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Introduction to Formal Style of Writing Style and clarity What does style and clarity in academic writing involve?
precise use of formal language
impersonal style
clearly constructed sentences
care with abbreviations and acronyms
logical and systematic development of ideas.
Formal language When writing or speaking, we choose the words which seem most suitable to the purpose and audience. In academic writing we use formal language, avoiding the use of slang and colloquial language.
Try to learn a range of appropriate language for expressing your opinions and referring to those of others.
Some of the language in the following examples is more appropriate for speaking than writing. Identify which expressions are too informal.
1. When I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, it's hard not to w about how many doctors will be available to treat patients in the future. 2. If we consider the situation in emergency wards, with increasingly low staff retention rates there are concerns about the capacity of hospitals to maintain adequate doctor to patien ratios. 3. It's so obvious that people were given jobs just because they were male or female. I don't think that is an acceptable approach approach and is even against the law. 4. It appears that in a number of instances jobs were assigned on the basis of gender. Given current anti-discrimination laws, this raises seriousRead concerns. Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title
Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Useful Not useful In contrast to spoken English, a distinctive feature of academic writing style is for writers to choos Cancel anytime.
Special offer formore students: Onlyalternative $4.99/month. formal when selecting a verb, noun, or other part of speech.
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Exercise 1
Rewrite the sentences in a more academic style using verbs from the list below. Note that you ma need to change the verb tense. investigate assist raise discover establish increase eliminate
1. Systems analysts can help out managers in many different ways.
2. This program was set up to improve access to medical care.
Reading Preview 3. Medical research expenditureYou're has gone up to a nearly $350 million. Unlock full access with a free trial.
Download With Free Trial 4. Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects.
Master your semester Scribd 5. Exercise alone willwith not get rid of medical problems related to blood pressure. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times Useful Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
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Impersonal style Compare the changes in these sentences from informal to academic style. Comparison of sentences from informal writing to academic writing
Informal writing
Academic writing
When I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, it's hard not to worry about how many doctors will be available
to treat patients in the future. It's so obvious that people were given jobs just because they were male or female, don't think that is an acceptable approach and is even
against the law.
You will notice that, in general, in academic writing we:
minimise the use of the personal I in the text: avoid writing 'When I look; I don't think this acceptable approach' use formal verbs, and fewer verb phrases (verb + preposition), use consider rather You're Reading a Preview than look at access withraises a free trial. use impersonal expressions: Unlock , this there full are… use more nouns than verbs: concerns , rather than to worry avoid emotional expressions,Download such as it's so obvious ( it appears is preferable); just With Free Trial because ( assigned on the basis of is preferable) aim for concise, often abstract expression, gender , rather than male or female.
Objective writing
In general, academic writing aims to be objective in its expression of ideas. Therefore Master your specific semester with Scribd reference to personal opinions, or to yourself as the performer of actions, is usua Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title avoided. & The New York Times Useful Not useful
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Avoiding too much reference to yourself as agent in your writing
Avoid reference to yourself as agent in your writing
Agent or performer
No agent or performer
I undertook the study…
The study was undertaken…
I propose to …
It is proposed to…
In this essay I will examine… This essay examines…
There are times when it is important to emphasise authorial stance – ie that it is specifically y o u r position o r view. Check with your tutor in the unit as to how much of y o u r s e l f as the author it is appropriate to acknowledge and include in your writing.
Clear sentences
For clarity, it is also important to keep a check on sentence length. If sentences are too short, you writing will sound childish; if they are too long, the reader will lose track. Sentence length – not too long and not too shorta Preview You're Reading
Unlock full access with a free trial.remain clear and effective. Some Note: A skilful writer can produce much longer sentences which
topics and some tasks may tend to require longer sentences. What is important is not that you co up every sentence, but that you think about sentence length when writing, monitor your own writin Download With Free Trial ensure that the meaning is always as clear as possible, and explore opportunities to vary sentenc length when appropriate. Short sentences aid coherence, whilst longer sentences aid cohesion. Look at the three texts below, all on the sa me topic. Which is the best text? Which is worst text? Why?
Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified which included a first dog that & The New York Times Useful Not useful an unusual deformity secondary to premature closure of the distal ulnar physis and a second dog Cancel anytime.
Special offer forhad students: Only $4.99/month. a hypertrophic nonunion of the femur, and the radius and femur of both dogs were harvested
cleaned of soft tissues.
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Text 3
Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified. The first dog had an unusual deformity secondary to premature closure of the distal ulnar physis; the second, a hypertrophic nonunion of the femur. The radius and femur of both dogs were harvested and cleaned of soft tiss (46 words; average 15.3 words per sentence) What are the problems with each text? You can tick more than one. Text 1
Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified which included a first dog that an unusual deformity secondary to premature closure of the distal ulnar physis and a second dog had a hypertrophic nonunion of the femur, and the radius and femur of both dogs were harvested cleaned of soft tissues.
What are the problems with Text 1?
Your answer: sentence too long too complicated unclear what 'which' refers to Reading a Preview You're the and' in bold doesn't express a logical connection Unlock full access with a free trial. unconnected sentences
Download With Free Trial
not clear what 'it' and 'they' refer to theme of paragraph not clear
Master your semester with Scribd Text 2York Times & The New Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.
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Not useful Cancel anytime.
Useful
Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified. The first dog had an unusual
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unconnected sentences not clear what 'it' and 'they' refer to theme of paragraph not clear
Text 3
Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified. The first dog had an unusual deformity secondary to premature closure of the distal ulnar physis; the second, a hypertrophic nonunion of the femur. The radius and femur of both dogs were harvested and cleaned of soft tiss Adapted from Matthews, J., Bowen, J. & Matthews, R. (1996) Successful scientific writing, CUP, Cambridge.
Use of acronyms and abbreviations
Explain any terminology which you think may not be familiar to the reader – or which they may no necessarily know you know. Always write a long name in full the first time you use it, regardless of how well known it is.
You're Reading a Preview For example
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The World Health Organisation (WHO) is affiliated with the United Nations (UN). The UN provides funds which help theDownload WHO perform roleTrial effectively. WithitsFree
Research into weapons of mass destruction (WMD) has increased the potential risks from bioterrorism. Agencies involved in the development of WMD have on occasion failed to maintain adequate levels of security, and this has led to potentially hazardous materials fa into the wrong hands.
should generally be avoided. However, it is appropriate to use standard abbreviatio Master Abbreviations your semester with Scribd sometimes in scientific writing. For the first reference to a term in the text, the term should be use Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign of up to vote title full with the abbreviation included in brackets. For the remainder the text the abbreviation shou & The New York Times Not useful used. However, abbreviations should not be used in the abstract or in the Useful title. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. For example
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Avoid abbreviations in academic writing
Full form
Contraction
do not
don't
cannot
can't
will not
won't
must not
mustn't
he would
he'd
Logical development of ideas You're Reading a Preview Coherence
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In writing which is coherent the ideas are expressed clearly and logically, and supported with rea and examples. These factors make it easy for theWith reader to follow Download Free Trial the argument and intentions of writer. Cohesion
In writing which is cohesive , the writing flows, and is linked together well at the:
Master your sentence semester with Scribd level paragraph level & The New York Times whole text level.
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Some features of cohesive writing are:
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Not useful Cancel anytime.
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Logical presentation of sections and paragraphs.
Organisation in academic writing involves putting yourself in the reader's position and thinking abo what is the best order and presentation for your work to make sense to them. Once you have thou about this, you need to signal to your reader throughout your piece – not just what you are saying but what you are doing. This enables them to see where you are going, follow your direction, and therefore be more sympathetic to your writing.
To keep your reader on your side, you also need to follow carefully the specific format and particu application of academic conventions for your subject which you will find set out in your unit guide.
For structure of particular types of assignments, look at the features of these sample assignments in Writing for Subjects.
Structuring an argument for English Structuring for Philosophy Structuring an argument for Sociology Report Writing Case Study Report Structure in Marketing Writing Technical Reports for Engineering Report Structure for Business Systems data analysis The Lab Report for Science
Writing effective paragraphs You're Reading a Preview
Unlock full accessparagraphing. with a free trial. Basically, when you start a n An important key to good essay writing is effective idea, you should start a new paragraph. A paragraph is '…a self -contained expression of a single main idea.' (Higgs et al 2005:49)
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A paragraph generally consists of 3 parts:
1. topic sentence not just mentioning the topic but presenting the controlling idea (what you are say o about the topic) 2. supporting sentences Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 3. concluding sentence ('clincher').
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Following the onset of his heart condition, Eric became aware of the need to modify his lifestyle. particular he realized that he had to reduce his consumption of alcohol, as he was previously a he drinker.
Eric did a very stressful job, so occupation was also a significant factor affecting his health. He wo long hours and describes his job at that time as extremely demanding.
Read the text below. Notice how the first paragraph introduces the broad theme for the section, and the topic sentence in the second paragraph continues that theme.
Patient self care, lifestyle and stress There are a number of lifestyle factors that have an effect on the health of an individual, particularly when suffering from a heart condition. These include diet, exercise, social habits,
occupation and stress levels. In Eric's case, his social habits were particularly significant, as prior the onset of his condition he was accustomed to spending almost every night at his local hotel. In typical night he would consume several alcoholic drinks and smoke a number of cigarettes. At doctor's advice, he has now modified this behaviour, and only visits his local hotel once a week. Another significant lifestyle factor affecting patients with heart conditions is occupation. Clearly problems can arise where an individual with a heart condition has a high
pressure, stressful occupation. At the time of his first heart failure, Eric was working as an editor o national newspaper. He worked long hours, did shift work, had irregular meal breaks and sometim worked to very tight deadlines. In his own words, his job had 'an adverse effect' on his health – a significant cause of stress in his life at that time.
You're Reading a Preview Although it is not possible to have a firm rule on the ideal length of a paragraph, what in yo view is a reasonable range to aim for in terms of the number of sentences? Unlock full access with a free trial.
Exercise
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Choose a text that you have written previously, and examine your writing, focusing on the paragraphing. Are your paragraphs of a reasonable length, or are they tending to be too long or to short? Do your paragraphs have effective topic sentences? Note your writing style and what modifications you need to make to produce more effective paragraphs.
Signposts Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Imagine trying to find your way around a new city if there were no street signs traffic signs. In & The New York Times useful Useful Notor academic writing, signposts are very important. In a longer essay, it is not sufficient to simply outl Cancel anytime.
Special offer forthe students: Onlyessay $4.99/month. intended structure in the introduction – you need 'signposts' throughout the essay to rem
the reader where he has come from and to tell him where you plan to go next. Signposts can take
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To this point the focus has been on the potential health benefits of genetic modification of foods, particularly in addressing specific dietary deficiencies. However, it is important to recognize that genetic modification is not always motivated by a desire to address health issues. I will ther now consider some examples of genetic modification which appear driven more by marketing tha
health considerations. Example 3
In the above discussion several advantages of the proposed new surgical techniques have been considered. It is important however to also examine some potential disadvantages. In terms of patient recovery times, for instance, there are real concerns regarding… Example 4
Clearly bioterrorism presents a number of serious challenges for law enforcement agencies in Australia, and these have been outlined above . However, dealing with bioterrorism is even mor complex in regions where the impact may affect populations in several countries at once. This requires agreements on jurisdiction and a high level of cooperation between enforcement agencie from the different countries. Issues related to this situation will now be considered, with a foc on Western Europe.
Reminders Often in discussing a particular point within an essay we list several factors, sometimes using 'sequence markers' ( Firstly , Secondly, Thirdly). If there are a number of factors to consider, it useful to remind the reader of the point to which they relate. In the examples below the particular You're Reading a Preview is underlined. Unlock full access with a free trial.
Firstly,…
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Secondly,… A third factor in healthy liver function is… You will notice this involveswith a linkingScribd word or phrase + restatement of particular or central point. Master your semester Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title If thereYork are several factors then a suitable phrase can be used introduce additional & The New Times Useful useful ones: to Not
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An analytical approach
By setting essays as an important mode of assessment, universities are not simply aiming to asse the ability of students to understand and recall information. Essay tasks are intended to assess yo ability to:
analyse concepts and arguments
synthesise ideas and evidence drawn from different sources
construct consistent and well-supported arguments
discuss an issue in a balanced way
evaluate the ideas and arguments of others
makejudgements and express informed opinion .
Lecturers often complain that students tend to write essays which demonstrate lower level thinkin skills, whereas what they are seeking is evidence of more complex thought.
Cognitive level of your response From simplest to most difficult, the six key 'cognitive domains' (or thought processes) are: 1. recall 2. comprehension 3. application 4. analysis 5. synthesis 6. evaluation.
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With or Free Trial key facts, or only outline the It is important that your essays do notDownload simply describe reproduce perspectives of various writers, but that they go beyond that, introducing elements of analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
What you need to do
When you plan an essay, and as you are in the process of writing an essay, check whether Master your semester with Scribd you a Read Free For 30this Days Sign up to vote on title addressing levels 4 to 6, or only the first 2 or 3 of the 'cognitive domains' listed above. & The New York Times Useful Not useful Cancel anytime.
Special offer for Adapted students:from OnlyGreentham, $4.99/month.B 2001, How to write better essays, Palgrave, Houndmills, pp. 63-64.
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