at the customers. $he
cost and uality of products may be of greatest concern to the customers but these are not the only aspects that the customers are concerned "ith. With increased a"areness and means of commun communica icatio tion! n! custom customer er satisf satisfact action ion and loyalt loyalty y "ould "ould depend depend on ho" the company company has produced the goods and services! considering the social! environmental! supply-chain and other such aspects. 0erely meeting meeting legal legal reuir reuireme ements nts in itself itself does does not comprise comprise CS, but it n4iron"ent: 0erely reuires company to engage in such a "ay that goes beyond mandatory reuirements and delive delivers rs enviro environme nmenta ntall benefit benefits. s. t "ould "ould includ include! e! but not limite limited d to! findin finding g sus sustai tainabl nablee solutions for natural resources! reducing adverse impacts on environment! reducing environmentris%y pollutants/emissions as "ell as producing environment-friendly goods. Co""!nity: + ma#or sta%eholder to the business is the community in "hich the company
operates. $he involvement of a company "ith the community "ould depend upon its direct interaction "ith the community and assessment of issues/ris%s faced by those living in the company company surrou surroundi nding ng areas. areas. $his $his helps helps in delive deliverin ring g a commun community ity-fo -focus cused ed CS, strat strategy egy = ma%ing positive changes to the lives of the people and improving the brand-image of the company. nvolvement "ith the community could be both direct ? indirect = through funding and other support for community pro#ects implemented by local agencies. Cost enefit /nalysis
+ process by "hich business decisions are analyzed. $he benefits of a given situation or business-related action are summed and then the costs associated "ith ta%ing that action are subtracted. Some consultants or analysts also build the model to put a dollar value on intangible items! such as the benefits and costs associated "ith living in a certain to"n. 0ost analysts "ill also factor opportunity cost into such euations. &rior to erecting a ne" plant or ta%ing on a ne" pro#ect! prudent managers "ill conduct a cost benefit analysis as a means of evaluating all of the potential costs and revenues that may be generated if the pro#ect is completed. $he outcome of the analysis "ill determine "hether the pro#ect is financially feasible! or if another pro#ect should be pursued. cost-benefit analysis - an analysis of the cost effectiveness of different alternatives in order to see "hether the benefits out"eigh the costs analytic thin%ing! analysis - the abstract separation of a "hole into its constituent parts in order to study the parts and their relations.
&rocess of uantifying costs and benefits of a decision! program! or pro#ect (over a certain period)! and those of its alternatives ("ithin the same period)! in order to have a single scale of comparison for unbiased evaluation. @nli%e the present value (&>) method of investment appraisal! C+ estimates the net present value (1&>) of the decision by discounting the investment and returns. $hough employed mainly in financial analysis! a C+ is not limited to monetary considerations only. t often includes those environmental and social costs and benefits that can be reasonably uantified. Definition: C+ can be e*plained as a procedure for estimating all costs involved and possible
profits to be derived from a business opportunity or proposal. Description: C+ ta%es into account both uantitative and ualitative factors for analysis of the
value for money for a particular pro#ect or investment opportunity. enefits to costs ratio and other indicators are used to conduct such analyses. $he ob#ective is to ascertain the soundness of any investment opportunity and provide a basis for ma%ing comparisons "ith other such proposals. +ll positives and negatives of the pro#ect are first uantified in monetary terms and then ad#usted for their time-value to obtain correct estimates for conduct of cost-benefit analysis. 0ost economists also account for opportunity costs of the investment in the pro#ect to get the costs involved.
When it comes to goal setting or deciding on the best plan of attac%! "or%ing up a cost-benefits analysis "ill help you decide #ust "hich route "ould be best for you. +nd a cost-benefit analysis doesnAt have to be complicated. 7ou simply dra" a line do"n the middle of a piece of paper to create t"o columns. Bn the left! list the benefits of achieving a given goal. Bn the right! list "hat it "ill cost you to get there. Bnce youAve done that! you can simply add up the benefits and costs columns and see "hich has more! or assign "eighted scores to each entry and total them at the bottom. Bf course! you may not "ant to let this uic% and easy analysis ma%e the final decision for you. +nd it may sometimes be the nearest thing to a tossup. ut even a simple cost-benefit analysis can give you an idea of "hether a given goal is "orth investigating further. +n e*ample is a sales director "ho needs to decide "hether to implement a ne" computer-based contact management and sales processing system. $he sales department currently has only a fe" computers! and its salespeople arenAt computer savvy. +ny system upgrade "ould reuire e*tensive employee training. $he company is li%ely to e*perience a drop in sales during the transition period. While total e*penses! including euipment! installation and training costs! plus lost productivity! are estimated to be DD!E66! the companyAs analysis reveals the ne" computer system "ould increase sales capacity! boost efficiency and enhance customer service and retention--financial benefits the company pegs at 46!666 annually. ased on the cost-benefit estimates! the company "ould see a return on its investment in eight months. (&aybac% time: DD!E66 F 46!666 G 6.HI of a year.)
T(eory Cost=benefit analysis is often used by governments and other organizations! such as private sector businesses! to evaluate the desirability of a given policy. t is an analysis of the e*pected balance of benefits and costs! including an account of foregone alternatives and the status quo. C+ helps predict "hether the benefits of a policy out"eigh its costs! and by ho" much relative to other alternatives (i.e. one can ran% alternate policies in terms of the cost-benefit ratio). enerally! accurate cost-benefit analysis identifies choices that increase "elfare from a utilitarian perspective. +ssuming an accurate C+! changing the status uo by implementing the alternative "ith the lo"est cost-benefit ratio can improve &areto efficiency. +n analyst using C+ should recognize that perfect evaluation of all present and future costs and benefits is difficult! and "hile C+ can offer a "ell-educated estimate of the best alternative! perfection in terms of economic efficiency and social "elfare are not guaran teed.
$rocess 3. 2ist alternative pro#ects/programs. I. 2ist sta%eholders. J. Select measurement(s) and measure all cost/benefit elements. K. &redict outcome of cost and benefits over relevant time period. D. Convert all costs and benefits into a common currency. H. +pply discount rate. 5. Calculate net present value of pro#ect options. E. &erform sensitivity analysis. 4. +dopt recommended choice. Cost-enefit /nalysis #,a"ple
Lules
$he results of a cost-benefit analysis are often e*pressed as a paybac% period = this is the time it ta%es for benefits to repay costs. 0any people "ho use Cost-enefit +nalysis loo% for paybac% in less than a specific period = for e*ample! three years. 7ou can use Cost-enefit +nalysis in a "ide variety of situations. or e*ample! "hen you are: •
•
valuating a ne" pro#ect or change initiative.
•
ollo" these steps to do a Cost-enefit +nalysis. Step 7ne: rainstor" Costs and enefits
irst! ta%e time to brainstormall of the costs associated "ith the pro#ect! and ma%e a list of these. $hen! do the same for all of the benefits of the pro#ect. Can you thin% of any une*pected costsF +nd are there benefits that you may not initially have anticipatedF When you come up "ith the costs and benefits! thin% about the lifetime of the pro#ect. What are the costs and benefits li%ely to be over timeF Step T+o: /ssi2n a 8onetary al!e to t(e Costs
Costs include the costs of physical resources needed! as "ell as the cost of the human effort involved in all phases of a pro#ect. Costs are often relatively easy to estimate (compared "ith revenues).
tAs important that you thin% about as many related costs as you can. or e*ample! "hat "ill any training costF Will there be a decrease in productivity "hile people are learning a ne" system or technology! and ho" much "ill this costF ,emember to thin% about costs that "ill continue to be incurred once the pro#ect is finished. or e*ample! consider "hether you "ill need additional staff! if your team "ill need ongoing training! or if youAll have increased overheads. Step T(ree: /ssi2n a 8onetary al!e to t(e enefits
$his step is less straightfor"ard than step t"oM irstly! itAs often very difficult to predict revenues accurately! especially for ne" products. Secondly! along "ith the financial benefits that you anticipate! there are often intangible! or soft! benefits that are important outcomes of the pro#ect. or instance! "hat is the impact on the environment! employee satisfaction! or health and safetyF What is the monetary value of that impactF +s an e*ample! is preserving an ancient monument "orth D66!666! or is it "orth D!666!666 because of its historical importanceF Br! "hat is the value of stress-free travel to "or% in the morningF ere! itAs important to consult "ith other sta%eholders and decide ho" youAll value these intangible items. Step o!r: Co"pare Costs and enefits
inally! compare the value of your costs to the value of your benefits! and use this analysis to decide your course of action. $o do this! calculate your total costs and your total benefits! and compare the t"o values to determine "hether your benefits out"eigh your costs. +t this stage itAs important to consider the paybac% time! to find out ho" long it "ill ta%e for you to reach the brea% even point = the point in time at "hich the benefits have #ust repaid the costs. or simple e*amples! "here the same benefits are received each period! you can calculate the paybac% period by dividing the pro#ected total cost of the pro#ect by the pro#ected total revenues:
$otal cost / total revenue (or benefits) G length of time (paybac% period). ,a"ple
Custom raphic Wor%s has been operating for #ust over a year! and sales are e*ceeding targets. Currently! t"o designers are "or%ing full-time! and the o"ner is considering increasing capacity to meet demand. ($his "ould involve leasing more space and hiring t"o ne" designers.) e decides to complete a Cost-enefit +nalysis to e*plore his choices. Cost in irst ;ear 2ease : 5D6 suare feet available ne*t door at 3E per suare foot
3J!D66 2easehold improvements : Nnoc% out "alls and reconfigure office space 3D!666 ire t"o more designers : Salary! including benefits 5D!666 ,ecruitment costs 33!ID6 Brientation and training J!666 $"o additional "or%stations : urniture and hard"are H!666 Soft"are licenses 3!666 Construction do"ntime :$"o "ee%s at appro*imately 5!D66 revenue per "ee% 3D!666 Total
3J4!5D6 Bene%ts Bene%t Within 1# &onths 50 percent revenue increase
$195,000
Paying in-house designers $15 an hour, versus $50 an hour outsourcing (100 hours per month, on average: savings equals $3,500 a month
$!",000
10 percent improved productivity per designer ($#,500 $3,#50 %
$5&,500
$11,"50 revenue per 'ee 'ith a 10 percent increase % $1,1"5)'ee *mproved customer service and retention as a result o+ 100 percent in-house design
'otal ood Corporate Citi
+ good corporate citizen is a corporation that accepts the importance of being collectively responsible for its local community and environment as an integral part of their core business. Corporate citizenship is therefore about the contribution a corporation ma%es to society through its core business activities! its social investment and philanthropy programs and its engagement in public policy. t(ical !siness e(a4ior
3) ngages in fair and honest business practices in its relationship "ith sta%eholders. I) Sets high standards of behavior for all employees. J) *ercises ethical oversight of the e*ecutive and board levels
!takeholder Coitent ! trives to manage the company +or the ene.t o+ all staeholders/ 5 *nitiates and engages in genuine dialogue 'ith staeholders/ alues and implements dialogue/ 2ommunity #/ osters a reciprocal relationship et'een the corporation and community/ &/ *nvests in the communities in 'hich corporation operates/
Consers
$10,000
$305,500
9/ 4espects the rights o+ consumers/ 10/ 6ers quality products and services/ 11/ Provides in+ormation that is truth+ul and use+ul/
*+lo,ees 1"/ Provides a +amily-+riendly 'or environment/ 13/ 7ngages in responsile human-resource management/ 1!/ Provides an equitale re'ard and 'age system +or employees/ 15/ 7ngages in open and 8eile communication 'ith employees/ 1/ *nvests in employee development/
-nvestors 1#/ trives +or a competitive return on investment/
!++liers 1&/ 7ngages in +air trading practices 'ith suppliers/ 7nvironmental 2ommitment 19/ emonstrates a commitment to the environment/ "0/ emonstrates a commitment to sustainale development ;he process o+ identi+ying, analy
0anagers should ac%no"ledge and actively monitor the concerns of all legitimate sta%eholders and should ta%e their interests appropriately into
account in decision ma%ing and operations. =rinciple
0anagers should listen to and openly communicate "ith sta%eholders about their respective concerns and contributions and about the ris%s that they assume because of their involvement "ith the corporation. =rinciple 3
0anagers should adopt processes and modes of behavior that are sensitive to the concerns and capabilities of each sta%eholder constituency. =rinciple >
0anagers should recognize the interdependence of efforts and re"ards among sta%eholders and should attempt to achieve a fair distribution of the benefits and burdens of corporate activity among them! ta%ing into account their respective ris%s and vulnerabilities. =rinciple 5
0anagers should "or% cooperatively "ith other entities! both public and private! to insure that ris%s and harms arising from corporate activities are minimized and! "here they cannot be avoided! appropriately compensated. =rinciple $
0anagers should avoid altogether activities that might #eopardize inalienable human rights or give rise to ris%s that! if clearly understood! "ould be patently unacceptable to relevant sta%eholders. =rinciple &
0anagers should ac%no"ledge the potential conflicts bet"een their o"n role as corporate sta%eholders! and their legal and moral responsibilities for the interests of sta%eholders and should address such conflicts through open communication! appropriate reporting and inventive systems! and "here necessary! third-party revie". $he 2earning Stage Bnce it has identified a social problem and adopted a general policy! the company must learn ho" to tac%le the problem and ma%e the ne" policy "or%.
Specialized learning Bccurs "hen a sociotechnical e*pert is employed to advise the company officers and managers. +dministrative learning Bccurs "hen a company's supervisors and mangers become familiar "ith ne" routines that are necessary to cope "ith a social problem. T(e 7r2ani
When the organization institutionalizes its ne" social policy. When corporate citizenship becomes part of the company and its standard operating procedures Concentrate action programs on limited ob#ectives. Concentrate action programs related to the firm's products or services. egin action programs close to home. acilitate employee action. 6!"an Ri2(ts 6!"an ri2(ts are Ocommonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights to "hich a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being.O uman rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable every"here) and egalitarian (the same for everyone). $hese rights may e*ist as natural rights or as legal rights! in local! regional! national! and international la". $he doctrine of human rights in international practice! "ithin international la"! global and regional institutions! in the policies of states and in the activities of non-governmental organizations! has been a cornerstone of public policy around the "orld. The idea of human rights states! Oif the public discourse of peacetime global society can be said to have a common moral language! it is that of human rights.O uman rights elong to everyone/ ;hey are the asic rights 'e all have simply ecause 'e are human, regardless o+ 'ho 'e are, 'here 'e live or 'hat 'e do/ >uman rights represent all the things
'e need to 8ourish and live together as human eings/ ;hey are epressed in internationally agreed la's, and cover many aspects o+ everyday li+e ranging +rom the rights to +ood, shelter, education and health to +reedoms o+ thought, religion and epression/
$he roots and origins of human rights and the struggles to bring them about lie deep in the history of many different societies! civilisations and individuals. o"ever! the first universally agreed statement of human rights did not emerge until 34KE! "ith the ;@niversal
$he philosophy of human rights attempts to e*amine the underlying basis of the concept of human rights and critically loo%s at its content and #ustification. Several theoretical approaches have been advanced to e*plain ho" and "hy human rights have become a part of social e*pectations. Bne of the oldest Western philosophies of human rights is that they are a product of a natural la"! stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds. Bther theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior "hich is a human social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated "ith ume). uman rights are also described as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of la" and the "or% of Weber ). $hese approaches include the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in e*change for security and economic advantage (as in ,a"ls) = a social contract. $he t"o theories that dominate contemporary human rights discussion are the interest theory and the "ill theory. nterest theory argues that the principal function of human rights is to protect and promote certain essential human interests! "hile "ill theory attempts to establish the validity of human rights based on the uniue human capacity for freedom.
W(o (as responsibilities for (!"an ri2(ts? uman rights are based on the principle that "e all have human rights = "e are all ;rights holders'. When an individual has a right! there is a corresponding ;duty bearer'! usually the state! "ho is responsible for ma%ing sure that right is respected! protected and fulfilled. y the state! in broad terms "e mean the government and those acting on its behalf. uman rights prevent states from doing certain things! li%e not treating you in a degrading "ay. $hey also reuire states to ta%e certain actions to ma%e sure your rights are protected and fulfilled! li%e ta%ing steps to protect your life and improve your uality of life. $his doesn't mean that human rights have nothing to say about the responsibilities of individuals! or our relationships "ith each other. uman rights recognise that "e all live alongside each other! and everyone else has rights too. f "e compromise others' human rights! "e are sub#ect to la"s that may limit our o"n rights as a result. uman rights in India is an issue complicated by the countryAs large size! its tremendous diversity! its status as a developing country and a sovereign! secular ! democratic republic. $he Constitution of ndia provides for undamental rights! "hich include freedom of religion. Clauses also provide for reedom of Speech! as "ell as separation of e*ecutive and #udiciary and freedom of movement "ithin the country and abroad. +ccording to the @nited States 2ibrary of Congress! although human rights problems do e*ist in ndia! the country is generally not regarded as a human rights concern! unli%e other countries in South +sia such as neighbouring &a%istan. ased on these considerations! the I636 report of reedom in the World by reedom ouse gave ndia a political rights rating of I! and a civil liberties rating of J! earning it the highest possible rating of free. n its report on human rights in ndia during I636! uman ,ights WatchPunreliable source?Q stated ndia had Osignificant human rights problems. $hey identified lac% of accountability for security forces and impunity for abusive policing including Opolice brutality! e*tra#udicial %illings! and tortureO as ma#or problems. n I633! 0argaret Se%aggya! the @.1. Special ,apporteur on the situation of human rights defenders! e*pressed concern that she found human rights "or%ers and their families "ho Ohave been %illed! tortured! illtreated! disappeared! threatened! arbitrarily arrested and detained! falsely charged and under surveillance because of their legitimate "or% in upholding
human rights and fundamental freedoms. Na"e of 6!"an Ri2(ts .i/ht to lie very human being has the inherent right to life. $his right shall be protected by la". 1o one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his life $he right to life is the essential right that a human being has the right not to be %illed by another human being. $he concept of a right to life is central to debates on the issues of abortion! capital punishment! euthanasia! self defense and "ar . +ccording to many human rights activists! the death penalty violates this right. $he @nited 1ations has called on states retaining the death penalty to establish a moratorium on capital punishment "ith a vie" to its abolition. States "hich do not do so face considerable moral and political pressure. reedo" fro" tort!re $hroughout history! torture has been used as a method of political reeducation! interrogation! punishment! and coercion. n addition to statesponsored torture! individuals or groups may be motivated to inflict torture on others for similar reasons to those of a stateR ho"ever! the motive for torture can also be for the sadistic gratification of the torturer! as in the 0oors murders.
$orture is prohibited under international la" and the domestic la"s of most countries in the I3st century. t is considered to be a violation of human rights! and is declared to be unacceptable by +rticle D of the @1 @niversal ictims) report "idespread use condoned by states in many regions of the "orld.PHHQ +mnesty nternational estimates that at least E3 "orld governments currently practice torture! some of them openly.
reedo" fro" sla4ery reedom from slavery is an internationally recognized human right. +rticle K
of the @niversal
veryone is entitled in full euality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal! in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.P5HQ $he right to a fair trial has been defined in numerous regional and international human rights instruments. t is one of the most e*tensive human rights and all international human rights instruments enshrine it in more than one article.P55Q $he right to a fair trial is one of the most litigated human rights and substantial case la" has been established on the interpretation of this human right.P5EQ
the right to be heard by a competent! independent and impartial tribunal
•
the right to a public hearing
•
the right to be heard "ithin a reasonable time
•
the right to counsel
•
the right to interpretation
reedo" of speec( reedom of speech is the freedom to spea% freely "ithout censorship. $he term freedom of e*pression is sometimes used synonymously! but includes any act of see%ing! receiving and imparting information or ideas! regardless of the medium used. n practice! the right to freedom of speech is not absolute in any country and the right is commonly sub#ect to limitations! such as on libel! slander! obscenity! incitement to commit a crime! etc. $he right to freedom of e*pression is recognized as a human right under +rticle 34 of the @niversal
veryone has the right to freedom of thought! conscience and religionR this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief! and freedom! either alone or in community "ith others and in public or private! to manifest his religion or belief in teaching! practice! "orship and observance. +rticle 3E of the nternational Covenant on Civil and &olitical ,ights reedom of thought! conscience and religion are closely related rights that protect the freedom of an individual or community! in public or private! to thin% and freely hold conscientious beliefs and to manifest religion or belief in teaching! practice! "orship! and observanceR the concept is generally recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or not to follo" any religion.PE3Q $he freedom to leave or discontinue membership in a religion or religious groupin religious terms called OapostasyOis also a fundamental part of religious freedom! covered by +rticle 3E of the @niversal
of their conscientious beliefs! particularly concerning intellectual! political and artistic freedom of e*pression and association.PEJQ n legislation! a conscience clause is a provision in a statute that e*cuses a health professional from complying "ith the la" (for e*ample legalising surgical or pharmaceutical abortion) if it is incompatible "ith religious or conscientious beliefs. reedo" of "o4e"ent 0ain article: reedom of movement
reedom of movement asserts that a citizen of a state in "hich that citizen is present has the liberty to travel! reside in! and/or "or% in any part of the state "here one pleases "ithin the limits of respect for the liberty and rights of others!P3Q and to leave that state and return at any time. Ri2(ts debates vents and ne" possibilities can affect e*isting rights or reuire ne" ones. +dvances of technology! medicine! and philosophy constantly challenge the status uo of human rights thin%ing. Ri2(t to 'eep and bear ar"s 0ain article: ,ight to %eep and bear arms
$he right to %eep and bear arms for defense is described in the philosophical and political "ritings of +ristotle! Cicero! Lohn 2oc%e! 0achiavelli! the nglish Whigs and others.PEDQ n countries "ith an nglish common la" tradition! a long standing common la" right to %eep and bear arms has long been recognized! as pre-e*isting in common la"! prior even to the e*istence of national constitutions. !t!re 2enerations n 3445 @1SCB adopted the
0indful of the "ill of the peoples! set out solemnly in the Charter of the @nited 1ations! to Asave succeeding generations from the scourge of "arA and to safeguard the values and principles enshrined in the @niversal
uture eneration +rticle 3 of the declaration states Othe present generations have the responsibility of ensuring that the needs and interests of present and future generations are fully safeguarded.O $he preamble to the declaration states that Oat this point in history! the very e*istence of human%ind and its environment are threatenedO and the declaration covers a variety of issues including protection of the environment! the human genome! biodiversity! cultural heritage! peace! development! and education. $he preamble recalls that the responsibilities of the present generations to"ards future generations has been referred to in various international instruments! including the Convention for the &rotection of the World Cultural and 1atural eritage (@1SCB 345I)! the @nited 1ations rame"or% Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on iological ienna
Se*ual orientation and gender identity rights relate to the e*pression of se*ual orientation and gender identity based on the right to respect for private life and the right not to be discriminated against on the ground of Oother statusO as defined in various human rights conventions! such as article 35 and IH in the @nited 1ations nternational Covenant on Civil and &olitical ,ights and article E and article 3K in the uropean Convention on uman ,ights. omose*ual behaviour is illegal in 5H countriesPcitation neededQ! and is punishable by e*ecution in seven countries. $he criminalization of private! consensual! adult se*ual relations! especially in countries "here corporal or capital punishment is involved! is one of the primary concerns of 2$ human rights advocates. Bther issues include: government recognition of same-se* relationships! 2$ adoption! se*ual orientation and military service! immigration euality! anti-discrimination la"s! hate crime la"s regarding violence against 2$ people! sodomy la"s! anti-lesbianism la"s! and eual age of consent
for same-se* activity. + global charter for se*ual orientation and gender identity rights has been proposed in the form of the A7ogya%arta &rinciplesA! a set of I4 principles "hose authors say they apply nternational uman ,ights 2a" statutes and precedent to situations relevant to 2$ peopleAs e*perience.P4HQ $he principles "ere presented at a @nited 1ations event in 1e" 7or% on 1ovember 5! I665! co-sponsored by +rgentina! razil and @ruguay. $he principles have been ac%no"ledged "ith influencing the rench proposed @1 declaration on se*ual orientation and gender identity! "hich focuses on ending violence! criminalization and capital punishment and does not include dialogue about same-se* marriage or right to start a family. P45QP4EQ $he proposal "as supported by H5 of the then 34I member countries of the @nited 1ations! including all @ member states and the @nited States. +n alternative statement opposing the proposal "as initiated by Syria and signed by D5 member nations! including all I5 nations of the +rab 2eague as "ell as ran and 1orth Norea. Trade +lthough both the @niversal
Some e*perts argue that trade is inherent to human nature and that "hen governments inhibit international trade they directly inhibit the right to "or% and the other indirect benefits! li%e the right to education! that increased "or% and investment help accrue. Bthers have argued that the ability to trade does not affect everyone euallyoften groups li%e the rural poor! indigenous groups and "omen are less li%ely to access the benefits of increased trade. Bn the other hand! others thin% that it is no longer primarily individuals but companies that trade! and therefore it cannot be guaranteed as a human right. Pcitation neededQ +dditionally! trying to fit too many concepts under the umbrella of "hat ualifies as a human right has the potential to dilute their importance. inally! it is difficult to define a right to trade as either OfairO or O#ustO in that the current trade regime produces "inners and losers but its reform is li%ely
to produce (different) "inners and losers. See also: $he ,ecognition of 2abour Standards "ithin the World $rade Brganisation and nvestor state dispute settlement Water See also: Water politics and ,ight to "ater
n 1ovember I66I! the @nited 1ations Committee on conomic! Social and Cultural ,ights issued a non-binding comment affirming that access to "ater "as a human right: the human right to "ater is indispensable for leading a life in human dignity. t is a prereuisite for the realization of other human rights. @nited 1ations Committee on conomic! Social and Cultural ,ights $his principle "as reaffirmed at the Jrd and Kth World Water Councils in I66J and I66H. $his mar%s a departure from the conclusions of the Ind World Water orum in $he ague in I666! "hich stated that "ater "as a commodity to be bought and sold! not a right.P36HQ $here are calls from many 1Bs and politicians to enshrine access to "ater as a binding human right! and not as a commodity.P365QP36EQ +ccording to the @nited 1ations! nearly 466 million people lac% access to clean "ater and more than I.H billion people lac% access to basic sanitation. Bn Luly IE! I636! the @1 declared "ater and sanitation as human rights. y declaring safe and clean drin%ing "ater and sanitation as a human right! the @.1. eneral +ssembly made a step to"ards the 0illennium
,eproductive rights are rights relating to reproduction and reproductive health. $he World ealth Brganisation defines reproductive rights as follo"s: ,eproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number! spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so! and the right to attain the highest standard of se*ual and reproductive health. $hey also include the right of all to ma%e decisions concerning reproduction
free of discrimination! coercion and violence. World ealth Brganisation ,eproductive rights "ere first established as a subset of human rights at the @nited 1ations 34HE nternational Conference on uman ,ights.P333Q $he si*teenth article of the resulting &roclamation of $eheran states! O&arents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children.OP333QP33IQ ,eproductive rights may include some or all of the follo"ing rights: the right to legal or safe abortion! the right to control oneAs reproductive functions! the right to uality reproductive healthcare! and the right to education and access in order to ma%e reproductive choices free from coercion! discrimination! and violence.P33JQ ,eproductive rights may also be understood to include education about contraception and se*ually transmitted infections! and freedom from coerced sterilization and contraception! protection from gender-based practices such as female genital cutting (C) and male genital mutilation (00).P364QP333Q P33JQP33KQ
Infor"ation and co""!nication tec(nolo2ies 0ain articles: ,ight to nternet access and
n Bctober I664! inlandAs 0inistry of $ransport and Communications announced that every person in inland "ould have the legal right to nternet access.P33DQ Since Luly I636! the government has legally obligated telecommunications companies to offer broadband nternet access to every permanent residence and office. $he connection must be Oreasonably pricedO and have a do"nstream rate of at least 3 0bit/s. P33HQ n 0arch I636! the C! having commissioned an opinion poll! reported that Oalmost four in five people around the "orld believe that access to the internet is a fundamental right.OP335Q $he poll! conducted by the polling company lobeScan for the C World Service! collated the ans"ers of I5!45J adult citizens across IH countries to find that 54T of adults either strongly agreed or some"hat agreed "ith the statement: Oaccess to the internet should be a fundamental right of all peopleO.P33EQ 6!"an Ri2(ts in India
reedo" of e,pression 0ain article: reedom of e*pression in ndia
+ccording to the estimates of ,eporters Without orders! ndia ran%s 3IInd "orld"ide in I636 on the press freedom inde* (do"n from 36Dth in I664). $he press freedom inde* for ndia is JE.5D in I636 (I4.JJ for I664) on a scale that runs from 6 (most free) to 36D (least free). $he ndian Constitution! "hile not mentioning the "ord OpressO! provides for "the right to freedom of speech and expression" (+rticle 34(3) a). o"ever this right is sub#ect to restrictions under subclause (I)! "hereby this freedom can be restricted for reasons of Osovereignty and integrity of ndia! the security of the State! friendly relations "ith foreign States! public order! preserving decency! preserving morality! in relation to contempt of court! defamation! or incitement to an offenceO. 2a"s such as the Bfficial Secrets +ct and &revention of $errorism +ct PIDQ (&B$+) have been used to limit press freedom. @nder &B$+! person could be detained for up to si* months before the police "ere reuired to bring charges on allegations for terrorismrelated offenses. &B$+ "as repealed in I66K! but "as replaced by amendments to @+&+.PIHQ $he Bfficial Secrets +ct 34IJ is abolished after right to information act I66D or the first half-century of independence! media control by the state "as the ma#or constraint on press freedom. ndira andhi famously stated in 345D that +ll ndia ,adio is Oa overnment organ! it is going to remain a overnment organ...O With the liberalisation starting in the 3446s! private control of media has burgeoned! leading to increasing independence and greater scrutiny of government. Brganisations li%e $ehel%a and 1<$> have been particularly influential! e.g. in bringing about the resignation of po"erful aryana minister >enod Sharma. n addition! la"s li%e &rasar harati act passed in recent years contribute significantly to reducing the control of the press by the government. @T ri2(ts 0ain article: 2$ rights in ndia
@ntil the
uman traffic%ing is a E million illegal business in ndia. +round 36!666 1epali "omen are brought to ndia annually for commercial se*ual e*ploitation.PJ6Q ach year I6!666=ID!666 "omen and children are traffic%ed from angladesh.PJ3Q abubhai Nhimabhai Natara "as a 0ember of &arliament "hen arrested for smuggling a child to Canada. Reli2io!s 4iolence 0ain article: ,eligious violence in ndia
Communal conflicts bet"een religious groups (mostly bet"een indus and 0uslims) have been prevalent in ndia since around the time of its independence from ritish ,ule. +mong the oldest incidences of communal violence in ndia "as the 0oplah rebellion! "hen 0ilitant slamists massacred indus in Nerala. Communal riots too% place during the partition of ndia bet"een indus/Si%hs and 0uslims "here large numbers of people "ere %illed in large-scale violence. $he 34EK +nti-Si%h ,iots "as a four-day period during "hich Si%hs "ere massacred by members of the secular-centrist Congress &arty of ndiaR some estimates state that more than I!666 "ere %illed.PJIQ Bther incidents include the 34E5 ashimpura massacre during communal riots in 0eerut! 344I ombay ,iots and the I66I u#arat violence in the latter! more than 366 0uslimsPJJQ "ere %illed follo"ing a militant slamist attac% on a train full of indu pilgrims in the odhra $rain urning! "here DE indus "ere %illed. PJKQ 2esser incidents plague many to"ns and villagesR representative "as the %illing of five people in 0au! @ttar &radesh during indu0uslim rioting! "hich "as triggered by the proposed celebration of a indu festival.PJKQ Bther such communal incidents include the I66I 0arad massacre! "hich "as carried out by the militant slamist group 1ational
+ccording to a report by uman ,ights Watch! O
+mnesty nternational says Oit is the responsibility of the ndian government to fully enact and apply its legal provisions against discrimination on the basis of caste and descent. PJ5Q
nvasive methods li%e AnarcoanalysisA (controlled anaesthesia) is no" commonly permitted by ndian courts for crime investigation. ven though according to ndian constitution Onobody may be made a "itness against himselfO! courts have recently proclaimed that even a permission from court is not necessary for conducting this practice. 1arcoanalysis is no" "idely used to replace/circumvent the lac% of s%ill and infrastructure for conducting scientific methods of crime investigation.Poriginal research?Q 1arcoanalysis is also allegedPwho?Q as against medical ethics. t has been found that more than half of the prisoners of the country are detained "ithout adeuate evidencePaccording to whom? Q. @nli%e in other democratic countries! the investigation in ndia generally commence "ith the arrest of the accused. +s the #udicial system is understaffed and sluggish! it is not uncommon to find innocent civilians languishing in #ail for many years. or instance! the ombay high court in September I664 as%ed the 0aharashtra government to pay 366!666 as compensation to a K6-year-old man "ho languished in prison for over 36 years for a crime he didn't commit. alanced lobal n4iron"ent
&eople or organizations "ith needs and "antsR both have the "illingness and ability to buy or sell. $he global economic environment plays a large role in the development of ne" mar%ets for organizations. When the natural environment is damaged and contaminated to the e*tent that it threatens life! health! food! shelter! and minimum "or% standards! it also becomes a threat to established human rights. When people must struggle to obtain the basic necessities of life! political freedoms and human rights may appear meaningless to them. $he destruction of life-sustaining ecosystems! the
pollution of the "orldAs "ater! land! and air! the inability to control the "orldAs "astes! and other related environmental problems prevent people from securing the minimum reuisites for health and survival! there by impeding and even prohibiting the effective e*ercise and en#oyment of human rights for much of the "orldAs population. $he correlation bet"een human rights and the environment has been recognized by the international community in such forums as the recent @nited 1ations Conference on nvironment and ariables considered include such things as: = $rade policy = $a*ation policy = an%ing policy = Wage and price controls = &roperty rights lobal cosyste" An ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are many examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland. The boundaries are not fixed in any objective way, although sometimes they seem obvious, as with the shoreline of a small pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons having to do with the goals of the particular study.
The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living, or biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic, components. Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling are the main processes that comprise the field of ecosystem ecology. As we learned earlier, ecology generally is defined as the interactions of organisms with one another and with the environment in which they occur. e can study ecology at the level of the individual, the population, the community, and the ecosystem. !tudies of individuals are concerned mostly about physiology, reproduction, development or behavior, and studies of populations usually focus on the habitat and resource needs of individual species, their group behaviors, population growth, and what limits their abundance or causes extinction. !tudies of communities examine how populations of many species interact with one another, such as predators and their prey, or competitors that share common needs or resources. "n ecosystem ecology we put all of this together and, insofar as we can, we try to understand how the system operates as a whole. This means that, rather than worrying mainly about particular species, we try to focus on major functional aspects of the system. These functional aspects include such things as the amount of energy that is produced by photosynthesis, how energy or materials flow along the many steps in a food chain, or what controls the rate of decomposition of materials or the rate at which nutrients are recycled in the system.
=rocess of cosyste"
colo2ical alance alance of 1ature • iological &roductivity • ,egulation climate •
Cleaning of +ir and Water Cycling of 1utrients Control of potential pest and disease causing species
+ "arming planet thus leads to a change in climate "hich can affect "eather in various "ays! as discussed further belo". lobal +ar"in2 is the rise in the average temperature of arthAs atmosphere and oceans since the late 34th century and its pro#ected continuation. Since the early I6th century! arthAs mean surface temperature has increased by about 6.E UC (3.K U)! "ith about t"o-thirds of the increase occurring since 34E6.
Warming of the climate system is uneuivocal! and scientists are more than 46T certain that it is primarily caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases produced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. $hese findings are recognized by the national science academies of all ma#or industrialized nations. Climate model pro#ections "ere summarized in the I665 ourth +ssessment ,eport (+,K) by the ntergovernmental &anel on Climate Change (&CC). $hey indicated that during the I3st century the global surface temperature is li%ely to rise a further 3.3 to I.4 UC (I to D.I U change) for their lo"est emissions scenario and I.K to H.K UC (K.J to 33.D U change) for their highest. $he ranges of these estimates arise from the use of models "ith differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations. uture climate change and associated impacts "ill vary from region to region around the globe. $he effects of an increase in global temperature include a rise in sea levels and a change in the amount and pattern of precipitation! as "ell a probable e*pansion of subtropical deserts. Warming is e*pected to be strongest in the +rctic and "ould be associated "ith the continuing retreat of glaciers! permafrost and sea ice. Bther li%ely effects of the "arming include a more freuent occurrence of e*treme "eather events including heat "aves! droughts and heavy
rainfall! ocean acidification and species e*tinctions due to shifting temperature regimes. ffects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the loss of habitat from inundation. Carbon dio*ide and other air pollution that is collecting in the atmosphere li%e a thic%ening blan%et! trapping the sunAs heat and causing the planet to "arm up. Coal-burning po"er plants are the largest @.S. source of carbon dio*ide pollution -- they produce I.D billion tons every year. +utomobiles! the second largest source! create nearly 3.D billion tons o f CBI annually. ereAs the good ne"s: technologies e*ist today to ma%e cars that run cleaner and burn less gas! modernize po"er plants and generate electricity from nonpolluting sources! and cut our electricity use through energy efficiency. $he challenge is to be sure these solutions are put to use. Ca!ses of lobal War"in2
lobal "arming is one of the ma#or problems "hich is not divided by the boundaries of various countries. lobal "arming is the hottest topic that anybody learned can relate to. ut for those of you "ho do not understand "hat is lobal Warming! here "e are! it is the rise in the average temperature of the atmosphere of arth (in 2ehman language) and you'll be able to %no" its causes and effects after reading this "rite up. t is important to understand that the conseuences of global "arming are very significant. t must have not escaped or rather cannot escape our notice that devastations li%e tsunami! avalanches! landslides and some other significant changes li%e increasing average temperature across the globe and many more in-direct effects. $he ma#or cause of global "arming is the developing number of industries in developing countries. ut its better not to play the blame game rather #oin hands together and "or% together as one and fight against it so that "e can save our planet from further damage. ,ecognizing the causes of global "arming "ill be the first step for the universal cause.
2reenhose 2ases
reenhouse effect is the process in "hich the atmosphere of the arth trap some of the heat coming from the sun! ma%ing the arth "arm but due to burning fuels! cutting trees! the concentration of heat on arth is increased to abnormal levels ma%ing greenhouse effect as one of the ma#or causes of global "arming. Carbon
of carbon dio*ide and other gases should be maintained so that it does not become the ma#or reason of global "arming. $he build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere during the I6th century has resulted from the gro"ing use of energy and e*pansion of the global economy. Bver the century! industrial activity gre" K6-fold! and the emissions of gases such as carbon dio*ide (CBI) and sulphur dio*ide (SBI) gre" 36-fold. $he amount of CBI in the air increased from some IE6 parts per million by volume (ppmv) at the beginning of the century to JEJ ppmv at the end of I665. $he amount of CB I varies "ithin each year as the result of the annual cycles of photosynthesis and o*idation (see graph). Bf the other greenhouse gases! methane (CK)! "hich is formed by anaerobic decomposition of organic matter! rose from a preindustrial atmospheric concentration of around 566 parts per billion by volume (ppbv) to about 3 5E4 ppbv by I665. Bther important greenhouse gases include the o*ides of nitrogen! notably nitrous o*ide (1BI) and halocarbons! including the chlorofluorocarbons (CCs) and other chlorine and bromine containing compounds. $he build-up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere alters the radiative balance of the atmosphere. $he net effect is to "arm the arthAs surface and the lo"er atmosphere because greenhouse gases absorb some of the arth's outgoing heat radiation and reradiate it bac% to"ards the surface. $he overall "arming from 3ED6 to the end of the I6th century "as euivalent to about I.D W/mIR CBI contributed some H6 per cent of this figure and CK about ID per cent! "ith 1IB and halocarbons providing the remainder. $he "arming effect that "ould result from a doubling of CBI from pre-industrial levels is estimated to be K W/mI. /ir =oll!tion
$he harmful gases emitted from the vehicles and factories and the greenhouse gases cause pollution in the air and these gases get captured in the atmosphere. $he smo%e! gather up in the atmosphere forming clouds full of harmful gases "hich later on fall as acid rain "hich destroys the buildings and also lead to many dangerous diseases li%e cancer! s%in burns and the death of plants. &lants provide us "ith the o*ygen and if they die! the level of carbon dio*ide "ill increase in the atmosphere "hich is a harmful gas. $hese gases also emit heat "hich increases the temperature of the arth (follo"ing the same pattern as in the above paragraph) and causes global "arming. 7
$he ozone layer is the layer outside atmosphere "hich protects the surface of the arth from the harmful @ltra-violet and infrared radiations causing dangerous diseases li%e s%in cancer. Bzone layer depletion is also one of the causes of global "armingR entering of harmful gases "hich
helps in heating up the arth but the other greenhouse gases li%e carbon dio*ide! methane! that helps in heating up and also tears up the ozone layer ma%ing an 8Bzone ole9. 0ostly the CCs (chlorofluorocarbon) damages the ozone layer. So the ozone layer depletes due to these gases "hich allo" the @> radiations to enter the arth ma%ing the arth more "arm than normal and affects the temperature leading to global "arming. t is interesting to note that ;Bzone oles' are created mainly on the poles "hich is the reason of melting glaciers! increase in the "ater level of the sea and of course significant rise in temperature. n 34ED Loe arman! of the ritish +ntarctic Survey! published a paper sho"ing the decline of ozone levels over +ntarctica during the early 34E6s. $he response "as dramatic: large-scale international scientific programmes "ere mounted to prove that CCs (used as aerosol propellants! in industrial cleaning fluids and in refrigeration euipment) "ere the cause of the problem. ven more important "as immediate international action to curb the emissions of CCs. &lummeting ozone levels in the stratosphere over +ntarctica during September and Bctober are the result of comple* chemical processes. $he return of the Sun at the end of "inter triggers photochemical reactions that lead to the destruction of ozone in the stratosphere. $he Bctober values of ozone have declined by up to 56 per cent compared to the pre-ozone hole years! and the size of the ozone hole had gro"n to more than ID million %mI (t"ice the size of +ntarctica) by I666. Bver the +rctic the gradual development of an annual decline during the 3446s is a significant trend. 0ore generally! over northern middle latitudes the concentration of stratospheric ozone has decreased since 3454 by D.K per cent in "inter and spring! and by about I.E per cent in summer and autumn. $here has been no discernible trend in the tropics and subtropics. $he scale and suddenness of the ozone decline shoc%ed the scientific "orld! and led to the 34ED >ienna Convention for the &rotection of the Bzone 2ayer and the 34E5 0ontreal &rotocol and subseuent amendments to eliminate certain CCs from industrial production. +s a result of this rapid action the global consumption of the most active gases fell by K6 per cent "ithin five years and the levels of certain chlorine-containing chemicals in the atmosphere have started to decline. t "ill be decades before the CCs already in the atmosphere fully decay. n the meantime! the substantial destruction of ozone in the stratosphere over +ntarctica during September and Bctober "ill continue. olcanic r!ptions
>olcanic eruptions is also one of the ma#or reason of global "arming. $hese eruptions contain dust particles and gases li%e sulphur dio*ide "hich stay in the atmosphere for years and bloc% the sunlight from reaching the surface of the arth ma%ing it cool. $hese dust particles affects the
balance of the atmosphere and becomes a contributing factor of global "arming. $hough volcanic eruptions cannot be controlled but efforts can be made to decrease the sulphur dio*ide levels. 8eltin2 of t(e laciers
0elting of the glaciers is a natural phenomena. 2arge mountains of ice melt due to "armer temperature of the arth so that ne" ice can accumulate. $hese ice mountains helps to eualize the temperature by beating up the heat. ut there is e*cess melting of the ice due to the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. $hese gases contribute to the melting of the ice at faster rate "hich leads to increased sea levels and eventually floods. f the temperature %ept on rising then there is a chance that glaciers might disappear "hich "ill lead to flooding of earth and destruction of land resources. .eforestation
&lants give us o*ygen "hich is the most important thing for our survival. $hey undergo a process of photosynthesis in "hich they give out o*ygen and ta%e carbon dio*ide. &lants consume the air! sunlight and the carbon dio*ide "e breathe out to ma%e food and o*ygen. So if trees are cut! plants "ill not produce o*ygen and the concentration of carbon dio*ide "ill increase. ncrease of carbon dio*ide in the air is harmful for human beings and also disturbs the "ater cycle and hence the total imbalance of our ecosystem. So being one of the greenhouse gases it "ill lead to global "arming. t's very much li%e not par%ing your car under a tree! the car gets e*cessively heated up! ma%ing it uncomfortable to sit in the vehicle. Ind!strial /d4ance"ent
0ore and more industries and factories are set up in this modern "orld to meet the needs of human beings. $hese big factories need large amount of fuels li%e coal! petroleum for po"er and electricity reuired by the machines to "or%. urning of these fuels releases large amount of carbon dio*ide "hich absorbs the harmful radiations from the sun ma%ing it "arm! hence global "arming. $he smo%e that is produced from these factories is mi*ed "ith the air! ma%ing it harmful for breathing. +s "ritten earlier developing countries are the ma#or contributors to"ards this. Use of C(e"ical ertili
$he use of artificial chemicals for the crops has become one of the reason for global "arming.$hese chemicals are very dangerous not only for arth but also for human beings too. $hese fertilizers are rich in nitrogen o*ide "hich is even more dangerous than carbon dio*ide. $hese o*ides of nitrogen destroys the ozone layer even more faster than any other
greenhouse gas and hence let the harmful ultraviolet rays enter the atmosphere! ma%ing the arth "arm and leading to global "arming. !rnin2 of ossil !els
ossil fuels are burnt on a day-to-day basis and they contain high percentage of carbon! coal and petroleum and many other gases. So burning of these fuels releases large amount of e*tra carbon "hich has been entombed inside the arth millions of years ago. $he carbon that is emitted by burning these fuels is the e*tra carbon "hich is not a part of the cycle. So carbon dio*ide being the greenhouse gas is provided in e*cess in the atmosphere "hich again leads to global "arming. 6!"an /cti4ities
t has been said that human activities are primarily responsible for global "arming. $hese activities are destroying the arth at a faster rate. $he emission of carbon dio*ide from the vehicles! the burning of the fuels! cutting do"n of trees and forest to build buildings and malls! the dumping of trash every"here and not recycling it! e*cessive use of plastics! smo%e from the factories! etcetra. +ll these activities performed by human beings are ma#or factors of the polluted gases in the air and the "arming up of the arth "hich destroys the ecological balance of the nature leading to global "arming. /erosols in t(e /t"osp(ere
+tmospheric aerosols are able to alter climate in t"o important "ays. irst! they scatter and absorb solar and infrared radiation and! second! they may change the microphysical and chemical properties of clouds and possibly their lifetime and e*tent. $he scattering of solar radiation acts to cool the planet! "hile absorption of solar radiation by aerosols "arms the air directly instead of allo"ing sunlight to be absorbed by the surface of the arth. $he human contribution to the amount of aerosols in the atmosphere ta%es many forms.
?atural resources are those material and sustances, 'hich occur naturally in the environment/ ;hey are those resources that are readily and naturally availale on our planet, and can e used in their natural, undistured +orm/ ome o+ the common eamples o+ natural resources include land, 'ater, coal, 'ood, sunlight, and oil/ @ll these resources are distriuted randomly across our planet, o'ing to 'hich, every place has a set o+ its o'n natural resources, 'hich aid in its economic development/ Aecause these resources are randomly distriuted, they are availale in aundance in some places, 'hereas they are +ound in scarcity in some others/ *t is, there+ore, important that people mae proper and sustainale use o+ their natural resources so that they can also e preserved, to some etent, +or posterity/ ?atural resources have een essentially classi.ed into t'o types: ;he non-rene'ale resources are those natural resources, 'hich can e used only once/ ;hey are ehaustile resources, 'hich tend to diminish in quantity, o'ing to their constant usage/ *t is, hence, important to use the non-rene'ale resources 'isely so that 'e do not run out o+ them/ ?on-rene'ale resources include coal, natural gas, petroleum, uranium, etc/ ;he rene'ale resources are those natural resources, 'hich can e naturally restored/ Bhile some o+ these resources are availale in plenty every'here and at all times, lie 'ind, sunlight, etc/, some other rene'ale resources, such as timer and 'ater require time to e replenished/ o, i+ these resources are used up at a +aster pace than the time taen y nature to restore them, even they are prone to getting ehausted/ everal economists o+ the 'orld have oserved that the availaility o+ aundant natural resources, 'hether rene'ale or non-rene'ale, in a particular region, accelerates the economic development therein/ >o'ever, it should e noted that the use and eploitation o+ the natural resources depends on the attitude o+ the people o+ a particular region, and hence, the aove oservation has also een seen to e reversed in some cases/
atral resorces 4 ?atural resources are the resources availale in a nature lie air, 'ater, sunlight, soil, minerals, +orests, 'ild li+e etc/
1atural resources are of t"o main types. $hey are rene"able and non-rene"able natural resources. i Rene+able nat!ral reso!rces :-
$hose resources "hich can be replenished in a short period of time li%e air! "ater! sunlight! forests etc. ii Non-rene+able nat!ral reso!rces :-
$hose resources "hich cannot be replenished in a short period of time li%e minerals (coal! petroleum! natural gas! metals etc.) because they ta%e millions of years to be formed. uman activities produce a lot of "aste materials "hich are thro"n a"ay into the environment. $hese "astes cause pollution of natural resources li%e air! "ater and soil. $he anga +ction &lan or +& "as a program launched by ,a#iv andhi in 34EH in order to reduce the pollution load on the river. 6!"an +aste- domestic usage li%e bathing! laundry and public defecation Ind!strial +aste- dumping untreated "aste into it. Reli2io!s e4ents - aranasi) in the anges "ould give 0o%sha (liberation) to the #iva (soul). T(e T(ree Rs to sa4e t(e en4iron"ent
$he three ,'s to save the environment are ,educe! ,ecycle and ,euse. i Red!ce :- means using less of natural resources and avoiding "astage of natural resources. ii Recycle :- means the materials li%e paper! plastic! glass! metals etc used for ma%ing things can again be used for ma%ing ne" things instead of synthesising or e*tracting ne" paper! plastic! glass or metals. iii Re!se :- means using things again and again li%e the plastic bottles in "hich "e buy #ams! pic%les etc can be again used for storing things in the %itchen. Need for "ana2e"ent of nat!ral reso!rces :-
+ll the things "e use and consume are obtained from natural resources.
iv) While e*tracting and using natural resources "e should also plan for the safe disposal of "astes and avoid pollution so that no damage is caused to the environment. orests :I"portance of forests :-
i) orests help to preserve biodiversity. ii) orests are natural habitats of plants and animals. iii) orests provide timber! "ood! fuel! medicines! fodder! etc. iv) orests help to maintain ecological balance. v) orests help to control climate and rainfall. vi) orests help to prevent soil erosion and controls floods. vii) orests help to maintain the o*ygen=carbon dio*ide balance in nature. orests are Dbiodi4ersity (ot spots
iodiversity measure by = 1umber of species found there. - range of different life forms present. Conservation means- preserve the biodiversity "e have inherited 2oss of diversity may lead to loss of ecological stability. Sta%e holders of forests :&eople "ho are associated "ith forests directly or indirectly are :i) &eople living in and around forests depend on forests for their livelihood. ii) ndustrialists "ho use the ra" materials from forests for manufacturing paper! medicines! furniture etc. iii) orest
iv) 1ature and "ild life organisations "ho "ant to conserve and preserve forests.
Conser4ation of forests :-
orests can be conserved by :i) +fforestation = planting of more trees. ii) &reventing or reducing deforestation. iii) &reventing over grazing by cattle. iv) y setting up "ildlife sanctuaries! national par%s! biosphere reserves etc. v) @nderta%ing social forestry programs li%e >an 0ahotsav! Chip%o movement for planting and protecting trees on a large scale. I"portance of +ildlife :-
i) Wildlife helps to preserve biodiversity. ii) Wildlife helps to maintain food chains and food "eb. iii) We get useful products from "ildlife li%e food! medicines! leather! bones! honey! lac etc. b) Conservation of "ildlife :i) &reserving the natural habitats of animals. ii) anning poaching of animals. iii) &rotecting endangered species of animals. iv) Setting up of "ildlife sanctuaries! national par%s! biosphere reserves etc. T(e acti4ities for reinforcin2 t(e basic role of t(e "ar'et "ec(anis" in t(e nat!ral reso!rce "ana2e"ent are:
•
(a) $o establish and improve a system of property rights for natural resources "hich reuires the separation of o"nership from the rights on e*ploitation! repayable use and transfer of resourcesR (b) $o develop and establish effective and comprehensive planning and management methods for those organizations or institutions responsible for the management of natural resourcesR (c) $o ad#ust the e*isting economic measures and financial incentives including the resource ta*es and subsidies for compensation to ecological environment to meet the ob#ectives of sustainable developmentR (d) $o encourage the development of a ne" mar%et eligible for the sustainable and effective utilization of natural resources to facilitate the development of the sustainable resource industryR (e) $o encourage! study and adopt techniues for ris% assessment! resource pricing and e*ploitation "hich are favourable to the environmentR (f) $o carry out mar%et economy incentives for more efficient control over the natural resources along "ith measures assuring an euitable distribution of resources for the "hole societyR (g) $o establish a system for continuous monitoring of natural resources by the government and social groups! in order to encourage public participation in the activities aimed at the sustainable development of natural resourcesR (h) $o establish sectoral and regional mechanisms for the planning and distribution of natural resources! inter alia a medium and long term mechanism for the distribution of resourcesR (i) $he government "ill develop and implement a family contracting and responsibility system in the areas of e*ploitation and protection of the natural resources other than agriculture for encouraging family creativity and income generationR (#) $o set up a mechanism for the coordination or elimination of discrepancies arising during the implementation of some policies related to the utilization of natural resources.
T(e acti4ities of t(e 2o4ern"ent in t(e area of "acroecono"ic adA!st"ent are: •
(a) $o establish a natural resource management system "hich is suited to the mar%et economyR (b) $o organize comprehensive investigation! e*ploration! planning and utilization of natural resources! and to carry out unified planning including the ive-7ear &lan and the
medium and long-term plans for the management of important resources depending on their scarcity! and the policies governing their useR (c) $o establish a physical account and an account based on the magnitude of value for a variety of natural resources in order to support the creation of an integrated valuing and accounting system (see the programme area < of Chapter K) to supplement or improve the e*isting economic accounting systemR (d) $o allo" the e*change of licensing agreements and responsibility for e*ploitation of resources under the direction or control of the central government e*cept those scarce resources "hich should be %ept under special controlR (e) $o gradually abolish those pricing policies "hich are unfavourable to the sustainable utilization of natural resources and rational use of environmental resources! such as the policy "hich provides subsidies for deforestation! "hich are at a level much lo"er than their production costs! non-repayable e*ploitation of mineral resources and subsidies to the prices for "ater and energyR (f) $o formulate and implement as fast as possible the +ct for Comprehensive @tilization of ,esources and its enacting terms to bring the comprehensive e*ploitation and utilization of natural resources into line "ith the legislative system. T(e acti4ities for !p2radin2 t(e collection of data and infor"ation are: •
(a) $o establish an information system related to the management! protection and rational utilization of natural resources! under the direction of the government and in collaboration "ith the international organizations! enterprises and research institutionsR (b) $o strengthen the analysis! collection and systematic evaluation of materials concerning the environmental! economic! social and legislative aspects of the natural resources at the global! regional! national and local levelsR (c) $o set up a mechanism for the coordination and sharing! bet"een the relevant departments! of e*isting data and information for natural resource management in order to reinforce the capability of the state in data collection! processing and evaluationR (d) $o provide in a simple and clear "ay to people from all "al%s of life the appropriate techniues and economic information suited for activities of policy ma%ing concerning the e*ploitation of resourcesR (e) $o support and encourage the building of lo" cost local data and information systems applicable to natural resources. nternational and regional cooperation. $he Chinese government and its relevant departments "ith the support of the regional and international organizations! are poised to reinforce at the appropriate level! regional cooperation and e*change of materials
concerning the management and protection of natural resources. $he specific activities are: •
(a) $o establish a stable relationship "ith the relevant agencies under the @nited 1ations (@1SCB! +B! @1&! @1<&! W0B and WB)R (b) $o set up plans for materials e*change and personnel training and cooperation "ith the related countries and non-governmental organizationsR (c) $o study the possibility of establishing a relationship in research and development "ith the related countries and non-governmental organizations for #oint investigation of methods and systems for management of natural resources.
UNIT ->
Corporate thics: undamental principles of ethics! >alues concepts! types and formationR principles and concepts of managerial ethicsR relevance of ethics and values in businessR corruption in businessesR values of ndian managersR factors influencing business ethics. Corporate t(ics: $he study of proper business policies and practices regarding potentially controversial issues!
such as corporate governance! insider trading! bribery! discrimination! corporate social responsibility and fiduciary responsibilities. usiness ethics are often guided by la"! "hile other times provide a basic frame"or% that businesses may choose to follo" in order to gain public acceptance. thics involves a discipline that e*amines good or bad practices "ithin the conte*t of a moral duty 0oral conduct is behavior that is right or "rong usiness ethics include practices and behaviors that are good or bad In4entory of t(ical Iss!es in !siness • • •
mployee-mployer ,elations mployer-mployee ,elations Company-Customer ,elations
Company-Shareholder ,elations Company-Community/&ublic nterest T+o Eey ranc(es of t(ics
• •
•
Conventional approach to business ethics involves a comparison of a decision or practice to prevailing societal norms &itfall: et(ical relati4is"
ello" Wor%ers
ello" Wor%ers
amily
,egions of Country &rofession
T(e Indi4id!al
riends
Conscience
$he 2a"
,eligious eliefs
Develo+in/ &oral Jd/ent *ternal !orces o a &ana/ers ales 1/ "/ 3/ !/ 5/
4eligious values Philosophical values 2ultural values Cegal values Pro+essional values
*nternal ources o+ a Danager=s alues 1/ "/ 3/ !/ 5/
4espect +or the authority structure Coyalty 2on+ormity Per+ormance 4esults
mployer Society at 2arge
!nda"ental =rinciples of t(ics 1B Respect for =ersonsB -- ,espect for persons incorporates at least t"o ethical convictions:
first! that individuals should be treated as autonomous agents! and second! that persons "ith diminished autonomy are entitled to protection. $he principle of respect for persons thus divides into t"o separate moral reuirements: the reuirement to ac%no"ledge autonomy and the reuirement to protect those "ith diminished autonomy. n most cases of research involving human sub#ects! respect for persons demands that sub#ects enter into the research voluntarily and "ith adeuate information. $o respect autonomy is to give "eight to autonomous personsA considered opinions and choices "hile refraining from obstructing their actions unless they are clearly detrimental to others. ,espect for the immature and the incapacitated may reuire protecting them as they mature or "hile they are incapacitated.Some persons are in need of e*tensive protection. $he e*tent of protection afforded should depend upon the ris% of harm and the li%elihood of benefit. $he #udgment that any individual lac%s autonomy should be periodically reevaluated and "ill vary in different situations.
B eneficenceB -- &ersons are treated in an ethical manner not only by respecting their
decisions and protecting them from harm! but also by ma%ing efforts to secure their "ell being. Such treatment falls under the principle of beneficence. $"o general rules have been formulated as complementary e*pressions of beneficent actions in this sense: (3) do not harm and (I) ma*imize possible benefits and minimize possible harms. +s "ith all hard cases! the different claims covered by the principle of beneficence may come into conflict and force difficult choices. 3B F!sticeB -- Who ought to receive the benefits of research and bear its burdensF $his is a uestion of #ustice! in the sense of 8fairness in distribution9 or 8"hat is deserved.9 +n in#ustice occurs "hen some benefit to "hich a person is entitled is denied "ithout good reason or "hen some burden is imposed unduly. +nother "ay of conceiving the principle of #ustice is that euals ought to be treated eually. >B / A!st distrib!tion of G!ality of lifeB 0a*imize the ualities of life (values of "ell being) of all sentient beings! giving a strong priority on increasing the lo"est values of "ell being. .e. ma*imize the ualities of life of the "orst off individuals! unless this is at the e*pense of much more "ell-being of others. Sentient beings are all beings "ho have a functioning comple* nervous system (they developed the capacity to feel and have not yet permanently lost this capacity). 5B T(e basic ri2(t of li4in2 bein2s (plants and all beings "ith comple* interests! such as staying alive). 1ever allo" (or strongly minimize) the %illing or in#uring of non-sentient living beings for lu*ury needs. specially don't %ill a living being to manipulate your social status (fashion! status consumption! commercial advertisements). We are allo"ed to use plants for basic needs (sharing %no"ledge!V). $B T(e basic ri2(t of sentient bein2s (beings "ith comple* interests and the capacity to sub#ectively e*perience their needs). 1ever allo" (or strongly minimize) the use of sentient beings as merely means to someone else's ends (including both lu*ury! basic and vital needs). We should not treat someone as property or violate its bodily integrity or freedom "ithout permission in order to achieve a goal. Bne e*ception: sentient beings "ho became dependent (by evolution) on other animals in order to survive! are allo"ed to hunt for their vital needs! until feasible alternatives e*ist (but "e are allo"ed to defend the prey! if "e feel compassion).
&B T(e intrinsic 4al!e of biodi4ersityB &rotect the biodiversity! because the biodiversity for
ecosystems is analogous to "ell-being for sentient beings: both are intrinsically valuable properties of an entity (ecosystem! sentient being) that is uniue and irreplaceable. )B Restorati4e A!sticeB Strive for reconciliation! forgiveness! non-violence! and moral gro"th! instead of retributions and punishment. 9B Uni4ersal lo4eB
'heoies o thics 1/ Conse8entialis maintains that the maEority o+ an action depends on the nonmoral consequences that the action rings aout/ Dorality o+ an action consists o+the ratio o+ good to evil that theaction produces/ Be should per+orm right and only right action in terms o+ good and evil, as each individual de.nes good and evil, and right and 'rong/ ;here is no oEective right and 'rong or good and evil/ ;he person de.nes these/ Fou ump into a
car at the mall/ Fou could leave a note, ut since there 'ere no 'itnesses and the o'ner is not around, you decide not to ecause you recogni
'e do 'hat is right and trust Iod or +ate or destiny or the +orces o+ good to 'or things out/ ;here is no personal responsiility +or the consequences o+ morally right acts/ Be do them, not ecause they ring us pleasure, ut ecause they are JrightK///this is called the Jcategorical imperativeK/ @ madman sho's up at your door 'ith a 'eapon raving, asing 'here your loved one is, that he intends to ill the person/ Fou ans'er truth+ully ecause it 'ould e 'rong to lie/ Fou trust that since you have told the truth, things 'ill 'or out/ Perhaps the neighors have called the police, or someone 'ill intervene, or something 'ill happen/ 5/ !itation *thics: sho's that since legalistic Doralism is encumered 'ith a undleo+ predetermined rules and regulations and 'hile antinomianism says that there are noasolutes, then decision maing must e ased on a Jmiddle groundK/ ;hat middle ground then says the guidelines +or decision - maing must e 1 asolute love (agape " general guidelines o+ help+ulness (sophia 3 particular moment (airos/ Cove and Eustice are the same/ *+ love is t he end result, then the ends Eusti.es the means/ ;his is not a sel.sh love, ut a love that desires the neighor=s est good at all times/ ;here are +our 'oring principles involved G a Pragmatism (love gives concrete practical, 'orale ans'ers 4elativism (everything is relative to love c 7motivism (each person desires his or her o'n values and d Personalism (persons are the ultimate value/ @ man .nds himsel+ in an un+ul.lled marriage, looing +or a person 'ith 'hom he can deeply connect/ @ 'oman is trapped in a marriage that is ausive and .lled 'ith pain/ ;hey .nd each other and a+ter a 'hile one things lead to another until they are in love/ Cove eing the ultimate goal, they eing consenting adults, then they are morally right in having an a6air/ / *thical .ealis (as espoused y 4einhold ?eiuhr(the lesser o+ t'o evils states that 'hen asolute norms come into con8ict (as they 'ill eventually do one must decide 'hich to +ollo'/ 7ach solution o6ers limited alternatives, so the solution 'hich produces the less o+ t'o evils is the one to e chosen/ Hnavoidale moral dilemmas occur ecause our 'orld is not per+ect/ ?eiuhr=s theory, ;he rigin o+ Doral ilemma, comes +rom a 2hristian perspective stating that 'e live in a J+allenK 'orld since sin entered it/ ;hus there is an ecusale and pardonale sin ecause people did not cause that dilemma y their o'n acts/ 7very decision 'ill have some sin+ul consequence o+ 'hich Iod 'ill +orgive/ ;hus people must mae the choice that is the lesser sin and then as Iod=s +orgiveness/ ?eiuhr taled o+ a 'orld/ Bar/ ;he oviet Hnion 'as an evil and rutish dictatorship over millions o+ people, +orcing them into horri.c, hellish conditions/ Fet to oppose them in an outright 'ar 'ould ring ma ssive destruction through nuclear 'eapons/ *nstead o+ direct opposition, 'e chose indirect opposition (the cold 'ar through economics and alternative means/ #/ *thical ;ierarcicalis (Iraded @solutism is the vie' that there are many universal norms, ut they are not all intrinsically equal/ ;hus 'hen a con8ict
taes place, 'e must oey the JhigherK norm///'e choose the greater o+ the t'o goods/ Ieisler >ierarchical 2alculus is: LPersons are more valuale than things LIod is more valuale than an incomplete person L@ complete person is more valuale than an incomplete person L@n actual person is more valuale than a potential person LPotential persons are more valuale than actual things (+etus vsappendage LDan persons are more valuale than a +e' persons LPersonal acts 'hich promote personhood are etter than those 'hich don=tBhy should a person e held responsile +or committing a crime i+ the crime 'asa lesser normM *s it 'rong +or a man to steal money to purchase a li+e-saving machine +orhis child 'ho is dyingM Perhaps the system is at +ault and not the person/
< $rinci+le *thics states : that principles are merely value states or guidelines toactions (as opposed to rules or la's/ ;hus 'hen principles encounter each other incon8ict it is not a con8ict o+ norms, ut rather an eercise in reasoning and logic/ Principle ethics is the most diNcult to study ecause it demands the area test study and the most incisive analysis o+ principles and cases 'ith the goal o+ determining 'hich principles apply to 'hich case/ ;he decision that is made is ased upon test o8ogic, reasoning, and rationale/ 9< Co/nitive &oral Develo+ent : (as espoused y Ca'rence Oohlerg states that ethics education is possile/ ust as people develop mentally, physically, and emotionally, they develop a moral cogni
