Paleontology Lecture Notes

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Paleontology Lecture Notes Uploaded by Mussawer Hasnain

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Ge2211 -Environmental dsds Science&Engineering

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I. Tales Told by the Dead A. Paleontology - study of ancient life Fossil = any evidence of prehistoric life 1. Paleozoology - study of fossil animals a. Invertebrate paleontology - study of fossil invertebrates (animals without a vertebral column) b. Vertebrate paleontology - study of fossil vertebrates (animals with a vertebral column) 2. Paleobotany - study of fossil plants a. Palynology - study of pollen and spores (some also include marine one celled "plants"; acritarchs, dinoflagellates, tasmanites, silicoflagellates, diatoms, ebridians, calcareous nannoplankton/coccoliths) 3. Micropaleontology - study of small fossils (includes many groups mentioned under palynology and also foraminifera, radiolaria, chitinozoa, graptolites, pteropods (gastropods), ostracods (crustaceans), conodonts B. Objectives of the paleontologist 1. Identification 2. Determine Form (= Morphology) and Function Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  3. Association of plants and animals and environmental reconstruction (paleoecology) & The New York Times useful  Useful  Not Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

4. Evolution in Various Organisms

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2. Presence of hard parts

3. Avoid chemical and physical destruction - rapid burial, typically within a relatively low energy depositional environment - preservation depends on Eh/pH environment; plants often preserved within acidic and reduc conditions; calcareous shells and bones typically within non-acidic D. Types of Hard Parts 1. Plants a. Cellulose - fibrous polysaccharide forming cell walls b. Lignin Lignin - complex polymer binding cellulose fibers 2. Invertebrates a. Organic Compounds include:

a1. Chitin = nitrogen-containing nitrogen-containin g polysaccharide (carbohydrate) forming fibrous molecules Ex. = arthropods

a2. Scleroproteins = fibrous proteins such as collagen (Ex. = graptolites) and conchiolin (E molluscs) b. Minerals include:

b1. Calcium carbonate = forms intergrowth of crystals in an organic matrix; includes calci  (Ex. = echinoderms) and aragonite (Ex. = some molluscs; aragonite is a chemically-unstable Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  mineral and typically recrystallizes to calcite)


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b2. Opaline silica = often occurs as spicules (discrete parts; Ex. = some sponges) or forms

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2. Presence of hard parts

3. Avoid chemical and physical destruction - rapid burial, typically within a relatively low energy depositional environment - preservation depends on Eh/pH environment; plants often preserved within acidic and reduc conditions; calcareous shells and bones typically within non-acidic D. Types of Hard Parts 1. Plants a. Cellulose - fibrous polysaccharide forming cell walls b. Lignin Lignin - complex polymer binding cellulose fibers 2. Invertebrates a. Organic Compounds include:

a1. Chitin = nitrogen-containing nitrogen-containin g polysaccharide (carbohydrate) forming fibrous molecules Ex. = arthropods

a2. Scleroproteins = fibrous proteins such as collagen (Ex. = graptolites) and conchiolin (E molluscs) b. Minerals include:

b1. Calcium carbonate = forms intergrowth of crystals in an organic matrix; includes calci  (Ex. = echinoderms) and aragonite (Ex. = some molluscs; aragonite is a chemically-unstable Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  mineral and typically recrystallizes to calcite)


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b2. Opaline silica = often occurs as spicules (discrete parts; Ex. = some sponges) or forms

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E. Types of Fossil Preservation 1. Unaltered

a.Unaltered Soft Parts - unstable organic compounds such as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen - rarely preserved; sometimes within permafrost (Ex. = mammoths) or glaciers, mummificati in dry caves (ground sloths), tanning by humic acids in peat (Ex. = "bog people"), within anaerobic aqueous environments (such as the "limnic stagnation deposits" in the Eocene Ger Ge "brown coal" at Messel), within oil seeps, and in amber

b. Unaltered Hard parts (Durapartic Preservation) - preserve original calcium carbonate or calcium phosphate "hard parts" such as bone (ex. = L Brea tar pits, California), shells, "coralline" algae; relatively rare 2. Altered - more typical case. a. Petrification includes:

a1. Cellular Permineralization (Impregnation) = percolating groundwater introduces miner (ex. = silicates, carbonates, iron compounds, phosphates) into the pore spaces (especially permineralize calcareous shells with calcite; also wood and bone often permineralized)

Coal Balls = permineralize uncompacted peat with calcium carbonate; especially important f Carboniferous plant studies from bituminous coal beds

a2. Recrystallization = change form and/or size of original crystal structure; Ex. Ex. = convers of aragonite to calcite often destroys fossil detail

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title a3. Replacement = percolating ground water dissolves hard parts and replaces them with & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  different minerals; Minerals involved include carbonates, silicates, iron oxides such as hemat Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

and "limonite", pyrite, and collophane

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Mold - impression of skeletal (or skin) remains in an adjoining rock External mold = impression of outer side Internal mold (steinkern) = impression shows form or markings of inner surface Cast - original skeletal material dissolves and cavity (mold) fills with material Endocast- natural infilling of cranial cavity (may study brain evolution in fossil mammals)

b. Ichnology - study of trace fossils (Ichnofossils = tracks, trails and burrows of organisms) c. Coprolites - fossil excrement of animals; may contain undigested remains of food F. Pseudofossils - many rocks and rock structures look like fossils, but aren't! - the following represent a few sedimentary features that may be confused for fossils: 1. Differential Weathering - weathering of rock and mineral surfaces often yield fossil-looking features

You're Reading a Preview 2. Nodules Unlockand full access with a free trial. - formed by filling voids in the sediment incorporation of sedimentary materials within th sedimentary body Download With Free Trial a. Chert Nodules - microcrystalline quartz; typically found along bedding planes in limestone b. Septaria - large nodules with radial and concentric cracks in their centers Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

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weathering of the septaria

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II. Rocks, Fossils and Ages

A. Biases of the Fossil Record - certain environments and processes preferentially preserve fossils; collecting techniques are also biased 1. Hard Parts - soft-bodied organisms rarely fossilize 2. Preferential environments - those with rapid burial

a. Aquatic environments preferentially preserved; especially shallow waters of continental margins and inland seas, deltas, lagoons, rivers (especially floodplains), coal swamps and lak - typically lower-energy (finer grain size) environments with best preservation; Ex. = limesto shale, siltstone, chert b. caves and fissure fillings also good for preservation

You're Reading a Preview c. Konservat-Lagerst ätten Unlock full access with a free trial. - fossil localities exhibiting exceptional preservation - fossilization often takes place under anaerobic conditions and/or within fine-grained sedime - some examples include the BurgessDownload Shale (Cambrian; With FreeBritish Trial Columbia, Canada), Mazon Creek (Pennsylvanian; Illinois), Solnhofen Limestone (Jurassic; Germany), Messel (Eocene; Germany) and La Brea (Pleistocene; California) 3. Preservational Biases - most fossils are known from species that were common, widespread and long-lived Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

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b. Lithostratigraphy - correlation based on rocks Correlation is often Accomplished by Use of: b1. Key (Marker) Beds - distinctive bed which is nearly the same age everywhere; Exs. volcanic ash, tillite

b2. Unconformities - deposits resting on unconformities (erosional surfaces) are of simila age; often "global" unconformities are due to marine regressions [Eustatic (worldwide) lower of sea level]; unconformities can be located in subsurface by seismic surveys c. Formal Lithostratigraphic Units - rock-stratigraphic units

c1. Formation - fundamental rock-stratigraphic unit; with mappability and lithologic const c2. Member - subdivision of formation; may be mapped locally c3. Group - contains several formations united on basis of similar characteristics

You're Reading a Preview c4. Supergroup - composed of several groups Unlock full access with a free trial.

2. Absolute (Actual) Dating Techniques - yields dates in years Download With Free Trial a. Radioactivity

a1. Isotopes - forms of an element with same number of protons, different numbers of neut

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  a2. Radioactive Decay - atoms change to another element by releasing subatomic particles & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  energy; parent isotope decays to daughter isotope at a constant rate Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Gigannum (plural = Giganna; giga an) = Ga = billions of years in the radioisotopic time scale b. Magnetic Stratigraphy b1. Earth's Magnetic Field due to motions of liquid, iron-rich outer core (behaves like bar magnet with north and south pole)

b2. Magnetic Reversal - reversal of polarity in earth's magnetic field; is recorded in iron-ri igneous and sedimentary rocks (Normal Interval = polarity same as todays; Reversed Polarity polarity opposite to todays)

b3. have constructed Paleomagnetic Polarity Scale based on magnetic reversals and "tied" absolute dates (Ex. = Text, p. 34) Chrons = larger intervals defined by magnetic stratigraphy 3. Chronostratigraphic Units - body of rock representing a particular interval of time Time Unit Eon Era Period Epoch Age

Chronostratigraphic Unit Eonathem You're Reading a Preview Erathem Unlock full access with a free trial. System Series Stage Download With Free Trial

D. Geologic Time Scale - learn Time Scale (Last Page of Lecture Notes)

Master your semester with Scribd E. Biostratigraphy ("Stratigraphic Paleontology") & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

1. Biostratigraphic distributions are controlled by:

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- often use fossils for Correlation (matching stratigraphic sections of the same age)

a. First appearances of fossils may be due to 1) evolutionary first occurrence 2) immigratio FAD = First appearance datum FOD = First occurrence datum b. Last appearance of fossils may be due to 1) extinction event 2) emigration LAD = Last appearance datum LOD = Last occurrence datum

c. Biozone - basic unit of biostratigraphic classification - based on the distribution of Index Fossils (fossils characteristic of key formations; should h short time span, wide geographic range, independent as possible of facies, abundant, rapidly changing and with distinctive morphology) Types of Biozones Include: c1. Assemblage Zones - strata grouped together on the basis of an assemblage of forms Oppel Zone - interval of common occurrences of all or a specified portion of the taxa

You're Reading a Preview Mammal age - geochronologic unit based on an association of fossil mammals considered to Unlock full access with a freefor trial.correlating Cenozoic fossil represent a particular interval of geologic time; important vertebrate faunas worldwide Download With Free Trial c2. Range Zones - plot stratigraphic range of fossil(s) Teilzone = partial, local range zone

Master your semester with Scribd Taxon Range Zone (Acrozone) - total horizontal and vertical range of a taxon Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Concurrent range zone - overlapping ranges of specified taxa Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- Taxon and Concurrent Range Zones are most important range zones

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- most important include foraminiferans, radiolarians, palynomorphs (pollen, spores, dinoflagellates, acritarchs, calcareous nannoplankton), conodonts 4. Quantitative Biostratigraphy - use statistics to compare the degree of similarity between fossil faunas - use Similarity Coefficients including: a. Simpson Coefficient = C/(N 1+N2) b. Jaccard Coefficient = C/(N 1+N2-C) c. Dice Coefficient = 2C/(N 1+N2) d. Otsuka Coefficient = C/square root of N 1N2 WHERE: C = number of items in common N1 = number of species in the smaller sample N2 = number of species in the larger sample

You're Readingfrom a Preview The larger the values of the coefficients calculated two faunas when compared, the clos age they are considered to be. But itUnlock is difficult towith correlate quantitatively without determinin full access a free trial. the relative value of the index fossils! Download With Free Trial III. Continents Have Moved and Climates Have Changed A. Paleobiogeography - study of the ancient geographic distribution of organisms Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

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a. Barriers to organism dispersal - include physical barriers (Ex. = land and water barriers)

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c. Faunal Province - between 50% and 25% endemics d. Faunal Subprovince - less than 25% endemics - these classifications not typically used for fossil assemblages 3. Influences of Plate Tectonics - one of major pieces of evidence for the presence of supercontinents was the common distribution of plants (EX.= Glossopteris flora) and animals (the aquatic reptile Mesosaurus the "Gondwana continent" a. Closing Oceans - convergent plate margins often cause greater similarity of organisms

b. Opening Oceans - continental fragmentation often leads to fragmentation of ranges of organisms and increasin evolutionary dissimilarity through time

c. Accreted Terrains - accreted (suspect) terrains are caused where microcontinents suture to other continental plat You're Reading a Preview - individual accreted terrains are often recognized by their distinctive (exotic) fossil faunas Unlock full access with a free trial.

d. Vicariance Biogeography - modern distribution of organisms isDownload largely due to "vicariating" (fragmenting) the ranges of With Free Trial organisms (due to plate tectonics, ice ages, etc.) B. Paleoecology

Master your semester Scribd  1. Ecology - study of thewith factors that govern the distribution and abundance of organisms Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  2. Paleoecology - the relationships between species represented in the fossil record and the Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

environments in which they inhabited

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a3. Biological Processes - examples include destruction of hard parts by scavengers, and breakdown of skeletons by th action of organisms (boring algae and sponges, etc.)

b. Taphonomic Biases - certain environments and taphonomic processes preferentially pres fossils; collecting techniques are also biased b1. Preferential environments - Aquatic environments preferentially preserve fossils b2. Preservational Biases - most fossils are known from species that were common, widespread and long-lived

b3. Time Averaging - fossil assemblages will be less similar to the living community the greater the temporal variation of the living community and the longer the time averaged in th fossil assemblage

b4. Collecting Biases - best fossil hunting where rocks and sediments are exposed; can biases by bulk collecting matrix and estimating proportions of fossils by constructing quadran or line transects You're Reading a Preview

full access with trial. c. Size Distribution - often fossils Unlock are size-sorted duea free to current action; Micromorph Faunas consist of unusually small individuals of species whose size is due to unusual environmental factors Download With Free Trial

4. Sedimentary Environments - portion of the earth's surface with distinctive physical, chem and biological characteristics

Master your semester with Scribd a. Facies -body of sediment or rocks with distinctive characteristics Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Facies Models - summary of specific sedimentary environments & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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b. Walther's Law - the vertical sequence of rocks may reflect the horizontal succession of

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c. Ecologic Community - populations of several species living together in a habitat - paleontologists do not observe fossil communities ("paleocommunities"); what they observ assemblages of fossils (fossils that occur together repeatedly define fossils assemblages) c1. Ecosystem - organisms and their physical environments Fauna - animals of an ecosystem Flora - plants of an ecosystem Biota = flora + fauna

c2. Diversity - number of species that live together in a community; tropical climates contain more diverse plant and animal communities Diversity = number of species/number of specimens c3. Food chains - sequence of nutritional steps in an ecosystem

Trophic Level - position in food chain; organisms from lower trophic levels have more poten You're Reading a Preview for fossilization than those from higher trophic levels (because organisms from lower trophic Unlock full access with a free trial. levels are more numerous)

c4. Food webs - nutritional structure of ecosystem in which Download With Free Trial more than one species occupie each level Competition - two species vie for limited environmental resources

Master your semester Scribd Autotrophs (Producers) = with manufacture their own food; "plants"; form lowest trophiclevel an Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  constitute the base of the biomass "pyramid" & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Heterotrophs (Consumers) = feed on other organisms; consist of "animals" (much energy is l

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Commensalism = biological association beneficial to one but does not hurt the host Symbiosis = mutual benefit to both participants c5. Succession = changes due to modification of the environment by organisms Stages of Succession Include: Pioneer Stage: with abundant, rapid-growing, short-lived species with abundant offspring strategists) Mature Stage: with the most diversity

Climax Stage: slower-growing, larger, longer-lived species with fewer offspring (K-strategi replace organisms of earlier stages 6. Limiting factors - environmental factors controlling species distribution - includes chemical, physical and biological factors

You're Reading Preview Organism Distribution (Especially Marine) DependsaUpon the Following: Unlock full access with a free trial.

a. Seawater Properties - Density and Viscosity Density of aquatic organisms typically equals water density Download With Free Trial Viscosity - influences shape and feeding (there are many "filter feeders" in aquatic environm due to the viscosity of water allowing food to be held in suspension)

b. Salinity - usually measured in parts per thousand (0/00); average seawater salinity is 35 0/00 but varie  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title from 0 to 270 0/00  - in Geochemical Studies of Paleosalinity use boron (greater in saltwater); Notother usefultrace elemen  Useful  Cancel anytime. typeOnly of organic matter; carbon and oxygen isotopes [freshwaters depleted in heavy carbo Special offer for students: $4.99/month. (C-13) and heavy oxygen (0-18)]

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important for determining paleotemperatures); boron and bromine greater if greater

temperature; Calcium/Magnesium and Calcium/Strontium ratios are less if the temperatu

increased - in Biological studies of paleotemperature use stenothermal (temperature intolerant) versus eurythermal (temperature tolerant) organisms; also may look at species diversity (greater warmer environments) or morphology (body form reflects environmental factors)

d. Dissolved Gases - concentrations depend on atmospheric concentration; solubility of gas; water temperature an salinity d1. Nitrogen (N) - most abundant dissolved gas; required by plants in ionic form

d2. Oxygen (O) - enters sea by photosynthesis, river water, atmosphere; all organisms use oxygen during respiration; oxygen at maximum near surface, minimum at about 7001,000m Oxygen; approximately 6 to 10 ppm; warmer, saltier or organic debris-rich wa with less oxygen

d3. Carbon Dioxide (CO 2) - enters sea from organism respiration, atmosphere and rivers; You're Reading a Preview removed by plants for photosynthesis and used by organisms to make shells; increases approximately 1,000m; increased leadswith to aGreenhouse Effect (increase temperatu UnlockCO full 2access free trial. d4. Hydrogen Sulfide (H 2S) - produced by anaerobic Download With Freebacteria Trial

e. Light - Photic zone = zone of light penetration Euphotic zone = upper illuminated layers of water in the photic zone; receive sufficient lig  greate to support photosynthesis; usually 10-60 meters but clear tropical waters may be Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  than 100 meters Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. - Aphotic zone = zone in which light does not penetrate


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- affects distribution of food and nutrients; types and morphology of organisms present - amount of suspended sediment especially affects filter-feeders - nature of substrate affects type of infauna (live in substrate) or epifauna (live on substrate; sessile or vagile benthonic) present

7. Paleoclimatology - study of ancient climates - utilizes sedimentologic, paleontologic and geochemical data to reconstruct ancient temperat wind patterns, precipitation and evaporation 8. Chemical Cycles in Earth System History

Chemical Reservoirs - bodies of key elements and compounds in the Earth system that shrink expand as fluxes between them change - these reservoirs are influenced by the following: a. Photosynthesis and Respiration Photosynthesis - process by which plants use the energy of sunlight to produce sugars from carbon dioxide and water; oxygen is a by-product of this process You're Reading a Preview

Unlockversus full access with a free trial. organisms oxidize sugars in Respiration - opposite chemical reaction photosynthesis; order to release their energy Download With Free Trial b. Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Cycles - if no dead plant tissue is buried, it decomposes and carbon dioxide returns to the atmospher - if dead plant tissue is buried (such as in swamps or anoxic marine environments), it upsets t balance between photosynthesis and respiration (with the amount of carbon dioxide in the  atmosphere shrinking and with increase in oxygen levels) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - weathering of minerals removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (enhanced by mountai Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. building, warm climates, high rates of precipitation, and more vegetation) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. - the initial spread of forests during the Devonian intensified weathering, depleted the


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e. Submarine Volcanism versus Seawater Chemistry, Mineralogy and Types of Organisms - seawater circulating around mid-oceanic ridges transfers calcium to the seawater; magnesiu extracted from the water and becomes locked in the rocks [therefore with more seafloor spreading there is a rise in sea level (more rocks produced) and a decrease in the magnesium/calcium ratio (more magnesium extracted from seawater)] - with increased marine volcanism, the low magnesium/calcite ratios produce "Calcite Seas", which calcite forms oolites and marine cements and organisms with calcite skeletons become successful reef builders (the lowest magnesium/calcite ratio of the Phanerozoic was during th Cretaceous, which contains much more "chalk" than any other system) - when the total volume of volcanics at mid-oceanic ridges is low, aragonite and highmagnesium calcite is more abundant; "modern" types of corals, with aragonite skeletons, are more abundant during these periods of Earth history

IV. Groups, Names and Relationships

Taxonomy - process of classification and naming organisms; typical classification of organis is by their relationship to one another (= "natural" classification)

You're Reading a Preview Systematics - grouping organisms according to the extent to which they are related Unlock full access with a free trial.

- the classification of organisms has traditionally used the Linnaean System, formulated by Carolus Linnaeus in the 1700's (Many biologists andFree paleontologist are now abandoning the Download With Trial Linnaean System, due to the influence of Cladistic Taxonomy ) A. Taxa (singular = taxon) in the Linnaean System

Master your semester with Scribd  1. Domain Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - in some recent classifications, constitutes the highest taxonomic category & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - often include the Domains Archaea/Archaebacteria, Bacteria/Eubacteria, and Eucarya Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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6. Family - superfamilies often end in -oidea, families in -idae and subfamilies in -inae - To convert Latin names to English use suffix "-id"; if it resembles a group use "-oid" 7. Genus - group of interrelated species; plural = genera 8. Species - fundamental unit of taxonomy Binomen = genus + species names; there may also be subspecies a. There are two concepts of what constitutes a species:

a1. Biogeographic-Genetic Species = population of individuals that can interbreed and produce viable offspring; are spatially segregated and genetically isolated from similar adjace groups a2. Linnaean Species = based on discontinuity in the range of variation in the form (morphology) of organisms; is typically used in paleontological studies You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access with a free trial. B. Naming a Taxon -use International Rules of Zoological or Botanical Nomenclature Download With Free Trial 1. Each genus + species has a name independent of change; names are Latinized

2. Each genus + species will have separate names - No genus name can be duplicated

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 3. Different names will not be applied to one species or genus & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Synonym = two or more different names given to the same animal; use Law of Priority to

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5. Author citations a. Cite authors name after taxon and first year of publication b. If author's species transferred to another genus then place original author's name in parentheses C. Theories of Taxonomy - what taxonomists seek is the establishment of Monophyletic Groups (species that share a common ancestry that are grouped together taxonomically; the grouping that includes the ancestor and its descendants is often termed a Clade) - taxonomists want to avoid Polyphyletic Groups (group evolved from two or more distinct ancestors) and Paraphyletic Groups (groups with a common ancestry but with one or more descendant groups excluded; include many modern groups)

1. Evolutionary Taxonomy/Systematics - this is Darwin's taxonomy - you must classify populations ("taxa") rather than individuals or characters - first you classify a phenotype (the characteristics) and then you infer the genotype (its gene constitution) You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. 2. Phenetics (Numerical Taxonomy) - classify organisms by purely mechanical or mathematical means - select a group of characters to describe the Operational Unit (OTU), construct a Download With FreeTaxonomic Trial similarity matrix, and then display the results as a phenogram or dendrogram - But is it a "natural" classification system?

3. Cladistic Taxonomy (Phylogenetic Systematics; Hennigian Systematics)  - formulated by entomologist Willi Hennig Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  defin - Hennig stated that primitive characters are of no use in taxonomy (a "character" is any Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. aspect of a particular organism) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. - The larger the number of nonprimitive ("shared derived" or synapomorphic) characters shar


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a2. Continuous Characters - measurements on a continuous scale (Ex. = size of organisms) - continuous characters are hard to use and interpret b. Types of Phylogenetic Traits b1. Plesiomorphy = primitive trait Symplesiomorphy = shared primitive trait b2. Apomorphy = specialized or derived trait Autapomorphy = specialized trait unique to one group Synapomorphy = specialized trait shared by two or more groups c. Sister Groups - two groups united by the presence of one or more synapomorphic characters - Sister Groups share a common ancestor and are each other's closest relatives

You're Reading a Preview d. Polarity - direction of evolutionary change Unlock full access with a free trial. - is determined by the stratigraphic sequence, ontogeny (organisms life history, especially embryological development), outgroup comparison Download With[characters Free Trial are derived if they do not app in closely-related "outgroups" (i.e. taxa that are not part of the group under consideration but share a common ancestry)], character analysis within groups and anatomical progression (Morphocline = characters that vary quantitatively within a group; ex. = body size, limb proportions)

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  e. Parsimony & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - the best hypothesis is the one with the fewest number of processes (the majority of characte Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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rule; also, choose and weight the characters of "most importance")

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There are types of evolution that may confuse cladists: Parallel Evolution = two closely related organisms undergo a similar evolutionary change through time Convergent Evolution (adaptive convergence) = close morphologic similarity arises betwee two unrelated groups that take on similar life habits (Homeomorphs)

D. Molecular Phylogeny - sequences of bases in chains of genetic material (DNA and RNA) and amino acid sequence proteins are diagnostic for each organism (the closer the relationships the greater the genetic similarities) - random mutations substitute various amino acids in molecules that is more or less directly proportional to time (therefore there may be "Molecular Clocks") - may compare the proteins in preserved tissues up to or compare the proteins of living forms determine their relationships (latter is most often used) E. Adaptation and Functional Morphology

1. Adaptation - the "fitness" of an organism; how organisms cope with changing environmental conditions, You're Reading a Preview invade new environments, and function more efficiently in a given environment Unlock full access with a free trial.

a. Why adaptation occurs:

Download With Free Trial a1. Must have features that allows the organism to survive in particular environments

a2. Red Queen Hypothesis - formulated by Leigh van Valen; because of competition for resources with other organisms, a species must continuously improve its adaptation or becom  extinct (even in stable environments) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times b. Evidence for Adaptation Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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2. Functional Morphology - the study of the relationship of form to the functions that organism or their component parts perform a. Morphology (form) is controlled by: a1. Adaptation - organisms morphology is restricted by environmental constraints a2. Phylogeny - organisms morphology is restricted by their evolutionary history a3. Growth Isometric Growth - all parts grow at the same rate Allometric Growth - some parts grow faster or slower than others (found in most higher organisms) b. Studying Morphology

b1. Theoretical Morphology - often uses a Paradigm (model or pattern); computer programs are helpful for studying a wid variety of parameters You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. b2. Comparison with Living Organisms - is very helpful but assumes that modern organisms have similar morphological features and constraints as their fossil "counterparts" (sometimes a badTrial assumption!!!) Download With Free

F. Mechanisms of Evolution

Evolution = (1) historical changes in structure, function and adaptation (2) genetic changes a  processes of selection and population dynamics Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 1. History of Evolutionary Theory Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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ship's naturalist on the H.M.S. Beagle (1831-1836) developed the foundation of his theory of evolution; Read Malthus' Essay on Population; Wrote "The Origin of species by means of Natural Selection" in 1859

Darwin's facts and deductions include: - organisms tend to increase in numbers by a geometric ratio - in spite of the tendency to progressive increase the number of individuals within a species te to remain approximately constant. - Deduction: Since more young are produced than can survive there must be a competition fo survival ("Struggle for Existence") - all organisms vary; some variations are inherited - some individuals fail to survive, others live to reproduce (natural selection) Summary of Darwinian Evolutionary Theory: New species arise from preexisting ones as a result of natural selection acting on inherited variations

e. The Synthetic Theory (Neodarwinism) - developed in the 1930's and 1940's by Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ernst Mayr, George Simpso and Julian Huxley - stated that the determinants of traits on which natural selection acts are genes (heritable unit You're Reading a Preview information governing structure, development and function) Unlock full access with a that free trial. - variation is due to gene mutation (also now theorized tandem multiplication of nucleoti and gene duplication is important) - also population structure and distribution is important inTrial the development of new species Download With Free

Natural Versus Sexual Selection - natural selection depends on fitness of the organism to its environment - sexual selection depends on attractiveness to females (one may work against the other; Ex. =  elaborate plumage of birds) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times f. The Neutral Theory Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

- developed in the late 1970's by Motoo Kimura

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- first proposed by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Gould during the 1970's - says that evolution occurs in fits and spurts separated by long periods of little change - problem in testing (sudden appearances in fossil record may be due to immigration rather th rapid speciation) - problem in classification (no classification system can show intermediate forms (only "species") h. Mosaic Evolution - first proposed by Gavin deBeer - different parts of organisms do not change at a uniform rate in the course of evolution - I interpret it as the middle ground between punctuated equilibrium and phyletic gradualism 2. Evolutionary Changes a. Evolutionary Change is by means of (?):

a1. Phyletic Evolution (Anagenesis) - process by which a single lineage changes over time

a2. Speciation (Cladogenesis) - process by which a single species divides into two lineages that become reproductively isolated from one another; preferred by proponents of punctuated You're Reading a Preview equilibrium Unlock full access with a free trial. Clade - all organisms descended from a progenitor species

b. Peripatric Speciation Download With Free Trial - Evolutionary changes are most likely within small, geographically isolated populations (therefore most important groups for establishing evolutionary patterns and processes are leas likely to be preserved) - inbreeding leads to homozygosity (with recessive and dominant traits common and therefor  potentially rapid change) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  div - if an isolated population rejoins with the parent population again (sympatry), they must Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. behaviorally and/or physically even more to survive


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poisonous types mimic poisonous ones) and protective coloration (organisms camouflaged to resemble environment) - Evolutionary "Arms Race" = competition beween predators and prey leads to sequence of evolutionary changes in both groups

b2. Trends in Macroevolution - initially with low number of lineages and absence of competition (not much difference betw species) - features become stabilized and are recognized as characters of families or orders - adaptive radiation may give rise to tremendous increase in diversity during short time b3. Cope's Law = size increase among warm-blooded animals 4. Evolution and Ontogeny a. Ontogeny - life history of an organism (especially embryological development) b. Embryos develop from general characters towards more specific ones - in early stages of development animal embryos tend to be very similar

You're Reading a Preview c. Haeckel's Law - ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny Unlock full access a free trial. - i.e., in its development from embryo to adult the with individual passes through the evolutionary stages of its ancestors (= Peramorphosis) Download With Free Trial d. Paedomorphosis - early stages of the ontogeny of ancestors become the adult stage in descendants (Ex. = some adult amphibians have larva-like form) G. Evolution in Earth History

Master your semester with Scribd 1. Rates of Evolutionary Change & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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a. is probably irregular [Simpson, 1944, coined Bradytely (slow change), Horotely (medium

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accomplished): - sedimentary record complete with gaps less than 10,000-20,000 years - total sequence probably exceeding 100,000 years - good dating (especially radiometric) - entire species range known with a record of ancestral and descendant species in the area - geographical range of species known - significant portion of skeletal anatomy known 2. Trends and Cycles a. Trend - "unidirectional" changes - Ex. = increase in oxygen content - increased specializations of organisms through time b. Cycles - repetitive sequences (may greatly influence evolution)

b1. "Greenhouse"/"Icehouse" Cycles - moving continents and expansion and contraction of ocean basins leads to "greenhouse" You're Reading a Preview (increased volcanism produces more CO 2, which leads to a greenhouse effect with greater Unlock full access with a free trial. temperatures) - cycles 300 to 500 million years in length Download With Free Trial b2. Sea Level Fluctuations - transgressions (relative rise in sea level) and regressions (drop in sea level) may influence evolution [regressions may place stresses on shallow-water marine organisms; "specialist" organisms usually with highest evolutionary rates just after the period of greatest transgressio - Seismic evidence from passive plate tectonic margins indicates there patterns ofsmall-, Read Free Forare 30this Days Sign up to vote on title medium- and large-scale sea level cycles that produce unconformities (Vail Curves) 


b3. Astronomical Cycles

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- therefore there is a "normal background rate" of extinction a2. Mass Extinction - there are six Phanerozoic episodes of major extinction b. Reasons for extinction include: b1. Competition - difficult to determine even among living species b2. Predation - also tough to tell b3. Environmental Deterioration - climate change (Exs. = cooling trends, drop in sea level, oxygen-depleted deep ocean water rises onto continental shelves, violent volcanism) causes mass extinctions b4. Stochastic Processes - says that origin and extinction of organisms is probabilistic (like a "flip of a coin") - computer programs generating "artificial" phylogenies are much like "natural" clades You're Reading a Preview Unlockby fullperiodic access withbolide a free trial. Ex. = Extraterrestrial causes - extinction impacts or comets?

b5. Man Download With Free Trial - important for past 11,000 years (?)

V. Earth's Oldest Remains

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1. Age of the Earth - based primarily on Extraterrestrial Evidence:

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3. Formation of the Earth's Atmosphere was probably by:

a. Outgassing of earth's interior during Archean times by volcanic activity; produced wate vapor, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. b. Impact by cometary ice c. Plant Photosynthesis - provides oxygen (but probably with little oxygen in the Precambrian)

4. The Oceans - gases condense during Earth cooling; "modern" salinity obtained in Early Archean - the Early Archean ocean were probably much warmer than that of today due to the presence abundant radioactive elements in the Earth's crust and the "Greenhouse Effect"

B. Organisms - ordered (i.e. with cellular organization) living creatures - "life" is a series of chemical reactions, using carbon-based molecules, by which matter is ta into a system and used to assist the system's growth and reproduction, with waste products be expelled You're Reading a Preview - life forms pass on their organized structure when they reproduce Unlock full access with a free trial.

C. Origins of Life

Download With Free Trial 1. The Earth During the Archean Eon - equable conditions for prebiotic evolution could have existed on Earth as long ago as 4.4 Ga - Archean Earth was dominated by oceanic lithosphere with volcanic islands and small microcontinents  - large amounts of CO 2 may have led to a Greenhouse Effect, with atmospheric temperatures Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  to 100°C or more (therefore NO polar icecaps; with permanently stratified stagnant iron-rich Not useful  Useful  deep ocean waters and wind-mixed iron-poor surface waters) Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. - hot springs, submarine hydrothermal systems, and heated wind-mixed layers of the oceans m


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- a "container" filled with organic and inorganic molecules (= Protoplasm); the cell contains:

b2. Proteins - built from amino acids; proteins are used as "building materials" and for chemical reactions

b3. Nucleic Acids - includes Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA); provide information the structure of the organism and the means to pass on this information in reproduction - DNA carries the genetic code of an organism, providing information for its growth and metabolism; it has the ability to replicate itself in order to pass this information on to subsequent generations

- RNA has several functions (carries genetic message of DNA to sites; assembles amino acid into proteins; acts as a catalyst for chemical reactions), and because of this versatility was probably the nucleic acid present within the earliest life forms (this earliest ecosystem is of termed the "RNA World"); but RNA was eventually replaced by DNA as the genetic code ( DNA is a more stable molecule)

b4. Organic Phosphorous Compounds - found in small amounts; transform light or chemic You're Reading a Preview fuel into energy Unlock full access with a free trial.

c. The Formation of Proteins

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c1. Amino Acids - mixture of methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water vapor (or nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapor) in the presence of electricity or ultraviolet light leads to the production of amino acids  - some meteorites also contain amino acids Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - production of amino acids must take place in an anaerobic (devoid of free oxygen) environm


c2. Proteins

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a. Domain/Kingdom Archaea/Archaebacteria - superficially similar to eubacteria but differ greatly in their molecular (especially RNA) sequences - include the methanogens (tend to be found in highly saline environments), sulfur-metaboliz bacteria and sulfate-reducing bacteria (found around hydrothermal vents) - probably included the oldest life forms, which were probably thermophilic autotrophs (used molecular hydrogen, carbon dioxide and sulfur compounds to produce energy, with optimal growth at temperatures from 70 ° to 110°C); possible environments of origin include hot spri heated ocean waters, and hydrothermal vents

b. Domain/Kingdom Bacteria/Eubacteria - contain the most commonly recognized or "true" bacteria and cyanobacteria - evolved both thermophilic autotrophs in heated environments and photoautotrophs in shallo marine environments (see discussion below) - life originated at least as early as 3.5 Ga ago, as indicated by (mostly) Eubacteria Evidence Includes: b1. Megascopic Stromatolites - Stromatolites are laminated structures formed by blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) - the earliest Stromatolites come from the Swaziland Group of South Africa and the Pilbara Supergroup of Australia (dated about 3.0 to 3.55 Ga)

b2. Permineralized Microfossils - filamentous kerogen-rich microfossils similar to cyanobacteria occur in cherts of the Pilbara Supergroup (Warrawoona Group) of Australia dated at about 3.4 Ga

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  b3. Biologically Produced Organic Matter & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - organic carbon-13 values from the 3.0 to 3.55 Ga-old Swaziland and Pilbara sediments are Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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similar to those of modern cyanobacteria and photosynthetic bacteria

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survive environmental changes - cells range from 3 microns to several millimeters - the Domain Eucarya includes the Kingdoms Protista (Protoctista), Fungi, Plantae (Metaphy and Animalia (Metazoa)

b. Origin of Eukaryotes - nuclear membrane probably formed by invagination of cell membrane - specialized structures (chloroplasts and mitochondria) probably developed from endosymbi prokaryotes living within the cell membrane of archaebacterial prokaryotes c. The Oldest Eukaryotes

- as oxygen built up in the Early Proterozoic atmosphere, due to the presence of photosynthet

prokaryotes, the concentration of dissolved oxygen increased in the upper ocean; as a result m nitrogen was oxidized to form nitrate (NO 3-), which is an important nutrient for eukaryotic a

(Cyanobacteria don't need nitrates, as they can use pure nitrogen (N 2) for their metabolism) - oldest known probable eukaryote is the corkscrew-shaped, cylindrical megascopic colonial Grypania, from a 2.1 Ga-old banded iron formation in Michigan - organic-walled microfossils of eukaryotic photoautotrophic plankton ("acritarchs") occur in rocks slightly younger than those containing Grypania

E. Atmospheric Oxygen - increased dramatically between 2.2 and 1.9 Ga-ago - increase in atmospheric oxygen was very important for the development of more complex li forms 1. Evidence of Increased Atmospheric Oxygen Levels Includes:

Master your semester with Scribd  a. Paleosols Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - analyses of iron oxides in soils older than 2.2 Ga indicate atmospheric levels of oxygen at & The New York Times useful  Useful  Not

Cancel anytime. 0.2%, or 1% PAL (present atmospheric level is 21%); atmospheric levels in younger than 1.9 Ga-old paleosols indicate 15% PAL, or about 3% total gaseous composition of atmosphere

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enriched (indicating presence of free oxygen)

e. Banded Iron Formations - alternating chert and hematite/magnetite layers - therefore oxidized (ferric) iron formed in marine basins (although there is some debate as to original oxygen content in BIF's) - but Banded Iron Formations disappeared about 1.9 Ga-ago when oxygen content was suppo to be increasing (BIF's may also be influenced by ocean stratification and therefore this may b the source of conflicting data, or they may not have contained as much oxygen as some geologists have claimed)

2. The Ozone Shield - development of ozone (O 3) prevented lethal radiation from reaching the Earth and was of m importance in the development of life F. Origin and Diversification of the Metazoa 1. Metazoa (Animalia) - with specialized cells forming tissues (= metazoan organization) - tissues are united into organs (except in simplest invertebrates) 2. Vendian Body Fossils and Trace Fossils a. The Vendian Period (610-550 Ma ago) or Neoproterozoic - beginning of Vendian Period with most intensive glaciation in Earth history (the Varanger/Varangian or Marinoan Glaciation) - later Vendian with relatively warm global climate, with major marine transgression and development of extensive shallow marine environments, which led to a greater diversity of  organisms Read Free For 30 Days

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times b. Tracks and Burrows Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- oldest undisputed metazoan traces found in Late Proterozoic rocks (680-900 Ma)

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- the structure and relationships of Vendian Fossils is greatly debated; hypotheses of their relationships consist of the following:

c1. Vendian Fossils may be placed primarily within Modern Soft-Bodied Metazoans - the "classical theory" says that Ediacara fossils can be placed in the Phylum Coelenterata (classes Hydrozoa, Anthozoa, Scyphozoa, Conulata, medusae of uncertain systematic positio and problematic Petalonamae), Phylum Annelida (Class Polychaeta), Phylum Arthropoda (Superclass Trilobitomorpha or Chelicerata represented by the uncertain class and superclass Crustacea, Class Branchiopoda), Phylum Pogonophora, Phylum Echiurida, as well as some forms of uncertain position even at the level of phylum

c2. Vendian Fossils have NO recent modern Analogues - Adolf Seilacher suggests the Ediacara fauna (the Vendobionta) have a unique organization characterized by an extensive body surface developed by a very complicated relief and by a l body volume due to their flatness ("pancake animals"); fossils have a foliated and quilted construction to increase surface area - flattened morphology, quilting and high surface/volume ratio allowed absorption of oxygen organic matter dissolved in the water by diffusion through the body wall; therefore did NOT have a mouth, digestive, or respiratory organs You're Reading a Preview - some fossils may have had internal sand skeletons adapted to living on unstable sandy botto Unlock full access with a free trial. (Seilacher's "rock in a sock" morphology)

3. The Tommotian Fauna Download With Free Trial - often classified as the base of the Cambrian - first fossils of the "Cambrian Explosion"; first abundant record of hard parts, with thousand taxa represented - late Proterozoic and earliest Cambrian with fossil tubes of various composition  - the Tommotian Fauna includes "small shelly fossils"; with disjunct sclerites of calcium Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  carbonate or calcium phosphate ("tommotiids" are phosphatic sclerites that evidently articula Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. to form an exoskeleton), mollusc-like shells (monoplacophorans), calcareous and siliceous Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. spicules of sponges and probably soft corals, arthropod carapaces, calcareous cups of sponge


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c. Oxygen increases to 6-10% of present atmospheric levels; development of the ozone lay allows organisms to leave restricted environments 2. Biological Factors a. microorganisms increase in number and therefore with increase in filter-feeders b. organisms create habitats for other organisms

c. secretion of skeletons - development of hard skeletons of organic (scleroproteins and polysaccharids) or biomineral (silica, carbonate, apatite) materials - for protection, support above the substrate, muscle attachment, guides for feeding currents, supplies of calcium and phosphate nutrients - calcium carbonate skeletons could not be secreted until oxygen reached approximately 10% modern levels (about 2% total atmospheric gases) H. Characteristics and the Classification of the Modern Metazoans

You're Reading a Preview 1. Presence/Absence of Internal Body Cavities Unlock full access with a free trial.

a. Acoelomate Organisms - do not have coeloms (cavities) for housing organs Download With Free Trial - include Protozoa, Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes (flatworms) - probably evolved from colonial flagellate protozoans

b. Coelomate Organisms - with coeloms; higher invertebrates and chordates; molluscs with poorly developed  coeloms Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title - echinoderms, annelids, arthropods, chordates with well-developed coelomic cavities 


b1. Pseudocoelomates

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2. Bilaterians (the Bilateria) - organisms with a bilateral symmetry - include most phyla of metazoans, except sponges and cnidarians 3. Metamerism - segmentation of organisms - formed due to need for muscular contractions in crawling, burrowing, swimming, etc. a. Metameric segmentation - divides entire body; is characteristic of annelids and arthropods b. Oligomeric segmentation - with body divided into three parts; characteristic of most other metazoans 4. Development of the Embryonic Mouth

a. Protostomes - invagination ("pushing in") of embryo becomes the mouth; includes molluscs, annelids and arthropods You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. b. Deuterostomes - invagination of embryo becomes the anus; includes echinoderms and chordates; echinoderm probably developed from tube-dwelling wormsWith Free Trial Download - chordates probably developed from free swimming "larval" echinoderm-like forms; development of notochord as an "anti-telescoping" device for swimming

5. Lophophorates  - possess a lophophore (comblike organ used for filter-feeding); include bryozoans and Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  brachiopods


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Class Granuloreticulosa Order Foraminiferida - foraminiferans ("forams") Superclass Actinopodea Class Radiolaria - radiolarians ("rads") *Subkingdom Algae Division Pyrrhophyta Class Dinophyceae - dinoflagellates, ebidians (?) ?Class Incertae Sedis (uncertain taxonomic position) = acritarchs Division Haptophyta Class Coccolithophyceae - calcareous nannoplankton Division Chrysophyta **Class Bacillariophyceae (Diatomaceae) - diatoms Class Chrysophyceae - silicoflagellates, archaeomonads (?) Class Xanthiophyceae Division Rhodophyta - red algae Division Chlorophyta - green algae Division Phaeophyta - brown algae * Note: Subkingdom Algae is often placed within the Kingdom Plantae. **Diatoms are often placed in a separate Division (as in your lab). B. Division Rhodophyta - red algae

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1. ?Phylloid Algae - leaf-like; formed small carbonate Download With Freebanks Trial in Carboniferous seas 2. Superfamily Corallinaceae (Late Paleozoic? Jurassic-Recent) - coralline algae; most important rhodophytes in modern oceans; skeletal tissue forms two-layered cellular structure

Master your semester  C. Division Chlorophyta with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - green algae; ancestral to land plants & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - codiacean algae (Jurassic-Recent) with tiny aragonite spicules; important in formation of Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

carbonate sediments in modern tropical oceans

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2. Morphologic types of Dinoflagellates - Hystricospheres (Jurassic-Recent) with long spines (processes; i.e., chorate cysts); usually found in open marine environments - Proximate Tests with spines short or absent; most often found in near-shore environments

3. Ecology/Paleoecology - most marine planktonic; some benthonic; others freshwater, symbiotic (zooxanthellae of co reefs), or parasitic - produce "red tide" due to production of "paralytic shellfish poison"; some luminescent E. Division Bacillariophyta - diatoms 1. Morphology - pillbox-like siliceous skeleton (frustule); epitheca (larger valve) overlaps the hypotheca

2. Morphological types of Diatoms - centric diatoms with radial symmetry - pennate diatoms bilaterally symmetrical and with a raphe (longitudinal slit in the valve alon apical axis) You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. 3. Ecology/Paleoecology - wide variety of environments; freshwater, marine; planktonic or benthonic - asexual reproduction with reductionDownload in size ofWith tests Free (returns Trialto normal size during sexual sta

F. Division Haptophyta - calcareous nannoplankton or coccoliths; Early Jurassic-Recent - with skeleton consisting of minute calcareous shields (usually fall apart after death of algae  - coccoliths (individual elliptical to circular shields) 1 to 15 microns in diameter Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - asteroliths (discoasters) often star-shaped


G. Phylum Protozoa

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- Some benthic and planktonic forams cohabit with symbiotic algae (Zooxanthellae); photosynthesis provides food for forams a2. Movement - Benthic forams - sessile or vagile (move by pseudopodia) - Planktonic forams - several migrate through water column into surface zone (probably by changes in gas content of protoplasm) a3. Reproduction - Heterophasic - with 2 types (phases) of reproduction (= alternation of generations); only in benthics - Schizogony = asexual phase; with larger initial chamber (proloculus) = Macrospheric Generation) - Gamogony = sexual phase; smaller proloculus (= Microspheric generation) b. Foraminiferan Test Morphology Test (the "shell") - consists of a secreted or agglutinated covering b1. Wall Structure - cement grains, mineralize carbonates or combination of these two

You're Reading a Preview Agglutinated Wall Structure - oldest geologically, cement particles on layer of tectin (organic Unlock full access with a free trial. compound)

Microgranular wall structure = evolved in Paleozoic; microganular calcite gives test a "sugar Download With Free Trial appearance Calcareous Walls Calcareous hyaline = calcite or aragonite; with minute perforations in the test wall Radial hyaline = calcite or aragonite arranged with "C" axis normal to test surface  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Granular hyaline = crystallites randomly oriented Useful  Not useful  anytime. Calcareous porcelaneous = shiny, smooth appearance of test dueCancel to orientation of Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. submicroscopic calcite grains (randomly arranged or brick-like)


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b4. Coiled Test morphology = spiral side (side showing traces of coil); umbilical side (opposite side of spiral, may have umbilicus = axial space between inner margins of chamber belonging to same coil) b5. Apertures = primary openings of the test to the outside environment b6. Pores = round, slit-like or irregular openings approximately 5-6 mm in size; found in agglutinated and hyaline forams

b7. Ornamentation = protrusions; thickening or sharpening of chamber peripheries to form keels; also ribs, ridges, striae, furrows, spines c. Major Morphological Groups of Foraminiferans - approximately 100 families; 1200 genera; 27,000 species of forams - over 35 classification schemes have been used c1. Basis of classification (most important are grouped first) 1) wall composition and microstructure

You're Reading a Preview 2) chamber arrangement and septal addition Unlock full access with a free trial.

3) aperture characters and modifications Download With Free Trial 4) chamber form 5) life habits and habitats

Master your semester with Scribd 6) protoplasmic characteristics & The New7)York Times ontogenetic changes Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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crystallographic orientation (Pennsylvanian-Permian) Suborder Miliolina = calcareous, porcelaneous tests (Triassic-Recent) Suborder Rotaliina = hyaline perforate calcareous test (Triassic-Recent) d. Fusulinid Foraminifera

d1. Morphology - small to very large (up to 10 cm); often look like "wheat grains" - studied by means of axial (most important), sagittal and tangential thin sections - evolutionary trends are increase in size of the initial chamber (proloculus); increase in overa size; increase in complexity of the wall structure; increase in intensity of the septal fluting (i. increase in corregations of the septa, which divide the test into chambers) d2. Biostratigraphy - Fusulinid Range = Lower Pennsylvanian - Upper Permian - In Upper Paleozoic with 10 fusulinid biostratigraphic assemblage zones

d3. Paleoecology You're Reading a Preview - most were marine, benthonic and associated with relatively shallow, well aerated, carbonate Unlock full with accesscorals with a free depositional environments; often associated andtrial. algae

e. Paleozoic Agglutinated Foraminiferans Download With Free Trial - Suborders Allogromiina and Textulariina with approximately 67 genera in the Paleozoic - typically found in silty shales and/or fine-grained shaly sandstones and fine-grained mud-ric limestones - Carboniferous with 14 biozones based on agglutinated and microgranular forams

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  f. Giant Foraminiferans & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - important throughout the Cenozoic in tropical seas; typically planispirally-coiled; Ex. = Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Nummulites (Camerina)

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b. Classification - divided into four classes on the basis of the construction of the nucleus and the shape and composition of the shell (only Classes Spumellariina and Nassellariina important; both with shells of opaline silica) - spumellarians with spherical symmetry; nasellarians with tripod-shape or ring-like, or shells elongate, multichambered and latticed

c. Ecology/Paleoecology - exclusively marine and planktonic; live at all oceanic depths and with cosmopolitan (worldwide) distibution

VII. Sponges, True and Problematical A. Phylum Archaeocyatha - sometimes placed within the sponges 1. Biology

a. Calcareous skeleton, usually conical You're Reading a Preview - usually double-walled with space (intervallum) in between (some lack inner wall); vertical Unlock full access with a freethe trial. partitions (septa) and horizontal partitions (tabula) divide intervallum into loculi - with central cavity; skeleton perforated by large and small pores Download With Free Trial b. Reproduction by asexual budding and fission; also sexual? (probably with planktonic lar

2. Paleoecology - shallow marine, sessile benthonic (as adults), filter-feeders  - lived in aggregates or communities dominated by calcareous algae or algal-like organisms o Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  uncertain affinities; often found in reef-like carbonate buildups


3. Biostratigraphy

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- Osculum = lets out water from the spongocoel

b. Reproduction Asexual - by budding or branching Sexual - most important; spherical larva (amphiblastula) attach themselves to substrate and g rise to a sponge 2. Skeleton - simple types with no skeleton a. Spongin = horny organic substance; not found fossilized

b. Spicules - interlocking minute siliceous (opaline silica) or calcareous (calcite) needles, hooks or plates embedded in the tissues - with Two sizes of spicules = Megascleres (larger spicules up to 0.3mm long; forms main m of skeleton); Microscleres (smaller spicules 0.01-0.1mm; serve as reinforcement, especially around pores) - Kinds of spicules include Monaxon spicules (with single axis; calcareous or siliceous); Tria spicules (siliceous; 3 axes); Tetraxon spicules (4 axes not in the same plane); Polyaxon spicul You're Reading a Preview (with several equal rays diverging from a point; siliceous) and Desmas (siliceous spicule; wit Unlock full access with a free trial. ordered arrangement) 3. Types of body structure


a. Ascon (asconoid) type - simplest; vaselike; water enters body by means of dermal pores and water exits through larg rounded vent (osculum) at top of sponge

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title b. Sycon (syconoid) type & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful - with infolded wall (for strength and increase digestive area) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Subphylum Symplasma Class Hexactinellida Subphylum Cellularia Class Calcarea Order Pharetronida ?Order Heteractinida Other minor orders Class Sclerospongea* ?Order Stromatoporoidea* ?Order Chaetetida* ?Class Archaeocyathida* (see above) Class Demospongia Order Lithistida Order Sphinctozoa Order Keratosa Other minor orders

*Note: The Sclerospongea (including Stromatoporoidea), Chaetetida and Archaeocyathida ar often referred to the Demospongia. Archaeocyathans, as noted above, are often classified as separate phylum (as followed herein). Sclerosponges, chaetetids and stromatoporoids are oft You're Reading a Preview classified separately (as in your book). Receptacultids and Archaeocyathids are often classifie access with aclassified free trial. receptaculitids as algae! together as "pleosponges", althoughUnlock I havefulltentatively 5. Class Demospongea Download With Free Trial - includes approximately 95% modern marine sponges

a. Morphology - may lack spicules or have skeletons of spongin or silica or spongin + silic (often siliceous spicules with rays meeting at 60 or 120 ° angles); body structure: rhagon

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  of b. Fossil Representatives - Lithistids most important Paleozoic demosponges; skeleton & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  siliceous desmas Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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b. Fossil Representatives - "Pharetronids" (probably a polyphyletic group) are Calcarea with rigid skeletons (Lower Permian - Recent) and represent most abundant group - Order Heteractinida with polyaxons of octactine (most abundant), sexiradiate and polyactin morphology (see lab manual); spicules are solid and form discrete units; Middle Cambrian to Permian; Ex. = Astraeospongium c. Ecology/Paleoecology - mostly shallow marine

d. Biostratigraphy - Range = Precambrian?; Cambrian-Recent (also see above for individua groups) 7. Class Hexactinellida - include "glass sponges"

a. Morphology - tubular bodies; six-rayed discrete or unified siliceous spicules; rays develo along three mutually perpendicular axes; microscleres always present and either hexasters (sm hexactinal spicules, often flower-like ends) or birotulates (small monaxons with umbrella-like ends); axial canal of megascleres is square in cross-section; body structure: Rhagon

You're Reading a Preview b. Ecology/Paleoecology - Paleozoic types mostly lived on organic-rich, soft mud bottoms, Unlock full access withCretaceous) a free trial. probably in quiet water ; Mesozoic forms (especially often in chalk facies; Ceno forms little-known; modern types mostly in upper bathyal zone (200-2000 m water depth) Download With Free Trial c. Biostratigraphy - Range: Lower Cambrian-Recent 8. Class Sclerospongiae

Master your semester with Scribd  a. Morphology - with a three-layered skeleton (base of crystalline and aspicular calcite or Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  aragonite; middle of living tissues; upper with siliceous spicules and collagenous fibers); & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  probably related to demosponges (and often classified with them) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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e2. Paleoecology - typically lived in clear warm, shallow water; occured on reefs (reef-builders) or as commen of corals in quiet water a few feet deep Biotic association = most often found with tabulate corals, also bryozoa, algae, crinoids, brachiopods

e3. Biostratigraphy - Cambrian through Cretaceous (abundant in carbonate environments from Middle Ordovicia Late Devonian) -----------f. Order Chaetetida f1. Morphology = skeleton composed of numerous distinct, narrow tubes (calicles); walls tubes joined; calicles small (0.1-0.6 mm), divided by septa (vertical partitions) and tabulae (horizontal partitions) f2. Paleoecology = firm substrate, most in shallow, warm, sunlit waters; often associated You're Reading a Preview algae and may form bioherms or reefs Unlock full access with a free trial.

f3. Biostratigraphy = Ordovician to Miocene (locally abundant in Lower to Middle Pennsylvanian) Download With Free Trial

VIII. Simple Coelenterates: the Cnidarians

Master your semester with Scribd  sea Phylum Cnidaria - well developed body tissues but simply organized; includes corals, Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  anemonies, jellyfish & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

A. General Characteristics

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b. Systems lacking = respiratory, excretory, circulatory 5. Nematocysts (stinging capsules) present for use in defense and food capture 6. Asexual budding producing solitary polyps or polypoid colonies; sexual reproduction produces ciliated larvae (planula) which attach to bottom and form a polyp

7. With two stages (polymorphism) - a free-swimming medusoid stage and fixed polyp stag Hydrozoa both stages may occur or may have medusoid stage only

8. Some with endoskeletons, some exoskeletons which may be calcite or aragonite (hydrozo anthozoans) or chitin and calcium phosphatic (conulatids); very rarely horn-like fossils of hydroids and are more like anthozoans 9. Chiefly marine B. Class Hydrozoa - includes Hydra (fresh-water) and many marine types (staghorn coral and siphonophores)

You're Reading a Preview 1. Characteristics Unlock full access with a free trial. - solitary or colonial; enteron lacks gullet (leads from mouth to gastrovascular cavity); most w chitinous skeletons (some calcareous); mostly marine (few fresh-water); often polyp and medusoid generations alternate Download With Free Trial 2. Range: Late Proterozoic? to Recent - not important as fossils C. Class Scyphozoa

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  1. Biology & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - solitary; radial symmetry; Medusa stage dominant; Polyp (attached forms) much reduced, Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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highly modified or lost; coelenteron in some types divided by mesenteries (radially-arranged

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- Paleoecology = Marine sessile benthonic or nektonic; found in all lithologies but mostly in d carbonaceous shale - Biostratigraphic Range: Middle Cambrian-Early Triassic D. Class Anthozoa - includes sea anemones, corals, sea fans, sea pens, sea feathers

1. Biology - solitary or colonial; polyps only (no medusae); oral end bears tentacles; gullet present (lead from mouth to gastrovascular cavity); coelenteron partitioned by mesenteries (radially arrang wall of tissue; will have mineralized septa of aragonite within and between mesenteries in mo groups)

2. Classification - classified on whether the mesenteries are paired or not; 2 subclasses but only important one the Zoantharia

Subclass Zoantharia - includes corals, sea anemones, seafans, sea pens, tabulate and rugose corals - classification based on arrangement and development of mesenteries and presence or absen You're Reading a Preview of a skeleton Unlock full access with a free trial. paired (coupled) mesenteries - Characteristics = solitary or colonial; calcareous exoskeleton;

a. Order Rugosa (Tetracoralla) Download With Free Trial - Biology = solitary or colonial; calcareous skeleton (corallite) with epitheca (calcareous wall septa (radial plate from wall to axis of corallite) and typically with tabulae (transverse partitio and dissepiments (small curved plates forming a vesicle); 6 primary septa (protosepta; correspond to 6 paired mesenteries); secondary septa develop in 4 of 6 interseptal spaces  [therefore 4-fold (biradial) symmetry and called Tetracoralla) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - Paleoecology = marine sessile benthonic; most in shallow water; warm, well-oxygenated w Useful  Not useful  with normal salinity; best in areas of slow deposition (limestoneCancel bedsanytime. rather than shale or Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. sandstone); Solitary types with small attachment and often knocked over (twisted skeletons);


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c. Order Scleractinia c1. Morphology - septa in multiples of six (hexacorals)

c2. Paleoecology - most important modern reef-builders [live in symbiotic relationship with dinoflagellates (zooxanthellae)] - shallow water (maximum water depth fifty meters); well-oxygenated, agitated, well-circulat water in photic zone; prefer water temperature of about 65 °F; substrate relatively free from s accumulations

IX. "Moss Animals", or Bryozoans

Phylum Bryozoa - 4,000 living and 15,000 fossil species; live in colonies or a few individua up to 10cm diameter; may appear bush-like, fungiform or encrusting; often carpet-like ("mos animals"); Sessile, most with calcareous skeleton A. Biology


1. Soft parts - Zooid = (individual animal) consists of polypide (soft Download With Freeparts) Trial and zoarium (skeleton) - polypide enclosed in a carbonate skeleton with opening (orifice, zooecial aperture) - with lophophore [this links bryozoans with tubicolcous worms (Phylum Phoronida) and Brachiopoda; all 3 probably evolved from a worm-like ancestor] = food catching organism consisting of tentacular crown (with 8 to more than 100 tentacles) arranged in a circle around  food mouth; tentacles with cilia which produce a water current to sweep food into the mouth; Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  consists of microorganisms, bacteria and organic detritus Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. - Mouth leads into a complete alimentary canal Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. - No respiratory or circulatory system


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- study usually by thin sections (1 longitudinal section and 1 tangential section (perpendicula tubes) = especially study Wall Structure - Types of Wall Structure include amalgamate structure = walls of adjacent tubes coalesced; integrate structure = tube walls of zooecium distinct from other zooecium walls - Acanthopore = slender dense-walled tube - Zooecium (Autopore) large tube or chamber occupied by one of main zooids - Mesopore = tube parallel to autopores; usually smaller and more angular with numerous diaphragms; probably occupied by specialized zooids

- Cystiphragm = calcareous plate extending from zooecial wall part-way across tube; surface coned, convex upward and inward

- Diaphragm = calcareous plate extending transversely across width of zooecial tube; surface or gently curved - Coenosteum (coen) = vesicular or dense skeletal material between zooecia You're Reading a Preview B. Classification of Bryozoans

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1. Class Stenolaemata Download With Free Trial - zooecia cylindrical with calcified body wall; new zooecia produced in a common bud by division of septa; marine; ovicell large; Ordovician-Recent (approximately 550 genera) a. Order Tubuliporata (Cyclostomata) = calcareous tubular chamber with lidless circular  aperture; Early Ordovician to Recent Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd  & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  b. Order Cryptostomata = short calcareous tube; colony peripheral walls thick; Ordovician Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

-Permian

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3. Class Gymnolaemata - most successful group of modern bryozoans; almost exclusively marine (but some freshwate having a circular row of tentacles surrounding the mouth; most complex forms with elaborate calcified zooids, skeletons often with both aragonite and calcite layers; Ordovician - Recent

a. Order Ctenostomata - zooids enclosed in a gelatinous chamber; comb-like processes close aperture when tentacles retracted; fossils typically consist of chemical borings produced by soft-bodied colonies with calcareous substrates (and often classified as trace fossils); Ordovician-Recent

b. Order Cheilostomata - zooids enclosed in short saclike chitinous or calcareous chamber; hinged chitinous operculu (lid) encloses aperture when tentacles are retracted; about 1000 genera, constituting most kno fossil and living species of bryozoans; Jurassic-Recent C. Ecology/Paleoecology of Bryozoans 1. Sessile benthonic; most normal marine [a few (12 genera) are freshwater]

You're Reading a Preview 2. Lithology = most in calcareous rocks (limestone, calcareous shales and shelly marls); rar Unlock full access black shales, dolomites and quartzose clastic rockswith a free trial. 3. Biotic Association Download With Free Trial Paleozoic = most with sessile benthonic organisms (solitary corals, articulate brachiopods, echinoderms) Post-Paleozoic = mostly with mollusks, sponges, octocorals

Master your semester with Scribd  shelve 4. In both ancient and recent sediments most often found in sediments of continental Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  and around coral reefs (often contribute to reef buildup by trapping sediments) & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

5. Factors controlling distribution

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- Upper Paleozoic mostly slender branching colonies and lace-like types (fenestellids)

- during Upper Cretaceous the Cheilostomata expanded to approximately 100 genera, where t are well-preserved within chalk deposits - Lower Tertiary with rapid and abundant changes in morphology

- Upper Tertiary with many geographic shifts in distribution, but less origination and extincti versus Lower Tertiary

X. The Sturdy Brachiopods

Phylum Brachiopoda - lophophore-bearing marine coelomates; related to bryozoans and phoronid worms; 1700 fossil and extant genera, 30,000 extinct species; approximately 260 ex species A. Biology 1. Soft Parts

You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. a. Lophophore - complex ciliated, feeding organ surrounding the mouth; consists of pair of coiled arms (brachia) with ciliated, tentacle-like Download cirri With Free Trial

b. Mantle - two folds of body wall that line the inner surface of the valves; outer fold secretes shell and inner fold separates 2 cavities

Master your semester with Scribd c. Cavities & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- Body (coelomic) cavity in posterior 1/3 of shell; main body occupies body cavity

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(adductor), pedicle (muscular) attachment]; Inarticulates with 1-2 adductors (close valves), 3 pairs of oblique muscles; muscle scar morphology is important in brachiopod taxonomy

2. Reproduction and Life Cycle - Sexes separate - commonly with free swimming larval stage whose head attaches to bottom to form benthon adult form 3. Skeleton a. Bilaterally symmetrical (line must be drawn across valves; pelecypod with line drawn between valves); valves in brachiopods unequal b. Bivalved - Dorsal (brachial) valve = contains lophophore - Ventral (pedicle) valve = larger valve which has muscular pedicle at posterior end - Valves hinged (articulates) or unhinged (inarticulates) You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access with a free trial. c. Morphology of articulate brachiopods:

Foramen = pedicle opening


Beak = pointed extremity of valve where shell growth begins Commissure = junction between edges of valves

Master your semester with Scribd Hinge line = edge of shell where valves articulate & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Cardinal extremity = lateral terminus of hinge line


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Umbo = relatively convex portion of valve next to (anterior to) beak Interarea = plane or curved surface between beak and hinge line on either valve B. Brachiopod classification

1. Class Inarticulata - shell chitinophosphatic or calcareous; shell punctate (perforated by fine tubes or pores from interior to almost the outer surface; for respiration when valve is closed) or impunctate (solid layers); valves never articulated by teeth and sockets; muscles and body wall hold valves together; attachment by pedicle or no attachment; Range: Lower Cambrian-Recent - Major orders include Paterinida, Lingulida, Acrotretida, and Obolellida

a. Order Lingulida - Cambrian to Recent; shells primarily composed of calcium phosphate; shells biconvex, and oval to squarish in outline; lingulids burrow into soft sediment, where they are anchored by th long pedicle b. Order Acrotretida - Cambrian to Recent; shells generally subcircular to circular, unequally biconvex, and often You're Reading a Preview have a pedicle opening; craniaceans have no pedicle and cement their ventral valve to the Unlock full access with a free trial. substrate

c. Order Obolellida Download With Free Trial - Cambrian only; valves circular to oval; ventral valve with a pseudo-interarea and with a ped opening

2. Class Articulata - Shell calcareous, punctate (perforated by fine tubes or pores from interior to almostthe oute Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title surface), impunctate (solid layers) or pseudopunctate (lack pores but fibrous layer withrod-li  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. calcite; differential weathering gives appearance of being punctate); valves articulated by hin Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. teeth and sockets; Lower Cambrian-Recent


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pedicle foramen very minute or lacking; Lower Ordovician - Triassic

- Suborder Productidina (Productacea) - interareas reduced or lacking, spines distributed over shell surface; Devonian - Permian

c. Order Pentamerida - probably evolved from the Orthida; with strongly biconvex valves that are smooth or finely costate; with robust pedicle spondylium (curved plate in midline of beak on pedicle valve for muscle attachment); open delthyrium (opening in pedicle valve adjacent to hinge line; not covered by a deltidium); impunctate shell; interareas commonly small; hinge line short or moderately long; 2 orders; Middle Cambrian-Upper Devonian d. Order Rhynchonellida - probably evolved from pentamerids; shell typically biconvex; interareas, pedicle and hinge length highly variable; punctate or impunctate; spiral brachidium; Mid Ordovician-Recent; 3 Suborders (some say superfamilies)

e. Order Spiriferida - shell typically biconvex; interareas, pedicle and hinge length highly variable; punctate or impunctate; spiral brachidium "points" toward cardinal extremities; Mid-Ordovician-Jurassic You're Reading a Preview Suborders Unlock full access with a free trial.

- Suborder Spiriferidina (Spiriferacea) = impunctate shells, long hinge lines; surfaces marked ribs (costae) and plications (internal Download and external corrugations); With Free Trial Middle Silurian - Early Juras

f. Order Terebratulida - most abundant modern brachiopods; typically biconvex shells with short hinge line; shell surface smooth or finely costate; interarea on pedicle valve only; punctate; functional pedicle  complex looped brachidium (calcareous support for lophophore); Range: Lower DevonianRead Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Recent


C. Ecology of Brachiopods

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6. Substrate - may prefer hard substrates D. Paleoecology of Brachiopods 1. Paleobathymetry - water depth

- Paleozoic = essentially all shallow-water forms; Cambrian/Ordovician articulates and inarticulates found mostly in sandy and shelly facies indicative of littoral zone; Many associa with reef facies (Ex. = Permian Delaware Basin, Texas); Productids lived in the shallow basin few on the shelf; a few associated with graptolites were probably pelagic (attached to floating seaweeds) - Mesozoic-Tertiary = Essentially all deeper water forms originated during Mesozoic - postMesozoic - Essentially all inarticulates at shallow depth (most less than 60 feet) 2. Biotic Association - Paleozoic with very abundant brachiopods and probably very important link in food chain - some with possibly symbiotic relationships with corals (?)

3. Attachment - Fossil brachiopods variously attached pedicles; some first attached by pedicle but later pedi atrophies and leaves shell free on substrate (Strophomenida); attached by cementation to hard substrates; originally cemented but later free on substrate (commonly with concave-convex shells such as productids; anchored or attached by spines); some types with byssus-like threa attaching to substrate

Master your semester with Scribd E. Biostratigraphy of Brachiopods & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- Cambrian dominated by trilobites and inarticulate brachiopods

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- Tremendous decrease in numbers in Late Permian - Early Mesozoic - Few Mesozoic forms (mostly rhynchonellids and terebratulids; Terebratuloids found throughout Tertiary worldwide)

XI. Worms, Burrows, Trails, and Other Problematica

A. Worms of Various Phyla - a number of largely unrelated forms (the "Vermes" of older classifications) have been considered as "worms"; these include the priapulid worms (Nemertea), flatworms (Platyhelminthes), peanut worms (Siphunculoida), roundworms (Nematoda or Nemathelminthes), horsehair worms (Nematomorpha), and segmented worms (Annelida; the only phylum commonly preserved as fossils) 1. Phylum Annelida - segmented worms, including earthworms (Oligochaeta), leeches (Hirudinea) and marine bristleworms (Polychaeta) a. Annelid Biology - composed of many ringlike, similar segments, and with segmentation of internal structures including nerves, muscles, circulatory, excretory and reproductive organs

b. Annelid Paleontology - members of a few polychaete orders possess pharyngeal jaws (scolecodonts), including a ventral pair (mandibles) for chewing, a series of asymmetrical paired maxillae for manipulati food, and a basal pair (carriers) that support the posterior maxillae; some polychaetes secrete agglutinated tubes by cementing sand grains, shell fragments or debris with mucus, or secrete about 1 calcareous shells that are commonly preserved as fossils (Exs. = Spirorbis, Serpula); Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  genera of polychaetes known; Proterozoic?, Cambrian to Recent


B. Ichnology

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c. no secondary transport (therefore good indicators of original sedimentological conditions

d. prefer clastic sediments - trace fossils are often formed in environments hostile to the preservation of body fossils, suc as beach sands and deep marine shales e. not usually affected by diagenesis 2. Sedimentological uses of trace fossils a. Rate of deposition - Slow, continuous deposition typically with complete bioturbation - Rapid, continuous deposition with no trace fossils except escape structures b. Substrate consistency - Silty and muddy substrates with deposit feeders - Clean, well sorted (high energy) sediments with specialized suspension feeders - Soft substrates- soft bodied forms - Firm substrates-crustaceans (with claw marks) - Hard substrates- mechanical or chemical borers c. Paleobathymetry- determining ancient water depth; the major use of trace fossils Ichnofacies Include: c1. Scoyenia Ichnofacies - curvilinear rods with wrinkled or striated surfaces; horizontal to vertical; insect burrows?; found in nonmarine environments

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  c2. Trypanites Ichnofacies & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - borings into fully consolidated substrates on rocky coasts, in beach rock, reefs and Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

hardgrounds.

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- large spreite- filled feeding loops found below wave base and above turbidite zone (zone of churners; also with worm-like Phycosiphon in muds) c7. Nereites Ichnofacies - zone of systematic grazers and farmers with densely meandering horizontal feeding traces ( Nereites) or leaf-like traces ( Oldhamia); zone of systematic grazers and farmers 3. Descriptive-Genetic Classification of Trace Fossils a. Tracks and Trails a1. Track - impression left in underlying sediment by a podium or foot a2. Trackway - succession of tracks indicating directed locomotion

a3. Trail - directed locomotion produces a superficial groove made by contact of the anima body OR continuous subsurface structure made by a mobile endobenthic/infaunal organism b. Burrows and Borings

You're Reading a Preview b1. Boring - excavation made in consolidated or firm substrates (e.g., shell, rock, bone, wo Unlock full access with a free trial. etc.) b2. Burrow - excavation in loose, Download unconsolidated sediment With Free Trial

b3. Burrow or Boring System - highly ramified or interconnected burrows or borings, typi involving shafts and tunnels

Master your semester withinfilling Scribd b4. Burrow Casts - sediments a burrow & The New York Times c. Bioturbation Texture Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- texture or fabric due to disturbance of sediments by organisms (bioturbation); often consists

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b. Repichnia - crawling traces; trackways, superficial trails, etc.

c. Pascichnia - grazing traces; grooves, pits, and furrows due to mobile deposit feeders ("strip-miners") at o near the surface of the substrate

d. Fodinichnia - feeding structures; temporary burrows due to deposit feeders ("underground miners"); often form single, branched or unbranched shafts or U-shaped burrows OR spreite structures e. Domichnia - dwelling structures; burrows or tubes representing "permanent" domiciles, mostly of suspension feeders; form simple, bifurcated or U-shaped structures perpendicular or inclined angles to the bedding OR branching burrow systems

f. Fugichnia (Escape Structures) - substrate degradation or aggradation results in displacement of animals upward or downwar with respect to the original substrate surface; often forms vertically repetitive traces

You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access with a free trial. XII. Animals in Three Parts: the Trilobites

A. Phylum Arthropoda


1. Biology a. Segmented exoskeleton (somites, metameres); paired jointed legs on most segments; (most bilaterally symmetrical; body consists of two or more distinct regions, termed Tagma Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  differentiated into head, thorax and abdomen)


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with branching tubular processes (tracheae) Circulatory = heart on dorsal side, with arteries but no veins

d. Reproduction and Ontogeny - sexes usually separate, fertilization usually internal; after hatching pronounced changes in b form (metamorphism) occur in many types 2. Classification

- There is much diversity in the classification of arthropods. Some authors consider the Arthropoda as a superphylum that is subdivided into the Phylum Unirama (Classes Onychophora, Myriapoda and Insecta), Phylum Chelicerata (Classes Xiphosura, Eurypterida Scorpionida and Arachnida), Phylum Crustacea (Classes Branchiopoda, Cirripedia, Malacost and Ostracoda) and Phylum Trilobitomorpha (Classes Trilobita and Trilobitoidea). I have chosen a classification system that is a bit more conservative and traditional. The numbers o described fossil genera are given (in parentheses) and the geologic ranges of each taxon given Phylum Arthropoda Superclass Trilobitomorpha: Proterozoic(?); Cambrian-Permian You're Reading a Preview Class Trilobita (1401); Cambrian-Permian Unlock full access withProterozoic(?); a free trial. Class(es) Uncertain including "Trilobitoidea" (16); Cambrian-Devonian Superclass Crustacea: Proterozoic(?); Cambrian-Holocene Download With Free Trial Class Brachiopoda (119); Proterozoic(?); Cambrian-Holocene Class Malacostraca (586); Cambrian-Holocene Class Ostracoda (1900); Cambrian-Holocene Class Cirripedia (107); Silurian-Holocene Class Euthycarcinoidea (2); Triassic Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Class Copepoda (2); Miocene-Holocene  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Class Cephalocarida (1); Camprian-Holocene Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Class Mystacocarida; Holocene


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Class Collembola (25); Devonian-Holocene Class Insecta (approximately 5,000); Pennsylvanian-Holocene Class Protura; Holocene Class Diplura (2); Tertiary-Holocene Superclass Onychophora: Cambrian-Holocene Class(es) uncertain (2); Cambrian-Holocene Superclass Pentastomida: Holocene Class Linguatulida; Holocene Superclass Tardigrada: Holocene Class Eutardigrada; Holocene Class Heterotardigrada; Holocene Superclass Pycnogonida: Devonian-Holocene Class Pantopoda (1); Devonian-Holocene In this section I will review the characters of the major superclasses (or whatever they are) of paleontological importance.

B. Superclass Trilobitomorpha - aquatic arthropods with antennae; no appendages specialized as mouthparts; Geologic Rang Cambrian - Permian

You're Reading a Preview 1. Classes Uncertain Unlock fullfossils access with a free confused; trial. – the taxonomy of Cambrian arthropod-like is very in the past they have bee lumped into the "Trilobitoidea"; some species such as Anomalocaris are now placed within t Protarthropoda (separate and considered to be more Download With primitive Free Trialthan the “true” Arthropoda) - the Middle Cambrian Burgess Shale fauna of British Columbia has fossils with preserved so part anatomy; most forms have the first pair of appendages modified into antennae with the o appendages undifferentiated

Master your with Scribd 2. Classsemester Trilobita & The New York Times a. Soft Parts Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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b. Hard Parts b1. Exoskeleton mineralized, chitinous

b2. Body divided transversely into cephalon (head shield or tagma), thorax (series of separ articulate segments); pygidium (tail shield or tagma)

b3. Body longitudinally trilobed - with 1 axial lobe (probably contained internal organs) pleural lobes (lateral to axial lobe and probably to protect appendages or for hydrofoils; pleur = lateral thoracic segments) b4. Facial sutures - line along which exoskeleton of head split when trilobite molted; may be limited to margin cephalon or pass as fine line along dorsal surface of cheek - Opisthoparian suture = crosses cheek, passes along medial border of eye and intersects posterior margin of cephalon medial to genal angle (Genal angle = posterior lateral corner of cephalon) You're Reading a Preview Unlock full with a free trial. along medial edge of eye, - Proparian suture = crosses dorsal surface ofaccess cephalon, passes intersects lateral border of cephalon in front of genal angle Download With Free Trial - Gonatoparian suture = bisects genal angle

- Marginal suture = suture entirely along lateral edge of cephalon

Master your semester Scribd  Other Features Important with in Classification Include: Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - Cranidium = central part of cephalon including axial lobe and bounded by the facial suture Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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c. Classification of the Class Trilobita - typically in seven to eight orders (some authors have as few at two!), 13 suborders, 30 superfamilies based primarily on 1) cephalic axial characters (glabella, shape, furrows, etc.), pattern of facial sutures, 3) morphology of pygidium (especially caudalization)

c1. Order Agnostida = smallest trilobites; eyeless (except 1 family) trilobites with subequa cephalon and pygidium; possess only 2-3 thoracic segments; probably planktonic; 2 suborders; Lower Cambrian - Upper Ordovician

c2. Order Redlichiida = first trilobites; large and spinose; large, semicircular, relatively wi cephalon; typically large genal spines; numerous thoracic segments; facial sutures opisthoparian or fused; Glabellar segments typically distinct; pygidium small to rudimentary; eyes commonly form elongate crescents; 3 suborders; Lower to Midd Cambrian

c3. Order Corynexochida = subelliptical, typically with large pygidium, cephalon semicirc (commonly with large genal spines); glabella distinct, expands forward; eyes elonga and narrow; Opisthoparian sutures; rostral plate fused with hypostoma or rudiment Thorax with 5-11 segments with spinose pleurae; Lower to Upper Cambrian You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access withmore a free trial. c4. Order Ptychopariida = typically opisthoparian, rarely proparian or with marginal sutures; three or more thoracic segments present; pygidium small (early) to large; e more distinct from eye ridges than in With Redlichiida. Glabella typically tapers forward Download Free Trial (thought to be closely related to Redlichiida and ancestral to all post-Cambrian trilobites except agnostids, but may be a polyphyletic group); 5 suborders, 26 superfamilies; Cambrian - Ordovician

Master your semester c5. Order Phacopida = with typicallyScribd proparian or gonatoparian, rarely opisthoparian. Glabella Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title either expanding or tapering forward. Pygidium typically medium to large; 3 & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful suborders: Lower Ordovician to Upper Devonian Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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narrow and backwardly tapering rostral plate, opisthoparian, eyes holochroal and usually large, long hypostome. Thorax with eight to ten segments. Isopygous pygidium, with pygidium usually furrowed and not spiny; Ordovician - Permian.

d. Paleoecology - Marine only - Larvae probably mostly planktonic/nektonic, adults probably mostly benthonic but many in other environments Adaptations versus environment: - Vagile benthonic tendencies include reduction or loss of pygidia - some Odontopleurida with ventral cephalic spines to prop themselves on sea floor - Burrowing (fossorial) trilobites with pygidia with large surfaces (many incurved); lose exte sculpture; eyes reduced or lost (or eyes tall); prominent pygidial spines (also serve as moorin function) - Nektonic trilobites with pygidia with large surfaces; bodies lightly constructed; large eyes; expanded glabella (may have contained fat); ovate body shape - Planktonic trilobites with very spinose forms; expanded glabella; ovate body shape

e. Biostratigraphy - important index fossils in the Cambrian with a number of biozones; als used in the Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. D. Superclass Onychophora ("Velvet worms") - wormlike arthropods that represent "missing links" between the segmented worms (annelids and the joint-legged segmented arthropods Download With Free Trial - Fossil onychophorans are marine; Modern onychophorans are usually found in dense tropic rain forests beneath rocks and boulders and in humus - Cambrian - Holocene

Master your semester with Scribd XIII. Crustaceans & The New York Times Phylum Arthropoda, Superclass Crustacea Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- free swimming larval stage settles down on head, lose bivalve shell; attach by antennules; secrete overlapping calcareous plates; food brought to mouth by biramous and fringed legs; 5 orders; Silurian - Holocene - marine, mostly shallow water; food plankton and organic detritus, some parasitic

2. Class Branchiopoda - "fairy shrimp", "brine shrimp", "waterfleas" - most primitive crustaceans; large number of body segments (some with more than 40 somit small, shrimp-like animals; leaflike appendages; carapace univalved or carapace absent; Rang Proterozoic(?); Cambrian - Recent - fresh to brackish water; supersaline water (brine shrimp), rarely normal marine; tolerates wi variety of temperature and drying and freezing of pools - 3 superorders and 4-7 orders; only 1 order (conchostracans) important as fossils

Order Conchostraca = chitinous + calcium carbonate carapace consists of 2 flaps continuous across the dorsal region; useful in microbiostratigraphy (mainly because preserved in high str environments - glacial lakes, supersaline conditions)

3. Class Copepoda - the Copepods are the most abundant zooplankton in the World's oceans (there are also inclu You're Reading a Preview benthonic and parasitic representatives); they are common in temperate and subpolar waters Unlock long, full access with free trial.exoskeleton and 2 bristly antenn - copepods are about 0.3 to 8 millimeters with a ajointed that form a filter-feeding device in front of the mouth Download With Free Trial 4. Class Malacostraca - lobsters, crabs, crayfish, shrimp, also sandhoppers and pill bugs (sow bugs) - Most with body composed of approximately 20 segments (6 fused to form head, 8 thorax, 6 abdomen; also 1 telson on end of abdomen); appendages present on all body segments; anteri  antennules uniramous, 1 pair biramous antennae; 1 pair heavy mandibles, 2 lighter pairs Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  maxillae; 2 superorders; 5-8 orders; Range:Cambrian-Recent Useful  Not useful  anytime.swamp and lagoona - marine, freshwater, terrestrial; most decapods in littoral zone; Cancel estuarine, Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. environments often favored by fossil forms (Ex. = Pennsylvanian coal swamps); decapods


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thorax; carapace bivalved, with hinged articulation; inside of shell with central and dorsal mu scar fields (muscle scars used in classification) - omnivores, herbivores, some scavengers and a few commensal or parasitic; freshwater, brackish, marine, some terrestrial (forest humus); almost all latitudes and depths (but most ab photic zone); most pelagic and benthic from shoreline to several thousand meters - useful for biostratigraphy (abundant in many environments) - 6 orders (1 of these uncertain); Lower Cambrian - Recent; the following two are the most important

Order Palaeocopida (Beyrichicopida) = carapace well calcified; long, straight cardinal margin many with lobes and sulci; Ordovician - Triassic, Tertiary(?)-Recent(?); includes most Paleozoic ostracodes (500 genera)

Order Podocopida= carapace well calcified; adductor muscle scars (close valves) welldeveloped; includes all recent freshwater forms and most modern marine) Geologic Ran Ordovician - Recent; inclues most Mesozoic and Cenozoic ostracodes (1200 genera)

XIV. Arthropods from Shoals to Air You're Reading a Preview

full access with a free trial. A. Phylum Arthropoda, Superclass Unlock Chelicerata (Cheliceriformes) - body consists of prosoma (cephalothorax) and opisthosoma (abdomen; usually 12 segments Prosoma with 6 pairs of appendagesDownload (2-4 jointed pincers chelicerae, chelae; pedipalps With Free = Trial (orginally for locomotion but modified for grasping, sensing, or chewing); no antennae; aqua or terrestrial; scavengers or carnivores; Cambrian - Recent

1. Class Merostomata - body typically divided into two parts (a cephalothorax/prosoma and an abdominal  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  tagma/opisthosoma); with anterior claws (chelicerae); opisthosomal appendages biramous, w Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. bears a spine (tels one branch serving as a gill; with 150-200 thin leaf gills; terminal segment Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. marine, freshwater; Cambrian - Recent


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- Classification = approximately 19 genera - Paleoecology = found in fresh or brackish water but NOT generally found with "normal marine" invertebrates; possibly preferred lagoonal with high and low salinities; nektonic; carnivorous Biostratigraphy: Ordovician - Permian (most common Silurian - Devonian) 2. Class Arachnida - includes scorpions, spiders, ticks, mites

a. Biology = body with cephalothorax and abdomen (fused in ticks and mites); cephalothor bears 6 pairs appendages ( no antennae or mandibles); first two appendages modified for feed last four for locomotion; air-breathing, with respiration by book lungs (leaf-like plates contai blood vessels) or tracheae (ramified tubules) b. Classification = 5 orders based primarily on segmentation (number of segments; fused unfused) and form of chelicerae (scorpions with pincers, spiders without) c. Ecology/Paleoecology - terrestrial, solitary, carnivorous or parasitic d. Biostratigraphy: Silurian - Recent You're Reading a Preview Scorpions = Upper Silurian-Recent Unlock full access with a free trial. Spiders = Middle Devonian-Recent (approximately Download With 250 Freefossil Trial species) Ticks and mites = Devonian-Recent; very sparse fossil record B. Phylum Arthropoda, Superclass Myriapoda

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  1. Biology & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - wormlike, with multiple segments bearing legs; single pair antennae; mandible "toothed" fo Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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chewing; skeleton chitinous (may be strengthened by carbonates); air breathing through trach

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Holocene 3. Ecology/Paleoecology - terrestrial; Chilopoda carnivorous; Diplopoda primarily eat decaying vegetation; fossil representatives probably similar in habits C. Phylum Arthropoda, Superclass Hexapoda, Class Insecta - Hexapoda includes four classes; only Class Insecta with extensive fossil record

1. Biology - Body with three distinct tagma (head, thorax, abdomen); head with 1 pair antennae; compou eyes; 3 pairs mouth parts (1 pair mandibles, 2 pairs maxillae); 3 thoracic segments with pair o jointed legs on each; wings often present; abdomen usually with 11 segments or fewer (6-8); respiration by tracheae; sexes generally separate; many with metamorphosis 2. Classification - approximately 25 to 30 orders; over 1 million modern species and approximately 13,000 fossil species a. Apterygota - small, wingless insects (include the bristletails and their kin); Devonian - Recent You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access with a free trial. b. Palaeoptera - primitive winged insects that lack the ability to fold their wings - the Palaeoptera may be a paraphyletic group With Free Trial Download

b1. Protodonata - "ancestral dragonflies" (often differentiated into the Palaeodictyptera and Megasecoptera); wingspreads up to 0.7 to 0.75 meters and bodies 0.3 to 0.4 meters long; Pennsylvanian - Permian

Master your semester with Scribd b2. Odonata (dragonflies) = Early Permian - Recent & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

c. Neoptera


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c6. Lepidoptera (butterflies) = Cretaceous - Recent c7. Blattodea (cockroaches) = Pennsylvanian - Recent 3. Ecology/Paleoecology - essentially all environments; primarily terrestrial but many with aquatic larvae 4. Biostratigraphy - sometimes useful in microbiostratigraphy; Geologic Range: Middle Devonian - Recent - Note: The millipedes, centipedes and insects are often placed within a "phylum" or "subphylum" Uniramia, based upon the shared presence of uniramous appendages in these groups

XV. Snails and Their Kin A. Phylum Hyolitha - sometimes grouped with the molluscs

You're Reading a Preview 1. Biology Unlockapical full access with a free trial. - operculate, shell elongate and tapering; portion commonly with septa; most species w elongate paired structures (props) Download With Free Trial - Order Hyolithida with a ligula (anterior shelf-like extension of the aperture) and a helens (th scimitar-shaped lateral appendages between the operculum and conch; for stabilization?)

2. Paleoecology  (used - originally believed to be planktonic/nektonic but now believed to be vagile benthonic Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  props to "pole" animal across substrate?) or sessile benthonic; may have been deposit-feeders


3. Biostratigraphy

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a. Soft Parts a1. Unsegmented (except Monoplacopherans) but probably share common ancestry with "segmented" arthropods and annelids a2. bilateral symmetry (except gastropods) a3. Body regions Head = with tentacles and eyes (lost in bivalves) Foot = ventral and muscular

Visceral Mass (visceral hump) = coiled in gastropods; internal organs concentrated in this ma Mantle (Pallium) = dorsal soft skin or sheet of tissue overgrowing visceral mass; secretes calcareous shell with an organic matrix

Mantle cavity = space at posterior end of visceral mass containing paired gills (Ctenidia) used You're Reading a Preview breathing and (in bivalves) for filter-feeding; anus, excretory and reproductive systems open Unlock full access with a free trial. the mantle cavity a4. Digestive Tract Download With Free Trial - with mouth, commonly with jaws; buccal cavity with radula (horny ribbon for rasping)

a5. Organs and organ system - usually 3-chambered heart, usually 1 pair of gills or with lung, sexes usually separate; hermaphroditism (both sexes in same animal) widespread; usually trochophore larva(free, Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title swimming ciliated larva), followed by veliger larva (top-shaped with equatorial flange(velum  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. bearing cilia); or NO larval stages


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Foliated structure= mica-like Nacreous structure = thick aragonite layers separated by organic substance Homogeneous structure = no structure under plane light 2. Classification Class Aplacophora = no shell, worm-like; no fossil record Class Monoplacophora Class Polyplacophora Class Scaphopoda Class Gastropoda Class Rostroconchia Class Bivalvia (Pelecypoda) Class Cephalopoda D. Phylum Mollusca - Class Monoplacophora 1. Anatomy


a. Soft Parts - 1 living species with segmentation Download (paired gills, muscles and other structures) With Free Trial b. Hard parts - cap, spoon-shaped or arched single shell; shell aragonite or aragonite + calcite

2. Classification - 4 orders; bellerophontids are the most important fossils (Cambrian - Ear  Triassic) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd  & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  3. Paleoecology - most Early to Mid Paleozoic in epicontinental seas; during Late Paleozoi Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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or Early Mesozoic moved to deeper water; most were probably deposit feeders

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b. Hard Parts - aragonite shell composed of eight overlapping, articulate plates (valves) in series along mid dorsal line or No shell - fossils of chitons typically consist of loose, disarticulated valves 2. Classification - 2 orders differentiated by valve structure

3. Ecology/Paleoecology - marine, vagile benthonic (sluggish bottom crawlers); live on or under rocks, typically withi the intertidal zone; herbivores, omnivores 4. Biostratigraphy - Late Cambrian to Recent; most abundant in Cenozoic F. Phylum Mollusca - Class Scaphopoda - "tusk shells" 1. Anatomy

a. Soft parts You're Reading a Preview - elongate body; head and appendages project from wider anterior opening (aperture); other e Unlock full access a free trial. of shell (apex) extends above sea floor surface andwith produces exhalent/inhalent currents; head with many prehensile processes (captacula) protruding from large gills which collect food Download With Free Trial b. Hard parts - 3-layered tusk-like aragonite shell; apex may be simple, slitted or notched; tube upright 2. Classification - two families based primarily on ornamentation

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 3. Ecology/Paleoecology Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- marine, semi-infaunal benthonic deposit-feeding burrowers; usually sublittoral or bathyal

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b. Hard Parts - where present shell (conch) is single (univalve), calcareous (mostly aragonite; mostly lamel and nacreous structure) b1. Types of Coiling Planispiral - coiling in a single plane

Pseudoplanispiral - shell coiled in a single plane, but cannot be divided into symmetrical halv by this plane

Conispiral - coiling deviates greatly from a single plane; spirally wound - most conispiral shells are coiled clockwise down the cone (dextral), but a few are coiled in a counterclockwise direction (sinistral) b2. Morphology of conchs Apex = tip of shell; point of beginning of shell growth

You're Reading a Preview Whorl = single complete loop of a spiral shell Unlock full access with a free trial.

Suture = junction between two whorls Download With Free Trial Spire = coiled gastropod shell exclusive of body whorl Body whorl = last formed single complete loop of a spiral shell

Master your semester withattached Scribd  Operculum = plate-like structure to the snail's foot; protects the animal by sealing th Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  aperture (opening) & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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2. Classification - 3 subclasses based on torsion and gill position

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a3. Order Neogastropoda - single left gill; shells conispiral with siphonal notch or canal; carnivores; Range: Cretaceous to Recent (these are the dominant Cenozoic and mod snails)

b. Subclass Opisthobranchia - with detorsion and one gill; shell tends to be reduced or abs (therefore poor fossil record except for the pteropods = marine nektonic; often thin shell; often operculate; Geologic Range: U.Cretaceous - Recent)

c. Subclass Pulmonata - most shell-bearing but lack operculum; with detorsion; Mantle acts as a lung; Most terrestrial and freshwater; Geologic Range: Pennsylvanian - Rec 3. Ecology/Paleoecology - most shallow marine, herbivorous, vagile benthonic Prosobranchia = most marine, some freshwater, few terrestrial Opisthobranchia = only important fossil is pteropods (exclusively marine) Pulmonata = terrestrial or fresh water You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. 4. Biostratigraphy - Range: Lower Cambrian to Recent - Useful on a species level and for local biostratigraphy Carboniferous, Permian, Cretaceou Download With FreeinTrial but no specific bizones

XVI. Bivalves: Clams, Mussels, and Oysters

Master your semester with Scribd Phylum Mollusca - Class Bivalvia (Pelecypoda) & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

A. Biology


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- Shell bivalved, of calcium carbonate (calcite, aragonite or both); shell with 2-3 layers Shell Morphology: - Dorsal = direction toward part of shell containing hinge line - Beak = sharp-pointed projection; inital point of shell growth - Anterior = part of shell containing mouth (beaks of most pelecypods point anteriorly) - Growth line = concentric lines parallel to shell margin - Ventral = lies opposite hinge line - Umbo = strongly convex portion of valve adjacent to beak

- Hinge line = edge of valve along dorsal margin that is in permanent contact with opposite v

- Lunule = depressed plane or curved area along hinge line in front of beak, equivalent to ante part of cardinal area You're Reading a Preview Unlock full access withhinge a free trial. - Escutcheon = depressed plane or curved area along line behind beak, equivalent to posterior part of cardinal area Download With Free Trial - Plane of commissure = surface approximately coinciding with valve margins

- Hinge plane = edge of valve along dorsal margin which is in permanent contact with opposi valve

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title - Hinge teeth = projections from hinge plate for articulation of valves & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- Lateral teeth = projections from hinge plate nearly parallel to hinge line, situated in front or

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- Ligament area = portion of surface along hinge line to which ligament is attached

- Posterior = shell direction toward anus and siphonal opening (usually opposite beak inclina

- Adductor scar = impression on inside of valve made by attachment of muscle which functio for closure of valve

- Pallial sinus = inward deflection of posterior part of pallial line, defining space for retractio siphons - Pallial line = ventral linear depression on inside of shell

- Ligament groove = linear depression in cardinal area or ligament area masking attachment o ligament fibers - Cardinal area = plane or curved surface between beak and hinge line - Valve = part of shell lying on either side of hinge line B. Classification of Bivalves


1. Most important features for classifying fossil bivalve shells are: Download With Free Trial a. Dentition - important at all taxonomic levels; most important types of dentition are Edentulous (simple hinge type; with ligament but lacks teeth), Taxodont (many small short teeth of variable shap which most often occupy most of the length of the dorsal margin), Actinodont (dentition  composed of pseudocardinal and pseudolateral teeth), Cyrtodont (lacks cardinal teeth), Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Parallelodont (posterior lateral teeth parallel to dorsal margin), Isodont (two subequal promin Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. hinge teeth on one valve and corresponding sockets in the other), Heterodont (teeth are separa Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. by an edentulous space; teeth are of distinct type with cardinals beneath beak and laterals in f


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2. Bivalve Taxonomy - superfamily level of bivalve classification is most stable and is often used to divide the biva into major groups; with more than 50 superfamilies (but we will only cover the following subclasses)

a. Subclass Palaeotaxodonta - Early Cambrian to Holocene - stratigraphically oldest and anatomically the most primitive pelecypods - all marine and infaunal; most detritus feeders; palaeotaxodont nuculoids burrow into sedime and gather food particles with the fleshy extensions of their labial palps - no adult byssus (thread-like attachment structures); usually with equivalved shell and taxod teeth (with numerous, approximately equal, undifferentiated hinge teeth)

b. Subclass Isofilibranchia - Early Cambrian to Holocene - most shallow marine or brackish, some freshwater; mainly epibenthic, sedentary and attach a well-developed byssus - with simple tooth structure or edentulous (lack hinge teeth); typically heteromyarian (poster adductor scar large) and integripalliate (pallial line forms a simple arc); anterior portion of va You're Reading a Preview typically greatly reduced Unlock full access with a free trial.

c. Subclass Pteriomorpha - Early Ordovician - Holocene Download With Free Trial - most shallow marine, some estuarine, few freshwater; all suspension feeders ; byssate or cemented to substrate as adults - most with reduced anterior end and develop lobes, auricles and/or wings; many are inequivalved; typically isomyarian (adductor scars are equal size) and lack well-developed  inhalent and exhalent siphons; dentition variable Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - include arc shells, oysters, pen shells, file shells and scallops


d. Subclass Heteroconchia (Heterodonta)

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C. Class Rostroconchia - earliest Cambrian through latest Permian; probable ancestors of the Bivalvia and Scaphopod - usually with small shells (less than 2 centimeters) but some Devonian types with shells up t centimeters - consist of bivalve shells that were joined permanently across the top (formed a "taco shell"structure); shell apparently broke periodically along the margin to allow growth - posterior portion of shell typically developed into an elongate tube

XVII. Feet Before Heads: the Nautiloids and Their Relatives

A. Phylum Mollusca - Class Cephalopoda - Probably the most studied group of fossil invertebrates; have been used extensively as index fossils 1. Biology a. Soft Parts

You're Reading a Preview - Body = bilaterally symmetrical; most planispiral Unlock full access with a free trial.

- Head = well developed; anterior in position; mouth with crown of mobile and prehensile tentacles and contains radula and upper and lower jaws; Download With Freeeyes Trialwell-developed; hood located above head (tough, fleshy operculum for closure of aperture when head is retracted into the s - Foot = highly modified; with hyponome (muscular funnel or siphon for powerful exhalent water current ejection for jet propulsion)

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - Gills = single pair in dibranchiates (ex. Octopus); two pairs in tetrabranchiates (ex. Nautilu & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- Body Systems = heart 2-3 chambered; Respiratory system complex; Nervous system highly

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- Living chamber = large open receptacle for soft parts - Camera = gas chamber in shell - Phragmocone (phrag) = chambered portion of conch behind living chamber - Adapertural (adoral) = portion of conch nearest aperture - Adapical = portion of conch nearest apex - Venter = part of whorl farthest from axis of coiling - Dorsum = portion of conch which is uppermost - Septum = curved calcareous partition dividing shell into chambers - Suture = line of junction of septum with walls of shell - Saddle = forward (adapertural) flexure of suture

You're Reading a Preview - Lobe = flexure of suture toward rear (adapically) Unlock full access with a free trial.

- Protoconch = initial chamber of shell Download With Free Trial - Siphuncle = tube extending from back of living chamber through septa to protoconch - Connecting ring = calcareous ring forming wall of siphuncle between septa

Master your semester with Scribd  - Umbilicus = depression (or in some an opening) in axis of coiling formed by diminishing w Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  of whorls towards axis & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- Annulus = line along which animal is attached to wall of living chamber

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- Orthocone = straight, slender shell - Lituiticone = coiled in early stage, straight at maturity (named after Lituites) - Brevicone = short, blunt shell - Longicone = long shell - Ascocone = with slender curved early stage and short, blunt mature stage in which gas chambers overlie living chamber (named after Ascoceras) - Gyrocone = loosely coiled shell (like Gyroceras) - Advolute shell = coiled, whorls touching - Involute = type of coiled shell in which part of outer whorl extends in toward center of coil covered part of adjacent inner whorl - Convolute shell (nautilicone) = outer whorls embracing inner ones (like Nautilus)

You're Reading a Preview - Conispiral (trochoid) = coiled like a screw Unlock full access with a free trial.

- Planispiral = type of coiled shell in which whorls lie in a single plane Download With Free Trial - Heteromorph = ammonoid shell type in which shell is NOT planispiral and/or in which wal coil are not in contact b3. Types of Sutures:

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - Goniatite suture = type of suture characterized by simple fluting consisting of single series o & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful lobes and saddles (i.e., with first order lobes and saddles); flexures undivided (Devonian Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Permian; 1 Triassic genus, 1 Cretaceous genus)

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- small to large conchs, shells orthoconic (straight), Cyrtoconic (curved, slender), coiled-invo (part of adjacent inner whorls covered); siphuncle position and diameter variable with long o short segments; septal flexure of septum at siphuncle forming short tube or funnel necks usua straight, cylindrical and extending only short distance to preceding septum (but sometimes curved concave-outward); Geologic Range: Upper Cambrian - Recent; 8 orders, 700 genera Order Nautilida = coiled shells; Ordovician - Recent

b. Subclass Endoceratoidea - Medium to very large conchs [up to 10 meters long!]; usually orthoconic (generally longiconic); rarely cyrticonic (curved, slender) or breviconic; siphuncles medium-large, usua located ventrally; siphuncular deposits consist typically of conical sheaths (endocones); Geol Range: Upper Cambrian?; Lower Ordovician - Silurian; 2 orders

c. Subclass Actinoceratoidea - Medium to very large conchs up to 6 meters long, usually orthoconic; cameral and siphuncu deposits present; Geologic Range: Late Cambrian?, Middle Ordovician to Late Mississippian order

d. Subclass Bactritoidea You're Reading a Preview - Orthoconic to weakly cryptoconic (shells hidden inside tissue); longiconic or breviconic; se full access with a free trial. concave anteriorly; NO siphuncular Unlock or cameral deposits; siphuncle narrow and in contact wit ventral wall; sutures simple with at least one small, shallow V-shaped ventral lobe; probably ancestral to all recent cephalopods (cuttlefish, octopus) Downloadsquid, With Free Trial except Nautilus and possibly ancestral to ammonoids; Geologic Range: Devonian - Upper Triassic; 1 order e. Subclass Ammonoidea - see discussion below

Master your semester with Scribd f. Subclass Coleoidea - see discussion below & The New York Times 3. Ecology/Paleoecology of Primitive Cephalopods Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- most fossil orthocones probably in clear, shallow water - faunas rich in nautiloids with sparse ammonoids and vice versa - Feeding - probably most were carnivores

b. Subclass Endoceratoidea - presence of siphuncular deposits (endocones = conical sheaths) enabled horizontal locomoti most benthonic? c. Subclass Actinoceratoidea - Cameral and siphuncular deposits present, probably many benthonic d. Subclass Bactritoidea - No siphuncular or cameral deposits; probably nektonic

XVIII. "Ammon's Stones" and Naked Cephalopods A. Phylum Mollusca, Class Cephalopoda, Subclass Ammonoidea

1. Ammonoid Biology You're Reading a Preview - shell usually coiled (tight planispiral with bulbous, calcareous protoconch); siphuncle small Unlock full access with a with free trial. marginal; NO siphuncular or cameral deposits; sutures several lobes and (typically with secondary lobes and saddles); Geologic Range: Lower Devonian - Upper Cretaceous; 8 order 1800 genera (less than 10% Paleozoic, over 90% Mesozoic) Download With Free Trial - most Paleozoic ammonoids were "goniatites" belonging to the Order Goniatitida - Permian through Cretaceous forms had ammonitic sutures (both saddles and lobes are crenulate); most Mesozoic forms were planispirally coiled but "heteromorph" types with wid variety of shapes; Cretaceous forms with shell diameters up to 3 meters

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  2. Biostratigraphy & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - Ammonoids nearly became extinct three times (end of Devonian, Permian, and Triassic) be Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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their total extinction at the end of the Cretaceous; after each near-extinction event underwent

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b2. Subclass Coleoidea (Dibranchiata) - all living cephalopods except Nautilus - with two arborescent gills in the mantle cavity, 8 to 10 sucker or hook-bearing arms (two of them, when 10 are present, being developed into long tentacles), and internal shells; some lac external shell, others with unchambered external shell Order Teuthida (Teuthoidea) - includes the true squids (Jurassic - Recent); with ten arms; chitinous shell (the pen) lies above the visceral mass; fossils typically consist of pens, with a rare impressions of soft parts

Order Sepioidea (Sepiidae) - include the cuttelfish; flattened dorso-ventrally; 10 arms present usually bottom predators; Spirula drifts through deep waters, has an internal chambered shel

Order Octopoda - octopuses; with eight arms and a bulbous body; earliest fossils are impressi of soft parts from the Upper Cretaceous

Order Belemnoidea (Belemnitida) - include "belemnites" (Upper Mississippian to Upper Cretaceous); with internal shell consisting of a chambered cone (phragmacone), pro-ostracum and a guard (sheath, rostrum); well-preserved fossils show the presence of arm hooks and ink You're Reading a Preview sacs in belemnoids Unlock full access with a free trial.

XIX. Mostly Stemmed EchinodermsDownload With Free Trial

Phylum Echinodermata - includes holothurians (sea cucumbers); echinoids (sea urchins); asteroids (starfish or sea stars); crinoids (sea lilies) and also extinct types (examples = blastoi cystoids)

Master your semester with Scribd A. Echinoderm Biology & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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1. Most with pentameral (5-rayed) symmetry; bilateral symmetry in some fossil groups and

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5. Organ systems - No heart, no definite vessels; nervous system primitive; respiratory syste absent; sexes separate

B. Classification - The classification of echinoderms is based primarily on the skeletal morphology of the adul stages. As in most classifications, there is some controversy as to the precise relationships of number of groups. However, the following classification is typical. Number of genera is (in parentheses), along with the range of each taxon. Phylum Echinodermata Subphylum Crinozoa* Class Crinoidea (1005); Middle Cambrian, Early Ordovician-Holocene Class Paracrinoidea (13-15); Early Ordovician-Early Silurian Subphylum Blastozoa Class Blastoidea (95); Middle Ordovician(?), Middle Silurian-Late Permian Class Rhombifera (60); Early Ordovician - Late Devonian Class Diploporiata (42); Early Ordovician - Early Devonian Class Eocrinoidea (30-32); Early Cambrian - Late Silurian You're Reading a Preview Class Parablastoidea (3); Early to Middle Ordovician Unlock full access with a free trial.

Subphylum Asterozoa (Eleutherozoa) Class Asteroidea (430); Early Ordovician - Holocene Download With Free Trial Class Ophiuroidea (325); Early Ordovician - Holocene Subphylum Homalozoa Class Stylophora (32); Middle Cambrian - Middle Devonian Class Homoiostela (12-13); Middle Cambrian - Early Devonian Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Class Homostelea (3); Middle Cambrian  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Class Ctenocystoidea (2); Middle Cambrian


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**Cyclocystoidea is sometimes placed within the Edrioasteroidea

C. Subphylum Crinozoa - with globular, tightly sutured calyces; most with long erect arms, many arms pinnulate. with theca of several circlets of plates showing well-developed pentameral symmetry. Mout nearly central on upper surface, anus lateral; typically attached to substrate by long columnal bearing stems or by cirri. Middle Cambrian to Holocene; approximately 1025 living and fos genera in two classes. 1. Morphology of the Crinozoa and Blastozoa Aboral = direction opposite position of mouth

Ambulacrum = narrow tract or groove extending radially from mouth (Typically tissue overl groove thickly ciliated and underlain by radial canal of water vascular system; may subdiv and extend on to appendages) Ambulacral plate = calcareous plates forming on floor of ambulacral tract

You're Reading a Preview Ambulacral pore = pore in or between ambulacral plates (for passage of podium or for full access with a free trial. connection of podium to ampullaUnlock (muscular sacs which connect to cylinders which connec podia) Download With Free Trial Arms = appendage on oral surface which bears extension of ambulacrus (crinoid) Calyx (plural, Calyces) = part of crinoid which contains the soft parts; hard part of crinoid exclusive of the free arms and pelma

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Cirrus (plural, Cirri) = jointed appendage of crinoid stems attached to nodals or to centrodors & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  also rootlike branch at base of some crinoid columns Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Pelma = crinoid column with all its appendages and anchorage structures Periproct = area surrounding anus Peristome = area surrounding mouth Pinnule = slender, unbranched jointed branchets of an arm (crinoid)

Stem (column) = series of disk-like plates mounted one on top of the other and attached to ab end of theca; typically terminal end is fastened to the substrate

Tegmen = ventral surface of calyx (covered by non-calcareous integument or by ambulacrals irregularly arranged interambulacrals) Theca = skeleton of calcareous plates Thecal plate = calcareous plate forming an element in the theca (usually distinguished from ambulacral or arm plates) 2. Classification of the Crinozoa


Unlock full access with a free trial. a. Class Crinoidea - "sea lilies"; approximately 800 living species (but more than 6 times that number of fossil species); pentamerous (normally andDownload primitively withFree 5 brachial With Trial processes (multiple arms we developed, plated, movable; pinnulate, uniserial or biserial arms); commonly with long stalk sessile (secondarily stalkless and free-living); cuplike calyx of calcareous plates radially arranged in 3 or more circlets; upper surface with mouth and anus; thecal plates without pore subclasses, 13 orders; Middle Cambrian, Early Ordovician - Recent  on - strictly marine (salinity 24-36 o/oo); cosmopolitan (tropics to arctic); gregarious; feed Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  phytoplankton and zooplankton; attachment by root system or cement (but many Jurassic-Re Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. crinoids nektonic); most prefer shallow water; arm number varies with temperature (tropical Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. many; cold/deep waters with few species)


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1. Morphology of the Blastozoa - for other features see Crinozoa Biserial = arrangement of brachiole plates in interlocking double rows; found in many blastozoans

Brachiole = free appendage of a blastozoan, which bears a food groove (along which food wa transported to the mouth) Diplopore = paired arrangement of thecal pores in some blastozoans

Gonopore = one or more small openings in theca of many blastozoans, generally located betw the mouth and anus, presumably for discharge of eggs and sperm

Hydropore = generally a slitlike opening adjacent to gonopore, observed in many blastozoans interpreted as inlet for a water-circulatory system Hydrospire = infolded thin-walled respiratory structure of blastoids beneath border of an ambulacrum or intersecting radial and deltoid plates parallel to an ambulacrum You're Reading a Preview

Unlock access with acentral free trial.area of an ambulacrum; its oute Lancet Plate = elongate spear-shaped platefulloccupying surface is marked by a median longitudinal groove and many transverse grooves, which ar concealed by covering plates in perfectly preserved blastoids Download With Free Trial

2. Classification of the Blastozoa

a. Class Blastoidea  - with conical, bud-shaped or globular theca with four circlets of plates in well-developed Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  pentameral symmetry; Five short to long ambulacra, underlain by lancet plates, each bearing Useful  Not useful  anytime. in coelomic cavity long erect brachiole; eight to ten groups of foldlike hydrospires Cancel suspended Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Stem usually long but with small diameter. Middle Ordovician(?), Middle Silurian - Late


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c. Class Diploporita - medium-sized blastozoan echinoderms with paired pores (diplopores) that penetrate some o most of the thecal plates; small, erect, brachiole-like appendages; stemmed or stemless; Early Ordovician - Early Devonian - "cystoids" were gregarious; rare in general as fossils but locally may be very abundant; filte feeders (brachioles with food grooves); most sessile benthonic (cementation or by means of prehensile column), few planktonic? (globose forms lacking stem)

d. Class Eocrinoidea - radially symmetrical thecal plates arranged in circular rows; theca bearing long biserial brachioles; stem present or absent; sutural pores present in early forms; later forms with very thecal plates; ten families (based on plates, pores, brachioles); Geologic Range: Lower Cambrian - Late Silurian - Number of brachioles possibly correlated with temperature/water depth (more brachioles in warm/shallow water, fewer in cold/deeper) E. Subphylum Homalozoa - includes four small classes; with body flattened dorsoventrally; asymmetric or bilaterally symmetric skeleton; few or no arms; plated "tail" or "stem" (stele or aulacophore); theca of calcareous plates You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. 1. Classification - originally placed with the cystoids (as Class Carpoidea); plate ornamentation and arrangem may suggest that some orders (Cornuta and Mitrata) of Class Download With Free TrialStylophora are primitive chorda ancestral to tunicates, amphioxus, and the vertebrates (but much debated - echinoderm characteristics of carpoids include calcite plates with an echinoderm-like microstructure and most bear a food groove); ancestral to other echinoderms? (modification of tentacles would l to water vascular system) - Benthonic? or Nektonic? or Nektobenthonic?; Tail (stele) used for attachment and  feeding? Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  (prehensile?); feeding by cilia, stele, protusible tentacles?


2. Biostratigraphy

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- carnivorous (able to extrude stomach through mouth for external digestion); able to withsta many marine environments 2. Class Ophiuroidea - brittle stars; slender, whip-like arms; Early Ordovician to Recent - many detritus feeders, some carnivorous B. Phylum Echinodermata, Subphylum Echinozoa - globose, without arms or brachioles; radial symmetry (typically 5-fold) 1. Class Helicoplacoidea - spirally-pleated, expansible, flexible test; 2 spirally arranged ambulacra; Geologic Range: Lower Cambrian; probably detritus feeders and moved in accordion-fashion

2. Class Edrioasteroidea - Discoid theca; ambulacral system confined to upper hemisphere of test; 5 ambulacra radiate from mouth (may curve clockwise or counterclockwise); small irregular plates in interambula usually attached on lower surface; anus and central mouth on upper; Geologic Range: Lowe Cambrian - Middle Pennsylvanian - food = plankton; usually found in littoral zones on calcareous, arenaceous and micaceous m You're Reading a Preview bottoms Unlock full access with a free trial.

3. Class Ophiocistioidea - Pentaradiate, free-living forms withDownload dome-shaped ventral mouth (peristome) surround Withbody; Free Trial by 5 very large armored podia; 2 sizes tube feet [larger for locomotion and feeding (direct foo toward mouth) and smaller for sensory]; carnivorous; Geologic Range: Lower Ordovician Lower Mississippian

Master your  4. Classsemester Cyclocystoidea with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - sometimes placed within the Edrioasteroidea & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - Small, discoidal theca; probably attached to flattened aboral side; numerous plates arranged Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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rings; branching ambulacra; Geologic Range: Middle Ordovician - Middle Devonian ; may

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a. Echinoid Biology - globe-shaped armored animals with a subdermal skeleton composed of many plates and wit movable spines (for locomotion and defense) - regular echinoids (Ordovician-Recent) with anus located at the "north pole" of the sphere within a circlet of plates; vagrant benthonic - irregular echinoids (Jurassic-Recent) with anus lying outside of and posterior to the ring of plates; most were fossorial (burrowing) forms

b. Echinoid Biostratigraphy - Paleozoic echinoids are rare as fossils and are of little biostratigraphic use; all echinoids exc cidaroids became extinct at the end of the Paleozoic - during Jurassic regular echinoids developed longer spines and more tube feet, increasing th ability to respire and gather food; development of fossorial (digging) adaptations during the Jurassic and Cretaceous resulted in an adaptive radiation with many new forms evolving (therefore echinoids may be utilized for biostratigraphic studies within rocks of Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary age)

XXI. Nets, Wrigglers, and "Teeth" Without Jaws

You're Reading a Preview A. Phylum Hemichordata Unlock full access free trial. - often placed within the Phylum Chordata but do with not aappear to be closely related to true chordates; embryo and early larva of hemichordates and echinoderms similar (deuterostomes suggest common origin Download With Free Trial - formerly believed to possess a notochord but structure is actually an elongate tubular pouch connected to the digestive tract; but most with paired gill slits - includes the modern pterobranchs and acorn worms; only important fossil representatives ar the graptolites (are tentatively considered hemichordates)

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  1. Class Graptolithina & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - fossil colonial marine organisms; proteinaceous skeleton; formed complexly branched colon Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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or simple linear series of interconnecting tubes; zooids commonly in linear series or in series

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Nema - chitinous threadlike tube which terminates in basal disk at one end and sicula at other dendroids; in graptoloids was threadlike rod by which colony was suspended Rhabdosome - entire graptolite colony, developed by budding from a single sicula Sicula- cup belonging to initial zooid of colony Stipe - branch of colony, consisting of overlapping thecae Stolon - chitinoid tube extending through successive stolothecae of a stipe, and sending off branch stolons to base of each autotheca and bitheca

Stolotheca - cup or tube of each set of three thecae from which a succeeding generation of thr thecae is budded Theca - any cup or tube of colony that housed the zooid Zooid - individual graptolite animal

You're Reading a Preview b. Classification full accessStolonoidea, with a free trial. Tuboidea, Graptoloidea); - 6 orders (Dendroidea, Camaroidea,Unlock Crustoidea, Dendroidea and Graptoloidea most important Download With Free Trial b1. Order Dendroidea - attached, branching graptolites characterized by two sizes of thecae (larger autothecae and smaller bithecae); in most species, stolons included hard, black, organic substance, probably proteinaceous; most lived in relatively shallow waters; Middle Cambrian to Pennsylvanian;  approximately 30 genera Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times b2. Order Graptoloidea Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- planktonic graptolites characterized by one type theca (equivalent ot autotheca of other

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- Conodont vertebrate synapomorphies include the presence of a cranium in front of the notochord, paired sense organs, extrinsic eye musculature (absent in hagfishes), and a caudal with radial supports - based on the presence of dentine- and enamel-like tissues, eye musculature, etc. the conodo appear to be more derived vertebrates than either hagfishes or lampreys - see below for more characteristics of the Chordata, Vertebrata, etc. 2. Morphological Groups of Conodont elements

- skeletal parts consist of microscopic mineralized Elements arranged in patterns (Apparatuse microwear studies indicate that these hard parts were used for securing and chopping up prey more or less complete apparatuses are termed Natural Assemblages a. Cone-shaped (Coniform) Elements - cone-shaped structures consisting of a base and a cusp b. Blade-shaped (Ramiform) Elements - structures that include a main cusp flanked by posteroanterior and/or laterally directed processes that commonly possess denticles

You're Reading a Preview c. Platform-shaped (Pectiniform) Elements Unlock full with a of freelaterally trial. - structures that commonly bear denticles on access platforms expanded processes 3. Classification of Conodonts (based on isolated Download Withelements) Free Trial

a. Order Paraconodontida - typically coniform with a deep basal cavity, a few widely-spaced lamellae (layers observed within skeletal cross-sections), considerable organic matter within the skeleton; approximatel  15 genera; Late Proterozoic - Mid Ordovician Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times b. Order Conodontophorida Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- with coniform, ramiform, and pectiniform elements; numerous closely-spaced lamellae and

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- possess a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord with a shared developmental pattern, an endostyle organ (equivalent to the thyroid gland of vertebrates), and a tail for swimming (a ta a distinct region developed behind the anus)

2. Origin of the Chordates - Walter Garstang (1928) said that higher chordates evolved from sea squirt larvae through paedomorphosis (adults retaining juvenile characteristics) but recent molecular data suggests sea squirts are a separate line of evolution - modern hypotheses state that chordates are derived from hemichordates (both with ciliated slits and giant nerve cells not seen in echinoderms) OR from calcichordates (based on interpretation of fossils) OR that hemichordates and echinoderms are sister groups (the Ambulacraria) and urochordates, cephalochordates and vertebrates are a clade (with cephalochordates closer to vertebates than urochordates (based on morphological and molecu data) B. Vertebrate Characteristics

1. Shape - are bilaterally symmetrical with long axis of body usually in a horizontal position; tendency fish and other swimming vertebrates towards a fusiform shape You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. 2. Cephalization - tendency to concentrate sensory organs on the anterior ("front") end Download With Free Trial 3. Notochord - long, rod-shaped anti-telescoping structure below nerve tube found in some lower vertebrat not preserved in the fossil record

Master your semester withupScribd 4. Cartilage and bone - makes the skeletal system & The New York Times a. Cartilage Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- soft, translucent material confined to deeper layers of body; capable of growth; some lower

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a. Limb girdles - support the limbs b. Fin types Median fins - unpaired fins Dorsal fins - on upper side of body Anal fin - on ventral (lower) portion of body posterior to the anus

Caudal fin - the tail fin; there are several different types: Heterocercal (body containing backbone tips up posteriorly and the fin is developed below it; probably gave rise to all other caudal fin types); Reversed Heterocercal (Hypocercal) tail (posterior tip of body tilted down fin developed above it); Diphycercal tail (symmetrical tail in which the vertebrae extend outward to the tip); Homocercal tail (derived fish tail type with the tail symmetrical and with abbreviated vertebrae)

Paired fins- occur in pairs (of course); include Pectoral fins (found just posterior to the gill region); Pelvic fins (found usually at posterior end of trunk in front of anal opening); the purp of fins (except caudal) is for steering and balancing You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. 7. Branchial Arch System - cartilaginous or bony bars situated between gill openings to support the gill musculature and stiffen the gill region Download With Free Trial

8. Skull - embryo in every vertebrate has a braincase that articulates with the vertebral column - nasal capsules protect nostrils; hollows in sides receive eyes; posterior portion encloses the  (ear) capsules Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 9. Denticles Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- derived from the deeper layers of the skin and found in many fish

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2. Late Cambrian Vertebrates - conodonts were the earliest vertebrates with hard tissues - another group of vertebrates is indicated by isolated pieces of dermal armor (Anatolepis) Wyoming and Greenland (this dermal armor is made from apatite, which is characteristic of vertebrates) D. Agnathans - jawless vertebrates; paired fins absent or poorly developed; primitive ear region 1. Classification There is considerable debate. I have included a common classification here with some synonyms: Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata) Class "Agnatha" (= Cyclostomata) Subclass Myxinoidea Subclass Petromyzontida (= Petromyzonida; Petromyzontiformes) You're Reading a Preview Subclass Conodonta Unlock full access a free)trial. Subclass Pteraspidomorphi (= Diplorhina sensuwith stricto Order Astraspida Order Arandaspida Download With Free Trial Order Heterostraci (= Pteraspida) Subclass Cephalaspidomorpha (= Monorhini, Monorhina) Order Osteostraci (= Cephalaspida) Order Galeaspida  Order Pituriaspida Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Subclass incertae sedis (i.e., we don't know the relationships of the following 2 groups) Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. Order Anaspida Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Order Thelodonti (= Coelolepida; sometimes placed within the pteraspidomorphs)


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complete head shield Common types of Pteraspidomorphs include:

a. Heterostracans Range: Ordovician - Upper Devonian (earliest undisputed vertebrates) Characteristics: mouth usually anterior and ventral with the development of long, narrow Ora Plates (have small tiny backward-pointing denticles that were probably used for capturing pre may have given rise to other agnathans but probably too specialized to give rise to jawed fish 5. Cephalaspidomorphs - include the Osteostraci, the Galeaspida and the Pituriaspida

a. Characteristics - with massive head shield that covered gills dorsally and with ventral placement of mouth an gill openings - with single, medially-placed nasohypophyseal opening

b. Osteostracans (Tremataspids + Cephalaspids) - the most common cephalaspidomorphs You're Reading a Preview Range: Upper Silurian to Upper Devonian, mainly in western Laurasia Unlock full access bony with a free trial.which extends down the body; Characteristics: usually small fish with undivided shield head dorsoventrally compressed; dorsal eyes and with dorsal and lateral fields ("electric" or pressure-sensitive "sensory" organs?)Download on top of With head;Free heterocercal tail; believed to be bottom Trial dwellers and "mud grubbers" 6. Agnatha incertae sedis (Agnathans of uncertain affinities)

Master your semester with Scribd  a. Anaspids Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Range: Upper Silurian-Upper Devonian & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  Characteristics: small, streamlined (fusiform), laterally-compressed fishes; eyes laterally plac Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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mouth terminal and in form of oval, vertical slit for filter feeding(?); hypocercal tail

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a. Older theories state that jaws may have been derived from gill arch supports - but problem is that gills in lampreys develop medially to the supporting skeleton, whereas in gnathostomes they develop laterally and jaws develop embryologically from the neural cre from gills

b. Modern embryological studies indicate that once bones around eyes are formed, a series connector genes may have begun making a lower jaw cartilage, perhaps to strengthen the existing mouthparts 2. Types of Jaw Articulations

a. Autostyly - articulation formed by jaws without aid from gill arch behind them; found in most placoderms; some acanthodians b. Holostyly - fusion of upper jaws to braincase; chimaeras, lungfish

c. Amphistyly - first gill arch becomes enlarged and aids in propping the jaws on braincase; found in some placoderms, some acanthodians, early sharks, early osteichthyes d. Hyostyly - first gill arch bears main burden of jaw support; found in modern sharks and You're Reading a Preview higher actinopterygians Unlock full access with a free trial.

3. Fins

Download With Free Trial a. Early fins with spines, flaps or folds for stability; later types with two paired fins (pector and pelvics) articulating with girdles b. Origin of Paired Fins

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Fin-Spine Theory - primitive fin type was skeleton with long central axis bearing side branch & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  therefore primitive fin had a narrow base developed around a movable spine Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Order Arthrodira

2. Characteristics typically dorsoventrally compressed fishes with head and trunk shields (in advanced types shields connected by ball-and-socket articulation) - Range: Devonian to Lower Mississippian; placoderms had no descendants - Paleoecology: freshwater or marine; usually benthonic and not very powerful swimmers - include the large carnivorous Arthrodires and the "arthropod-like" mud-grubbing Antiarchs G. Acanthodians 1. Classification Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata) Infraphylum Gnathostomata Class Acanthodii 2. Characteristics - small fusiform fish; all fins except caudal with spines on anterior edge; heterocercal tail - Range: Late Ordovician to Lower Permian You're Reading a Preview H. Chondrichthyans - sharklike fishes

Unlock full access with a free trial.


1. General characteristics Range: Upper Ordovician/Silurian? (based on isolate scales and teeth) to Recent - cartilaginous (cartilage consists of prismatic structure; first preserved prismatic cartilage is Early Devonian age); skin covered with dermal denticles including placoid scales, teeth, clas  and fin spines (histology of teeth is sometimes used in classifications) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 2. Classification Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Here's a common classification but there are others:

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Order Petalodontiformes (= Petalodontida) Infraclass Euselachii Order Xenacanthiformes (Xenacanthida) Order Ctenacanthiformes Order Hybodontiformes Cohort Neoselachii Subclass Subterbranchialia Order Iniopterygiformes (Iniopterygia) Superorder Holocephali Order Bradyodontida -includes the Suborder Chimaerina

3. Subterbranchialians Range: Mississippian to Recent Characteristics of Subterbranchialians: shoulder girdle located directly behind head with the branchial basket (gill area) crowded into restricted space anterior to shoulder and mostly ben the skull - almost all were probably sluggish, vagile benthonic animals including the bizarre Iniopterygians and the Holocephalians (includes the modern ratfish)

4. Elasmobranchs You're Reading a Preview - with branchial basket expanded posteriorly and lying mostly behind the skull; gill pouches o fullspaced access with a free trial. separately to outside and gill archesUnlock widely - approximately 10 orders; the most important are: Download With Free Trial a. Symmoriids - best known Paleozoic sharks Range: Upper Devonian to Pennsylvanian; North America, Europe Characteristics: cladodont dentition, a short blunt "snout"; some with wierd dorsal fin brushe  (for sexual display?) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times b. Eugeneodonts Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Range: Upper Devonian to Triassic

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Characteristics : freshwater (?) sharks with fusiform body; teeth with two or three pointed cu two anal fins; diphycercal caudal fin

c2. Ctenacanths, Hybodonts and Neoselachians Range: Devonian to Recent Characteristics: primary character is two dorsal fins with spines coated with an enameloid-lik dentine; skin covered with placoid scales - improvements from primitive to modern sharks include shift from amphistylic to hyostylic j articulation (with shortened jaws that pivot on modified first gill support; forms protrusion mechanism); improvements in smell, large brains, calcified vertebral centra; three basal elem in pectoral fins; neoselachian sharks include modern sharks, skates and rays

I. Actinopterygians

- bony fish (Osteichthyes) that differ from sarcopterygians in the presence of fin rays (bony, r like fin supports) 1. Range: (Upper Silurian?) Lower Devonian-Recent - found in both freshwater and marine environments from the Devonian to Recent You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. 2. Classification and Origin - possibly originated from the acanthodians - taxonomy of actinopterygians is a mess with numerous Download With Free controversies Trial - Psarolepis, from the Upper Silurian/Lower Devonian of China and Vietnam, shows characteristics of both actinopterygians and sarcopterygians, and is classified as either a basa actinopterygian or sarcopterygian on cladograms

Master your semester with Scribd a. A common classification is as follows (but there are others): Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Phylum Chordata Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata)

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- I think it is a great example of DeBeer's concept of Mosaic Evolution a. The Locomotor System - act in propulsion, steering and hydrostatic adjustment

a1. Caudal Fin - primitive is heterocercal and typically with a hypochordal (lower) lobe (found in chondrosteans) - homocercal tail (with a symmetric caudal) found in some holosteans and in teleosts (probab accompanied by greater efficiency of swim bladders and reduction of fish's weight by reducin scales)

a2. Dorsal and Anal Fins - Chondrosteans with stiff, triangular and broad-based dorsal and anal fins; fin rays numerou and closely set and were strong but inflexible) - primitive neopterygians ("holosteans") with fin rays becoming fewer, lighter, and therefore were more flexible and mobile - Teleosts developed stiff, pointed spines (especially in the dorsal fins)

a3. Paired fins You're Reading a Preview Structural changes - primitive actinopterygians with triangular, broad-based paired fins with Unlock full accessto with a freepectoral trial. numerous closely-spaced fin rays, with moderate large fin and with small anal fin; derived characteristics include narrow fin bases, reduction in number and wider spacing of fi rays; teleosts developed spines Download With Free Trial Position changes of paired fins - common derived condition is forward movement of pelvic fi accompanied by tendency for pectoral fin to lie higher on the lateral body wall (good for intri manuevering)

Master your semester  a4. Vertebral Columnwith and RibsScribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title - Chondrosteans with large, unrestricted notochord; centra generally absent; neural andhaem & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful arches well developed Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- Teleosts with vertebrae consisting of biconcave centrum and with neural and haemal arches

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Cycloid scales - lost ganoin and cosmine layers, leaving only the innermost bony layer (isopedin); thin circular scales with growth rings found in many advanced actinopterygians

Ctenoid scales - very much like cycloid scales in structure but with ctenii (barbs) on the scale found in many derived actinopterygians a6. Body Form - primitive actinopterygians typically fusiform (chondrosteans and holosteans typically conservative but some types had elongate or deep bodies) - teleosts with a wide variety of body shapes

b. Feeding Systems - many skull and jaw modifications due to feeding and respiratory modifications - trend toward kinetic head skeletons (composed of several mobile units that can move agains each other)

b1. Chondrostean stage - skull bones supporting jaw (suspensorium) strongly oblique; primary upper jaw bone (maxi is firmly joined to other skull bones; branchiostegal rays (elongate bones on posteroventral p You're Reading a Preview of skull) numerous, closely spaced, small and all similar; cheek region completely covered (a Unlock full access with a free trial. these features were for bracing the jaws)

b2. Primitive Neopterygian ("Subholostean/Holostean") Stage Download With Free Trial - suspensorium of jaw becomes more nearly vertical; specialized jaw support (the symplectic forms; maxilla becomes separated from other skull bones but still retains teeth; number of branchiostegal rays decreases (dorsal-most branchiostegal enlarged to anchor the muscle whi depressed the lower jaw); all of these features greatly increased feeding effectiveness by  increasing the strength of the bite Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times b3. Teleost Stage Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- upper anterior jaw element (premaxilla) freed and becomes primary tooth-bearing element i

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Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata) Infraphylum Gnathostomata Class Osteichthyes Subclass Sarcopterygii Order Dipnoi Infraclass Crossopterygii Order Actinistia Infraclass Tetrapodomorpha Superorder Osteolepidida 2. Dipnoans - the lungfish a. Range: Lower Devonian to Recent

b. Characteristics: - all dipnoans with holostylic jaw (fused to the braincase); they have no marginal teeth; the external nasal openings are ventral in position; No choanae (internal nares) are present; all h You're Reading a Preview lobate fins full access with a freecaudal trial. - most with diphycercal tail and withUnlock a continuous dorsal, and anal fin; dentition usual consists of crushing toothplates Download With Free Trial c. Paleoecology - modern species are found in freshwater but extinct types inhabited a wide variety of environments - essentially all were bottom dwelling omnivores  - older types seem to have relied on lungs Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  sta - burrows (for aestivation during dry seasons, where they can survive in a semi-inanimate Useful  Not useful  anytime. a flask-shaped, mucus-lined pit) are found from the Devonian toCancel Recent


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- important fish since they (or a closely related group) gave rise to the amphibians - large, voracious fish Range: Middle Devonian to Lower Permian Characteristics: most differ from coelacanths in the arrangement and number of dermal bones the head (in fact the bones in the heads of osteolepiforms are largely homologous to those of primitive tetrapods); usually possess choanae (internal nares) - other important features which link the osteolepid fishes to early tetrapods include labyrinthodont teeth (with infolded plicidentine), single basal elements in the pectoral and pe fins (homologous to the humerus and femur) which articulate with the limb girdles; pairs of radials articulate with the single basals (these pairs are homologous to the radius and ulna or t and fibula of tetrapods); axial skeleton is like rhachitomous type found in some early tetrapod (consists of a wedge-shaped intercentrum and small paired pleurocentra)

XXIII. The Greening of the Land - included here is a discussion of the Kingdoms Fungi and Plantae (Metaphyta)

A. Kingdom Fungi - heterotrophs that secrete enzymes able to break down external food sources into molecules small enough to be absorbed by cells (extracellular digestion and absorption); are a major gro You're Reading a Preview of decomposers; Saprobic/saprophytic types feed on nonliving organic matter; parasitic types Unlock full access with a free trial. feed on living organisms

1. Classification Download With Free Trial - the Fungi is probably a polyphyletic group and therefore is invalid; includes the Divisions Gymnomycota (slime molds), Mastigomycota (flagellate fungi or phycomycetes; including th classes Oomycetes and Chytridomycetes) and the Amastigomycota (nonflagellated fungi or t fungi; including the classes Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes) - there are about 250 genera and 500 species of fossil fungi, mostly from Cretaceous and Tert Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 2. Evolution and the Fossil Record Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes evolved in Cambrian and Ordovician seas as

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*Subkingdom or Division Tracheophyta (vascular plants) Class Rhyniopsida (primitive vascular plants) Order Rhyniales Class Psilopsida (whisk ferns) Class Zosterophyllopsida (ancestors of microphyllous plants) Order Zosterophyllales Order Asteroxylales (prelycopods) Class Lycopsida (club mosses and their relatives) Order Drepanophycales Order Protolepidodendrales Protolepidodendra les Order Lycopodiales Order Selaginellales Order Lepidodendrales Order Isoetales Class Trimerophytopsida (ancestors of megaphyllous plants) Class Sphenopsida (horsetails and their relatives) Order Hyeniales Order Pseudoborniales Order Sphenophyllales Order Equisetales Class Filicopsida (ferns and their relatives) Order Cladoxylales Order Stauropteridales Order Zygopteridales Order Ophioglossales Order Marattiales Order Filicales Order Salviniales Order Marsileales Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Class Progymnospermopsida (ancestors of gymnosperms)  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Order Aneurophytales Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Order Archaeopteridales


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Order Voltziales Order Coniferales Order Taxales Subdivision Angiospermophytina (flowering plants) Class Magnoliopsida/Dicotyledonae (dicotyledons) Class Liliopsida/Monocotyledonae (monocotyledons)

* Depending upon the scientist, the taxonomic category will vary. Some paleobotanist's "Subkingdom" is another's "Division", or "Division" to one may be a "Class" to another, etc. classifications below for comparison) C. Origin of Land Plants (Kingdom Plantae) is Monophyletic - evolved from the Chlorophyta (grass-green algae) Synapomorphic characters include: 1. have chlorophyll a and b 2. store true starch 3. have cellulose in cell walls

4. protostele with xylem forming core (xylem forms pipelines for conducting water and dissolved minerals), phloem on outside (phloem is the food-conducting tissue; found in roots most vascular plants; stems of many psilopsids, lycopods, sphenopsids and ferns) 5. life cycles similar (alternation of generations, etc.)

Master your semester with Scribd  D. Characteristics of the Kingdom Plantae (*prevents desiccation in terrestrial environments Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  1. fertilized egg develops into an embryo which is enclosed within a protective covering* Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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E. Classification and Characteristics of the Kingdom Plantae

1. Subkingdom Bryophyta - includes mosses, liverworts and hornworts (may be a polyphyletic group and some propose establishment of three separate Divisions) - no stiffened vascular tissue for conducting water and nutrients; gametophytes most importa phase of sexual reproduction - features useful for land-dwelling existence include presence of water-conserving cuticle on above-ground parts, presence of protective cellular jacket around the sperm- and egg-produci parts of the plant to keep them from drying out, and the sporophyte begins early development an embryo inside the tissues of the female gametophyte - poor fossil record (Devonian - Recent) 2. Subkingdom Tracheophyta - vascular plants [with conducting cells (xylem and phloem) for transporting water and nutrients]; usually possess roots, stems and leaves - with approximately 11 to 13 Divisions The most important divisions are:

a. Division/Class Rhyniophyta (Rhyniopsida) - Middle Silurian to Middle Devonian - oldest-known vascular plants (Middle Silurian of Ireland); best fossils from the Rhynie Che (Lower Devonian, Scotland); Examples = Rhynia, Cooksonia - no leaves or roots (therefore with photosynthesis occurring in the outer cells of the stem); w dichotomous branching of the stems (branch by producing two equal segments); stems cappe spore-bearing cases (sporangia); spores are homosporous (with one type of spore) and spore i  trilete (round or triangular, with three folds on it) Read Free For 30 Days

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times b. Division/Class Psilopsida Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- "whisk ferns"; the living whisk broom-looking genus Psilotum is very similar to the

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d. Division/Class Lycophyta (Lycopodophyta, Lycopsida) - Devonian-Recent; includes the modern club mosses and quillworts; also arborescent (tree-li lycopods up to 40 meters high (Order Lepidodendrales; Devonian- Pennsylvanian; dominated Carboniferous coal swamps) - evolved from the Rhyniopsida - have true roots (or at least root-like organs), stems and often with small leaves with a single strand of vascular tissue and NO leaf gap ("microphylls"); leaves on trunk in pits (leaf cushions/bolsters) and arranged in spirals - often with cone-shaped clusters of leaves bearing spore sacs (each cluster is a Strobilus); sp dispersed from spore sacs and germinate to form small, free-living gametophytes; modern typ require water in which sperm can swim to the eggs (therefore restricted to wet habitats) - Examples = Lepidodendron, Lepidophloios, Sigillaria (stems/trunks), Stigmaria (roots or rhizophores), Lepidophylloides (leaves)

e. Division Sphenophyta (Sphenopsida) - include the modern horsetails and several extinct groups (Devonian- Recent) - with scale-like, small leaves arranged in whorls around an above-ground, bamboo-like joint (with nodes and internodes) photosynthetic stem that is hollow inside; walls of stem cells con silica, so stems often "gritty" (hence the name "scouring rushes"); spores form inside coneYou're Reading a Preview shaped clusters of tiny branches at the shoot tips and are dispersed by air currents; spores mu Unlock full access with a(free-living free trial. germinate within a few days to produce gametophytes plants) - are typically found in swamps, moist woodlands, and along lake edges - common fossils include CalamitesDownload (a Pennsylvanian-age arborescent sphenopsid; some With Free Trial members up to 15 meters or more in height) and Annularia (leaf whorls)

f. Division Filicinophyta (Filicopsida, Pteridophyta) - include ferns and their allies (Upper Devonian - Recent) - large, complex leaves [megaphylls; with leaf gaps (spaces developed the leafstalk Read Free Forwhere 30this Days Sign up to vote on title  with (petiole) joins the vascular cylinder of the twig)]; fern leaves (fronds) usually featherlike Not useful  Useful  Cancel the anytime. blades finely divided into segments (leaf pinnately compound, with leaflets arranged alon Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. the sides of a common axis) and develops rachis, pinna and pinnules; immature fronds unroll


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- gymnosperms (and angiosperms) are characterized by seeds; typically formed by fusion of e and sperm nuclei; then develop into ripened ovules (= seeds) - gymnosperms have no flowers and seeds are not fully enclosed (gymnosperm means "naked seed") g1. Division/Class/Order Pteridospermophyta - include the "Seed Ferns"; Upper Devonian - Jurassic - with fern-like compound leaves (Fronds) but gymnosperm-like seeds and wood - Exs. = Alethopteris, Neuropteris, Medullosa (trunk) and possibly Glossopteris (leaves)

g2. Division/Class/Order Cordaitales - cordaites; Pennsylvanian to Middle Permian; tall trees about 15 to 30 meters high - leaves often sword- or strap-shaped with dichotomous venations (with forking leaf veins); leaves were borne spirally in a crown near the top of the plant - petrified stems with pith area crossed by strands of parenchyma cells (the tissue that makes the bulk of the fleshy plant parts) separated by air spaces - seed-bearing cone-like structures and pollen-bearing cones borne on special small branches

g3. Division/Class/Order Coniferales - conifers (Exs. = pines, spruces, firs, hemlocks, junipers, cypresses, redwoods); Triassic-Rec You're Reading a Preview - woody trees and shrubs with needlelike or scalelike leaves; most are evergreens (shed leave with a free trial. from deciduous trees); conifer throughout year but retain enough ofUnlock themfull toaccess distinguish them have Cones (cone-shaped clusters of modified leaves bearing the sporangia); often two kinds cones (male cones bear microspores Download and femaleWith cones develop Free Trial megaspores); seeds develop o the shelf-like scales of the female cones

g4. Division/Class/Order Ginkgoales - ginkgos (?Permian; Triassic-Recent; one recent species, the "maidenhair tree")  shoo - often conifer-like trees with a main trunk bearing branches with axillary long and short Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title leaves are usually fan-shaped; some leaves are deeply lobed, others are not; venation ofthe  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. leaves typically parallel, although each vein is divided


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- land invasion during Late Devonian when ponds and streams dried out periodically - evidence includes Devonian "redbeds" (wet-dry seasonality); also earliest amphibians ( Ichthyostega) were fully terrestrial (?)

2. Occupancy of land took place under warm, moist climates - low oxygen content in the water, population pressures (seeking food, competition for space breeding sites, escape from predators or egg-eaters) - evidence from studies of modern air-breathing fish and amphibians and contradictory evide about the geological conditions of the Devonian

3. Amphibians originated in the water and were "preadapted" to a life on land - limbs, hearing, air-breathing and feeding modifications related to life in warm, shallow wat with low oxygen content - terrestrial radiations came much later from the various lines of aquatic tetrapods B. "Amphibians" - the earliest tetrapods (four-footed creatures) are from Upper Devonian rocks - some cladistic classifications state that the "Amphibia" should only include the modern lissamphibians 1. Origins and Adaptations


a. derived from the osteolepiform fishes, efficient air breathers which lived in warm, shallo water sometimes low in oxygen Download With Free Trial

b. lungs became more efficient (but gill-breathing retained in immature and larval stages of primitive types)

Master your semester with Scribd c. evolution of paired appendages (due to substrate locomotion?); as air breathing  became m Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title efficient the pectoral fin was used to lift the head out of water; fins became the tetrapodlimbs & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful with the loss of the fin rays Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- Lepospondylous (husk) vertebrae (found in many small Paleozoic types; centrum forms a single structure, often spool-shaped and with hole for notochord)

- "Arch" vertebrae [found in labyrinthodonts and in all higher vertebrate classes; consists of t sets of ossified arch structures (intercentra and pleurocentra)] including 1) Rhachitomou vertebrae [most primitive type with wedge-shaped crescentic intercentra and paired pleurocentra (small and between neural arches and intercentra); found in rhipidistians, ichthyostegids and most "central" labyrinthodonts (some temnospondyls)], 2) Stereospondylous vertebrae [pleurocentra reduced or absent and intercentrum below t neural arch and sometimes ring-shaped; found in many Late Permian and Triassic temnospondyls] and 3) Anthracosaurs [pleurocentra increasing in size, fuse and become complete ring (=centrum of higher vertebrates); line which leads to reptiles have interce reduced to small ventral wedges between the pleurocentra; second line (the embolomero condition) with each segment having two complete ring-shaped central structures]

Neural arches - well-developed and with zygapophyses giving added support to the vertebral column; has transverse process for articulation with the ribs

Ribs - tetrapods with only one set of ribs; found from neck to anterior part of tail; reinforce th body wall and protects the lungs and viscera; specialized rib (Sacral) connects pelvic girdle t You're Reading a Preview vertebral column Unlock full access with a free trial.

c. Skull - primitive tetrapods with skull completely roofed byFree dermal Download With Trialbones - tetrapods with longer snout and shorter skull table - anterior and posterior parts of braincase becomes fuse Major Bones of the Skull - bones down midline include elongate nasals and frontals; shortene parietals and postparietals; premaxilla and maxilla well-developed and toothed

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  d. Sensory organs & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - The "Ear" - fish hyomandibular no longer needed to prop the jaws, becomes loosened; land Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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vertebrates need to pick up air vibrations (for "hearing"); hyomandibular laid just behind the

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f. Limbs - Pectoral limbs - humerus (proximal bone) articulates with the radius and ulna; radius and u articulate distally with the carpus (wrist elements forming a hinge between the limbs and toes typically with four or five toes - Pelvic limbs - proximal bone (femur) articulates with the tibia and fibula; tibia and fibula articulates with the tarsus; tarsals articulate with the metatarsals (five toes) g. Reproductive Systems - probably initially with external fertilization and laid large numbers of small eggs in water; many Paleozoic types with gill-bearing larval stage (referred to as "branchiosaurs") 3. Classification Phylum Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata) Infraphylum Gnathostomata Superclass Tetrapoda Unnamed Class Family Ichthyostegidae You're Reading a Preview Class Amphibia (Batrachomorpha) Unlock full access with a free trial. Order "Temnospondyli" Family Trimerorhachidae Suborder Capitosauria Download With Free Trial Suborder Trematosauria Infraclass Lissamphibia Order Urodela Order Anura Class Unnamed Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Superorder Lepospondyli Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. Order "Microsauria" (probably a polyphyletic group) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Order Nectridea


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5. "Temnospondyls" - labyrinthodont amphibians that evolved from osteolepiform fishes; primitive features inheri from these fish include labyrinthine infolding of dentine, palatal fanged teeth, vertebrae composed of several centra elements - derived features include formation of specialized anterior vertebrae for connecting to skull (atlas-axis complex; not found in ichthyostegids), otic notch at back of skull (supported ear drum?), primitive types often large (over 1 meter) - Mississippian - Cretaceous; were the most important Carboniferous tetrapods - often with large, flat heads; examples include the aquatic eryopoids and trimerorhacids; the terrestrial, armored dissorophids and the metoposaurs (large-skulled aquatic amphibians)]

6. "Lissamphibians" - may be a polyphyletic group; may have been derived from dissorophid temnospondyl amphibians (or others say were derived from lepospondyls) - includes frogs and toads (Salientia or Anura; Triassic-Recent), the long-bodied aquatic salamanders (Urodela or Caudata; Jurassic-Recent) and the worm-like caecilians (Apoda or Gymnophiona; Jurassic-Recent) - with pedicellate teeth (base and crown of tooth separated by a zone of weakness of fibrous tissue; probably related to tongue protrusion); teeth bicuspid; spool-shaped vertebrae; frogs a You're Reading a Preview salamanders with strange ear specialization by which an ear ossicle (the operculum) has a Unlock full access with a free trial. to hearing and balance) muscular connection with the shoulder girdle (probably related

Frogs and Toads - greatly derived (most features related jumping): only 5 to 9 trunk verteb Download With FreetoTrial posterior of sacrum fused (urostyle); no ribs; ilium rod-shaped and connects to last vertebrae; long hind legs with tibia and fibula fused; radius and ulna fused; proximal tarsals elongate; shoulder girdle firmly braced; skull forms "open" structure; external fertilization; tadpole stag (herbivorous suspension feeders or algae eaters) known from Lower Cretaceous; adults  carnivorous; advanced types flip back of tongue out of mouth Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  very -Triadobatrachus (Early Triassic, Madagascar) with frog-like skull but postcranium not Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. frog-like; ancestral to modern frogs?


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- Seymouriamorphs with combination of reptile and amphibian features; Amphibian features Seymouria include anthracosaur-like skull and gill-bearing larvae; Reptile-like features inclu skull and cheek solidly attached; stapes (ear bone) reduced to a narrow rod; ilium expanded a begin incorporating second sacral rib; vertebrae with swollen neural arches and large pleurocentrum with tiny intercentrum 9. Diadectomorphs - Pennsylvanian to Early Permian terrestrial "reptiliomorphs", very close to the origin of amniotes - herbivorous with peg-like front teeth and grinding "molariform" teeth

XXV. A Myriad of Reptiles on Land A. Characters of Reptiles: 1. Development of amniote egg - has a large yolk, a shell, and extraembryonic membranes which protect the egg, supply nourishment and for gas exchange Amniotes - probably a monophyletic group; probably originated in the Mississippian

You're Reading a Preview 2. loss of intertemporal bone; reduction in size of supratemporal, tabular and postparietal Unlock full access with a free trial.

3. loss of palatal "fangs" and labyrinthine infolding of tooth enamel Download With Free Trial 4. absence of otic notch

5. development of more efficient vertebral column (specialized anterior vertebrae = atlas/ax and reduce intercentra

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 6. specialized ankle joint developed [astragalus and fibulare (= calcaneum)] & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

7. wheat-shaped ventral scales; no ossified dorsal scales

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C. Reptile Classification and Radiation - often based on patterns of openings of skull roof (temporal openings) behind the orbits 1. Anapsid condition - no temporal opening; Exs. = captorhinids, turtles

2. Synapsid condition - lower opening with postorbital and squamosal meeting above; Ex. = mammal-like reptiles 3. Diapsid condition - two temporal openings present; Exs. = dinosaurs, pterosaurs and ancestral condition of all modern reptiles except turtles 4. Euryapsid (Parapsid) condition - upper opening with postorbital and squamosal meeting below; Exs. = plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs - derived from the diapsid condition through loss of the lower temporal fenestra D. Classification of Primitive Reptiles (One of several available): Series Amniota Class Synapsida Order Pelycosauria You're Reading a Preview Family Caseidae Unlock full access with a free trial. Family Ophiacodontidae Family Edaphosauridae Family Sphenacodontidae Download With Free Trial Order Therapsida Family Dinocephalia Family Dicynodontia Family Cynodontia Class Sauropsida Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Subclass Anapsida  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Family Procolophonidae Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Family Pareisauridae


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1. "Protorothyeridae" (= Romeriidae, Millerettidae, etc.) - a polyphyletic group of Pennsylvanian-Permian, small, lizard-like reptiles 2. Bolosauridae - small, early herbivores

3. The Procolophonoids - develop herbivorous feeding (jaws shorten, differentiation of the teeth, enlarge orbitotempo fenestra for large jaw muscles], late types with bony skull projections

4. The Pareiasaurs - Middle to Upper Permian; up to three meters long; skull often with bony protruberances; lea shaped teeth (herbivores) 5. Captorhinids (Captorhinidae) - with specialized dentition with multiple tooth rows - probably more kin to diapsids than other early amniote groups

F. Synapsids You're Reading a Preview - have often been termed "mammal-like reptiles", but synapsids are now typically considered Unlock fullSynapsida access with aoften free trial. be a group distinct from "true reptiles"; the includes pelycosaurs, therapsids, true mammals - synapsids were the earliest carnivorous amniotes Pennsylvanian constituted 50% of kno Download With(by Free Trial amniote genera; by Early Permian = 70%) 1. General Characteristics - with a single lateral temporal opening (synapsid condition; primitive types with postorbital  squamosal joining above; derived types with upper margin bounded by parietal) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 2. Pelycosaurs Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

- Pennsylvanian-Permian

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of skull is vertical; Skeleton with improved locomotion - derived from advanced sphenacodonts b. Classification of Therapsids - include the Dinocephalians (very large Permian carnivores and herbivores); Anomodonts (Permian to Triassic; herbivorous; most successful mammal-like reptiles; include the tusked dicynodonts); Cynodonts (Permian to Jurassic; advanced mammal-like reptiles representing transitional stages in the development of mammalian characteristics)

XXVI. Farewells to Land

A. Mesosaurs - aquatic parareptiles of Permian age from Africa and South America; probably restricted to o limited ocean basin and was used as evidence of continental drift - up to one meter long, slender; with long, laterally-compressed tail and neck and paddle-like feet; marginal teeth long and slender (for straining microplankton?) B. Testudines (Chelonians) - the turtles You're Reading a Preview - probably closely kin to pareisaurs and procolophonids Unlock full access with a free trial.

1. Structure - shell composed of horny scutes covering bonyWith plates; with carapace (dorsal portion of shell) Download Free Trial and plastron (ventral portion of shell) - vertebrae [except cervicals (neck)] and ribs fused to shell; limbs and limb girdles modified f sprawling posture - anapsid skull; teeth rudimentary or absent

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  2. Classification & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - divide into the Proganochelyds (primitive Triassic-age turtles), Pleurodires (side-necked Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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turtles), and Cryptodires (S-necked turtles; most successful turtle group)

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- lepidosauromorph neodiapsids that include the nothosaurs, pachypleurosaurs, plesiosaurs, a possibly the placodonts; aquatic reptiles with euryapsid temporal opening - Nothosaurs (limbs relatively normal; Triassic) and Plesiosaurs (develop paddles by adding t joints; Jurassic-Cretaceous) with nostils migrated far back on skull; ventral ribs form baske structure; ventral portion of pelvic girdle expanded

E. Placodonts - wierd Triassic, aquatic mollusc-eating neodiapsids (but with euryapsid temporal opening); most with "pavement teeth"; kin to the "Sauroptergyia" and now often placed within that grou

XXVII. Scale Bearers and Lizard Hipped Dinosaurs A. Diapsids - diapsids have two temporal openings separated by the postorbital and squamosal - includes all modern reptile groups except turtles; also includes dinosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs and several other ancient groups 1. Classification of the Diapsids (one of many available):

You're Reading a Preview Series Amniota Unlock full access with a free trial. Class Sauropsida Subclass Diapsida Infraclass Ichthyosauria Download With Free Trial Infraclass Lepidosauromorpha Superorder Sauropterygia Order Placodonta Order Nothosauroidea Order Plesiosauria Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Superorder Lepidosauria  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Order Sphenodontida Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Order Squamata


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Family Ornithosuchidae Family Stagonolepididae (= Order Aetosauria) Family Prestosuchidae Family Poposauridae (= Order Rauisuchia) Order Crocodylia Subdivision Avemetatarsalia (See below)

Most important Groups Are:

B. Infraclass Lepidosauromorpha - includes sphenodontids, lizards, snakes, and the extinct aquatic placodonts, nothosaurs, and plesiosaurs - differentiated from archosauromorphs by retention of sprawling posture; lateral undulation body during movement; early lepidosauromorphs with large sternum ("breast plate" for great flexion and stride) - Order Sphenodontida (Family Sphenodontidae) - lizard-like, small reptiles from TriassicRecent

Order Squamata - includes Suborders Sauria, Amphisbaenia and Serpentes You're Reading a Preview - Sauria (lizards) with tendency towards streptostyly (with loss of lower temporal bar and loo Unlock full access withforce); a free trial. connection of posterior skull bones for greater biting teeth primitively subpleurodont pleurodont (attached to inside of jaw); may secondarily become acrodont (teeth fused to top o jaw) or subthecodont (teeth in shallow pits); includes many taxa; Cretaceous marine lizards Download With Free Trial include dolichosaurs, aigialosaurs and mosasaurs - Serpentes (Ophidia) = snakes (Upper Cretaceous - Recent); temporal arches absent and upp and lower jaws very loosely attached (for consuming large prey); vertebrae very numerous; pectoral girdle and anterior limb absent (some snakes with vestiges of pelvic girdle and hind  limb); implantation of teeth subacrodont Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times  Useful C. Primitive Archosauromorphs (Infraclass Archosauromopha) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- most important structure uniting archosauromorphs is ankle (tarsus) and foot structure (rela

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D. Division Archosauria - the "ruling reptiles" including the dinosaurs, crocodiles, pterosaurs and many primitive grou (the thecodonts)

1. Characteristics - Skull with diapsid condition (two temporal openings); openings do not lose any of their arca ("arches"); also with an antorbital opening (rarely more than one) between the orbit and the snout; thecodont dentition (teeth placed in sockets) - Postcranial skeleton with hind limb much better developed than the forelimb; tendency towa bipedal pose involves change in hip and femur structure

2. Subdivision Crurotarsi - with improved ankle joint (tarsus) that allows rotation between the astragalus and calcaneum - tarsus may be used to divide Middle and Upper Triassic archosaurs into two groups; Crocodile-Normal Pattern with process on the lateral surface of the astragalus fitting into a re on the medial surface of the calcaneum [found in crocodiles, phytosaurs, aetosaurs and rauisuchids); Crocodile-Reverse Pattern with process on the calcaneum fitting into a recess i the astragalus (found in lagosuchids, ornithosuchids and Euparkeria) a. Family Poposauridae (= Rauisuchia) You're Reading a Preview - large, fierce Middle and Upper Triassic thecodonts (up to 6 meters) Unlock full access with a free trial.

b. Family Stagonolepididae (= Aetosauria) - relatively large herbivorous quadrupeds of Late Triassic age; body with solid armor plate Download With Free Trial c. Family Phytosauridae (= Phytosauria) - very abundant, crocodile-like, Upper Triassic thecodonts

Master your semester with Scribd E. Crocodilians (Order Crocodilia) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title - Crurotarsi that include the crocodiles, alligators and their relatives & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

1. Morphology

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F. Dinosaurs - Over 800 species of dinosaurs are known

1. Posture - limbs brought under the body and moved in a fore-and-aft direction [femur inturned; pelvis "socket" (acetabulum) open (perforate); improved tarsal joint (with formation of a “mesotarsa digits form main surface that contacts ground (digitigrade posture)]

2. Ancestry - probably derived from Ornithosuchians (close to Lagosuchus) - dinosaurs became the dominant reptile group after the "end-Carnian Extinction Event" durin the Upper Triassic, which cleared ecospace for the dinosaurs to take over 3. Classification of Pterosaurs and Dinosaurs - The following is one of several available: Series Amniota You're Reading a Preview Class Sauropsida Unlock full access with a free trial. Subclass Diapsida Infraclass Archosauromorpha Division Archosauria Download With Free Trial Subdivision Avemetatarsalia Infraorder Ornithodira Order Pterosauria Suborder Rhamphorhynchoidea Suborder Pterodactyloidea Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Superorder Dinosauria  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. Order Saurischia Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Family Herrerasauridae


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Families Alvarezsauridae, Therizinosauridae Cohort Deinonychosauria Families Dromaeosauridae, Troodontidae Suborder Sauropodomorpha Families Plateosauridae, Massospondylidae Infraorder Sauropoda Families Vulcanodontidae, Euhelopodidae, Omeisauridae Division Neosauropoda Families Cetiosauridae, Diplodocoidea Subdivision Macronaria Family Camarasauridae Infradivision Titanosauriformes Families Brachiosauridae, Titanosauridae Order Ornithischia Families Pisanosauridae, Fabrosauridae Suborder Thyreophora Family Scelidosauridae Infraorder Stegosauria Infraorder Ankylosauria Families Nodosauridae, Ankylosauridae You're Reading a Preview Suborder Cerapoda full access with a free trial. Infraorder Unlock Pachycephalosauria Infraorder Ceratopsia Families Psittacosauridae, Protoceratopsidae, Ceratopsidae Download With Free Trial Infraorder Ornithopoda Families Heterodontosuridae, Hypsilophodontidae,Iguanodont Hadrosauridae

Master your semester with Scribd  4. Saurischians Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  - with primitive pelvis structure with ilium at top, pubis pointing forward and ischium backw & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  front limb shorter than hind; digits of manus (hand) and pes (foot) reduced; teeth occupied th Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

rims of the jaws; large openings reduced the weight of the skull

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and crests) and the tetanurans [with an opening in the maxilla (maxillary fenestra), and dorsa vertebrae have cavities in their sides (pleurocoelous vertebrate) and the ascending process of astragalus covers a portion of the tibia; includes the Carnosaurs (spinosaurs and allosaurs) an the Coelurosaurs (most important coelurosaur types are the Maniraptoriformes (reduction to three long fingers; with a half Moon-shaped wrist bone) including ornithomimids ("ostrich dinosaurs"), tyrannosaurids, and deinonychosaurs ("raptors")]

b. Sauropodomorphs - typically heavily built quadrupedal dinosaurs with small heads and long necks; most with peglike teeth; Upper Triassic- Upper Cretaceous - "Prosauropods" - small- to large-sized; possible ancestors of sauropods; carnivorous, herbivorous and perhaps omnivorous forms - Sauropods were huge Jurassic/Cretaceous herbivores with quadrupedal pose, powerful limb long tail, long neck and small head; jaws short and weak with small peglike or spoonshaped teeth; front legs shorter than hind legs; metapodials (proximal foot bones) and phalanges (toe short, stout and spreading; include Cetiosaurids, Brachiosaurids, Camarasaurids , Titanosauri and Diplodocids

XXVIII. Bird-Hipped Dinosaurs


A. Characteristics of OrnithischiansUnlock full access with a free trial. - pubis points backward (bird-hipped); with single median bone at the tip of the lower jaw (th predentary); jaw with beak, posteriorDownload to which is a grinding dention; most with concave cheek With Free Trial region (therefore most with muscular cheeks); tendency for internal nostrils to be displaced posteriorly B. Classification of Ornithischians

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  1. Cerapoda & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - with a gap between the teeth of the premaxilla and maxilla and with five or fewer premaxill Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

teeth; with a thick layer of enamel on the inside of the teeth

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and large shields of bone; snout beaklike; almost exclusively quadrupedal; one of last evolve (Cretaceous) and most abundant groups of dinosaurs 2. Thyreophorans - with keeled scutes (bony armor) along the sides of their body - include stegosaurs and ankylosaurs

a. Stegosaurs - Mid Jurassic to Late Cretaceous armored quadrupedal ornithischians - relatively large; with small skull, front legs short; back arched high over long hind limbs; w series of plates and spines arranged in a row down the neck, trunk and tail

b. Ankylosaurs - stocky dinosaurs with short, broad feet; with extensive development of bony, armored carap often with tail club; Lower Jurassic-Upper Cretaceous C. Biology and Extinction of Dinosaurs 1. Were Dinosaurs Warm-Blooded?

You're Reading a Preview - Evidence cited that dinosaurs were endotherms includes the following: Unlock full access with a free trial.

a. Erect posture - limbs held vertically (with metabolism like birds and mammals) Download With Free Trial b. Bone structure - dinosaurs have haversian canal systems in their bones like those of mammals (indicates more rapid metabolic processes; but these seem to be present in large animals in general and are absent in small animals) - but dinosaurs did not have determinant growth and continued to increase in size throughout  (unlike birds and mammals) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd  & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  c. Population Studies/ Community Structure - carnivorous dinosaur numbers (versus Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

herbivores) are more like that of mammals than reptiles

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i. Growth Rates - reptiles grow slowly, dinosaurs grew quickly like birds and mammals

j. Oxygen Isotopes - ratios are influenced by temperature; indicates more similarity to mod endotherms than ectotherms

However, dinosaurs would probably maintain a relatively constant internal temperature due t their small surface area versus volume (Homeotherms or Gigantotherms). Also, if dinosaurs such great endotherms why all of the plates, frills, spikes and nasal cavities that probably ser as heat exchangers, helping to warm and cool their bodies? 2. Extinction of the Dinosaurs - dinosaurs originated in the Middle Triassic and became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous (Cretaceous/Tertiary, K/T, or Maastrichtian/Danian Boundary; approximately 65 Ma) [some a few survived into the early Cenozoic] a. Catastrophic Dinosaur Extinction

a1. Extraterrestrial Causes - large asteroid (10 to 20 kilometers across) hit the earth, creatin cloud of dust and something similar to "nuclear winter"; decrease in photosynthesis, increase You're Reading a Preview carbon dioxide, increase in acidity of oceans and a short-term "greenhouse effect"? access with a free trial. boundary found at about 50 - evidence includes the iridium layerUnlock at thefullCretaceous/Tertiary localities throughout the World (probably deposited over a period no more than a few thousan years), the presence of glassy spherules (tektites) andFree "tsunami Download With Trial beds" at the K/T boundary a2. Vulcanology models - geochemical data in boundary rocks indicate major volcanic eruptions (e.g., The Deccan Traps of India) at the end of the Cretaceous - would produce greenhouse gases that would trigger rapid climate change

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  b. Hypothesis of Gradual Change & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - end of Cretaceous marked by major regression and drying up of epicontinental seas Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- tectonic activity, mountain building led to major change in climate and seasonality

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Series Amniota Class Sauropsida Subclass Diapsida Infraclass Archosauromorpha Division Archosauria Subdivision Avemetatarsalia Order Pterosauria Suborder Rhamphorhynchoidea Suborder Pterodactyloidea

B. Morphology

1. Skull - typically large; bones tend to fuse in skull; large brains; large orbits; quadrate slanted anteri and streptostylic, for increased jaw mobility; nostrils migrated posteriorly; with long beak an long, sharp teeth

2. Postcranial skeleton You're Reading a Preview - neck elongate; trunk very short with long sacral region; rhamphorynchoids with long tail access with a free trial. - Active Flight indicated by: hollowUnlock bonesfull and with bird-like pneumatic foramina (for respiration; with high metabolic rate?); keeled sternum; pterodactyloids with well-developed shoulder girdle [scapula (shoulder blade) articulated with Trial fused anterior trunk vertebrae Download With Free (notarium)]; humerus forms pulley-like structure (for attachment of large flight muscles); car ("wrist") bone modified to form splint-like pteroid (serves as anchor for a narrow membrane extends to the base of the neck); first three fingers short, fourth finger greatly elongate to sup the wing membrane (attached to posterior portion of trunk), fifth finger absent  - rhamphorynchoids had long tails; pterodactyloids had short tails Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times XXX. Birds, Inventors of the Feather Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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[including hand, foot, sacral vertebrae (fused to form a synsacrum), tail vertebrae (fused to fo a pygostyle)] - ribs with uncinate processes (small bony struts that bind the rib cage together) - clavicles fused to form the furcula (the "wishbone"); stabilizes the shoulder joint and preven collapse of the shoulder during flight - sternum ("breast bone") with large keel (carina) that provides a broad base for the flight muscles - typical avian foot with three toes in front and one behind (anisodactyly); some unrelated gro with two toes in front and two behind (the yoke-toed or zygodactyl condition; includes woodpeckers, cuckoos and parrots)

2. Skull - with large orbits (incompletely surrounded by bone), in front of which is an antorbital openi single temporal opening (but derived from the diapsid condition) - large braincase; skull bones typically fused and sutures obliterated - modern birds toothless with beak covered with a horny bill B. Origin of flight - theories can be divided into two groups, the "arboreal" theories and "cursorial" theories You're Reading a Preview

Unlock access with a freefour-footed, trial. 1. Arboreal theory-has been proposed byfull most workers; ground-dwelling reptil became bipedal, then climbing, then began leaping from tree to tree. Later it began parachut gliding and finally included active, powered flight Download With Free Trial

2. Cursorial theory - feathers developed as thermoregulatory devices for insulation; then use for trapping insects; then provided lift during running and leaping; then flight

Master your semester with Scribd C. Classification of Birds (One of many available): & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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Superdivision Neornithes Division Palaeognathae Orders Lithornithiformes, Ratites Division Neognathae Subdivision Galloanserae Orders Anseriformes, Galliformes Subdivision Neoaves Superorder unnamed ['waterbird assemblage'] Infraorder unnamed Orders Gruiformes, Ralliformes Infraorder unnamed Orders Pelecaniformes, Ciconiiformes Infraorder Unnamed Orders Charadriiformes, Phoenicopteriformes, Podicepidiform Falconiformes, Procellariformes, Gaviiformes, Sphenisciforme Order Strigiformes Superorder unnamed Orders Apodiformes, Caprimulgiformes Order Musophagiformes, Columbiiformes, Psitaciformes, Cuculiformes You're Reading a Preview Superorder unnamed ['derived land birds'] Unlock full access Coliiformes, with a free trial. Trogoniformes, Bucerotiform Orders Piciformes, Coraciformes, Passeriformes Download With Free Trial There are many groups of birds. I am only going to cover those of paleontologic interest:

1. Archaeopterygids - includes Archaeopteryx, the earliest known bird (pigeon-size); Jurassic  fossi - no unique features in the bony skeleton to differentiate them from dinosaurs (dinosaur Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  from China indicate at least some dinosaurs had feathers) Useful  Not useful  Cancelmostly anytime. closed; but - Skull birdlike with an expanded braincase and large eyes; sutures Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Archaeopteryx had thecodont teeth


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- include Orders Charadriiformes (shorebirds, including plovers, snipes, gulls, terns, auks, an sandpipers), Anseriformes (ducks, geese and swans) and Ciconiiformes (wading birds such a storks, herons, bitterns, ibises, spoonbills) - Charadriiforms may be ancestral to all other large water birds except the Ciconiiformes; mo Late Cretaceous fossil birds that are not hesperornithiforms belong to the ancient shorebirds (example= Telmatornis)

4. Flightless Birds - If there is no continual selection for the maintenance of flight apparatus birds tend to becom flightless - major changes include loss of the flight muscles; reduction in the wing and bones of the pectoral girdle; loss of the keeled sternum; obtuse angle of the scapulo-coracoid articulation; with broad unossified region between the ilium and ischium (the ilioischiatic fenestra); some ratites with skull sutures apparent; tendency to become large (note that most of these are neot features - i.e. they retain the "youthful" condition) - "Ratites" include gigantic flightless birds supposedly differentiated by their palaeognathous palate; is probably a polyphyletic group that includes moas (New Zealand; some over three meters tall), elephantbirds (up to 500 kilograms), ostriches, rheas, cassowaries, emus, tinomo and kiwis - Neoavian bird groups that developed flightless members include the orders Gruiformes (cra You're Reading a Preview rails, and the giant Early Tertiary carnivorous phorusrhacids), Diatrymiformes (over two met access a freeTertiary) trial. tall, probably carnivorous, flightlessUnlock birds full from thewith Early 5. Birds of Prey - include the hawks and owlsWith Free Trial Download

a. Falconiformes - includes falcons, hawks, eagles, vultures, ospreys and secretarybirds; wi raptorial adaptations (sharply hooked beak; powerful feet with long claws and an opposable t strong fliers)

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  b. Owls (Strigiformes) - nocturnal birds of prey; features such as the short-hooked beak & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  powerful talons are convergent with the falconiforms; Paleocene-Recent Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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A. Classification of Mammals - this is one of several available: Class Mammalia Family Sinocondontidae Subclass Mammaliaformes Family Morganucodontidae Infraclass Holotheria Family Kuehneotheriidae Order Docodonta Superdivision Australosphenida Division Monotremata Superdivision Theriimorpha Order Triconodonta Division Theriiformes Order Multituberculata Superlegion Trechnotheria Order Symmetrodonta Legion Cladotheria Superfamily Dryolestoidea Sublegion Boreosphenida You're Reading a Preview Order Deltathroida full access with a free trial. InfralegionUnlock Theria Cohort Marsupialia Magnorder Ameridelphia Download With Free Trial Order Didelphimorphia Family Didelphidae Order Paucituberculata Families Caenolestidae, Argyrolagidae,  Caroloameghinidae Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Order Sparassodonta Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. Families Borhyaenidae, Thylacosmilidae Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Magnorder Australidelphia


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Order Hyracoidea Mirorder Tethytheria Order Sirenia Order Proboscidea Families Moeritheriidae, Deinotheriidae Suborder Elephantiformes - Families Mammutidae, Gomphotheriidae, Stegodontidae, Elephantidae Magnorder Xenarthra Order Loricata (Cingulata) - Families Dasypodidae, Glyptodontidae Order Pilosa - Families Myrmecophagidae, Bradypodid Megalonychidae, Megatheriidae, Mylodontidae Magnorder Boreoeutheria Order Leptictida Order Anagalida Order Apatemyida Order Taeniodonta Order Tillodontia Order Pantodonta Order Pantolesta You're Reading a Preview Order Dinocerata Unlock full access with a free trial. Grandorder Laurasiatheria Order Lipotyphla - Suborders Erinaceomorpha, Soricomorpha Download With Free Trial Order Chiroptera - Orders Megachiroptera, Microchiro Mirorder Ferungulata Superorder Cetartiodactyla Order Arctocyonia  Order Mesonychidae Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Order Artiodactyla Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. Family Dichobunidae Suborder Suiformes (Bunodontia) - Families


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Brontotheriidae Suborder Ancylopoda - Family Chalicotheriida Suborder Ceratomorpha – Superfamilies Tapiroidea, Rhinoceratoidea ?Superorder Bulbulodentata - Family Hyopsodontidae Superorder Meridiungulata - Families Litopterna, Notoungulata, ?Astrapotheria, ?Pyrother Superorder Unnamed Order Creodonta Order Carnivora Family Miacidae Suborder Feliformia Family Nimravidae Infraorder Aeluroidea - Families Viverr Herpestidae, Hyaenidae, Felidae Suborder Caniformia Families Canidae, Ursidae, Amphicyonidae, Mustelidae, Procyonid Infraorder Pinnipedia - Families Enalilarctidae, Otariidae, You're Reading a Preview Odobenidae, Desmatophocidae, Unlock full access with a free trial. Phocidae Order Pholidota Grandorder Euarchontoglires Download With Free Trial Superorder Archonta Suborder Plesiadapiformes Order Primates Suborder Strepsirrhini  Infraorder Adapiformes Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  Infraorder Lemuriformes - Families Lemurida Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. Indriidae,Daubentoniidae, Lorisidae, Galagidae


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Order Dermoptera - Families Paromomyidae, Galeopithecidae Superorder Glires Family Zalambdalestidae Order Rodentia Suborder Sciurognathi Superfamily Ischyromyoidea Infraorder Sciuromorpha Infraorder Myomorpha Suborder Hystricognathi Infraorders Hystricomorpha, Phiomorpha, Caviomorpha Order Lagomorpha B. Characteristics of Mammals

1. Soft Anatomy - have hair and specialized mammary glands for suckling their young - platypus and echidnas in egg-laying Ornithodelphia (Prototheria); marsupials (Metatheria) h a marsupium (a pouch in which most embryonic development takes place); placentals (Euthe You're Reading a Preview have development taking place in the uterus and the embryo is nourished by the placenta (the Unlock full access with a free trial. tissues shed following a birth) - mammals are intelligent with complex behavioral patterns - mammals are endothermic and usually have high Download Withmetabolic Free Trialrates 2. Osteological features

a. Skeleton  - determinate growth (grow rapidly but achieve definitive body size); once grown epiphyses o Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title long bones fuse with the shaft; cynodonts and early mammals with atlas/axis vertebraeformin Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. ring in living mammals for rotation of head on vertebrae); mammals with dorsoventral flexio Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. between double occipital condyle (posteroventral "knobs" on skull) and atlas; trunk vertebrae


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malleus and the quadrate (skull bone) becomes the incus

c. Teeth - very important in mammalian paleontology - mammals are diphyodont (with two tooth generations; deciduous and permanent) - molars have two or more roots and complex crown morphology - living monotremes lack functional teeth; other mammals with four classes of teeth in each ja anterior teeth (incisors) simple in form; canine single, large and conical and is anterior-most tooth of the maxilla; teeth immediately behind upper and lower canines are premolars [usuall become increasingly molariform in structure posteriorly; incisors, canines and premolars usu with deciduous precursors shed early in life]; molars with no deciduous precursors and do no erupt until animal begins to reach its definitive body size - upper molars usually with square crowns with three roots and lower molars with narrower rectangular crowns and two roots - numbers of teeth in each class (incisors, canines, premolars and molars) summarized in a de formula (common opposum Didelphis with formula I5/4, C1/1, P3/3, M4/4 and generalized placentals with dental formula I3/3, C1/1, P4/4 and M3/3) - marsupials and placentals derived from Cretaceous therian mammals with tritubercular or tribosphenic cheek teeth (both upper and lower molars with three prominent tubercles or cusp - upper molars with cusps forming a trigon; consists of a medial protocone, anterior paracone You're Reading a Preview and posterior metacone full access with aof freea trial. - lower molars with cusps forming aUnlock trigonid; consists lateral protoconid, anterior paraco and posterior metaconid - fourth cusp, if present, is almost always directly behind Download With Free the Trialprotocone or protoconid and is called the hypocone (upper) or hypoconid (lower molar) - fifth cusp, the entoconid, is often present on lower molars; the entoconid and hypoconid enclose a heel (= talonid) posterior to the trigonid - trigons and hypocones on successive upper molars form a series of triangles formed by the  trigonid, hypoconid and entoconid on lower molars; upper and lower cheek teeth occlude in Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title different ways and can be determined through studies of cusps patterns and wear facets Not useful  Useful and Cancel anytime. - molars with cusps (points for puncturing), crests (lines for shearing) broad-basined area Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. (planar areas for crushing or grinding)


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- includes the morganucondontids, amphilestids and triconodontids 3. Symmetrodonts - shrew-sized mammals known from jaw fragments and dentition; Upper Triassic - Upper Cretaceous - mandible slender and long; lower molars triangular with asymmetrical cusp arrangement - divided into the kuehneotheriids, Amphidontids and Spalacotheriids 4. Docodonts - Middle to Late Jurassic; were probably size of small mouse and with elongate snouts - has articular-quadrate articulation but primary hinge is the dentary-squamosal - developed advanced "square-cusped" molar patterns

5. Multituberculates - most diverse and numerous Mesozoic mammals - rodent-like; Late Jurassic-Early Oligocene; replaced the rodent-like therapsids (tritylodonts) the mid-Jurassic and were later replaced in the Paleocene (by competition with condylarths, primates and rodents?) - skull low and broad with eyes facing laterally; with pair of enlarged procumbent lower incis with low many-cusped molariform teeth You're Reading a Preview UnlockGrade" full access with a free trial. 6. "Therians of Metatherian-Eutherian - a wastebasket category to include therians with tribosphenic dentition but not sufficiently known to place with the marsupial orDownload placental With groups Free Trial - includes poorly known Cretaceous therians such as the "Trinity Therians" ( Kermackia, Pappotherium and Holoclemensia from the Paluxy/Antlers Formation of Texas) - the oldest undisputed eutherian is a well-preserved shrew-sized placental from the Early Cretaceous of Mongolia, which proves that there were true placental mammals by this time

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  D. Marsupials & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - young born in a very immature (altricial) developmental state and undergo subsequent grow Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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attached to the teats of the female (usually in an abdominal pouch)

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4.a poorly developed auditory bulla

4.auditory bulla commonly well developed and various origins derived from alisphenoid

5.Angle of jaw usually inflected medially

5.lower jaw usually not inflected

6.Dental formula derived from I5/4 C1/1 P3/3 M4/4

6.Dental formula derived from I3/3 C1/1 P4/4 (6 premolars in primitive species)

7.essentially monophyodont teeth; only third premolar is replaced

7.diphyodont teeth; replacement of most antemo teeth

8.relatively broad stylar shelf on upper molars in most polyprotodont forms

8.relatively narrow stylar shelf in most forms

9. hypoconulid and entoconid are twinned and separated from the hypoconid

9. no twinning

10.Epipubic bone; both sexes of most forms 10.no epipubic bones

You're Reading a Preview 11.None possess baculum or os clitoridis 11.baculum or os clitoridis common Unlock full access with a free trial.

12.presumed to have retained the original 12.with derived, placental mode of reproduction therian reproductive mode Download With Free Trial 13.with altricial young

13.precocious young common

13.retain somewhat lower metabolic rate rate

14.typically develop an elevated basic metabolic

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 2. Interrelationships of the Metatheria Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- classifications have largely been based on incisor morphology and modification of bones in

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- Syndactyly - modification of bones of hind foot found in many Australian forms; digits II an III of hind foot reduced and incorporated in a single dermal sheath (probably for grooming) - Didactyly- no foot modification

2. Classification of the Metatheria This is a classification scheme that was modified from Woodburne (1984) for the Marsupials have only included the most common taxa): Infraclass Metatheria a. Cohort Ameridelphia - includes American Marsupials

a1. Order Didelphimorphia - polyprotodont and didactylous; Late Cretaceous - Recent; includes the Families Didelphida (most primitive marsupials and probably ancestral to other types; includes the American oppossum), Necrolestidae (mole-like), Argyrolagidae (kangaroo rat-like)

a2. Order Paucituberculata You're Reading a Preview - pseudodiprotodont and didactyl; Early Eocene to Recent of South America and Lower Eoce Unlock full access withmarsupials a free trial. of Antarctica; includes several groups of rodent-like

a3. Order Sparassodonta Download With Free Trial - includes the Borhyaenidae (very successful group of medium to large-sized dog-like marsu from the Late Paleocene - Pliocene of South America) and the Thylacosmilidae (late Miocene Pliocene of South America; "sabre-toothed" marsupials)

Master your semester b. Cohort Australidelphiawith Scribd - includes Australian Marsupials & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

b1. Order Dasyurida/Dasyuromorpha


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b4. Order Diprotodonta - diprotodont and syndactyl This order includes the following taxa:

Suborder Vombatiformes Superfamily Vombatoidea [includes Families Thylacoleonidae ("marsupial lions"; Miocene Pleistocene), Vombatidae (wombats; burrowers), Palorchestidae (Miocene-Pleistocene; often ground sloth-like), Diprotodontidae [sheep- to hippopotamus-sized quadrupedal marsupials from Australia (Miocene- recently extinct) and New Guinea (PliocenePleistocene)] and Wynyardiidae Superfamily Phascolarctoidea [includes Family Phascolarctidae (koalas)]

Suborder Phalangeriformes/Phalangerida Superfamily Phalangeroidea - may be most primitive diprotodonts; includes Families Macropodidae ["rat-kangaroos", wallabies and true kangaroos from Australia (MioceneRecent) and New Guinea (Pliocene-Recent); dental formula 3/3 0-1/0 2/2 4/4] - True kangaroos (macropodines) typically lophodont (loop-like enamel pattern on teeth) and with high-crowned teeth; most with only one or two molars functional at any one time; m are medium- to large-size with bipedal leaping gait (tibia greatly elongate, metatarsus You're Reading a Preview elongate; loss of toes; long, strong tail) Unlock full access with a free trial.

E. Primitive Eutherian Mammals - classification difficult due to incomplete fossilWith record and very similar dentitions; classifica Download Free Trial may be assisted by morphology of the auditory bulla (bones surrounding the ear region)

"Insectivores" ("Order Insectivora" of older classifications) - tremendous problems in classification; postcranial skeleton primitive [pentadactyl (five-toed  bulla, limbs and typically plantigrade locomotion]; typically small, lack an ossified auditory Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  relatively-complete dentition with sharp-cusped teeth and canines often reduced Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime. - with approximately 60 modern and 150 fossil genera Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. - includes the Liptotyphlans (hedgehogs with square molars due to development of hypocon


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- with pollen-producing flowers (flowers = modified leaves); pollen wind-carried or insectborne; pollen lands on stigma (end portion of female element); pollen tube grows to the ovule for the transport of sperm; one portion of the sperm fertilizes the egg and another portion unit with a second portion of the ovule (which generally forms a structure which provides nutrien for the growing embryo) = "double fertilization"; seed that develops is totally encased inside fruit - angiosperms are very successful because the diploid sporophyte dominates the life cycle (as other seed plants); the sporophyte of land-dwelling types has root and shoot systems, as well other features to allow it to take up and conserve water and dissolved minerals; the sporophyt retains and nourishes the gametophyte and the embryos are nourished by a unique tissue (the endosperm) within the seed; the seed are packaged in fruits, which also help to protect and disperse them; evolution of flower greatly led to the diversity of the angiosperms B. Classification of Angiosperms 1. Class Monocotyledonae/Liliopsida - include grasses, lilies, sedges, palms, pineapples and orchids; ?Triassic, Cretaceous-Recent - usually with floral parts in groups of three (e.g., three stamens - the pollen-bearing portions the flowers); leaves usually parallel veined; usually with only one cotyledon (the "seed leaf" the embryo); stems are usually herbaceous and rarely have secondary growth You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. 2. Class Dicotyledonae/Magnoliopsida - include herbs and woody plants, cacti, and water lilies; ?Jurassic, Cretaceous-Recent - floral parts occur in groups of four Download or five; vascular bundles With Free Trialare arranged in a circle around pith of the stem; often with secondary growth (thickens the vascular bundles and makes them stronger); usually leaves are net veined and their embryos have two cotyledons ("seed leaves - the dicots are probably paraphyletic; most "dicots" have tricolpate pollen (these are termed "eudicots" or "tricolpates"; other dicots and the monocotyledons have monosulcate pollen (it  therefore appears that the monocots were derived from monosulcate "dicots") Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times  Useful C. Tertiary Climate and Vegetation (North American Model) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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colonizing disturbed habitats) XXXIII. The Great Placental Radiation A. Bats (Order Chiroptera) - only order of mammals specialized for true flight - in number of species are the second largest order of mammals - may have descended from soricomorph insectivores and are the sister group to the "true insectivores" (liptotyphlans)

1. Structure Postcranial - wings supported by four fingers; thumb is freed and clawed; legs and pelvis developed for "hanging around" Skull - orbit usually open behind; auditory region greatly enlarged; dentition varied; often wi tribosphenic molars (upper molars triangular) or squared with a W-shaped ectoloph, a large protocone and smaller hypocone) 2. Classification

a. Megachiropterans or Megabats (Suborder Megachiroptera) You're Reading a Preview - include the fruit-eating bats or "flying foxes" of the Old World tropics; Oligocene - Recent; accesssense with a free trial. usually do not echolocate); well-developed eyes, large olfactoryUnlock lobesfull (good of smell; molars often specialized Download With Free Trial b. Microchiropterans or Microbats (Suborder Microchiroptera) - include most species of bats; almost worldwide in distribution; Lower Eocene - Recent; sma nocturnal (active at night) and usually with small eyes; most are echolocators; considerable diversity in diet; upper molars with w-shaped shearing cusps

Master your semester with Scribd  Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  B. Plesiadapiforms & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  - previously placed within the Primates (and still considered to represent a sister group to them Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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- late Cretaceous - Eocene; Plesiadapids had a rodent-like dentition with a long diastema ("ga

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reduced; eyes face forward on skull; brain relatively large; often with broadly-basined upper lower molars; hypocone usually added in upper molars

2. The Strepsirhines - with postorbital bar present on the skull; grasping thumb and big toe (higher degree of arbor adaptation); auditory capsule (ear region) specialized - include Adapids, Lemurs (Old World tropics; small, arboreal, nocturnal, furry, with fox-like face) and Lorises

3. The Haplorhinines (Tarsiiformes) - ectotympanic bone forms a tube leading outward from the auditory bulla in these and highe primates - includes Omomyids (Eocene-Miocene) and Tarsiids (Lower Oligocene-Recent)

4. Anthropoids - monkeys, apes and man (late Eocene - Recent) - Late Eocene and early Oligocene with sharp increase in seasonality and reduced temperatur in north temperate zones (number of fossil primates drop); Later Cenozoic with fossil primat almost totally limited to southern Asia, Africa and South America and consist almost entirely anthropoid primates You're Reading a Preview - probably omomyid ancestry Unlock fullthan accessthree with abicuspid free trial. premolar teeth; upper molars - with derived features of skull; never more usually with quadrate pattern (cusps in "square" pattern); braincase expanded and foramen magnum (where the backbone connects to the skull) tendsTrial to be under the skull (therefore fac Download With Free turned forward almost at a right angle to the backbone); two halves of the jaw are fused

a. New World Platyrrhines (Ceboids) - marmosets and cebid monkeys; most primitive anthropoids; flat noses with paired but well-separated outwardly directed nasal openings; den  formula I2/2 C1/1 P3/3 M3/3; Oligocene to Recent Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd  & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  b. Old World Catarrhines - Cercopithecid Monkeys and the Apes; protruding muzzle; nostr Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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closer together and open forward and downward; dental formula I2/2 C1/1 P2/2 M3/3; upper

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chimps and hominids (man's family) diverged when climate became cooler, drier and more seasonal (termed the Messinian Climate Crisis) - However, recovery of a 6-7 Ma year old skull with a human-like face from northern Chad, Africa (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) may indicate that the divergence of humans from other a occurred at 8 to 10 Ma c1. The Hominidae - there are many competing classifications of this family but this is one interpretation: c1a. Australopithecines - the first "humans"

- Ardipithecus species were the earliest known australopithecines, including Ardipithecus kadabba (ca. 5.7 Ma?) and Ardipithecus ramidus (ca. 4.5-4.3 Ma) from Ethiopia, Africa; con of gracile (lightly-built) australopithecines with chimp-sized brains that inhabited woodlands - Ardipithecus was bipedal (as indicated by the pelvis and leg structure) but the “big toe” on t foot was divergent (the foot could be used for “grasping”), suggesting Ardipithecus may hav nested and fed in trees

- Australopithecus species (ca. 4-2 Ma) were gracilea(lightly-built) hominids; fully bipedal You're Reading Preview (determined by hips, thigh bones and fossil footprints at Laetoli); very apelike in most of full access with a free trial. skeleton with long arms and fingers;Unlock the brain is chimp-size (400-500 milliliters); moderate t marked sexual dimorphism (males larger than females); height from 1.0 to 1.5 meters (3' 3" t 11") and weight from 30 to 70 kilograms (66 toWith 154 Free pounds); Download Triala "gracile" australopithecine probably lead to Homo

- Paranthropus species (2.6-1.2 Ma) were robust (heavily-built) australopithecines; relativel long arms; height 1.1 to 1.4 meters (3' 7" to 4' 7") and weight 40 to 80 kilograms (88 to 176 pounds); marked sexual dimorphism; prominent crests on Read top and back of skull; verylong, Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  larg broad, flattish face; strong facial buttressing; very thick jaws; small incisors and canines; Not useful  Useful  Cancel anytime. molar-like premolars; very large molars; brain size 410 to 530 milliliters


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crushing, digging, projectiles and carrying; it appears that the hominids had no preconceived shape of the tool during manufacture (i.e., no "mental template")

- early Homo species may have lived in multi-male and multi-female groups; males competed access to females - no evidence of intentional burials, grave goods, art, etc.; no clear evidence of architectural features

c1b2. Homo ergaster - approximately 1.9 to 1.5 Ma in eastern Africa - may be ancestral to all subsequent Homo species - the slender-bodied, long-legged "Turkana Boy" skeleton is essentially modern and with a highly efficient striding structure; adults probably 1.8 meters tall (6') or more; brain size 800 1050 ml - oldest H. ergaster made Oldowan tools; at approximately 1.65 Ma developed Acheulian industry (with large hand-held stone axes); may have been first to use fire at 1.7 Ma (fire provides warmth, used in hunting, protection against predators, remove toxins from food)

c1b3. Homo erectus - Asiatic form [ca. 1.5 Ma to 225 Ka] with aReading relatively large brain (850 -1150 ml), flat skull, You're a Preview large brow ridges, sloped forehead, nuchal crest on back of skull, almost no chin; probably di not give rise to later Homo species Unlock full access with a free trial. c1b4. Origin of Homo sapiens Download With Free Trial - probably evolved from H. ergaster-like species - by 500 - 200 Ka with forms intermediate between H. ergaster/"erectus" and H. sapiens

Master your semester with Scribd  Homo ergaster / - Multi-Regional Hypothesis - evolution from several "stocks" of migrated Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  "erectus" (especially Africa and eastern Asia) & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful - Out-of-Africa Hypothesis - evolution from a single stock of H. ergaster / "erectus" that late Origin Theories for Homo sapiens include:


migrated (most popular theory) and replaced older groups

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Mousterian Tradition - usually attributed to Homo neanderthalensis - strike flake from underside of a prepared "tortoise-shell" core to create many tool types; ma of these were Composite Tools (artifacts made from more than one component)

c1b6. Homo sapiens sapiens - Homo sapiens sapiens evolved from archaic H. sapiens in Africa and then replaced neanderthals in Eurasia? - there may have been an early dispersal of anatomically modern-looking Homo sapiens from Africa at about 100 Ka; there may have been a substantial “bottleneck” of population after th with numbers dropping to as low as 10,000 individuals

- Homo sapiens sapiens developed the Upper Paleolithic tool technology (35 to 9 Ka); often typified by "punch-struck" blade industries (a blade is a long flake); these were "specialized" hunter-gatherers (concentrate on a few resources) that often hunted herd animals Religion - Burials with ceremonial burials and grave goods

Upper Paleolithic Art - first widespread production true art was by modern Homo sapiens You're Readingof a Preview = cave paintings), probably with a religious significance ----------------------------------------- Unlock full access with a free trial. D. Order Rodentia Download With Free Trial - rodents and rabbits are sister groups; often placed in the Superoder Glires - rodents include squirrels, rats, mice and guinea pigs - approximately 40% of all known modern mammalian species (over 2,000 living species); approximately 50 families evolved in the Cenozoic (approximately 1/4 of these are extinct)  - probably evolved from anagalids (as did the lagomorphs)Read Free For 30 Days

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 1. Ecology and Distribution Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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- found on all continents except Antarctica and in nearly all habitats; mostly terrestrial, small

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- usually four grinding teeth (P 4-M3) posterior to diastema; many tooth patterns developed - masseter muscle (one that closes the jaw) enlarged and inserts onto flange of mandible belo and behind teeth; masseter attachment patterns are important in rodent classification

E. Order Lagomorpha - include pikas, rabbits and hares; late Paleocene to Recent; probably derived from anagalids - herbivores; feed on grasses in the plains and on shrubs in rocky tundra and desert terrains - two pairs of persistently-growing incisors (one pair behind the other) in upper jaw and enam completely surrounds the tooth; only one layer of enamel on anterior surface of incisors (two layers in rodents) F. Carnivorous Mammals 1. "Creodonts" ("Order Creodonta") - probably polyphyletic, but some members were ancestral of the "true carnivores" - dominant Tertiary carnivores; on all continents except Australia and South America; with approximately 50 genera known from two families; carnassials usually involving M

1+2

/M

(modern carnivores with carnassials at P 4 /M1); shorter limbs, unfused wrist bones, terminal phalanges with fissured claws, usually no loss of toes versus true carnivores You're Reading a Preview - includes mustelid- and felid-like Oxyaenids and sabretooth cat-, dog- or hyaena-like Unlock full access with a free trial. Hyaenodontids

Download Free Trial 2. Carnivora Vera or "True Carnivores" (OrderWith Carnivora) - includes the order of modern carnivores - was relatively minor part of faunas in Paleocene and early Eocene; late Eocene with canid (dog), viverrid (civet) and possibly mustelid (weasel, stoat, mink, marten, skunk, badger and otter) lines

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- usually simple digestive system and conservative dentition (usually 3/3 1/1 4/4 2/3) with up canine enlarged and last upper premolar and first lower molar form carnassials; often reduce


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Carnivores; internal carotid remains an important artery and the auditory bulla is not clearly divided into two chambers - believed to have been derived from the primitive miacine carnivores - Canids (Family Canidae) - includes the dogs, foxes, wolves, and jackals; usually savannah cursorial carnivores; good carnassial dentition and retain crushing teeth behind these; long lim digitigrade feet (walk on toes with the heels not touching the ground); mostly social animals; Eocene - Recent - Amphicyonids or Bear-dogs (Family Amphicyonidae) - successful bear-like canoid stock; Eocene - Pliocene - Ursids (Bears) - probably evolved from canids during the Miocene; posterior teeth form crushing surface for omnivorous diet; plantigrade feet (walk on the soles of the feet) - Procyonids - includes the raccoons, kinkajou, coatis and their kin; small, arboreal omnivoro types; carnassials lose shearing function; plantigrade feet - Mustelids - includes skunks, weasels, badgers, wolverines and otters; usually small northern temperate forms with short stocky limbs and no loss of toes; no septum in the auditory bulla; good carnassials; sometimes placed within a separate lineage (Musteloids) versus dogs, racco and bears; Oligocene - Recent

--------------------------------------------------------------------b2. Aquatic Families (the "Pinnipedia") You're Reading a Preview - enaliarctids, desmatophocids, otariids, odobenids and phocids are usually grouped in the full indicates access with that a freephocoids trial. Suborder Pinnipedia but study of earUnlock region (seals) and otaroids (the other four families) had diphyletic (separate) origins from terrestrial carnivores - Odobenids - walrus and kin; simplified cheek With teethFree withTrial only a single root; derived types wi Download tusks (for prying clams); Miocene - Recent - Otariids - sealions, eared seals and fur seals; hind legs capable of positioning anteriorly for locomotion on land; cheek teeth with single cusps; Miocene - Recent - Phocids - include the "earless" seals; hind legs always posteriorly positioned; cheek teeth  double rooted and with accessory cusps; fossil record poor, but may be more kin to "musteloi Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  than "canoids"; Miocene - Recent Useful  Not useful  ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. b3. Aeluroids (Feloids)


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G. Early Rooters and Browsers - earliest herbivores were mostly Paleocene and Eocene; from rabbit- to elephant-sized; prob most were rooters or feeders on tubers (with clawed feet, large canines and broad, low crown cheek teeth; typically complete dentition with no diastema) - includes the pig-like Taeniodonts, semiaquatic Pantodonts, massive herbivorous Dinocerata (the "Uintatheres"), the large clawed-footed Tillodonts, the rhino-sized Embrithopods, and th "Condylarths" (ancestral to all other herbivorous groups; includes the arctocyonids,hyopsodontids, and phenacodontids) H. South American herbivores

1. Geologic and Paleontologic History of South America - from Paleocene until Pliocene was an "island continent" - South American mammalian evolution can be divided into three phases: a. Late Eocene with marsupials, edentates and condylarths b. Early Oligocene through late Miocene with marsupials and edentates radiating into many adaptive niches and condylarths diversify into six orders and about 25 families; also with primates and rodents reaching South America during the early Oligocene by "rafting" from N America or West Africa c. Great Faunal Interchange during Plio-Pleistocene with faunas migrating north and south across Central America (South America received mastodonts, horses, tapirs, peccaries, camel deer, shrews, hares, squirrels, mice, dogs, bears, raccoons, otters and cats; all of the South American taxa became extinct and these are the critters discussed below!) - South American herbivores probably derived from didolodont condylarths

2. Order Litopterna - primitively with complete dental series; no diastema; upper molars with low cusps; trigonid talonid on lower molars nearly the same height  - includes the rabbit-like Adianthids, the horse-like Prototheriids, and the weird camel-like, Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  trunk-bearing Macraucheniids


3. Order Notoungulata

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- A polyphyletic group including the pangolins, armadillos, anteaters, sloths and the extinct palaeanodonts (but see below for probable phylogenetic relationships) - reduction or loss of dentition (if retained teeth lack enamel); most with large claws (especia on forelimbs) used for digging; diet often consists of ants, termites and small insects; living members with muscular, gizzard-like portion of stomach for crushing prey

1. Xenarthrans (Order Xenarthra) - include tree sloths, anteaters and armadillos and the extinct glyptodonts and ground sloths - with accessory area of attachment on pelvic girdle; most with extra vertebral articulations (= xenarthra; probably initially for digging; later supported carapace/shell in some groups), scap (shoulder blade) with two parallel spines; feet usually bear large claws, some genera with ossicles (bony plates) in the skin and others with a bony shield over the body; modern xenarthrans with variable body temperature which is lower than in other placentals a. Infraorder Loricata (Cingulata) - includes the Dasypodidae (armadillos; probably ancestral to other xenarthrans; Paleocene Recent) and the Glyptodontidae (Middle Eocene (?) Miocene - Pleistocene age; often huge, armadillo-like)

b. Infraorder Pilosa - includes the Bradypodidae (tree sloths) and the Ground Sloths (Oligocene - Pleistocene; fro cat-sized to over six meters long; includes the Mylodontoidea and Megalonychoidea) and the Myrmecophagidae [true anteaters; Eocene (from Germany!) to Recent ]

2. Other "Edentates" - include Pholidota (pangolins; with "pine cone-like" scales; Eocene - Recent; molecular data indicates that these are actually a sister group of carnivores!); Tubulidentata (aardvarks; Mioc - Recent; molecular data indicates kinship to tenrecs, golden moles and elephant shrews) and  Palaeanodonta (include Lower Tertiary mole-like and sloth-like forms) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times J. Order Proboscidea Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

-include the elephants; Eocene - Recent

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3. Evolutionary History and Classification of Elephants - may be derived from phenacodontid condylarths; Geologic Range = Eocene- Recent - most important groups are the Deinotheroidea (with downturned and backwardly curved tus and the Euelephantoidea [include the Mammutidae (mastodonts), Gomphotheridae ("shoveltuskers") and the Elephantidae (elephants and mammoths)]

K. Order Sirenia - manatees and dugongs - totally aquatic, huge (up to 8 meters long) shapeless animals with a large tail (the "swim fin small front flipper, blunt mouth with thick overhanging lips; skeletal adaptations for aquatic include pelvic girdle reduced to a vestige and thick, dense ribs; Eocene - Recent

L. Order Desmostylia - pony-sized aquatic animals with short, stout limbs and short shovel-like tusked mouth; eac cheek tooth made of cluster of stout dentine tubules; Upper Oligocene - Miocene

M. Order Acreodi (Mesonychids) - difficult to classify (often placed close to the cetaceans and may have been ancestral to wha - descended from arctocyonid "condylarths"; may have been hyaenid-like bone-crushing scavengers; include largest known land carnivores/scavengers N. Order Cetacea - include the whales - mesonychids, whales, artiodactyls (cattle, antelopes, pigs, etc.) and perissodactyls (horses, rhinos and tapirs) are related and often placed within the "Superorder Cetartiodactyla"

1. General Characteristics of Cetaceans  - specialized for aquatic life with streamlined body; tail forms horizontal fluke for propulsion Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title hind limb absent; fore limb forms short flipper for steering; thick fat layer; no sense of smell Useful  Not useful  Cancel anytime.large and complex; vision is poor but sense of touch and hearing very well-developed; brains Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. primarily carnivores (feed on squid, fish or plankton)


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- "odd toed" ungulates including tapirs, rhinoceroses, horses, brontotheres and chalicotheres - derived from phenacodontid condylarths - first appear in the Eocene (also peaked in the Eocene); good fossil record in North America Eurasia and later members found in Africa and South America - axis of weight-bearing passes through the middle or third digit (mesaxonic); most members three toed but later horses eliminated the lateral digits to become one toed - astragalus (ankle bone) with a single "pulley"; molar teeth with a lophodont pattern (with enamel loops) 1. Suborder Ceratomorpha - includes tapirs and rhinoceroses (develop cross-lophs on the teeth); include largest land mammals known (Inthricotherines were rhinos up to 5.4 m at shoulder) 2. Suborder Ancylopoda

a. Superfamily Chalicotheroidea - chalicotheres; Eocene-Pleistocene of North America, Eurasia and Africa; Moropus (Mioce North America) was horse-sized clawed bipedal browser 3. Suborder Hippomorpha - includes the horses and brontotheres You're Reading a Preview

Unlock full access with a free trial. a. Superfamily Equoidea - horses; Eocene-Recent - evolutionary trends include increase in size and height, complexity of enamel pat Download With Free increased Trial on cheek teeth, elongation of legs, reduction of toes to one

b. Superfamily Brontotheroidea - include the titanotheres (brontotheres); medium- to very large-sized herbivores of the early Tertiary of North America and eastern Asia; with w-shaped enamel ridges (ectoloph)on the Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title  upper molars


P. Order Artiodactyla

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