What
educational educational plan plannin ning? g? Philip
oombs
3is. Unesco nternati nter national onal Institut ute e for Educational Planning
Fundamentals
educational educational pla planni nningng-
Incl Includ uded ed in the the se t is Educational Educational Planning? Plann ing?
oombs
e Relation Relation of Educationa Ed ucational l Pla Plans ns
Econo Ec ono mic
d Socia Social l Pla Planni nning ng
Poignant Educat atio iona nal l Plan Planni ning ng an d H 3. Educ
F. Harbison
Planning Planning
n Resource Resource Development
d the the Educational Educationa l Administra Administrator tor
Beeby e Social Social Contex Cont ext t f Educational Plannin
A. Anderson
e Costi Costing ng J. Vaizey,
Educational Plans
hesswas
e Problems f Rural Education Education
Griffiths Educati Edu cational onal Planning: the Adv Advise iser's r's Role Ro le
m Demo De mo grap gr aphi hi c Aspects of Educationa Educational l Plannin Plannin
a Ngoc Chl e Anal Analysi ysi
Hallak
Educational Costs and Expenditur Expenditur
e Professional Professional Iden Identi tity ty of the Education Educa tional al Plan Pl anne ne
m e Conditions or or Suc Succes cess s n Educational Educatio nal Planning G.
Ruscoe
Cost-benefit Cost-benefit Analysis in in Educ Ed ucat atio iona nal l Plannin
Maureen Woodhall
published in in Frenc F rench. h. Othe Ot he *Also published
titles
appear
JWhat education educ ational al pla plannin nning? g?
Philip H. oombs
: International International Inst Instit itut ut Educational Educational Plannin
e Swedish Inte Intern rnat atio iona nal l De ve lo pm en t Au Auth thor orit ity y s prov provid ided ed finan financi cial al assistance assistance for for the publication of thi this book bookle le
Published Unite d Nations Nati ons 1970 by the United Educational Educational, , Sci Scien enti tifi fic c d Cultural Organization Organization Plac Pl ace e de Fo Fonte ntenoy noy Paris-7" Printed Pri nted by Ceute Ceuteric rick, k, Louv Lo uvai ai ver ve r design by oP nesco 1970 IIEP.70/11.1/A Belgmm Printed
Fundamentals
educational educational planning planning
e booklets in writt tten en primar primarily ily for t o g gro roup ups: s: those series are wri engage engaged d r preparing preparing for--educati for--educational onal planning d admin adminis is trati tration,especial cially n dev devel elop opin ing g countries countries; ; d others, specialized, such such as senior senior go to sa , o ka civic genera general l understand understanding ing educational educational planning can be of help help o over-a over-all ll national national deve develo lopm pmen ent. t. y are are devised devised to to be of for p pri riva vate te study or or in forma formal l trai training ning pr either for The modern conception educational educational planning planning has attr attrac acte te s m y . m tend tends s t see planning rath rather er d . e purp purpos ose e of s the booklets booklets help these peop people le expla explain in their particular points of view o one one another d t e younger younger n and and w nw o e g d to r e e day. day. But But b behi ehind nd sd y ther ther a w and growing u s d administrato administrators rs n develo developin ping g countries countries are are c g to accept certai certain basic principl ciples d pract practices that that o e s me hing hing o the separate separate disciplines but are are y t a uniq unique ue contribution contribution o k y a body pioneers pioneers o have have had had o atta attack ck toget togethe her r educational educational prob proble lems ms e urgent a d t than than an world world ha ever known. booklets ts in the series repr repres esen ent t s n expe experie rience nce, , So other bookle provide t compass compass the bes best availabl available e ideas d experience ence conc concer erni ning ng selected aspe aspects cts educational planning. Since readers will vary widely in rb un ,the the a author uthor e een een given the the d t task task of introd introduc ucin ing g r subjects the beg begin inni ning ng, , explaining tech technic nical terms t y be be comm co mmon onpl plac ac o s e but a myster mystery y o othe others rs, , d t adhering adhering to to scho schola larl rl standards d never w ti g n o r readers, readers, , except e particular speciality, are This no sense unsophisticated. This
Fundamentals
educational planning planning
appr approa oach ch has e advantage advantage t s the booklet booklets s i o the gener general al reader. Althou Although gh th series, r the general editorship editorship of Beeby Zeal Zealan and d Counc Council il r Educational R Rese esearch arch in Wellington, has been been plan planne ned d na e pattern,no attemp attempt t has has been been m e t avoid differ differences, ences,or eve even n contradict contradictions, ions, n the views expressed by th authors. t w d be , n the the Institute’ view, o y a neat neat a d tidy l doctri doctrine ne in th s n w d rapidly evol evolvin ving g nowl nowled ed e and and . , hile hile t views are the the responsibility e authors, authors, and and m y not always always be shared shared by U o or or t Institut titute, they they are believed o t attentio attention n n the internationa internationa mark market et-p -pla lace ce of idea ideas. s. In short, appropr pria iate te seems e appro o e e a cross-sectio cross-section n of the opinio opinions ns of aut authorities w d expe experie rienc nce e covers covers m y s and and a high proportion the the countries of the the world world
Preface
series of booklets n pC s and were planni planning ng booklets nearly five five years years d only og al tha shou should ld e ‘What Educational Educational Planning Planning?’, ?’, d t t he shoul shoul write it That, after all, the question those n the si el ne and y dee deep p thc thc g e e asking. asking. e fact tha w appear appearing ing after in th series s rc . e os ensible reason for for the delay that, Director of the newly-establishedTIEP, e w s f too busy d o e acquai acquainte nted d with with s ceas ceaseless a write it over t s period could reasonably d Bu do, ecause happen w t t time e devo devote ted d o the bookl booklet et s t to him write it three times over over if e h d b n willin acce accept pt a conce concept pt of h s subj subject. e trouble trouble w s hat views n educational educational plan ning, ning, s o n and and tho those se others, er changing rapidly that by the time he ca e t t para paragr grap aph h of any any draf draft, t, n the snatch snatched ed hou hou he had spare spare, , e foun found d th first paragraphs paragraphs, , nd the the approach approach he had adopted e pamphlet pamphlet a whol whole, e, nsat nsat sfyi sfying ng. . e iro irony ny of was that that he himself himself s in o small meas measur ure e responsible responsible for the rap rapid idit it f the ,since since h s Institute s the intellectuallyturbul turbulent ent centre d wh h or sts and and l planners were evolving and revising their ideas. s has f y solv solved ed h s prob proble lem m eatly by g th subject subjecthistorically; y trac tracin ing g wh e thinking on on educationa educational l planni planning ng s c e from he given an an indica indicatio tio direction travel. So, ven though though ev nts nts d h s o imaginati ation on m e n befo before re ertile imagin the booklet booklet can can appe appear ar in prin print, t, w have t e d ta on on which n extrapolat extrapolate e o f d his probabl probable e positi sition on n planni planning ng a year f now.
Preface
Just Just because the the concept concept of educational educational planning fluid, still everybody everybody engaged engaged it will find in t s booklet s g with with whic whic he n disagr disagree, ee, but he will d y m h m e t t he welco welcome me warmly. n old administrator, for for instance, think the the autho autho rath rather er underestimates the the t of f y syst system emat atic ic longlong-ra rang nge e lanning that went on n s e g d school school systems systems befo before re it was wa s eve it s ‘plan respec respectab table le n e countrie countries s t refer ‘planning ning’, ’, ut gladly forg forgiv ive e him him that that for for the the w dim dimen ensi sion on he has has given given o the the subj subjec ec d for h s insis insiste tenc nce e that that educa educatio tional nal planni planning ng not not n esoteric exercise for the specialist e bu n s e meas measur ure, e, t of e proper k of almost everyone engaged n education education write on There can can be no on better qualified Coombs s topic. pic. Beginn Beginning ing s a profes professor sor of ec , he rb Research Research Direc Directo tor r of e Ford Ford Founda Foundatio tion’s n’s d r t e Ad ce t f Educatio Education, n, and and then then went on under Presi Preside dent nt serve under F. y as Ass Assis ista tant nt Secre Secreta tary ry of Stat State e or Educa Educati tion on d Cultural Affairs. After five d a half half years of l y d imaginati imaginative ve dir direc ecti tion on 1968 o dev of the IIEP, e resigned resigned at the devot ote e himsel himself f to hi n writ writin ing g but contin continued ued for for ano anoth ther er year as the the I st ut s Director Director of Research. has recent y joined the the w Center Center f r Education Educational al Enqu Enquir iry y s Director of Stu Studi dies es of Educa Education tional al Strat Strateg egy, y,but still gives some time o the Inst Institute’s research research w has has written itten widely widely on econom economics ics and and educ educat atio iona nal l plan plannin ning, g, s best best-k -kno nown wn k d Educational E ducational
hope hope th t p of another five years.
Syst Sy stem ems s Analy Analysi sis. s.
w i l l write
s book bookle let t agai again n at the e C.E. EEBY
General editor
the the seri series es
Contents
few personal personal wo word rd
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Part
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l characterization
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educationalplanning
Part Three
y a w kind of pla plann nnin ing g beca became me ne . . n the industrializednations nations . . . . . . In the developing nations . . . . . . ) Wasteful Wasteful imba imbala lanc nces eswithin the educational system system d r in excess cess of capaci pacity . . . . Costs rising faster than than reve revenu nues es . . . . ) NonNon-fi fina nanc ncia ial l ottlenecks . . . . . No enou . . . enough ghjo jobs bs r theeducated The Th e wrong kin education . . . . Part Par t Fou
Recent Recent progr progress ess n theo theory ry and and meth method odol olog og e key key planning planning ques questi tion on . . . e l ’ pproach . . The Th e ‘manpowe ‘manpower’ r’ ppro pproac ac . . . e ‘rat ‘ratee-of of-r -ret etur urn’ n’pproac pproac . .
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t progress in putting theo theory ry into practic Training Training and and research . . . . . . . . . Implem Implement enting ing plann planning ing .
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Part Five
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Contents
Part . . . . look in look into to the future . . . . Refi Re fine neme ment nt of obj objec ecti tive ve . . valuation valuation of of system system perform performanc anc system sys tems s approac appr oac educational design w ma mana nage geme ment nt s an and d measures measures . nt si ied research research and an d de deve velo lopm pmen en .
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w per person sonal al words
the reader
People the the world over over w o are are concerned concerned with with the futu future re of education education l leaders, adminis administra trators tors, , teachers, students, d assorted e asking y pert pertin inen ent t questions questionstoda today y t educational educational term plan planni ning ng. .A well they might might. . Before 1950 s scar scarcely n n most the world. B t e then popula popularit rity y has has soared soared e t majo majori rity ty of the the world’s educat education ional al lea leade ders rs d gove govern rnme ment nt have by w om itte itted dthem themse selv lves es o the the idea idea of educ educat atio iona nal l planning, planning, international international agencies are giving it a top top , w training proprogram gr amme mes s have have b en , l s are oi g research n the subjec subject, t,an larg large e n w professional professional literature emerging. Desp Despit ite e l s attention,educat educationa ional l plan planni ning ng still rema remain ins s a mysmy sy to e eu n succ succes ess s depen depends. ds. r t t m y are are g r answers questions such such as th following: What educational educational planni planning? ng? How does work work? ? H w much cover? r? be used used everywh everywhere ere only only in certain plac places es it cove o etep a planner? t planning?
? W t do y d ? H w does does one become bec ome e the the dangers n planning? d e dangers
w does does today’s educat education ional al plan plannin ning g y nece necess ssar ary yt to of dan w star starte ted? d? t ctua ctual l prog progre ress ss has been w
h
o
ee
sr
y
m r How does a country ge
?W
r
t ar
ain ain area area
What
educational educational plan planning ning
of agreement, agreement,and and disagreement? disagreement? , planning, there there a worl world d educat education ional al c
e t s n w educ educat atio iona na
t about e f n educatio educational nalplanning planning it stands today e succ succes essful sfully with with the the formi formidab dable le p s tha tha ahead for educational educational system systems? s? not, then in w t w s must must plan planni ning ng be furth further er strengthen strengthened ed f u are n expert expert and and alread already y e reason reasonably ably sa answ answer ers s to thes these e questions, hen o read furth further er could waste waste yo r time. t f y u consider yourse yourself lf a novice still lookin looking g r answer answers, s, booklet might might help help you. you. intende intended d as a laym layman an’s ’s intro introduc ductio tion n educational educational plann planning ing, , subj subjec ect t to the followi following ng caveat caveats. s. not find here definitive d authoritative an s to i l l not Yo w r questio questions. ns. You will simp simply ly fi d the tentat tentativ ive ea d l a we of o e indi indivi vidu dual al, , whic which h he reserves the rig right o a d . views views expressed expressed natur natural ally ly reflect s par par cu r back backgr grou ound nd dv tage tage-p -poi oint nt; ; nd nd o claim o made. made. Thi not not said said by y of apolo apology gy or throug through h e modes modesty ty but simply because t the the w y thin things gs are. Educat Education ional al planning planning know today still too yo g a d growing too too rapi rapidl dl ,an r too com compl plex ex a d iver iverssd a subject, o be be enca encase sed d in a y hard hard d fa t defin definit ition ion, , d for l time time. . y o genera nerally lly accepted defini finition tion of educational less n acceptable planni planning ng yet e , acceptable general general theory. theory. Nevertheless Nevertheless, , reat reat progress progress has has l y been been e in in both both the the theor d prac practi tice ce of educational educational plan planni ning ng, , d scholars scholars d pract practit itio ione ners rsof he subj subjec ect t have d y tow towar ard dg r agreemen agreement t on on m important p . r to describe s e of t s prog progre ress ss w i l l y while while not not hiding the the need need for for a great great deal deal m e approach approach taken taken basically historical, e n the the b t w y o unde underst rstand and educational planning o obse observ rv view the has evolved over time and and taken taken m y form forms s nm y plac places to e part particul icular ar needs. Being Being e of s her herit itag age, e, equipped ped o a r t for for us the operative operative w i l l be be r equip : t kinds educational planning planning do d o nations need n th 1970s o help help t m c e with with the the en yd t prob proble lems ms of io l deve develo lopm pmen ent t the they y face face in a rapi rapidl dly y cha changi nging ng wor world ld m t has has just been aid tha tha little good likely to It follows e from from viewin viewing g educat educatio ional nal planning planning as as a ‘ w ci nc selfcontai contained ned ‘disc ‘discipl ipline ine’ ’ d o a w x n the the univ university chart chart
few pe pers rson onal al words wor ds
th reader
by physic physics, s,econ econom omic ics, s, sychology d other like e boxes occupied by recognized recognized aca aca em c di .This This w d tend o e educational planning-j ng-just s education education d peda pedago gogy gy themselves have have f r too long been isolated isolated-fro -fro n intellectual curren currents ts that are he natu natura ral l source of nour nourish ishmen ment. t. Perh Perhap aps s e b t w y o begin begin our enquiry y trying to dispel a few few durable myth myths s a d by by g prelimina preliminary ry propositi propositions ons a ut educational educational planning planning that that will furnish an an lf e of reference prom prompt ptly ly expo expose se the author’s author’s predilections.
r O
n
l characterization
Wh teve tever r educa educati tion onal al plann plannin in certainly ot a mira miracl cle e drug for ai g educational educational syste systems ms n , conversely, conversely, it a devil’s l’s potion potion that that breeds onl evil. Educationa Educational l planning, planning, broadest broadest generic generic sense, the application application of rational,systema systematic tic analys analysis to the proc process ess of educat education ional al devel develop opme ment nt with aim aim of maki making ng educ educat atio ion n e a d t in g o the needs needs d goals goals of students d soci societ ety. y. n s light, educat education ional al plann planning ing ideologically neutral s are su y e a d adap adapta tabl ble et situations that r widely widely n ide ideol olog ogy, y, evel of development,and and governmental form. basic logic, once oncept pts, s, d princ principle iples s are univers universall ally y applicable, applicable, but but the the p lm s for for applyin applying gt m y range range m t e crude d simple simple o t the he high highly sophisticated, sophisticated, epen ependi ding ng on the the circumstanc circumstances. es. ther theref efor ore e g o conceive conceive educat education ional al planni planning ng as offering a , monoli monolithi thic c form formul ula a t t m t be d uniformly uniformly n situations. equa equall lly y w g to conceive conceive of educational educational planning planning s being exclusively c ce ned ned with the quantitative expansio expansion n of education, education, with g things things bigger bigger but not .This This misco misconce ncepti ption on part partly ly becau because se that w educ educat atio ional nal plann plannin ing g has often bee used, ut it not n inherent limi limita tati tion on s also becaus because e plan planni ning ng s te iv us of s s n they they are available). should merely be d that a s e w of a , an the the fact fact y just a well e qualitative as quantitative. Educationa Educational l planning deal deal with the future future, ,draw drawin ing g enlightenment m the the past the the spring springboa board rd for future future decisi decisions ons d actions, more than than mere bluep blueprint.Plan Planni ning ng a continuous continuouspro proce cess ss it more
n
l characterization
concerne concerned d not onl only y with with whe where re o go but but with with w o g t the there re by t b t route. route. not cea cease se n a pla plan n s on on paper work does not and and has w n approv approval. al. Planning, Planning, o be effective, must must be concerned concerned with n impl implem emen enta tati tion on-w -wit ith h s e or not , unfore unforesee seen n obsta obstacl cles es t a e d with with h w o e . Plan e not not be carved carved in stone stone but to to be chan change ged d a d adapte adapte as the the occasion occasion warrants. plan plans s for for e period period m e in o action planni planning ng for for the next must be under , ouri ourish shed ed by feedb feedback ack e irst Planning t the speci pecial al sport sport of dictators-though dictators-though dictato dictators, rs,like democr democrati atic cleader leaders, s, an fi a l instrument. instrument. r planning planningper per not t e ma po icies a d decisions; decisions; s but he those o carry carry uch uch resp respon onsi sibi bili lity ty, , t high high d w le s alike Planning or shou should ld be, be, n l par par the the w ole ole proce process ss educat education ional al , efin efined ed n the broadest broadest sens sense. e. n help help th deci deci ionion-ma make ke s t l levels-from lass lassro room om teachers to nationa mini minist ster ers s d parlia parliamen ments ts-to -to e better-infor better-informed med deci decisi sion ons. s. see o t s by helpin helping gt e clearly the the s ecif c objectives objectives n q tion,the various option options s that that are availab available le for for purs pursui uing ng thes these e objecobjectives, d the l y implications implications of of each each. . lann lannin ing g can can help to attai larger larger d better agg aggre rega gate te r s within within the limits available resources. achi achiev eve e suc such h be ,howe howeve ver, r, planning planning t use use a widewide-an angle gle s throug through h whi which ch a great great m y inte interl rloc ocki king ng ia s can can be put focus d m seen seen as as p s of a d c organi organic c whole whole-a -a system susceptible sy syst stem em an analy alysi sis. s. e reco recomm mmen endi ding ng any one one cou cours rs action action, ,planne planners rs So what r m the the decisi decisionon-mak makers ers ave, t , r manceuvre. first see what y t , for instan instance, ce, t the the the soci societ ety, y, wants go, and what educationally,to get there; there; a w i l l require, educationally, the nature of the students, r nee needs ds, ,aspiratio aspirations ns a d practical pros pros pects pects; ; t the stat e f a d the st e of the educational educational t a d t hnol hnolog ogy; y; d n t l t of l at the innate innate y of of the e cational sys syste tem m to ei f ya take take intelligentactio actio im ro e s o n performance. performance. e of the the c l task task educational plan planni ning ng o determine w p these intricateinternal d exte extern rnal al relations relationships hipsof the educational educational system system n rea reaso sona nabl ble ebalance under dyna dynamic mical ally ly changing circumst circumstance ances, s, nd o ben bend d constan constantly tly n the require required d directi direction. on. e foregoing foregoing, ,of course, course, are are l a whic which h o educational educational 15
t s educa education tional al planning? planni ng?
planning plannin g ha has s ev ever er f y d p to to. . t then, then, during m t of ed educ ucaation’s tio n’s lo long ng hist history ory it did not not ne d to, be beca caus use e l e for edu educat cation ional al systems te ms w s consid consider erab ably ly si simp mple ler r then then than rior ri or o the the Seco Second nd W d , educ educat atio iona na systems everywhere less were less x n str struc uctur ture e d content, content, smaller n s e a intricately t ed to the total total e o of f nations. M , ed educ ucat atio iona na s d the world ar arou ound nd m we were re growing d changing changing t a considerabl considerably y slower pace. pace. s there there w s mi mini ni al k that that s imbalances imbalances and an d maladjustments maladjustments might suddenly er erup upt ta the co cons nsti titu tuen ent t pa part rts s of n educational system system r bet betwe ween en the sys syste te and t en envi viro ronm nmen ent. t. sort e the , even n these these simp simpler ler times the there re had had to be of planning, s pa t of the the n l care care a d fe feedi eding ng of educatio educational nal institutions. B t exc except ept for times of extraordinary extraordinary so l fe ferm rmen ent, t, it could be a si simp mple le a d d f , n inconspicuous d ro rout utin in aspe as pect ct of educati educational onal admi administ nistrati ration on wh h hardly warrant warranted ed the cern of scholars d sta state tesme smen, n, or ev even en a sp spec ecia ial ll This o lo long nger er the the . e world of educatio education n has has been been changing changing rapi ra pidl dly ya d y si e the the en end d of the dW d , o a com combi bina nati tion on f w fa li r rev revolu olutio tionar nary y ces ce s t have sh shak aken en the e e world world. . Later w will ex exam amin ine e the the kind of impact whic wh ich h th revol rev oluti ution onary ary fo forc rces es ha e h d n education education a d h w l t s has crea cr eate ted d the nee need d r a fundament fundamentally ally n w kind of educ educatio ational nal planning. will pa o loo first, , t e of th the eh l antecedents dent s of of s n w educational planning
Part
ancestry
educatio educ ational nal plannin plannin
Toda Today’ y’s s educa educatio tional nal plann planning ing can claim claim an an brok broken en ance ancest stry ry runni running ng back back to anci ancien en times. Xenephon tells (in th Lacedaemonian 2,500 ears Constitution) w e pa tans tans, , ears a , plan planned ned education their well defi define ned d mili milita tary ry, , la d c objectives. Plat Plato o in hi Republic of ered an an educa educatio tion n plan serve lead leader ersh ship ip needs needs d l purposes purposes of Athen Athens. s. C a during th n Dynasties and and Peru Peru of e Incas planned r education t their particular public purp purpos oses es Thes These e e y exampl examples es emphas emphasize ize t e important important funct function ion of educ educaational plan planni ning ng in in linking linking a society’s educationa educational l syst system em goals, whatev whatever er t e g s m y . S e l r examples s w h w educa tional onalplanni planning ng s n resorted resorted o in periods periods great social a d intellectualfe help chaizge a societyto w goa goals ls. . e such plans plans were usually creative ial thinkers o w n edu educa cati tion on a potent instr instrume ument ntfor for achieving achieving refo reform rms s d atta attain inin ing g the dl s John John x n the the mid-16th mid-16th Century Century proposed a pla plan n for for a national syst system em of schools a d colleges expres expressly sly designed designed o give the Scots a li to s n of sp tu l salvatio salvation n a d material materialwellbein being. g. e head heady y days days of t e w libe libera rali lism sm n , n the the 18th 18th a d y 19th 19th Centur Centuries ies, , produc produced ed a b r crop crop of proposals bearing such titles s n Educ Educat atio ion n Plan’ and e Refo Reform rm Teac Teachi hing ng’, ’, d at s l reform reform a d . e of the the b t k e w s Diderot’s repared d t the therequestof Catheri Catherine ne Another Another s Rousse Rousseau’s au’s Russie’, repare plan for for providing n educa educatio tion n o every every Polish c .(This (This o e eve eve t into into such such s as w n o i tcorporal pu t n reca ci tra rant nt pupils).
What
educat edu cation ional al planni pla nning? ng?
e e
t m
n attempt attempt y educ educat atio iona nal l plannin plannin help help ea w ocie ociety ty’ ’ , of course, course, he First Five-Year Five-Year lan of g Sovi Soviet et n n 1923. h is is l methodol methodologie ogie crude by by today’s standa standards rds s the the s t o of f a contin continuous uous an were crude comp compre rehe hens nsiv ive e planning process process whic which h even eventu tual ally ly helped transformtransformn s n y years-a nati nation on w hb nt s einto e of of the world’s world’s t educat education ionall ally y developed nation nations. s. ideologi al orientat orientation ion aside, s Soviet Soviet plan planni ning ng exper experien ience ce fe s a variet of usefu useful l technical technical lessons for other other countrie countries. s. e seve severa ral lh l ex mp es educational planning planning c d a varied y n scope, scope, object jectives a d comple complexit xity. y. e applied e nations, others others o individua individual l s e undou undoubt bted edly ly were more ff ct ve n oth other ers; s; ome er episodic, thers thers involve a continuou continuous sproc proces ess s over a long period; period; ome were n a hig highl hly y aut autho horritarian sett settin ing, g,others in a e em crat cratic ic d c milie milieu. u. have something teach, but e h d l the feat featur ures es required o n educ educat atio iona nal l plan planni ning ng e ance ancest stry ry of today’s duca ducati tion onal alplannin planning g does not end, end, owev owever er with with the ev e a d dram dramati atic c exam exampl ples es t .Ther There e has bee bee l along a m ubiquitous and and routin routine e so t of planning wh whic ic more ubiquitous those responsibl responsible e or administering administering educational educational ins institutions ave ave alw alway ay had , ver since h insti nstituti tution ons s existed existed , y y of il ,the administr administrative ative head head of a local public public l tr t in th 1920s. h year year he was wa s o li ed look ahead and and e vari variou ous s prepara preparatio tions ns r the the next next acad academ emic ic year. a m m he had had o e e w m y s would would be, w y clas classr sroo ooms ms, , , esks esksand books books would be needed to to se e m adequate adequately, ly, w m h y l t s ould ould ,where e mone mo ney y would would e from, fro m, nd h w and whe w he it d be spent. spent. Thes These e var vario ious us pro proje ject ctio ions ns culminat culminated ed in a propos proposed ed budget budget for the next next aca acade demi mic c year d ende ended d ulti ultima mate tely ly n a series deci decisi sion ons s d acti action ons. s.This w s educational educationalplanning, planning, ven seldom e that that la s taken taken for for gra grant nted ed s a l he cation cational al administrator’s ob, ob, he w s a poor poor pl r he he was was soo n troubl trouble. e. Frequently Frequently t s proc proces ess s took took n extrem extremely ely simple . e planning a smal small l independent independent school school coll colleg ege e could some someti time mes s have have been been done o back back of n envel envelope ope. . t as educational and and systems systems grew grew r and and e com compl plex ex, , and and s t e budget budget a more form approp appropria riatio tions ns pro proce cess ss b formal al, , the planning planning proces proces
e
cest ce st
educational planning
f acquir acquired ed greater greater sophistication sophistication a d for formal malit ity. y. the basic basic tasks d principles were h the the s . e l aim aim s o prov provid id for for the the continuity continuity d y of educationa educational l establi establishme shments, nts, d to t such gradual expansi expansion on and and i t s the the circumstances warrant. t. seemed o warran y d , howe howeve ver, r, the the aim aims s of education education and an d the the valu value e of contributions to students a d societ were not not subjec subjected ted o ann annua ua scru scruti tiny ny as as part part of of planning. planning. h r grante granted d as were taken as curric icul ulum um and and meth method ods s of the a r that w s inhaled. inhaled. So were e curr inst instru ruct ctio ion, n,and and the all-powerf all-powerful ulexamin examinati ation on system. system. Therefore th n focus focus of planning planning w s n the mechani mechanics cs a d s of educ educaation,on tion,on the needs of of the sys syste tem, m, ot of of the stude students nts d up, the t o l kind of educational planning planning that that w t n most most p s p r to to t e Second Second W d r and and r m y generations before h d these these four k y featu feature res: s: 1) was short-range n look look, , extending extending only to the next budg budget et year (except (except n ad o be t or a major major n w e add added ed, , n which which et planning horizon horizon d forw forwar ard dabtf it was ragmentary coverage coverage of the the educational syst system em; ; he par parts of the system were planned indepe independe ndentl ntly y of one one another; another; it was non-integrated in th sense that that educa educatio tiona nal l inst institut itutio ions were planned autonom autonomousl ously y withwitht explicit ties to the the evolving nee needs ds a d trends of the the society a y t larg large; e; nd was a non-dynamickind of planni planning ng whi which ch d an an y c educational educational m l that that d reta n featu feature res s t year year in in d year out. There were notable exceptions the the foregoing foregoing descr descripti iption, on, fcour course se perhaps perhaps a rp e of t e . e import important ant thi thing ng it that . Educat Education ional al institutions naturall naturally yh d r share of prob proble lems ms a d admi admini nist stra rato tors rs r quota quota of headaches. , n th ho , education education ran along y smo smoot othl hly yi accustomed accustomed groove groove unde under r t s regi regime me simple simple planning did, did, ha l the d r opened opened a w a of e change tw s o h every every facet f l man's plan planet et, , d to crack crack the the fo tions of of his old institutions.
Part Three
a e
w
planning
g the the twent twentyy-fi five ve years m 1945 1945 to 1970 1970 education educational al systems d r envir environ onme ment nts s the the world world over were were subjec subjected ted o a barrage of c d tech techni nica cal, l, c d , l a d cul l chang changes es that that s k everyt everythin hin . e consequen consequence ce educ educat atio ion n was was a w and form formid idab able le task tasks, s, ress ressur ures es, , d that f r exce exceede eded d n e d comple complexit xity y anythi anything ng they ever lems that experie experience nced. d. y did did r heroic heroic best best to e with these, these, but s of planning planning a d t proved y inadequate n th w situation. ion. retros retrospec pect t e has to marv marvel el that that they they acco accomp mpli lish shed ed l they they d d in in the the circumstance circumstances s d w d to to avoi collapsing collapsing un r the strain. y exam examin inin ing g a f w of the the high highlights of t s extraordinaryexperi experienc enc can gain gain a cl r understan understanding ding of y a n w kind of planning planning beca became me impe impera rati ti e and what what eo majo major r fe s woul would d have have ob. h our primary primary focus will be n the the developing nations, nations, help ur perspective perspective o loo loo first t the the developed developed world world it will help
1.
indust ustria rializ lized ed nat natio ions ns the ind
Spea Speaki king ng very very roughl roughly, y,the indu indust strializednations have have passed passed thro throug ug e educati educationa onal l phases m 1945 to 1970 1970 d w d themselves themselves a perplex perplexing ing fourth phase he Reconstr Reconstruction uction Phas Phase; e; r e Phase; Phase; e t Expans Expansion ion Phase; Phase; and e Innovation Phase. Each Each da w crop of plannin planning g pro probblems.
e
d nati nation ons s of Euro Europe pe emerg emerged ed from from
e Secon Secon
ne w kind kind
planning
e nece necess ssar ar
d r with with t r educational systems systems seriously disrup disrupted ted a faci facing ng a heavy heavy backlog of educational educational needs. t nations quic quickl kl se t tryi trying ng o return return educatio education n to some someth thin ing g l e ‘n , launching cras crash hp s of school school construction, construction,teach teacher er recr recr it , em rg ncy ncy trai traini g a d the the l s oon oon evi evide dent nt t conventional prepre-wa war r ducation ducational al planning d not s e or thes these e recons reconstru tructi ction on tas tasks ks. . Mass Massiv ive ep t dee deepl ply ya d m y commun communiti ities es and and imp impos osed ed a heavy burd burden en n yd d nd d econ econom omie ies, s, requ requir ired ed broader mo e complex prog pr ogra ramm mmin ing g and ched ched ling ling, , view ahead, nd e c re ulchecking of re c y d impacts. the the planning planning m thod thods st improvised meet s situation h were improvised y shortcomings, he hey y d d do do s e d and and th y a o condit condition ioned ed educat education ional al author authoriti ities es fo still r planning planning prob proble lems ms y t to cite one one exa examp mple le: : even be e e war war had ende ended, d, e United Kingdom-notwithstanding dece decent ntra rali lize zed d system system of educatio education na tradit tradition ionallack of enth enthus usia iasm sm for planni planning ng in general-en general-enacted acted the Education hich requ requir ired ed each of th local educat education ion 1944, hich s n Eng Engla land nd and and s to to prepare prepare a deve develo lopm pmen ent t plan plan fo submi submissi ssion on to the cen centr tral al Ministry of Ed Educ ucat atio ion. n. h the the r ing ing local plans plans did did not a d p o a coherent coherent natio national nal plan, balanced balanced with ava avail ilab able le resources, them them none th less reflected erab erable le ingenuit ingenuity y a d technica technical l e n t r orderly orderly long long-t -ter er proj projec ecti tion ons s of l l population population d enrolmen enrolments, ts, c school school locati locations ons, , eacher eacher requirem requirements ents, , chool chool financial needs needs a d proprospective spective local tax yields. ew t t thing things s , n keepi keeping ng wit more mor e cen d system of education a d gove govern rnme ment nt. . In 194 it inaugurated comprehensive comprehensive investme investment nt planni planning ng for for t e who whole le , then i incorpor incorporated ated nation nationwid wide e capi capital planning r educa education tion into into th Seco Second nd Fiv Fivee-Ye Year ar lan. lan. Other Western ro ean ean cou count ntri ries es d th plan planni ning ng of educatio educational nal reconstruction in various sb g part partic icul ular ar tradi raditi tion ons s a d pref prefer eren ence ces. s. e Soviet Soviet , faced faced wit the the m t massive massive task task of a , t n her her r planni planning ng experi experi ence, ence, while the the newl newly y ‘socialized’ ‘socialized’ ountries ountries Easter Eastern n Eur Europ ope e turne turne o the the Sovi Soviet et n for for w planning planning models. e even n the the Unit United ed Stat States es, , wher where e the the idea idea of plannin wa still , local a d e educa educatio tion n auth author orit itie ies s resor resorted ted to e elabor elaborat ate e planning planning then then ever befo before re to han handle dle the the backlo backlog g of post po ed school construc construction tionneeds, meet e educa educati tion onal al s of
What
educational planning?
returning returning veterans, veterans, d o prepa prepare re fo education educational al consequenc consequences es f e war-induced war-induced baby this, howe howeve ver, r, s but a f e of s oc . ducational systems were n phys physic ically ally restored, restored,but they d never return t pre-war pre-war ‘norm ‘normalc alcy’. y’. n t y woul would d d thems themsel elve ves s nte meet the la ger a d r busin busines ess’, s’, d n e soph sophis isti ti ed h n reso resour urce ce requir requireme ements nts of expanding post-war econom economies ies e impo importa rtant, nt,they they wo d n be h t by n expl explos osiv ive e incr increa ease se studen student t s prov provok oked ed n p t by demo demogr grap aphi hic c s but mainly by e post post-w -war ar urge to ‘democ ‘democrat ratize ize’ ’ ducati ducational onal opportunity on gran grand d cale em r phas phase e s a paus pause, e, because of practical impact impact on on Euro Europe pean an educat education ional al planni planning ng than because because of sides on on dev develo elopi ping ng natio nations, ns, d the the gre great at influe influence nce had n arou arousi sing ng the the i t of economi economists sts in in educational educational evel evelop opme ment nt pre-war pre-war produc productio tio levels with surp surpri risi sing ng speed d procee proceeded ded climb climb to to n w heig ts. This This quick recovery worth worth noti noting ng, , main mainly ly e o large large and and well well-p -plan lanne ned d infusion infusions s of fresh esh ca it (through (through the the Marshall Plan Plan) ) oe om c systems systems that that were already d with with soph sophis isti tica cate ted d ec om c i s d a ready supply of nh n s and and . This This was was not not t e c e w developi developing ng nations n th r turn came came). ). t by the 1950s these te s d y abs absor orbe bed d the the availabl available e suppl supply y of s n reso resour urce ces; s;hence hence m r s began began o m st ajor ajor obst obstac acle le to fur furth ther er rowt rowth. h. This This d Western Western econo economi mist sts s o beco become me more more manp ma npow ow r-mi r- mind nded ed nd o look at education thro throug ugh h n w eyes eyes longer longer w s education seen seen merely merely as as a ‘non-product ‘non-productive ive r fte y whic which h absorbed consu consumpt mption ion expe expend ndit itur ures es’, ’, s n w viewed s an an e l ‘inv ‘invest est t expendit expenditure ure’ ’ r eco econo nomi mic c growth. Weari Wearing ng s impr impres essi sive ve ‘investment’ ‘investment’ , educat education ion coul could d e a effective claim on national national budgets. ,o y the the claim claim, , ducators ducators themsel themselves ves have have o becom become e more more manp ma npow ower er-m -min inde ded. d. hey hey would have have o p of r
r require requiremen ments ts d by the the econ economi omist sts s o be necessary necessary e s od he This s a l price o pay, pay, , or educators nurtured on the li al, huma humani nist stic ic tradition. tradition. y prefer preferred red to fight or bigger budgets budgets on on high higher er grou ground nd, , rguing rguing t t educati education on was was t e n ri
kind
planning planning bec b ecam ame e ne nece cess ssar ar
of ever every y child child. . feducatio education n al o helped the e h the the b should should not be the the econ econom omy’ y’s s .Education w s a go d thin thing, g, it the bett hence e mo better er, , of what whatev ever er kind kind or le . e the educ educat ator ors s nsisted,every ch d w foremost an an indi indivi vidu dual al irst nd foremost not a r Educators were frankly fearful tha that t the ‘materiali ‘materialistica stically-m lly-minded inded economis economists ts d subvert subvert the the tr l noble noble value values s a d purpose purposes s of education. times the interchange interchangebetw betwee een n thes these en w s resem resembl bled ed a dialogue dialogue the the deaf deaf. . Th y e through through tjargons jargons a d ofte ofte terms to m n d the the er t things s onl onlyl ylat ater er, , they h d educated each each other,that that t r seem seemin ing g dif diffe fere renc nces es n evaporate and and they they disc discov over ered ed y mutu mutual al But as as obvio obvious usly ly important important s m r needs needs were y c cede ceded d to to be, they paled before anothe force t soon soon began to to d ate the educa educatio tion n scene scene a d give give sl ep snights nights to to auth author orit itie ies s th out E ope ope a d rth rth Americ America. a. This oth other er forc force e s e expl explos osiv iv incr increa ease se n popular d f r education, hich hich l d to to the the Expansion Phase. Econo Economi mist sts scould t k al a l the they y wante wanted d o abou about t the thenati nation on’s ’s need needs, s, but t parents i nc ly put first s r o n chil childr dren en’s ’s need needs. s.Regard Regardles less s of t educ educat ator ors s might say about about the thenoble and and ia ic a s of educ educat atio ion, n, t parents parents d r childre children n cati cation on w first d fore foremo most st the b t route to to a be r job job d be te . e r of s h n impulse w s some someth thin ing g t t every p cian under underst stood ood d e could d to to ignore, whate whatever ver h ideology. s from from the the mid-19 mid-1950s 50s , n respons response e to t s impulse, s a pell pell-m -mel ell l expansion expansion of enrolments enrolments throug throughou hout t the the develope develope , hitting hardest hardest t the ec da y d unive univers rsit ity le main t as not demog dem ogra raph ph e needs needs of e e (tho (thoug ugh h both both the these se were were f , but the increas increased ed pop popul ular ar ich ich persistently ut ced ced the capacity educational educational sys system tems s sati tisfy fy i It t be add added ed hat in m t of he developed nations of the west -France -France being being the the chief exception--new exception--new s of educational educational planthis extr ning ning play played ed a mino mino role best extrao aord rdin inar ary y expansion. expansion. even in Fra Franc nce, e, here here nationwide nationwide educa educatio tional nal planning planning ll leve vel closely integrated integrated with over over-a -all ll invest investmen ment t plann planning ing for the e y n five five-y -yea ear rcycl cycles es s limi limite ted d to the planni planning ng physical facilities; did did t includ include e such such c l factor factors as teacher s ly
What
educational planning? plann ing?
recu recurr rren ent t co , r requirements, nd needed educat education ional al reforms reforms d innovations innovations of various s Virtually eve every rywh wher er tt t of s y s o e an r educational mo s as rapi rapidl dly y as possible possible-cu -curri rriculu culum, m, , xaminati xaminations ons d h view o acco accomm mmod odat atin ing gal r and propor proportio tion n of of e youth popul populati ation on and and th y‘ cr iz ng’ ng’education. education.The The were such exce except ptio iona nal la s o the the o system as as e compre comprehen hensiv sive e high high school n S , nd the the additi addition on of non-cl non-class assical ical treams treams o the the Fr lycte. d ,comp compar ared ed to to th vast cha chang nges es taking taking plac place e n th r student student , economy an societ society, y, d n the the e of k ei , t education educational al syst system em had changed changed remarka remarkably bly little by the the l e 1960s. 1960s. Lack Lackin ing g the the for c l self-scrun self-scrunity d self-renewa self-renewal, l, hey captives Clitist tradit of ro tradition ions s d peda pedago gogi gica cal l habits habits at a time when they were movi moving ng y toward toward beco becomi ming ng mass mass educ educat atio iona nal l system systems. s. clingi ging ng o old s create created d increas increasing ing mala maladj djus ustm tmen ents ts bebeThis clin tween tween educatio educational nal systems systems a d r , y a d stud studen ents ts Like Like a boil boiling ing pot over a high flame with d d tight, they this they were were b d sooner or l r o explode. they d . r mo of the industri industriali alized zed world world 1967 s the year of Great Education Expl Explos osio ionn-ma ma ked ked by viol nt student student prot protes ests ts, , sympat sympathet hetical ically ly ported ported by y teac teache hers rs, ,pare parent nts s a d othe othe critics of trad tradit itio iona nal le cati cation on. . e even events ts of 1967, owever,were but the the beginning of a succession sion of explosions that that pr mise mised dt to o ti in no ef m ra ano nothe the l educat education ional al ins institutions f yr d themse themselve lves sa public test of relevance. relevance. he e eruptions forc forced ed education educational al syste systems ms of indus industr tria iali lize ze natio nations ns o y t a fourth fourth post post-w -war ar hase, e Innovation Innovation Phas Phase, e, here here i l l in fact be w i l l y n w . e of it-w it-whe heth ther er ther ther w majo major r innovations nd transformations o brin bring g education o reasonreasonable able adjustme adjustment nt with envi enviro ronm nmen ent, t, r whethe whether r continuing continuing w i l l e bigg bigger er and and m e d g explosions-remain explosions-remains s o be seen seen tt sm h tl clear; n order order to achiev achieve e other need needed ed vations vations ther will have have to be e majo major r innovations innovations n educatio educational nal plan planni ning ng . Plan Planni ning ng that that merely merely serves a stra strate tegy gy of l r serve a tr tegy sion will o l r ; an ing ing must n tegy of e uc l cha chang nge e a d adaptati adaptation. on.This will requ requir ire e n w type types s of planning concepts d s whic which h are are only only n w taki taking ng shape.
a n w ki
planning plan ning b
en nec eces essa sary ry
the developing nations Much t w s d a e app ies with with even even grea greater forc developing developing nations during the 1950s an 1960s.Their educationa educational l needs were even even la r d e urgent, d r educationa educational l systemssystemsless adedespite despite heroic heroic e s to enlarg enlarge e them them-e -eve ve less relev relevant ant e to t r needs needs Starting Starting in the 1950s the the developing developing nations res respo pond nded ed r n w circum circumsta stances nces, , ith n educational stra egy of r ex series of U sion. o conferences y in in the 1960s education s of Asia, Afric Africa a a d Latin Am ambitious ous regional regional se ambiti targ targets for for educat education ional al ex n n their respec respectiv tive e region regions s to b achieved by 1980 (1975 n the the case of Latin Latin Americ America). a). e targ target et were were widely widely adop adopte ted d by indivi individu dual al nation nations. s. y ca cent part particip icipat ation ion in in prim primar ary y educat education ion by the en the target target period period d sharply increased part particip icipat ation ion rate rates n sec secon onda dary ry a d higher e cation. h s of c s and and reve revenu nues es were , which, which, even gh tendin tending g n the the opti optimi mist stic ic , d t the the attainment attainment of thes these e targ targets w d require a large increase increase n the prop propor ortio tion n of the GN devoted education education plus a e expa expans nsio io d f m the the out. e o regi region onal al confe conferenc rences es e n qu e well, mendations s l that the e mea measu su in rod of of futur future e progr progress ess-a -and nd the the nb sfr g nation nationssd e increases increases n t sto rea reach ch to the the tar targets. s as r e of refer referen ence, ce, he developing developing nations nations m d enth enthus us y into c s of rapid educational ex expa pans nsio ion. n. laissez-faire that s clear even even o the m t arde ardent nt bel bel ev rs they they w d h ve to plan t r w y y to m e the best use r y scar scarce ce res resou ourc rces es. . e case case for for a ‘ r pp s particularly strong in deve develop loping ing nations nations becau because se heir over-all develo developme pment nt s conspicu conspicuous ously ly handicapp handicapped ed by shor shorta tage ge l of s d .T e sense sense to give in l priority o educa educati ting ng t e most most needed ty es of r f r econ econom omic ic growth, r without without suc such h growt growth h the the d d long long-r -run unexpans expansion ion of educatio d other ma r l obj objec ecti tives ves d simply simply not not be poss possib ible e trou troubl ble e w , howe howeve ver, r, t t e nation nation were not equipped equipped t o the kind of educat education ional al d r planning tha that t the the s rest of t e world equipped equi equi ed. ed. r s equipped to to elp elp th m m because the the global global supply of ba c e d exper experts ts for for t
What
educatio educ ational nal planning planning
kind kind of planni planning ng w s acute acutely ly sca scarc rce. e. To r cred credit it, , , the the ILO d var variou ious s l d agencies a d foun founda dati tion ons s did th r best best t recruit the m t qualified advisers they coul could d find t fill e moun mounti ting ng requ reques ests ts of developing nati nation ons s for for help help n planning. Whil While e t of these expert experts s succee succeeded ded in m g valuable valuable contributi contributions ons of e type anot anothe her, r, r assis assista tanc nce e to educati educational onal plann plannin ing g w s perforce largely limite limite t they they could improvise on e job. job.There w s d textbo textbook ok on o n the subjec subject t n a y lan langu guag age e n the the e 1960s, anyo anyone ne o was well equipped equipped t write one. t actio action n could could not not wait wait for for k e d s o catch up So educational lead leader ers s n the the developing world d brav bravel ely y a ead ead t ush ush r enrol enrolme ment nts su dt d the tar targets as t as as possi possible ble d p th y wen went, t, t remarkable sp speed eed Very Very , , er l c l pro probl blem ems s bega began n o appear appear whic which h by the the end of th 1960s d mult multip ipli lied ed o a full-blown cational crisis that that grip grippe ped d v rt ally every dev devel elop opin ing g natio nation n in the world. inst instru ruct ctiv ive o loo look kb y t e of these these pr s for wh t t y can tell us abou about t t e concrete task tasks s whi which ch educational educationalplang must must n w cope w h they they vari varied n f m a d in y m plac place to to place place, , exis existed, n e guise or anothe another, r,almost almost everyw everywher here. e. Wasteful imbalanc imbalances es withi within n th the e educational system system
Typica Typically lly, ,comp compai aign gns s f r expandi expanding ng primary, primary, secondary and and high higher er education were not not co-ordinated. co-ordinated. oreo oreove ver, r, ven t any one level nece necess ssar ary y flows of s (tea (teach cher ers, s,buil buildi ding ngs, s, equi equipm pmen ent, t, books, tc.) were not y proj projec ecte ted, d, scheduled scheduled and and e inev inevit itab able le r t w s series of self-defeat self-defeating ingdisparities. In e famili familiar ar type-c type-case ase, , choo chool l construction construction receiv received ed an an exce excess ssiv iv y while the expan expansi sion on of teacher train trainin ing g a d text textbo book ok supplies s shortshort-cha change nged. d. e even eventu tual al r t w s t the the n w s turned p n n w classr classroom ooms s only only to f d themselves themselves with with o teache teacher r or text text books. Sometim Sometimes es happen ened ed; ;t teachers s an were teacher reverse happ pupi pupils but o classrooms. classrooms. t inva invari riab ably ly the there re were ot enou enough gh books. books. With With any one impo import rtan ant t co ne t miss missin ing, g, others were seriously hand handic icap appe ped. d. In another another type-case type-caseresour resources ces were pour poured ed into into u y ex while e secondary secondary education lagged lagged behind. Th result t sion whil university places sto stood od idle for lack lack of en h qu d candida candidates tes 26
kind
planning be ca me ne nece cess ssar ar
m secondary sch schoo ools ls onverse onversely, ly,secondar secondary y enrolmen enrolments ts were sharply sharply ex d d overwh whel elme med d by were soon over e entr entran ants ts than they they could cop cope e with. with. Demand
excess
capacity
e g of bold target rgets,the ma g of large rge prom promis ises es, , d the very very expa expans nsio ion n of education education f d an a n increas increase e n pop popul ular ar expectation expectations s educat education ional al d tf f d n got out of ha e widening widening gap gap between educ educat atio iona nal l d and and y wa d y a youth youth populati population on exp explo losi sion onwhic which h tur turne ned dt e expans expansion ion t s i to mo g . Whil While e chil childr dren en clam clamou ouri ring ng t ot to o school a joyou joyous s any land, land, can o be an an unnerving unnerving t for for school school a s w o must must turn turn a en r of of away. There such a t g as as too too m a good good ,comi coming ng to hat hat happened happened o popular popular d f r educ educat atio ion. n. soon. This c. Costs rising rising faste
than reoeizues
ht se s popular popular d d s n ep l prespressure for for boosting education budget budgets, s, the budg budget ets s could not not possi possibly bly keep keep pace with the r g c s and and student student . ns ec cou ount ntri ries es the e cf y of the targ targets h d never been been tested; tested;they rested n bl d h t s w the the neces necessa sary ry s for for achievi achieving ng m d ar . e they had had been been d th r costs sts d ic been under-estimated d pros pros ec ive ive e over over-e -est stim imat ated ed. . the targ targets prov prov d econ econom omic ical ally ly nreali tic. the r l f s e evident evident and and the f l squeeze squeeze on there were three three possible possible escapes escapes was cut cut b k the in l targets gets, , t this w s politically difficult. second second w s to cut cut c s by raising educational educational effi efficiency; s loo loo d g d n theory but s very hard o n pract practic ice. e. e th d escape route route w s to spread spread avai availa labl bl resour resources ces thinne thinner r over m e and and e students, ut at the the expens expense e of ua y d fe .This This w s the the n route taken taken permitted the s s of rolm rolm nts nts to k p r g alo along ng the targ target path, path, even abov abov t, seemed ed a dubious kind kind of sw it seem times even e delved delved behind behind the gross enro enrolm lmen ent ts s d w the shockingly high high t a d repe repeat ater er , or v d ove overr-cr crow owde ded d classr classroom oom and and obser observe ved d wha wha going on e in the the n e of education.
27
What
educationa educational l planning? plan ning?
, howe howeve ver, r, s not not y e least three other kinds of shortage plagued educational educational deve develo lopm pmen ent t n 1960s: ) the limited administr administrativ ative ea s of edu educa cati tion onal al syst system ems s to pla pla d o transf transform orm plans plans a d m y into into desi desire red d , ) the the lon required ed o t and and develo develop p co te t s s r n w schools schools time requir d universities, the limi limited ted capacity o of f local cons constru truct ctio io industries. Thes These e admi admini nist stra rati tive ve, , n and and ph l bottl bottlee-ne neck cks s e th ulti ultima mate te determinan determinants ts of w t d n w t ir s an l system could develop a d w h l it could y absorb absorb. . e systems foun found d themselves themselves n e d posiposition tion of havi having ng larg large e construc construction tion s they could could not , w s they could could not not , t they could could not not use use e d urge urgent ntly ly needed sche scheme mes s they they could not impl implem emen ent. t. delays n achie achievin vin firm agre agreem emen ents ts a d then then actual actual s o foreign foreign aid projects exac exacer erba bate ted d these ff es Not eno enough ugh jobs or the educated
What Whatev ever er educ educat atio iona nal l phil philos osop ophe hers rs y have thought were e a aim ims s of education, r t stude student nts s the the aim aim s y to win win a d job a a good good stan standi ding ng comm commun unit ity. y. r m y s meant meant with n educa educati tiona onal l passp passpor ort t m the v e to the bright bright lights of the the c ,there there to seek a , t li y with the go the job prospect prospect were y ; e newly independent first the nations were despe desperat rately ely short short of educat educated ed r of l sor sorts f r expa expand ndin ing g services, o replace expatriates, o gt o on n with with the the m h task tasks s of nation nation-bu -build ilding ing fter being starve starved d of form formal al educ educati ation on for for centur centuries ies it seemed inconceivable that that they they w d d themselves a dec decad ade e l r with with m e educated educated people than t r e ys d abl able e to use this y th , n o e country a r another. another. The phenomenon phenom enon o educ educat ated ed unemp unemplo loye yed d appear appeared ed first n uc countr countries ies s India,the the Philip Philippin pines, es,the Unit United ed b Republ Republic, ic, d several Latin A n nations that had had e ne r s . t by late 1960s he unthinkable unthinkable s even beginning beginning o happ happen en in in s of he mo t newly newly independen independent t African African nations. nations. e reasons, n retr retroospect, spect,are clear.
a ne w kin
planning
e neces necessa sary ry
he emplo employme yment nt market market pendulum had swun swung g soo soone ner r and more more abrupt abruptly lythan even t e m r pe s had had anti antici cipa pate ted. d. n a small small si ple ple cono co nomy my does does not take a very very large rge s t n the n s produce a major change change n e t market market bal balan ance ce-a -and nd traumatic traumatic shock shock for m y stude student nts s and and r fami families n the the supply side side, , r a ew year years s of education educational al ‘production ‘production la ’, y larg large en s of graduates bega began n o e n o th market market. . Sim Simul ulta tane neou ousl sly, y, y o had gone abroad o stud stud were w retu return rnin ing g wit with h degr degree ees. s. s t e supply curve shot up up . e d d si , e vacan vacant t gover governm nmen ent t s by w had had been largely d by the best qual qualified peop people le available t the time, though their qualificationsoften fell well w the the l , below thos those e of of e newly educat educated ed w o woul would d r e on o n to to th marke market. t. T e priva private te sect sector or, , small small in re at on to the the g t as as a employer employer f educ educat ated ed , was was g n w jobs o y slow slowly ly e turn turned ed toward toward labo labourur-sav saving ing eth ethod ods s and and equipmen equipment, t, someti sometimes mes prodde prodded d by w m wage wage la . Thus Th us t e dema de mand nd fell shar sharpl ply, y, nd w t had had been a seller’s market market r educ educat atio iona nal l r turned turned in o a buyers’ market. e o e bright bright spot in al a l t s w s that that the education educational al syste syste itself, as a buy buyer er, ,could could w begin begin o hi e be r qualified peop people le as teachers thou though gh y e grudgingly, grudgingly, ecause ecause tea teach chin ing gw sal tr t their list job job preferences. preferences. Se ec ive r shortages continue continued d to to t in s e spec specia iali lize were available. catego categorie ries, s,especially w e o local training But the the main main t t of of e pend pendul ulum um s from from r shor shorta tage ge om r surp surplu luse ses. s. This This rais raised ser serio ious us w issues of poli y require required d a wholesale reappraisa reappraisal l d adju adjust stmen ment t of r assum assumpt ptio ions ns d expe expecta ctatio tions ns by t and and indi indivi vidu dual als s . This w s painful process. process. e pa ti ul rly painf painful ul aspect aspect w s the the acce accele lera rate ted d ‘brain ‘brain drain drain that se in, in, d n part part by the diminishing job job prospects back back e s s n by s o had gone gone abroa abroad d to study study. . t were r talents lo t o th r o n nation nation n they failed o r retu eturn, rn, were the the precious precious resources resources tha that t h d been been invest invested ed i their er educa educati tion on s tempti tempting ng for for s e observers o leap leap to the si c concl concluusion t education education had had been over over-e -exp xpan ande ded d d th e should should n be th d back back o h the the e sjob-creating job-creating oten otential. a deepe deeper r look look suggeste suggested d that that the r l solution solution y mainl mainly y within the 29
What
educatio educ ational nal pla planni nning? ng?
economy itself. need needed ed re-structur re-structuring ing d adjust adjusting ing s o r u e of e educated educated ma . e most most e d educational educational planners pointed out th t t e prime prime goal of t shou should ld not not be simp simply ly to ra e the the s s of GN to raise th level of t and and impr improv ove e e di n o inco income me. . Theref Therefore ore e concern concern of r plan planne ners rs shou should ld not d o breaking h n resourc resource e bott bottle lene neck cks s o ec nomi nomic c grow growth th with maxi maximi mizi zing ng e n r of jobs on is ent ent with with it should be with reasonable r e of gro growt wt . e l w s of pursuing this high empl employ oyme ment nt ,however, however, not too too evid eviden ent ta dw d rt in e difficult at best st. wrong kind
education
s cou could ld not not divest them themse selv lves es of l responsi responsibili bility ty for empl employ oyme ment nt roblem, roblem, owever owever. . True, True, he he y was not not c g y jobs jobs a it should. should. t the the other other face face of of he prob prob em s that were receiving y g t of of education r the the world critics d openly castiof k th y would would live . e than a gated the still mi ant ant ‘imported ‘imported 19th-cen 19th-century tury ducation’ s bein bein ill-suitedto the r nations trying o m de ni e themselves. themselves. s doubtfu doubtfu n a more mor e ‘mod ‘m oder ern’ n’ y education designed g peopl people e n job and and the r t life s the fit were destined live cation cation for the grea great t majority majority of youngs youngster ters s t their lives n rural rural areas. areas. Instead of condit condition ioning ing m for leadership ship n rur rural al d agri agricu cult ltur ural al , ich ich s indisp indispens ensabl abl o over over-a -all ll ation ational al deve deve op ent, ent, d tend tend to alienate mf r rural rural surr surrou ound ndin ings gs was was one one t ,however, however, o k w what was wron wrong g wi h an out d and and misp mispla lace ced d curriculu curriculum, m, ut q e anoth another er g o wh to fi Better alternatives were r f m cl ar, d even he e cl they were exceed exceeding ingly ly , g d expensive to ado adopt pt d there, there, stau staunc nch h e to replac replace e the the o d curcurHere riculum nd teac teachi hing ng etho ethods ds with with somethi something ng e rel relev evan ant, t, ofte ofte with with reward rewardin ing gr . t elsewhere the the system system g d nd y day day i d ut, ut,whil while e m y of lead leader ers s d teac teache hers rs, , g the wastes wastes i volv volved ed, , et e t helpless to c e Irrele Irrelevan vant teducat education ion w s e of the the heav heavy y s paid for the the strat strateg eg of l r expansio expansion n a d or the the impre impress ssiv ivel ely y mo g enro enrolm lment ent . An r s the the tragedy of exhorbitant exhorbitant d t rate rates, s, th
kind
hundreds of thousands youngsters youngsters soon lear learn n even even o read. read.
o
necessa sary ry planning be am e neces
t to to school but l t too
e x pr ems ems t described described conspired to to caus cause e a va t waste waste of prec precio ious us econ econ mic mic reso resour urce ces s dh n po enti ential al, , erio erious us handicap handicap o national national de pm , d millio llions of indivi individua dual l heartaches heartaches. . ut well what what s o about about first-ra e ducat ducation ional al adapted adapted tothe needs vi on ent ent and and t resources, ould ould not e t n a day-o day-or r even even a single deca decade de n retrospe retrospect, ct, t serio erious usly faul fault t the valiant iant sm develo develop p educatio education n n th 1950s and 1960s by developing developing nati nations ons by thos those e o sought sought help t . f history could could be replayed replayed with l the advan advantag tages es of hinds hindsigh ight, t, undoub undoubted tedly ly y thin things gs could be one one s tb planning ng d y hav have e helped,but Better planni t of of planning planning could could have have ya d the ba c c no st ai ts, s d aspirations that that primarily primarily dict dictate ated d the course of events. events. e astonishi astonishing ngthing thing not not tha h went b but tha much mu ch more wen wen well. e net net balan balance ce the recordthough it cannot cannot be measured measured with with n d the benefits e yet yet to e y reaped reaped-ce -certai rtainly nly be heavily ily n the positive side that as it , our purpose h neither praise praise r criticiz the past past but but to discove lessons for the future future. . n trying to discover discover these lessons lessons should should guar guard d against against the naive notion notion that that bet bette plann planning ing-th -the e very t that that e an imag imagin inee-wo woul uld d ave ave eliminated e probl problem ems s e have have j t reviewed. reviewed.Their b c causes were deeply rooted in t e landsc landscape ape d the prob proble lems ms were d o ar . r plan planni ning ng, , been avai availa labl ble, e, ould und undoub oubted tedly ly have have helped helped thin things gs o go go s t could h e helped helped espe especially by e g poli policy cy-m -mak aker ers s d al al others others conc concer erne ned d to hese heseemerging emerging probprobsooner er d n clearer perspective, o identify m e le rly the lems soon various options options avail availab able le for for dealing dealing with , d to assess the the relative merits d y of these alternatives.In brief, d cation cational al planning planning mig might ht ve given t m r eye with a r infor informed med udge udge ent ent with with whic face decisions. e e can can be d r the the in tr d nations nations, , e educ educaation tional record record in s period-considerin period-considering g their far greate greater r n material resources, resources,the great greater er inherent strengths of th r educati educationa ona syst system ems s d t r considerably longer experi experienc encee-cou could ld hardly be said to excel excel the record record of the develop developing ing nations. 31
What
educational educational plan plannin ning? g?
e imp impres ressio sion n should should not , , that while while l these these troubles were boiling up nothing was wa s bei being ng d e to to c e d apply apply e e kin kinds ds of educational pla plannin nning. g. grea gr eat t deal deal w s being being will show. , as a qui quick ck glance glance at the f
32
Part Par t Fou
Recent progress
theory and methodology methodology
Discussio Discussions ns a g education educational al lead leader ers s d econom economist ists s n the the ea five prop 1960s produced produced easy easy agreement agreement propos osit itio ions ns whic which h for for d a general general f k for for l r explorations. explorations. longer range range view. should , ducational plannin planning g should should take a longer n fa t have have a shor short-r t-rang ange e one or t o y , a midd middle le-r -ran ange ge (four (four years) d a l e erspective(ten to n . five year it looks. vision will grow less precis ecise the the farth farther er considering ering the long long ‘lead time’required to to increase educatio educational nal capacity d to a r educational o out utpu putt-to to enlarge, for , the ro duction of doctors doctors or engin engineer eers. s.or even of elementary school school teacher teacher necessa necessary ry to to plan years ah ahea ea Second, educational planning planning should should be comnprr1zensii;e. should e the the wh e educational educational syste system m in a in le is on to ensure the harm harmon onio ious us evol evolut utio ion n of vario various us . shou should ld extend vision import important ant typ types es of non-fonnal education education a d trai training to ensure ensure thei their e e integration integration with l educa educatio tion na with the p iority ne ds a d goals of soci societ ety. y. Third.educatio educational nal planning sh should ould be integrated with the plans broader broader e c d l develo developme pment. nt. feducation education to contribute t effectivel indi indivi vidu dual al d natio nationa nal l deve develo lopm pmen ent, t, make the best use of scarce resour resources ces cannot n way, wa y, i it the r s of the w d Fourth, education integral integral par educaeducational al planning should be tional management. e effective, the pla plann nnin ing g process process must closely t d to the pro proce cess sses es decision-m decision-making aking d oper operat atio ions ns. .I d n a bac back k s a p re y academ academic ic e e wh chie chief f effect to frustrate thos those e involv involved. ed. 33
What
educational educational pla planni nning? ng?
slower s proposition proposition w e e ) e Ffih, (and cati cation onal al planning m t be be concer concerned ned with the yualitatizre aspects of educationa educational l deve develo lopm pmen ent, t, ot merely with with quan quanti tita tati tive ve xpansion. xpansion. thuscan help help o m e educatio educatio more rele releva vant nt, , t a d effective. Like e T n , e e s soon soon enjoy enjoyed ed universal do em t n prin principle,but the pr lem lem t beye beyed. d. This This required three three sort sorts of action development of c concepts concepts and and meth method odol olog ogie ies, s, the tra train inin ing g of people people to appl appl them, and the adaptation adaptation of organizatio organizational nal d administra administrative tive arrangements enable planning . In the present present sect sectio deal with the first f t these hese, , leaving leaving the other t o for for the next section.
1.
planning questions
useful as the were as a star ing point,the a e propositions propositions did not not r y address address the cent centra ral l planning planning questions questions h every every nation faces, faces, questions questions hi h often often g t ans answe were red d by default with withou out t eve being y aske asked. d. e questio questions ns (applied a specifiedtimeperiod) are are essentially these: t should be be the the p y s a d functions functions of the the edu educa ca 1. l system a d of each o subsub-sy syst stem ems s incl includ udin ing g eac each hl each each institution,ea h gra gra e, ach ach cour course se, , ach ach c t are the the be t of the alt alter erna nati tive ve poss possib ible le w s of pursui pursuing ng these various obje object ctiv ives es d functions functions (This (This involves a consideration of alternative edu educa cati tion onal altechno technolog logies ies, , heir la ive costs,time require, practical feasibility,educ educat atio iona nal l effectiveness,etc. h of he nat nat on’s on’s commu communit nity’ y’s) s) res resou ourc rces es should be How devoted education education at the the expense expense of oth other er thin things? gs? t appea appea be th limits f feasibility, terms not not only only of financialresources but r l resource resources? s? e resour resources ces t tion tion c n ef ya b in the the given e period o d pay? How should the the burd burden en of educationa educational l sa sa if es be distributed distributed as b n the direct recipients f educ educat atio io d y at large large, d g t grou groups ps in in society? society? How present present public public f l structure, d other sour sources ces well adapted of educat education ional al revenue, revenue, attaining a socially desirable distribution time sufficient flow of the the burden nd t t e s flow f nece necess ssar ar e o educati education on
Recent Rec ent pro progre gress ss
methodology theory and methodology
w should should the t l resources resources available to to education education (whatever (whatever the the a t m y ) be d g tl ,types types a s of the the system system . primary primary secondary high higher er educa educa tion technical technical general educ educati ation on teachers’ salaries U. building and and equipmen U. text textbo book oks, s, ee meal meals, s, scholarships, Educ Educat ator ors s and and econ econom omis ists ts, , s we l as soci soci logists, oliticans and and philosoph sopher ers, s, are are l y to a h d a sw r thes these e questions in quit quit ifferent , ef ecting diff differ eren ence ces s nt rb , utlo utlook ok a s of of thinking.Since Since t s fact fact bears heavi heavily ly n w di ferent gr did did appr approa oach ch education educational al planning i th t should pause o note w education educational al administr administrators ators d econom economist ists s were were to think a t thes these e matte matters. rs. e d educ educat atio iona nal l admin adminis istr trat ator or a hybrid of i , tist d politi litician appreci appreciates ates other i po ta t s l nee needs ds, , but him education y r O s s prim prim attention attention a d loyalty. s devoutly that that every every y g person person shou should ld g t al a l the the education education he can can use,but he st t feasib asible immediately. So t budg budget et time e asks for l he he thinks thinks he n effe effeccy use, plus som somet ethi hing ng extra extra, ,for for he s he will less than he asks asks for then then fights fights d o get get al al he n a d fi y en with ac e budget budget whic which h he proceeds to to spend spend s f y a d ef tively as possi possible. ble. record record of spending spending r t up up t ce ling s m ma d in in other sectors. o a n n t s si , t of the the key key planning question posed posed abov seem high highly th oret cal a d impractical. impractical. r they it his resposibilit cover broad broad n area; s he e muc h money money needed f r edu educa cati tion on and and h w to to spen well. somebody else worry about where t e mo y shou should ld e from. does does not take take ‘ ’ or or an an ans answe wer re , r he s al al too w l h y chil childre dren n the there are are waiti waiting ng be educated educated d roughly roughly tt w i l l . e o with withho hold lds s e ec ssar ssary y funds assumes responsibility penalizing penalizing th r future. future. r ew woul would d depr depriv ive e t e nati nation on’s ’syouth youth stan stand d up u p d be counted. s point the co om st ta l dis disad adva vant ntag age, e, eeli eeling like Scrooge Scrooge a d the the e y of ch re y be equally c y equa equall lly y lov love echil childr dren en d value value education, education, ut he less a pragmatis pragmatis d po na d e a conceptu conceptuali alize zer r d anal analys yst t than the the educ educaal admi admini nist stra rato tor. r. e has never h d o run run a school system, system, wi a budget o meet a payroll payroll accustomed view viewin ing gte s a whole whole and g an mb ea sectors 35
What
educational educational plan planning ning’? ’?
the face of over over-al -all lresourc resourc limits. , hile hile t e economist wants wants educat education ion d well he does does not not be should should have a it unlimited unlimited priori y or a lank lank e rel relative o everything everything else (and him this is t the the educationa educational l administrat administrator or s o be askin for). e econo economis mist t s preoccu preoccupied pied with cent centra ral l prob proble lems ms: :f , t to to di e the the l d c e a g various various comp compet etin in uses get the best over-all over-allresults (the ‘allocationproblem’): problem’): w best to use thes these e resources, ce they are allocat allocated, ed,to get get m m outp output ut e yproble oblem’). d n s perspective, obviou obvious s t t education can can only only more t the the expense expense of somethi something ng else; this the only sens sensible a . But But even a y m t ha single limits; it wishes, sector, duca ducati tion on incl includ uded ed, , n be permit permitted ted to to take al al the the irrespective the s ri ice coststo other other things. things. the the economis economist, t, the tc l em for polic policyy-ma maki king ng w o e the righ balanc balance e g com compe peti ting ng uses uses f r the the s e l d reso resour urce ces. s. This problem course can be solved solved, , d ofte ofte y straight l jousting jousting a d tradi trading, ng,with with those those hav havin ing g the stronges strongest t musc muscle les s com comin in best. B t the distrib distributi ution on l mus muscl cles es t neces necessa sari rily ly coincide coincide with with the best best distribu distributio tion n f resources resources n the overover-al all lnational intere t. e e appl applie ies s o allo alloca cati tion on resources within within the educationa educational l syst system em, ,wher where e the top administrat administrator or hims himself elf t be be the ar , he econ econom omis ist, t, o s with the larg larger er national national or with the larg larger int interests of the educat educationa ional l syst system em as whole, constantlylookin looking g for for a e rati ration onal al soluti solution on to to t s alloc allocat atio ion n lem. oes oes not not expect expect h a solution to disp displac lace e the proces process, s, but he he hope hope it will help the p it cal proces process s o yie yie d s what more rati ration onal al answ answer ers. s. e t theor theoret etic ical al solution to the the ‘allocat ‘allocation ion ’ hich hich the econ econom omis ists ts have have e p use the the Gross Gross National National t as the centr central al cri criterion and and then then apply apply a ‘cost-benefit’ ‘cost-benefit’ t t each variou various s alternativeallocation allocation po si il ti s to discover discover h of m yieldsthe highest rati benefits s and and henc henc will contribe t o ve l c outpu output. t. There There are, are, of course, o admitt admitted ed weaknesses this cost-benefit appr approac oach, h, notwit notwithst hstandi anding ng persuasive .O the the practical y of of m g costs a d benefits, particularly benefits that will only time the only be be realized in the distant distantfuture. future. y w the economist’s economist’s
Recent progress
theory and methodology
r estimat estimates es y be very very wid wide e of of the the m k d the olicy decis decision ion based n m ) T e other other wea wea ness ness conc concer erns ns the c f d the n w defin definition ‘benefi ‘benefits’ ts’ implies.Certainly c output output a d grow growth th are are c l o the attaim attaiment ent of other other r soci l goals, goals,including the f r de t d equalization equalization of educati educational onal oppor opportun tuniti ities. es. t e y o be other other kinds kinds o benefit, particularly n the the case case educat education ion, ,whic which h are are not not economic terms, but hich hich are never neverth thele eless ss very very impo import rtan an individuals duals and and the the nation. nation. this the case, then the the econ econom omis ist’ t’s s cost t calcul calculatio ation, n, h d as r as goes, too narrow-visioned and and could y misl mislea ead d policy-mak policy-makers ers o g the w alloca locati tions. ons. e dang danger ers s a d pena ti such such error errors, s, course, course, ar h reduced n ec t pproach pproach applied applied to a partic partic r project ject rathe rather r than to a w e ro d sect sector or forthe ‘efficiency , o get get very far farinto into s w d quickly quickly invol involve ve econ econom omis ists ts n e very very y d contentious pedagogical issues which most them them have been anxio anxious us avoi avoid. d. This This is o reason reason w y educat education ional al planning planning as it evolve evolved d in the 1950s an 1960s kept focus n the broad broad outer outer paramete parameters rs of the the educationa educational l system and and stud studio ious usly ly ignored ignored w t s going n in g in m d e cont contra rast stin ing g s in whic which h educators educators d ecoeconomists tend e scene scene n perh perhap aps s apprecia appreciate te b view e s the thre three t ‘app ‘app oa he ’ o educational educational plannin planning g that were advocated by comp compet etin ing g schools schools of though thought t n the the 1960s. n the jargon jargon of the trade trade they they e c d the l d appr approa oach ch’, ’, he r appr approa oach ch’ ’ nd the the ‘cos ‘costt-be bene nefi fit t ppro pproac ach’ h’ e accu accura rate tely ly, , he ‘rate-of-returnpproach’). ‘rate-of-returnpproach’). take take a look look at th
‘social demand’ approach approa oach ch c This appr
s tn y to to the the educator educator an actually e a desc descri ript ptio ion n of wh t he normally normally does does than a l ulation o ho he should should app appro roac ach h plan plannin ning. g. ‘Social emand’ an ambi ambigu guou ous s nd misc mischi hiev evou ou term (rarely use educators) hi h c n be defi define several quite different w by educators) y u d to to me n the the aggr aggreg eg te ‘popular’ ‘popular’ e d fo most education, education, m l of indi indivi vidu dual al s r educatio time t a given place place a r prevai prevailin ling g cultural cultural, , l d 37
What
educational educational plan planning ning
c circ circum umst stan ance ces. s. there are fewer classrooms classrooms and and p s than there ere are serio serious us candidates candidates o oc yt , e can can say that that s d exce exceed eds s supp supply ly. . Ther good good e of a demand demand-su -suppl ppl p w n educati educational onal aut author horit itie ies s d l leaders leaders receive mounting ing compl complai aint nts s f m e parents parents w e children children cann cannot ot t into into school. o important s need need o be adde added. d. e conce concern rns s t e impo impossn by gove govern rnme ment nt of of compu compuls lsory ory school school attend attendanc ance. e. n s pens d sudd sudden enly ly grows grows l r asic lly det deter ermi mine ned d by demography; o long longer er a ,volu volunt ntar ary y The second point t volu volunta ntary ry d d y be consid considera erably bly nf en ed by t the the cost costs of educati education on are are to the the student student a d s parents, parents, no only the cash cash costs (fees, etc.) b ‘opportunityco ts’ ts’ of of forgone, work work t done on the the family m while while the the student attending school. Within limits,public author authoritie ities s can can influence si e f social , hough hough as a p l mat matte te it far easier to stimul stimulate ate a increase increase than than to reverse e pr ce . F r exam exampl ple, e, a government government an affo afford rd to, it can can a y boos boost t s l d by requiring school school attend attendanc ance e , eyon eyond d e ag compulsion, y making making education free (even, n the extr extrem eme, e, by mp ti g stud student ents s or th pare parent nts s for for t e in ea d k . Short of e measure measures, s, ve nts nts can can use use p a to stimulat stimulate e the the p e (volun (voluntar tary) y) d r education. But But e climate of attitudes attitudes itself, the climate d conv convic icti tion ons s about about w t education can can do d o for for people, people, undoubtedly the m t influential factor of l in dete determ rmin inin ing g the social for educatio education, n, rovided rovided people people c n pay for Measuri Measuring ng s l almo almost st alwa always ys extreme extremely ly d ta ofte often n impossible. impossible. e exception, f course, where compulsory edu cati cation on e s toge togeth ther er with g d c data n e rele releva vant nt age p (the case n t industr industria iali lize zed d countries but not n m t develdeveloping n . o obta obtain in even a good good appro approxi ximat mate e meas measure ure voluntary untary d d woul would d y ui e a hous housee-to to-h -hou ouse se anvass t case cases. s. e U o regional targ targets ets refer eferred red to e r are are a f y n f es l d app appro roac ach. h. e me d empl employ oyed ed w essentially very simp simple le, , it s o ea y matter ge the basic s a d estimates for applyin applyin The first step w s to collect the best available estimates estimates w y ch n y ag levels there were n each each count country ry of e r gion gion and and h w y of them them were already 38
Rccent Rcc ent pro progre gress ss
theo th eory ry and methodology methodo logy
enro enrolled lled in prim primar ar , econ econda dary ry d higher education. This This est estab ablish lished ed the current par parti tici cipa pati tion on ates. e next step w take take the best best available availableprojections projections of the future h popul populat ation ion t each each age evel 1980. e t d st p w p choo choose se e parti partici cipat patio ion n e target 1980 d n int interv erveni ening ng years years and and apply t m o the popul populaation tion projections, projections, o determ determin ine e absolute e t targets. s la t w s the the trickiest step f a , au e logically it required a composite judg judgem emen ent t of m y y : w h educaeducait woul n the people w d y wa , would d os ,what what the the ecoy ould ould a , w h ed cate cated d r each each n economy woul would d d and h w ma y j could could actu actually prov provid ide, e, w h fore foreig ign n a d could be obtained, obtained, . In a y e y simple simple assu assump mpti tion on er e in the the absence y better ones ones e importantassumption assumption was was t the the popu popular lar education ould ould cont contin inue ue outrun outrun the supply. supply. r w s th t the u t co of education education d n y constant. constant. s taken for for grante grante that y could could e al al o got n educatio education n and and th t i genera general l the gr y e pand pand d educationaloutlays outlays d a d importantly importantly econ econom omic ic growth. growth. e main main y meas measur urem emen ent t t t some rath attem attempte pted d co cern cerned ed the availabilit funds. rather er op were c e about about the the behaviour behaviour of u t st ,econ econ cg h rates and and foreign foreign aid. aid. e re ul ing targ ts were subject to criticism y grounds. grounds. Neve Nevert rthe hele less ss, , he were about as as oo as circumstances permit permitted ted a d they they undo undoub ubte tedl dl were quit quite e effective at th time n stimulating higher educa education tional al budge budgets ts (and (and, , ndirectly, n stimulating stimulating soci l d as well). Another Another exam exampl ple e of e s l d approach approach what happens Fran France ce with regard regard to y admi admiss ssio ion. n. e e in Fran France ce t any any student student o pass passes es th baccalauriat t the d of the lycek (seconda (secondary ry school) school) can can automatically automatically ente enter the ni er it . e ky rocketing of Fr h un vers ty enrol enrolme ment nts s since nce the e y 1950s h provided clear evidence of a sharply gs ld d for higher education. has a o been a major major source of headaches headaches French educational planners d un y administrators, administrators, o no good rise way pred predict ict very very c y h w f t the l d w and wm y s would tu n up ea h utum ut um . y turned turned up up than were expe expect cted ed a d than th e w s m . This wa er ai ly o e imp impor orta tant nt causalfact factor in the ‘E en ’ t shook h universities r fou found ndat atio ions ns i 1968). Thre Three e m n cr s e m the social demand approach,
What
educationa educational l pla planni nning? ng?
part partic icul ular arly ly by econ econom omis ists ts ignores larg larger national national pr of resource resource na d y assu assume mes s t t o matter matter w resources resources o to educat education ion this r bes best use for for national national de s a whole whole ignoresthe character character a d patter patter manp ma npow ower er ne it ignores by e e y a d can can r y t n producing too m some s and and not e h of othe others rs; ; tends o over-stimulate over-stimulate popular , o underestimate cost costs, s, d to lea lead d to to a th n spread spread reso resour urce ces s over too m y students, hereby reducing q ya effectiveness effectiveness t poin point t wher where e educa education tion om s a dubious ment.
‘manpower’pproach ‘manpower’ pproach noted e , y economists d e r ppro pproac ach’ h’ o educat education ional al plann planning ing. . T e rg me t i favour ran roughly as : c growt the mainspri mainspring ng of a nation’s over over-al -al develo developme pment nt d thus thus shoul should d be prim prime e consider consideration ation n allo alloca cati ting ng e reso resour urce ces. s. c grow growth th, , howe howeve ver, r, s not only only physical physical resources a d s but but also also h n resources to organi organize ze and and u e them Thus e deve develop lopmen ment t of h n s through t educational system system n importa important nt pre pre-r -req equi uisi site te r e onom onomic ic grow growth th and and a g d investment investment of of sca scarc rce e resou resources rces, , rovided e patt patter ern n nd quality educational educational outpu ea ed to to t e econo economy’ my’s s needs. e advocates y conced conceded ed t education ha had d othe other r important important purposes purposes b s producing , but but y w no no . y disposed disposed of the issu issue by invi inviting education educational al planners planners o weigh weigh th se ‘other’ bj ct ves ves along with with r considerations, considerations, but t s was wa s vague vague guidance guidance and poor poor comfort. comfort. Accepting this e of reasoning, reasoning,the the Tanzania, Tanzania, o 1960s to stabilize xa pl , courage courageousl ously y decided decided n the the pri-, y school school part partic icip ipat atio ion n e at a per per c cent ent in o ord rder er to give y ri y to to higher levels of edu educa cati tion on tied o nomic man m anpo powe wer r Whil While e t e broad broad c of e m r appro approac ach h s hard hard to argue with, practi al applic applicati ation on reve reveal aled ed a r of fla flaws ws First, gave educational planners onl limited guidance. d nothing nothing o sa abou about t primary primary education education (which (which was was not consid consider ered ed o be be nect nected ed’) ’) h by implic implicatio atio suggested curbing the the expansi expansion on primary primary education u l the the nat natio ion n got got r . t r stud studie ie
R e c e n t progress
theo th eory ry and meth methodolo odology gy
conf confin ined ed th ir attention ‘hig ‘high h evel’manpower eeded by e sector sector’ ’(that mostly mostly urb urban an employ employmen ment). t). s plan planne ners rs given o l cl s abou about t the educatio educational nal requirements requirements of the the people w d cons consti titute tute the vast vast majority of the nation’s futurelabo labour ur force, , semi-s semi-skil killed led d unsk unskil illed led work worker ers s n the c s a d the vast vast majority majority of work worker ers s o d in rura rural l areas. areas. , he e tc s d r s( the desira desirable ratio f engineers engineers to technici technicians, ans, octors octors to nurses) use n m t r st s in developing coun countr trie ies, s, as well as the d educational educational qu s cor corre respo spond ndin in each category category from in ustria izedec nomi job, er y nomies es d id no the r s of l s developed developed ones. e actual actual k f a building trades w r or agricult agricultural ural specialist heal health th officer in Afric Afric Asia Asia, , for e , s y o be quite quite di er , call for for a different sort of pre prepa para rati tion on, , m t of s e wearing wearing e l n , ranc ranc the Uni Unite ted d St te .Educational plans plans base base on such such fa y assu assumpt mptio ions ns could t in in the mis-p mis-prepa reparati ration on ill. over-preparation over-preparation f y stud studen ents ts r the thejobs the they y were were thir third d y w s the impossibili impossibility ty of of m g reliable forecasts forecasts r requ requir irem emen ents ts r enough enough ahead e of r l value educa educatio tiona nal l planning, ecause ecause of the the myria myriad d co om c, echn echnol olog ogic ical al d other unce uncert rtai aint ntie ies s involved. involved. The mor refined the the categor categories ies ( l ngineers’ ngineers’ ather n ‘engineers ‘engineers f l type types’) d thelong longer er tw years) the e the forecast(e g. ten years on the fuzzier the esti estima mate tes s e d the s trustworthy. trustworthy. em r app appro roac ach h could u yc la extreme gaps gaps a d imbalan imbalances ces n educati education’s on’soutput output pat patte tern rn t needed needed r t s har hardl dly y requ requir ired ed elab elabor orat ate e st l studies. coul could d also giv educators l guida guidance nce on on h , oughly, he educati educational onal ti ns of of the the labou labour r forc force e ough ough evolve evolve n the future future-wh -what at the relative less, proporti proportions ons should be be of people people with a primary primary educatio educatio secondary secondary education, d vario various us s of post-se post-second condary ary his his in fact s verv usefu educa educati tiona onal l pla planne nners rs o . but it s a f r c y fr m dm r requireme requirements. nts. Alert educational planners unde unders rsto tood od the foregoing foregoing limi limitati tation on soon learned learned to tak take e impress impressive ive s ltable tables s of of -t m stimates stimates of m r requiremen requirements, ts, roke roken n o f e cat categ egor orie ies, s,with a la time, hey learned l fs . , t the the extract useful guidance guidance from from r ,even even though this e l far shor short t of w t the the planner planners s neede needed. d.
t s educational educational planning? planni ng?
e inadeq inadequa uacie cie se rm r appr approa oach ch assu assume med d c prop propor orti tion ons sw n y the the e t market market pend pendul ulum um began began swingi swinging ng hard hard mm rd s om r lu as desc describ ribed ed .This d such such orig origin inal al pionee pioneers rs of the the m r appr approa oach ch s Profe Professor ssorFrederic Frederick k Har Harbi biso son n to to counsel t r overenth enthus usia iast stic ic s (by (by n w enga engage ged d in w t H n c d ‘stat‘statview n favo l pyrote pyrotechn chnics ics’) ’) o n s m h too favour ur a widerwider-an angl gled ed‘emp ‘emplo loym ymen ent t pproac pproach’. h’. This This meant meant t econom economic ic pla plann nnin ing g and and econ economi omic c developmen developmen policy, no less than than educational str strat ateg egy, y,were n ne d of reconsidera1960s) the cardinal objective tion. Until Until then then (the l objective a d criterio terio succ succes ess s of c planning h d been been o e the the GNP as fast as possible, possible, bu this s beginn beginning ing to to look look s over-s over-simpl implifi ified ed s e tion tion’s ’s goal of boosting enro enrolm lmen ent t . t d s a ri GNP it was was accompanied accompanied by grow growin ing g mass masses es of unempl unemployed oyed an under-employed nd dist distri ribu buti tion on g he s s extremely lopsided So e m r planner planners s began g the the view that creating w jobs and and high e t should be given given p y with with ra gt GNP s a prim prime e obje tive of of e c pol policy. e o spec specul ulat ated ed t a modera moderate te excess of educ educati ation onal al output over over estima estimated ted r requirements requirements might might ac ually lly stim stimul ulat at y to to f growth. d poten ial worker worker were availa available ble, , erha erhaps ps economy would would u e mo e o them, nd perh perhap aps s s e would would initiative to create create their n r educat education ion had had struck spark motivan d entrepreneurship. entrepreneurship. In short, the the ld assu assump mpti tion on s o question, t the the e y independently reat reated ed manpower needs while while education pa y respo responde nded d o .Perh Perhap ap econy should should a o respond to to education, education, nd educatio education n could could do do s job-creating own. But But th e w s ne t al al t . Educ Educat atio ion n could could only ‘if‘ satisfy the econo economy my’s ’s r need needs s and creation of e jobs i it s the the ight kind kind of education education, , produced produced ‘devel ‘devel ’ eople eople with with e appr approp opri riat ate e kno knowl wled edge ge, , s an titu es o p e nati nationa onal l devel develop opme ment nt d de l of e ed catio cation n going on on did not app appea ear rt these specifications.
42
Recent Recent progres
iii
theory
methodology
‘rat ‘r atee-of of-r -ret etur urn’ n’ p anothe another r group group of econom economist ists, s, omin omin the neo-classical radradn of of economists, economists, ook hard e with with the the r appro approac ach ho grou ground nds s addit additio iona na those alread already y ment mentio ione ned. d. T y said, said, n t t s appr approa oach ch w s abo about ut as as g y as the the s l d of ignoringthe the over over-a -all ll lloc tion ’ d the key test benefits versus versus costs. e ‘cost-benef ‘cost-benefit’ it’ rinc rincip iple le t a rati ration onal al indi indivi vidu dual al roughly roughly s w n deci decidi ding ng h w spen spend d hs m y n s exceed h s me s h s alte altern rnat ativ ives es, , weig weighs hs the cost each each d the the corr corresp espon ondi ding ng utility e feel it will bring , d then chooses chooses those those pa r options options with within in s s th prom promis ise e the highe highest st r io benefits to costs. costs. These These economists argued th t econ econom omic ic d educ educat atio iona nal lp pla lann nner er shou should ld follow t s s e s gic w n dealing dealing with with the alloca alloca tion tion of of a nation’s nation’s l resources resources a g if re t r sector sectors, s, with the allo alloca cati tion on of the educatio education n system’ system’s s ot lresources resources various various sub-sectors , t of l other econ econom omis ists ts, ,disagreed with t s gene genera ral l poin point. t. ndee ndeed, d, e can hardly hardly be a g d planner planner io r f he s not not think intuitively n these cost-benefit t the pract practical ical d s of of actually tually g these these costs a benefits were even e formidable than than thos those e encountered y l d and and r hn ue . o e , e econom economist ist d engi engine neer ers s had had e prog progre ress ss n simi simila lar r cal calcu cula lati tion ons s applying applying such such things things a steel mills, irrigation tion d s df r plants. meas measur urin ing g the the l y costs costs d be s of ma r sub-divisions f an educ educat atio iona nal l system system s r m e compli complicat cated. ed. , c advo advoccs of what what be d the the ‘rate-o ‘rate-of-re f-return turn’ ’ppro pproac ach hm e hero heroic ic t d eme emerg rged ed with with s e preciseprecise-look looking ing s in several studies in different coun countr trie ies. s. Other economists, owev owever er, , ot criticisms sms at these these time n firing critici s wit with h the vigour vigour a d de t that that economi economists sts eserve for intraIf l feud feuds. s. s lar largel gely stayed stayed t f t s particular b it was were not), they they were were even awa awa e wa s b g wage waged d (whi (which ch they e r f d to unders understa tand nd w t the shooting w s bout bout or regarded regarded the matter academic academic a be inno innocu cuou ous. s. heir s right, right, t le t at t s early exper experim imen enta tal l stage of rate-ofrate-of-ret return urn studies. e noise m the the econo economi mists sts s out out of of l proportion proportion
What
educationa educational l plan plannin ning? g?
the the imm immed edia iate te rel releva evance nce these studies polic policy y decis decision ions. s. St ,there there s always t s e inno innocen cent t top decision-maker ight risk hold of the rate-of-return rate-of-returnigur igures es, , ake t e scientifically reve reveal aled ed ru h a d m e e hor horri ribly bly mistaken deci io s. This This at l t the the fear fear of of c it cs, t n fairness shou should ld be d that that the the authors authors of he e stud stud es d pro proba babl bly y themselv themselves es have have bee been n alar alarme med d f they had had though thought t t t unsoph unsophist istica icate ted d use use w d be e of r v y tens l conc conclu lusi sion ons. s. woul would d long here expl explai ain n in d l the s s which which have have been charged the rate-ofrate-of-retu return rn ppr pproa oach ch e thing, thing, he basic basic cost data data are flim flimsy sy a d s take take particular icular issu issu with inclu includin ding g as a cost cost the the estimated estimated in e forgone forgone by stude students nts y n countr countries ies e heav heavy yu t s endemi endemic. c. These weakne weaknesse sses s on o n the the cost cost side side, ,howe howeve ver, r, are are susc suscep epti tibl bl correction as r data data b e avai availa labl ble. e. e es s weakn weaknesse esses, s,which can can be be t d it d data but but never elimi elimina nated ted, ,concer concern n the the calcu calcula lati tion on future . e usual usual m calculate the iffe ential in a pers person on’s ’s life-time life-time arning arnings s that will resultfrom an added increme increment nt education, discounted by by n arbi ra y percentage allow the the non-educati non-educational onal causes causes of s extr extra a e ( . superio superior r int intelligence, moti motiva vati tion on family family ba d d co ne tion ). t these these futur future e e entials,correlat correlated ed with educational , re c d n th basis of past d present fe nt ls,the implicit a n being that the will n constant constant in the future. future. This This is a very dub dubio ious us assumption. e extra extra priv private ate earnin earnings gs r taxes) xes) res resul ulti ting ng m extra extra e cation are used as the me e of priv privat ate e enef ts. e s e private earnings (bef (before ore axes) are als also used used as a pr xy e of of cial some ritics cons bene benefi fits ts, , consid ider er be a rat rathe her r g leap leap. .O e the the underl underlying ying (and (and doubtf doubtful ul) ) assu assump mpti tion ons s behind behind s d of calcul calculati ating ng social benefit that d s n w e a d salary rates rates are a y accurate accurate reflection of the relative c productivity fdiff differentpeop people le d m y othe other r he c assumption assumptions s e requ requir ired ed o comp comple lete te the the arithmetic arithmetic d o reach a rate-of-return igure. e authors m e r th t t r m d mea measu sure res s only only the the d c s and and takes takes no acco accoun unt t of te cb and non-economic ones. This air-sized exclus exclusion ion. . T e educ educaation tional al plan planne ne t wond wonder erin ing g w t extr extra allowance allowance h should make for these exclud excluded ed bene benefi fits ts
Recerit progress in theory
mcthodology
Curi Curiou ousl sly y en ugh, ugh, thoug though h primary educat education ion not not i itself consi red red a prepar preparati ation on for for , a fe these these rate-o rate-of-re f-retur turn n tudie tudies, s, e indepe independe ndentl ntly y n t developing developing countrie countries, s,have have reache reached d th e conclu conclusio sion-t n-that hat e c d on on primary education those those countrie conside considerab rably ly higher higher tha than n the d n univer universi sity ty cati cation on. . This should should not not be taken s a natu natura ral ll , , or even necessarily necessarily as the gos gospe pel l truth truth in these particular particular count countri ries es ay simply reflect cert certai ain n biases n the the data a d m it does e the the sort of provo provoca cati tive ve hypo hypoth thes eses es that that s ch studie studies s thrust thrust u h n lead lead o further further use useful ful inquiry inquiry r weakn weaknesse esses s cou could ld s w e ove overc rcom ome, e, t e woul woul the f t that the the rate-of-r rate-of-retur eturn n ro the planner planner tells the still ma n the and and decision-makersonly only h f tt the hey y need o tells them n w t direc directio tion n to put put m e resources o t the best yield, yield,but it does not tell m h w r to go go in t s dire direction. e sec secon ond d question perh perhap aps s t r bigge biggest st prob proble le o sum u r to say that that the the rate-of rate-of-re -return turn p h present present experi experimen mental tal sta stage ge development tells s mu h mor m ore e abou abou the past past tha it does about th ut e. d whil whil n usefully learn learn f m history history, , the l t thin thing g a deve develop loping ing nation s to to o repeat . n the the pauc paucity ity of d data to w k with with a d the d, n a y event, o e a who whole le cons conste tell llat atio io tenuous assumptions t the the c future, the the precise-looki precise-looking ng s arri arrive ved d shou should ld be treated with extr extrem eme e caution by ractical planners planners an policy-makers. None the less, the rate-of-return , l the and and m r appro approach aches, es, as a decided decided rele releva vanc nce e d y for cationa cational l planning planning the very very leas it emphasizes the constant need e al ti s d o weig weig their respective costs costs a d benefits as best o e c n before leaping to a decision. decision. methodologies and and ba c data impr improv ov y prov provid ide em e d guidance. guidance. But But none none f e approaches, w , prov provid ides es an adequate itself r educationa basis educational l planning. planning. y w even the the m t ar proponents these t app appro roac ache hes sc ede ede tha that a w synt synthe hesi si f three needed. Ev n such a synt synthe hesi si , howe howeve ver, r, woul would d impo import rtan ant t gaps gaps to to be . e tower towering ing w s of al al thre that they they implicitly take take the exist existing educatio educational nal syste system m for grante granted d leave untou untouch ched ed exce except pt f scale. y are ess essentially inst instru rume ment nt r macro-p macro-plan lanning ning, , nd such such can can be very us ful. conclusion
What
will
education educ ational al plannin pl anning? g?
e to l th t educati educationa onal l planning n w needs to g it n i e e system and cha change nge it o e re t an the fu t a d pro produ ducti ctive. ve. the th e ma n w y o r futur ture e rat rat of retur return n on on educational investments. investments.
Purl Five
t progr progress ess i putting he ry int into o practic practic
In addition addition o the the broa broader der concepts a d method methodolo ologie gies s t discuss discussed, ed, s s c techniques us usef eful to educational educational plannin plannin were develop developed ed and and impr improv oved ed duri during ng th 1960s.These These includ included, ed, or example: example: better s l s for for m g various various types of projections projections (e. (e.g. of enro enrolm lmen ents ts, ,require requiremen ments ts for for classro classroom om ,teachers,equi equippt d ; e e s for estimatin estimating g future future cost df lrequir requireme ements nts s of g demo demogr grap aphi hic c dm r data o future future enro enrolm lmen ent tp In short, short, steady steady progress progress w s e n enlarg enlarging ing the the tooltool-ki kit t planning planning. . t three three other basi basic c step step were required required before before these better tool tools coul could d be used used ef ec iv ly. research research d diagnosi diagnosi were: o illum illumina inate te the key p oble oble s confronting confronting educational plan planni ning ng the training training people o could apply apply these research research s planni planning ng meth method odol olog ogie ies s n re l situ situat atio ions ns, , the creatio creation n an adaptation of of organi organizat zation ional al and and admini administr strati ative ve arra arrang ngem emen ents ts enable plannin function. g for a ew o s in the impo import rtan ance ce multial agenci agencies es o obse observ rve e that s e agenci agencies, es, particular,but but also the OECD n the the case case of West Wester ern n , t provided the prim prime e leade leadersh rship ip in helping helping the ho e worl worl e su st nt al 1960s. progress progress on o n the a e three three fronts fronts during y be interest to sket sketch ch bri y t they they did. did.
Traini ining ng a 1. Tra
research
e previously-mentioned U o region regional al conferenc conferences es e y in in th 1960s insp red a large v e of reque request st developing developing nations for
t s educati educational onal plan planning ning
technica technical l assis assistan tance ce n educat education ional al planning. planning. Desp Despit ite e the extreme worl worldd-wi wide de hortage hortage of such ex ert ert personn personnel, el,Un sco sco responded orously orously by sending out dur during ing the the 1960s a to l of e than 50 shortmissions ns and and over long longer er-t -ter erm mreside resident nt advisory advisory exper experts ts term missio educational educational planni planning, ng, coveriii 80 countries. This, howe howeve ver, r, could be only only a prov provis isio iona nal l solu soluti tion on. . Ther There e w evident evident need need o n a cadre cadre of of m e high highly ly qualified educational planplanning expe expert rts s for for inter interna nati tion onal al s . n e impo import rtan ant t w s th need need o help help each each coun countr try y o acquire acquire n indig indigeno enous us plan planni ning ng experts n orde order r to b e self self-s ff ci nt s soon as possible. meet th se needs, et abou needs, about t cr g a netw networ or new 1960 and 1963, n co-operation training training a d research research fa . co-operation with with the developing developing nations themselves themselves, , o establ tablishe ished region regional al train trainin ing g centre centres s for Latin Latin A a n Sant Santia iago go de , for for Asi Delh ), for for the A b States n Be , d for the w Afric African an nati nation ons s n Dakar). Dakar). To provid provide e a nexu nexus s for for these these regional regional cent centres res for uni universities d other orga organi niza zati tion ons sthat that m t be attracte attracted d to th d of of train training ing, , d o give give an an imp impet etus us to researc research, h, o (with (with the the co-ope co-operat ratio ion n f e d Ba , e Ford Ford Founda Foundatio tion n and and e French ) est estab ablish lished in in Paris Paris i 1963 the Internat Internationa ional l Institute for for Educat Education ional al Planning. Planning. Subseq Subsequen uently tly the e recei receive ved d genero generous us support support a o f m l governme governments nts and and non-go non-gover vernme nmental ntal organizations. Thes These e n w ra ng organizat organizations ions were forced to to improv improvise ise a first, for for there there w s ver little literature organized ed body body knowledge no organiz n educational educational planning. e subje subject ct s j t bei being ng evolved a d of r job job s to help n the process. process. y g inter interdi disci scipl plina inary ry where e pertinen pertinent t experience experience w s being selves closely to the countries wher genera generated ted, , he regional regional centre centres s a d th IIEP grad gradua uall lly yb e sto stora rage ge d l cent centre res s fr w e a emerged from fresh research research d experience experience The IIEP n particu particular lar s t to collect,create create a d diss dissem emin inat ate et w knowle knowledge dge through a wide-r wide-rang anging ing s p h included included researc research h reports reports d instruc instructi tiona onal l materi materials als a brid bridgi ging ng the the co s p betwe between en rese resear arch cher ers s and and pract practit itio ionnand t reme remedy dyin ing g t e worl worldd-wi wide de shor shorta tage ge d tr g ma er and erials. B 1969, x year years s a r the Insti Institut tute’ e’s s reation, reation,a large large n of suc such h publicatio publications, ns,transl translate ated d into into various lan langu guag ages es were n id circul rculatio ation d use use thro throug ugho hout ut the the world. world.
Recent Rec ent prog progres res
putting theo theory ry into practic practic
y then, moreo moreove ver, r, l hundr hundred ed person persons s had had d forma forma training training at the IlEP d he U o regi region onal al ce tr , ranging f m s o a f l year. year. e great great majority majority were of ic als of of oping c un ries ries o retu return rned ed h e to to apply what what they they had had lear learne ned. d. The IIEP’s rainees, rainees, a e adva advanc nced ed , o includ included ed a g r of in rn ti al exp exper ert t ad ers ers w o went went serve developin oping gn , nd a grow growing ing n r of of peop people le o went on o n to to b co teach teachers ers d research research work worker ers s in in educational educational planni planning ng in in regional regional centres, universities a d national national training training institutions. IIEP also e a mee meeti ting ng-g -gro roun und d d exch exchang ange e centr centre e r the the o ,scholars d students students s s d other other organizations that were building building research a d traini training ng s nt sf o w s the the m n c agent r t s m , with respect respect o the deve develo lopi ping ng regions, regions,but the OECD lso play played ed a OECD’s irect training activnotable r e in the develop developed ed world world. . activit mars marsha hall lled ed inte lectual talent lents s in W ities were limited, Euro Europe pe, , North North Americ America a and an d Japa Japan n to o c e k n the the m theoretical cal d method methodolo ologic gical al fron frontiers of educational plan plannin ning, g, plann nnin ing g in in the edu educa cati tion on ministrie ministries s of it stimulated nterest in pla 1960s OECD’s evelopment r . d , n the l Assi Assist stan ance ce C e w s instrum instrument ental al n prodding prodding d r nations nations into into givi giving ng grea greate ter r atten attentio tion n a d supp suppor ort t to educational educational planni planning ng el nt n t r p s of of assi assistance o develop developing ing nations. n i 1968 create ted d a Centre Centre for Educationa Educational l Resear Research ch OECD crea and and Innovation ith ith a man man ate ate o h r s s o brin brin abou about t overdue educat education ional al reforms and and innovations. innovations. By 1970 coul could d truly be said that, that, s to the m r in ti ti taken taken by l agenc agencies ies d o the a t co-o co-ope pera rati tion on of y scho schola lars rs and and y othe others rs, , n inte intern rnat atio iona nal l y of educat education ional al planni planning ng had had e in o being. being. mpre mpress ssiv ive e n w body body of e d bee been n creat created ed and and dissemi disseminated nated, , subs substa tant ntia ial l cadre of of planners planners d bee been nt ed a d disp disper erse sed d thro throug ugho hout ut he worl world, d, an effective co-op co-oper erati ation on nd comm commun unic icat atio ion n between pro produc ducers ers an cons consum umer ers s f rese resear arch ch n t s n w area area had been been achieved. achieved. there ere w long w y o ,a es th had ad been been still a long d be d t om h th s record record of rapid progre progress ss n m y other s of schol scholarsh arships ips a d practice
What
educational educational planning’? planning ’?
Implementi Implementing ng pl plan anni ning ng Seve Se vera ral l tough tough question questions s immediatel immediately y confronted t the he n w g and and hp pro rogra gramme mmes: s: n edu educat cation ional al planner t sh is his ro do, do , wher where e doe does s he fit , role le in n educ educatio ational nal es estab tablis lishh? t are are s resp respon onsi sibi bili liti ties es ith regard to po poli licy cy a d decisionmaking t sp spec ecia ial l sa d s do does es n educational educational planner planner need? nee d? H w y can a t g and an d hp e p hi to acquire these? e practicalpractical-minde minded d part partic icip ipan ants ts n th thes ese e trai traini ning ng never neve r forgot forgot tha that t they w d even eventual tually ly be be returning returning to to the the r ministr ministries ies r o oth ther er e organ organiz izat atio ions ns d would would be expected expected o br brin ing g thing thi ng us usef ef l with . y quic quickly kly w the the val value ue d per pertin tinenc ence e of e n w methodologies t to o which whi ch they were expose exposed d an and d th they ey acquire acq uired d l in insi sigh ghts ts in into to t ir n edu educati cational onal syst system ems s comp co mpar arin ing g m with with ot othe hers rs nd di disc scov over erin ing g y fte eb robl ro bl ms and and . Bu But t al al s pr vo voke ked d t m into into asking asking selves d others a persist persistent ent t of of que questio stions. ns. t can can e do w h wha what t e ha have ve le d n e t w apply e concepts, concepts, ethodologies an and d n w information to o r sit situat uation ion that they will ea l if iffe fere re ce ce, ,a li nt n i ? t changes will be ne need eded ed n our our organizationa organizational l admi ad mini nist stra rati tive ve set set-up -up n ord order er for for planning to take h ld ld? ?W t ca t one one in indi divi vidu dual al o o m e s ou ount ntai ain n of a wh ch sta stands nds n the g thing things s dif differently a d better w an e the top people people ha hat t suc such h chan change ges s re imperative imperative, , th that at planning simply won’t won ’t w k oth otherw erwise ise? ? t of , wh what at can be ne o change change th see that they ttit tt itud ud s d perceptions perceptions of l conc concer erne ned, d, o m e p d d n the the , m cla classr ssroom oom tea teache cher r Prime Minister -must -mu st be ‘plannin ‘planning g mi mind nded ed’, ’, th that at th they ey mu t be the l planners? planners? This Th is t question, h lo load aded ed with anxiety, anxiety, s gr grat atif ifyi ying ng the th e training staff, or it d that that r e s had had no not t b en fo naught. naught. Thi This s s the the key pro proble blem-h m-how ow o m e planning planning t of e of every everyon one e in in the educational educational sy syst stem em. . Ed Educ ucat atio iona nal l pl plan anni ning ng s of h w methodolog methodologies ies m y be be, , can ne neve ver r work well unless unless the administrative administrative milie favourable favourable. . Thi less a matter of w th the e boxe boxes s are are arra arranged nged n th the e org organ aniz izat atio iona nal l ch char ar it r of h w th the e jo job b de desc scri ript ptio ions ns read, of h w th the e various pants on th the e scene scene think think abou about t planning planning a d w the they y perc percei eive ve t n par partic ticul ular ar r e in in rel relat ation ion to the plan planni ning ng process. SO
Recent progress
putting theory into practice
e plain ain fact-a fact-and the first thing for ever everyo yone ne to be clea clear ab t the the admin adminis istr trat ativ ive e set-ups d enviro environmen nments ts whic which h t cati cation onal al systems systems have have carr carried ied over m the the past past were never designed were designed o p y host host to a m n bran brand d of planni planning ng. . designed fo rulerule-ma maki king ng d care careta taki king ng in in educational systems systems wher where e the the centr central al gove govern rnme ment nt a d pu lic lic s played played only only a mode modest st . n e d responsibility for creati creating ng a d runn runnin ing g educ educati ationa ona on , for for financing, financing, expa expand ndin ing g or chan changi ging ng them, were left largely in priva private te or loca local g t hand hands. s. In such such situat situation ions s the cent centra ral l educationa educational l administra administration tion s usuall usually y characteriz characterized ed by clear division division of labo labour ur. . e principa principal l , f d inspectorate inspectorate responsible for supervising y partic particula level or type of educatio educatio -such as prim primar ary y or or seco second ndar ary y or techni technical caleducat education ion-li -lived ved n splen id n fr m he othe others rs. . hg ph n orga organi niza zati tion on box, n budget,grou ground nd , e an style f administration. administration. was was a the the education education depar departm tmen ent t or min minis istr try y w s a loose loose federa federatio tio of r l f , kept kept in in chec check k by n unwritten unwritten nonnon-ag aggr gres essi sion on pact by n arbiter t the top. This tended to to be the cas case e even w ere ere the the cen central t played played a majo major r e in financing, taffing d operating operating t e educational educational system. e orga organi niza zati tion onal al compar compartme tments nts were mutu mutual ally ly exclusi exclusive ve a d comm commun unic icat atio ions ns ran mos mostl tly y t p and and , o the the m n t th top a d o the the c s ; y s ther there e hor horiz izon onta tal lc tion with those those conc concer erne ned d with other part parts s of the system. system. not surpri surprisin sing g that that in these circum circumsta stance nces s o e re y w the educational system as a st ,or tr d o pla it s a whole. Ther Ther s in fact o grea great t n d to to t the time, or the reasons reasons w e poi point nt to be emphasized emphasized here here, , howe howeve ver, r, that the habit patter patterns, ns, rules a d regulations regulations, , doctri doctrines nes a d philosoph philosophies, ies, d not to l the bureaucratic bureaucratic attitude attitudes, s, prerogatives d self-perceptio self-perceptions nsthat w out of t s s gb e seri seriou ous s obst obstac acle les s n the the nee need d arose arose ra e comprehe comprehensive nsive kind of planni planning ng Thes These e obst obstac acle les, s, hich hich still t in m t countries, countries,cann cannot ot be over over e merely merely by tack tackin ing g a n w planning planning u t o on n to t the he d a administra dministra structure ure. . h a unit c n quickly quickly fi itself effectively f n tive struct of the the m n arena arena of ec ive actio action. n. e in in that that arena arena will either be too busy o co-ope co-operate rate with with the the n w planning un t a d to us y o help m with r , r they they will wilfully resen resent t or gn re e of said said i criticism of the the indi indivi vidu dual als s involve involved, d, t of
t is educational educational pla planni nning? ng?
m have have n hero hero call cally to the the n w chall challen enge ges, s, d excee exceedi ding ngly ly hard under t g condit condition ions, s, d accomplished amaz amazin ing g amou amount nts. s. hear heart t of the the pr that that they are the the products products d prisone prisoners rs of , egulat egulation ion-or -orien iented ted dmin dminis istr trat ativ ive e system system whic which h by very nature nature in bi s g d plann planning ing d t action action. . o simp simple le cure cure for for these ailmen ailments. ts. t un l the the grip rip of inertia broken necessa necessary ry chan change ges s of attit attitud ude, e,stru struct ctur ure e a d proc proced edur ure, e, d not a n w planning-mindedness planning-mindednesspermeates permeates e whole whole system, an plann plannin in really func functi tion on well and and educ educat atio iona nal l developm development ent e smoothly smoothly for ward. This simpl simply y to say that that educationa educational l plann plannin in not not the exclusive exclusive job of the the f full ull-t -tim ime e echn echnic ical al planners o cupy cupy the cen centr tral du ation tional al plann plannin ing g unit. Their Their role role a v y important important one. y must must piece together the over-all over-all ictu icture re with scraps scraps f infor informa matio tion n a d ideas n fr m m y sour source ces. s. Seeing Seeing e system in in broad broad pers perspe pect ctiv ive, e, they n identify m r trends, relati relations onship hips, s, constr constrain aints, ts, optio options ns need needs s a d opportunities opportunities d bring these these to the attent attention ion of others fo disc discus ussi sion on a d acti action on. . t they can canno not t even even put the the pict pictur ure e together, together, much less interpret it wisely, wisely, without without the the wi g d cont contin inuo uous us t of al a l t r colleagues in other boxe boxes. s. Plan Planni ning ng ca s for a wid wide e d t s k that that runs runs in al a l dir direc ecti tion ons. s. well planned In the l t analys analysis, is, n educatio educational nal sys syste te will planned an plans well d only if those responsible responsible fo various various part e themselves themselves d planne planners, rs, d only only each each c conce oncedes des that that s s plans plans m t be med media iate ted d dm d with al a l others others into into a con consi sist sten en d d who whole le ha will serve the best interests of the total total em In e d e coun countr trie ies, s,happ happil ily, y, s w ma gradually bein being g achieved, d educatio educational nal planning planning g nc easi easing effective, but but n s it still little e than a ious ious wis wish h and and cost costly ly sou sourc rce e of of frustratio frustration. n. Thos Those e w o have had had n opport opportun unit ity y o e educ educat atio iona nal l plan plan ning s over over a e cross-s cross-sect ection ionof nations w d prob probab ably ly agree that that planni planning ng w s best wher where e ( ) top top p l a d educati educational onal leaders genuin genuinel ely y beli believe i necessity,give it r strong strong sup suppo port rt and and e s e of n r , nd nd ( ) l others with a serio serious us stake n the the educatio educational nal system-lower-l system-lower-level evel admi admini nisstrat trator ors, s,teacher teachers, s, students,parents parents a d employer employers-ha s-have ve been been give give a f r ch e for r voices o be hear heard d n the process of form formul ulat atin in plans for the future.
52
Part
look into the future
e t d n t s booklet booklet to achieve a better unde unders rsta tand ndin ing g of educatio educational nal planning by exam examin inin in func functi tion ons s d observ observing ing has taken taken m y t shapes d f ms y t needs. n particular icular have have d that that extraordinary s e of turbulent turbulent y e the the Seco Second nd d r whic which h has crea create ted d an an imperat imperativ iv need thro throug ugho hout ut the the world world r d y n w appr approa oach ches es o educ educaational planning. planning. In th s f l sec secti tion on w e turn to the future a d ask where where educat educatio ional nal planning planning should should go go f m here. here. Despite the the considerab considerable le progre progress ss m , he educational educational challe challenge nge of the the post-w post-war ar a and and the the formidab formidable le proble problems ms which which they they hav given rise long w y m bein being g met. Indeed, more still a ve y long than a deca decade de of of unpa unparal rallele leled d expan expansi sion, on, ducational ducational syste systems ms ever everyw ywhe here re confront confront the future in a . y are beset am s backlog of unfi unfini nish shed ed bus busin ines ess s a d besieg besieged ed by stag stag geri gering ng probl problem ems s t t threa threate ten n o w worse worse How can can educatio educational nal g p them th em? ? H w must be strengthened strengthened o ? r w dimensions mus acquire? Five r needs for for i t stand stand out with within in the fr k of educatio educational nal planning as it has has been been conceived n recent recent years. years. First, he ree appr approa oach ches es disc discus usse sed d r l , d rate rate-o -off-ret retur urn) n) ust ust n w be synth synthes esiz ized ed o a more coherent, d approa approach. ch. Se on , the the n s methodologies methodologies requ requir ired ed to appl apply y th more d appr appr ach ach m t be furt furthe her r d d strength ened. ened. Thir Third, d, gigantic t t be m e by by l educational educational syst systems ems o impr improv ove e the the information information flows need needed ed for e e planning. planning. Fo a r cadre of peop people le with with broa broad d echnic l com com eten etence ce n planning be trained, trained, d a general general appreciation appreciationof planning t be be i 53
What
educ educat atio iona nal l plan planni ning ng'! '!
n m y others others e part particip icipat atio ion in in the the planning planning proces proces essential. Fifth, Fifth, organizati organizational onal a d administra administrative tive arr arran ange geme ment nts, s, atti attitu tude des s an beha behavi viou our r patt pattern erns s mu t be y alte altered to a effective planning. e above above needs needs a obvious a d lrea lready dy widely widely recognized recognized l l undoubtedly receive ma or atte that they wi attent ntio ion n in c g year years. s. But what perhaps not obvious that al al of these these things, essential, will not be near nearly ly e ,because the the th ee approa approache ches st educational educational planning considered considered ea r ignore o e impo import rtan ant t fact factor or yh hav ave e usefully brou brough ght t the lar large ger r out outli line nes s a d relati relations onship hips s of the the educational educational system to sharper focus,but they they have have taken taken m little acco accoun unt t of the inner inner life of the the system system and and eed eed for dras drastic tic change. serve f educational educational syste systems ms are are r students students a d society well, they they must must w e e changes changes in t r inne inne life with dispatch: dispatch: s in their specific objectives objectives a d priorities, n their internal internal struct structure ure, , conten content t d , n the trai traini ning ng a d use of teachers, teachers, n the processes processes of teaching teaching and and learning, n the s e and and s of govern governanc ance e and and manage managemen ment. t. Moreov Moreover er, , e of t e most most educational need needs, s, involv involving ing people people outsid outside e the for forma mal l educational stru struct ctur ure, e, t n w be be p o m e se io sly d cr e solu soluti tion on foun found. d. e who who e idea idea of g education education needs needs to be transfor transformed med m inspired inspired r rhet hetoric o a an n orderly orderly r . t t s can can only as the tradit traditiona ional institutional a d psyc psycho holo logi gica cal l barr barrier iers b n insets school school and and out-of-school arni arni g a e d and and e sb e jointly tly plan planne ned d d r integrat integrated. ed. o ignore ignore thes these e imperat imperative ive to cour court t disaster. f traditional e cational cational syst system ems s cont contin inue ue to to purs pursue ue the simp simplistic expansionist strate strategy of m g themselve themselves s ar r in r d ,they they will compound the the alread already y serio serious us mala maladj djus ustm tmen ents ts betwe between en themselves and and society, they will waste resources, exacerbate th crisis that already grips , l in r miss missio ion, n, jeop jeopar ardi dize ze r n survi survival a e untold ies on on future future generations. fthis diag diagno nosi si correct, hen it follows tha that t educational planning, planning, with withou out t abando abandonin nin macro-vi macro-view, ew, ust w atte attent ntio ion n seriousl iously y o the int intern ernal s of educa educati tion on. . e m t be im ro e t e perfor performanc mance e of educati educationa onal l systems through through changes changes t w i l l e m e re evan evant t to the the needs of t r clie client ntde des, s, fi ient n their use of available available esou esourc rc s, a more effective force r indi indivi vidu dual al nd l developme development. nt. d perform performance ance does
look into he futurc
not n simply doing b r w already being done; means doin doing g things y a d doin doing g di t thing things. s.There Therefo fore re the d inan inant t empha emphasi sis s of e st y w d for mu t not be ne nsion sion per se-though y e expans expansion ion will be needed-but n change change and adap adapta tati tion on t t of educat education ional al planning planning required required to serve is strategy? Certainly Certainly it will have have to to incl includ ude e g d macromacro-pla planni nning ng focuses on e broad broad dimensions dimensions of the the system a relationships h ee y and and . But beyo beyond nd this e must must e n s of of micro-p micro-plan lannin ning g hat apply o the the inner inner proc proces esses ses of the the syst system em and and nume nu mero rous us sub-s sub-sys yste tems ms seems a r guess, guess, therefore, therefore,that the the n w fr ntiers r educational p planning lanning n g yea years rs will include five n territories db
1. R e f i n e m e n t
objectives
t clearly stated objectives objectives d s there o adequat adequat s r for evaluating evaluating an an educati educational onal system’ system’s sperf perfor orma ma ce or fo facto aims planning futu future re intelligently. aims of an educat education ional al syst system em (as distinct stated aims aims) ) are inconsistent with with soci society’ ety’s sprin principa cipal l goals, goals,mala maladj djus ustm tmen ents ts are b d o develop develop bet bet ee the the system system d soci societ ety, y, d soci society’ ety’s sneed need will fe . Like Likewi wise se c obje object ctives ives of various educational educational subsub-sy syst stem ems s re inco incomp mpat atibl ibl with with the the whol whole e system’s broader aims aims, ,then the the system system will be at w i l l be defeated. with with f basic a e chief chief lose losers in event will students. students. r l these rea reaso sons ns, ,the essentia first step toward toward impr improv ovin ing g an educatio educational nal system’s elev elevan ance ce and and perform performance ance o re e d basic aims d s a d the m specific objec objectiv tives es each of subsub-sy syst stem ems, s, o ensure ensure tha that they they ar compat compatibl ible e with one one another another a d with with the the socie society ty’s ’s ma or goals, goals, priorities, d need needs. s. e m y thro throw w p t r hand hands s and ay t t s cannot be done done that has been t d m ends times d failed, that at best it ends orse still, n irrecon y rh c whic which h everyone everyone can can accep accept, t, irreconcil cil able conflict n divergent divergent interests. this tantamou tantamount nt t conc conced edin ing g that that the very institution d to foster gent beha behavi viou our r n others incapable acti acting ng intelligently itself,that that the basis of folklore, n educational educational system has no n o choice choice but but o run run folklore, blind faith d g 55
What
educationa educational l planning plan ning
This seems a
s concl conclus usion ion. . In l events, the situat situation ion for for a furthe further r attem attempt pt, , prevail ilin ing g doctrine doctrines sa time relying less n preva prejudices prejudices o sup suppl pl oa s a d , d h e n guidguidance ance prov provid ided ed y rati ration onal al ana analy lysi sis. s.Certainly, will s be o e the the broa broad d aims aims of y educationa educational l system s a whol whole e in a thing but quite quite general terms that that inevit inevitably ably lend them themse selv lves es o differen ferent t interpre interpretati tations. ons. shou should ld be be possible possible for social sciensciencheck in various s on on the act actua ual l behavio behaviour ur of the system system a tists o check n e competencies competencies and behaviour behaviour the people it produces, produces, t dete determ rmin ine e whet whethe her r thes these e behaviou behaviours rs are are reasona reasonably bly con consis sisten tent t with th avowed avo wed aims o system system d the eviden evident t goals goals and and need needs s of soci societ ety. y. What e important, s one one m s from from e g l particula cular, r, m the the bro broad ad aims aims of the the educat education ional al system as a whol whole e e c objecti objectives ves of particular sub-systems, becomes easier to define objecti objectives ves n operation operationally ally me and t terms and There use these defined defined objectives objectives as cr a for testing a td dif iffe fere renc nce, e, or or , etwe etween en the the broa broad d ai producing dciti citize zens’ ns’or yeduc educat ated ed pers person ons’ s’ d such such c obj objec ec tives as develo developin ping g a defin definabl abl level e n reading, or i usin using g arithm arithmeti etic, c, or in in pl ing ing a foreig foreign n language. language. In point point of fact,experts in educ educat ation ional al tests and and measurements measurements a g significant progress n devising m e e and and di ersified s f r evalua evaluatin ting g various kinds of des desired educational ou n e pa t of indi indivi vidu dual al stud studen ents ts. . y then should it not not be possib possible le o adapt e o these instru instrumen ments ts d o devis devise e furt furthe her r ones ones fo g the the perf perf rm nc the syst system em iself-provided that there e clear obje object ctiv ives es agains against t wh h o assess perf perfor orma manc nc
Evaluation Evaluation o system performance clarification of educ educat atio iona nal l objectives essential not not only to ensu ensure re that system striving to o the right a d relevant relevant things, but provide provide a b s for for checking h y doing t well al o afford affords s a bas basis for for g alte altern rnat ativ ive e s of pursuing parti particu cula lar r learning learning obje object ctiv ive e d for deter determi mini ning ng w ic these the m t efficacious. first half This f of w t educatio educational nal chan change ge l abo about ut. . invo involv lves es changi changing ng w system doing, o m e va and and up-to up-to-da -date te; ; e second h f inv inv lves lves changing h doing
look into th future
e the the proces process sm ee t d . n ducational ducational system n be do g the w g things things very ,or can can be doing th right things things very . h sm t e d judging performance. f educational sys syste tems ms are e change changes s or the the b r a d not simply or the the sake sake of cha chang ng ,the will need need a var variety of diagnostic tools with assess rp or nc , identi entify opportunitie opportunitie r , d monito monitor r t r prog progre ress ss ove time.
syste sy stems ms approac appr oac
educational educational desig
Since educational educational system system will have change change e y and e rapidl rapidly y than than in the past, past,they will need need n w techn techniq iques ues r doing e l way wa y has has bee ad hoc, piecemeal d episo episodi dic c and and has y involv involved ed superi superimpos mposing ing somethi something ng w n top of the the old, without without yc cha hang ngin ing g the old, as f r e , ddin dding g inst instru ructio ctiona na tele televi visi sion on, , lang langua uage ge laboratory laboratory or or film projector projector to the the convent convention ional al clas classr sroo oom m procedures. n e t s cha chang nges es the old ‘teaching-learning system system’ ’but without cons consci ciou ousl sly y desig designi ning ng a w one, one, because it not been been looke looked d at a as s a ‘system’. ‘system’. a result,the l potential f the the new ne w component component unlikely e realized cost will be a net net additi addition on the the old old cost costs, s, d the im t n the the s prove disappointing. as if s , given given the job job of putt puttin ing g n on e moo m oo n, d d thin thin with the biplane at d ge it e e e appr approa oach ch use use the the m d of ‘system desig design’ n’ h has has b n used used very successfully n m y other f s (including (including yg g em the the moon moon). ). This s he othe other r . Instead Instead of st ng with an an old old system system that that not performing se satisfactorily d trying patch it up begins with a cl e specifications’,that that with with a defi definit nition ion of of the result desir desired (the ‘obj ‘objective tives’) d the vari various ous controlling constraints environm environmenta ental lfacto factors rs be observed observed (suc (such h as the the back backgr grou ound nd of th studen students, ts, ost ceilin s e next next step devise time mi at on ). a variety iety te ive poss possible ible ‘syste ‘systems’ ms’ hat hat migh might t be dt achieve specified results. h h potent potential ial syst system em will involve a t d t combination combination om ne s ( ) and and t t techno technology logy. . e estimated estimated cost costs d the the w i l l results (outputs will o var vary y m system syst system em, ,and and fi into the the gene general ral context et r than than others. others. e p m then 57
What
educational planning?
o comp compar ar e adv advan anta tage ges s d disad disadvan vanta tages ges of these these alt alt rnati native ve system systems s d select the the o e w , ll thing things s considered, considered, eems best sui suited o the purp purp se a d the circumstanc circumstances. es. In desi designi gning ng w ‘teaching-learning ‘teaching-learning ystems ystems’ ’ n s r accomplish various well defined defined object objective ives, s, the cha chanc nces es are that that the optimum opti mum on will us ally ally incl includ ude e s e com combi bina nati tion on of o d thin things gs an , d toge togethe ther r in a w . T e chance chances s are are al o th it will pay pay t out a variety of d t ‘sys ‘syste tems ms’ ’ or doi doing ng the the e jo na r of comp compar arab able le s hat hat a d supply of s evidence will be genera generated ted with with whic which h o co their respective costs a d results. will y pay pay neig neighb hbou ouri ring ng educational educational systems systems o co-ope co-operat rate e n a broad h and and developm development ent e that that they they c n exp exper erim imen ent tc y in w s that that n e could could affo afford rd alone. e basic princ princip iple les s o be follo followe wed d n educa education tional al system systems s design are are cl r , but but the practical technique technique still require developt d g out. out. e thes these e are are avai availa labl ble, e,they they can can e an effective part a buil builtt-in in, ,cont contin inuo uous us process process of educational educational selfrenewal.
ts
s and and measures measures
e vario various us measu measure res s alread already y men menti tion oned ed consti nstitute tute impo import rtan ant t devi device ce the r t of educational systems. systems. (Included n concept concept of t a e the the planners, planners, eval evalua uato tors rs and and deci decisi sion on s not only in the front e of the the minist ministry ry but but n every clas classr sroo oo well.) t additional additional tools tools will o be be needed needed, , y of which which already within within reac reach h and and simpl simply y requi require re furt further her refineme refinement nt d te ti g. g e a method methodolo ologie gies s used used fo operations research other fields , properl properly y adap adapte ted, d, migh might t be rofi ably applie applied d education: geared to s d ac e P E R T s y s t e m of sche targets schedul duling ingcomp comple lex xp s and and vari variou ous s me s of cost analysis an cost-efectiveness testing, d related techniques of cost-benefitanalysis. The effective plan planni ning ng and an ge ent en t of of a mod m oder ern n system system r sa oa l indicators indicators w h regularly reveal o al al conc concer erne ned d w happ happen enin ing g to to maj maj r vari variable ables an relationship relationships s within the syst system em d o cruci crucial al relationship relationships s betw betwee ee the the system an environment. 58
look into tlic future
not not enough enough , r example, example, e t l nu r of stud studen ents ts enro enroll lled ed t each each m r level level o importan important t o w w are are dis distrib ted geog geograph raphica ically lly d by grad grade e l s and and p areas; areas; t cha chang nges es are are taking taking pla place ce n the the p e of soci socioo-ec econ onom omic ic back backgr grou ound nd d of acad academ emic ic q s of the the student student togeth together er with key key information information abou about t r s of pr mo ion ion d n different parts parts f the syst syst m. Similarly s not en h to w t e gen gener eral al tren trend d a d b ak of gross gross expenditures as reveal revealed ed by the the nationa national l education budg budget et s w a o what happening unit unit cost costs s thro throug ugho hout ut the the system the patt patter ern n of revenues by sources, the relationship of educational expenditures to to l public public expenditures expenditures a d the GNP. f teache teacher r supplies, osts d utilization are to b more intelligently asse assess ssed ed d plan planne ned, d, there there m t e indica indicator tors s that that reve reveal al trends trends i the distribu distribution tion of of the teachi teaching ng f y , qualificatio ifications, ns, salary salary s a d years f servic service, s in clas size n various various parts parts f the syste system, m, d in teachi teaching ng hours. hours. e output a d s of the the system system m t be monito monitored red not only only by by indi indica cato to s sh wi g tren trends ds in the the annua annual ln r of graduate graduate of d t types, types,but y indi indica cato tors rs whic which h reve reveal al t has previous gradu graduate ates s (and non-graduates non-graduates)-whic )-whic the ultimate acid test of the educational educational system’scontribution. contribution. t onstitutes the d irable m m of indi indica cato tors rs of t s so w i l l depend on what necessary necessary a d feasib asible n h situation;the e soph sophis isti tica cate ted d the the educati educational onal sys syste tem, m, th more extensive t informat information ion system system can can be. t even even the the simp simple lest st d l deve develo lope ped d educational system-or system-or indivi individua dual l school school universityw i l l find it y wort worth h wh e to to wm h e about about i f than it has ev r k n be . w t educ educat atio ion n has e el c e terp ise i most coun countr trie ies s d a majo major r infl influe uenc nc whole e y and can can hardly hardly d o be d the ty e f a modest family family business t operat operate ew wit it eyes wide open.
Inten Intensi sifie fied d rese resear arch ch and development h educational ns tu onshave have been been r c s for great great technological technologicalbrea breakt kthr hrou ough ghs s in uch uch other f s as medic medicin ine, e, industr industry y nd agri agricu cult ltur ure, e,they have have devoted little f thei 59
What
educatio educ ational nal pla planni nning? ng?
s n the the past past to achieving achieving c e brea breakt kthr hrou ough ghs si techit niques niques of educati education on i . Traditiona Traditional l educationa educational l research, research, has has occasionally occasionally yield yielded ed usefu useful l results,has has bee been n too too und under erno nour uris ishe he d fra fragm gmen ente ted d a d often often too unrelated unrelated to to the y l pro probl blem em facing educational sy syste stems ms to have have d a very very subs substa tant ntia ial l over over-a -all ll impact. or ov r, st rese resear arch ch of s type type has been too narrowly an exclusively pedago pedagogi gica cal l focus focus to e the inter interdisc disciplina linary prob proble lems ms th t plague educational systems systems today. The only only w y t change change and and innova innovatio tion n can b e a continu continuous ous life for s and a norma normal lw y for educational systems systems by mobiliz g e of each each system’s system’s n cr e brainpow brainpower er for for e purpose, purpose, invo involv lvin ing g a wide wide y of d ,inve invest stin ing gm h e y educational educational rese resear arch ch d dev devel elop opme ment nt, , d esta esta li hi necessary institutio al ar ng en s o underg undergird ird the process process. . Lack Lack g , lacking a pervasive pervasive sp t of s c inqu inquir iry, y, duca ducati tion onal al sys syste tems ms will cont contin inue ue to p e w things on on d e geologica geological l layers, layers, d o h ginnovatio innovations ns forced n m outside. well acquainted with educational y peop people le, , g planning, w fron ie s t sketched m y appea appear r a first sight to beyo beyond nd e prope proper r boundaries educati educational onal planning. planning. d they they w i l l be quit quite e right, right,of cour course, se, e accept these ese boundari boundaries es as they they have have been been concei conceived ved of n the the p . Bu this t the the point; he s m t be wi ened ened. . o se ve e pres presen ent t urgent need for for ed ca tion tional al syst system ems s o ea d w thems themselv elves es n v y every every respect, pect,the the previous conce concepti ption on educati educational onal planning must must be bro broad ad inte tern rnal al chan change ge in these ened still further further o include the plan planni ning ng of in these systems. w i l l inev extend educational planning planning in t s inevit itab ably merging it e y with with e pr cess cesses es of m , peda peda gogy gogy, , and and h and and development. This will e la ni less distin distingui guisha shable ble m other functions, functions, es a t ing ing apart, apart, d consider ably e interdisciplin iplinary ary n character. Instea Instead d of being rega regard rded ed ld tech techni nica cal l planning planning expe expert rts s occu occupy pyin ing ga back back m near the the Minist Minister’ er’s so ,educational plannin will become the stan standa dard rd business of y every oper operat ator or n the the st , ncluding, ing, ot east of of ,the teachers.
can can end end s booklet booklet ith ith a pr . n e ask asks, s, e r two from , educati educational onal planning?’ e answ answer er 60
look into th future
very yd he gets will e ver
, nd a g d de l long longer er d e co than than the tran transi sito tory ry r given given thes these e pages. pages. But But e thing thing will e same same The n answering t e ques questi tion on will begin, begin, as the presen auth author or did, y observing that that educatio educational nal plannin plannin too too c complex omplex and diversified a thing, thing, changi ging ng too rapidly, rapidly, fi any simple still chan fi ti n or to be be enca encase sed d in a y sing sing e general general theory. d he will no t end by sayi saying ng tha that, t, whil while e educ educat atio iona nal l planning can can valuable use c me sa dm thinking, none the e educ educat atio ion n itself-more of n t n a science
IIEP book
list
e followi following ng book books, s, ubli ublish shed ed by Unes Unesco co/l /lIE IEP, P, re obtainab obtainable le m the I from Unesco and national dist distri ribu buto tors rs thro throug ugho hout ut the world: world: Educ Educat atio iona nal l deuelopinent deuelopinent n Africu (1969. h r e e volu volume mes, s, containing eleven eleven African African
rese resear arch ch mono monogr grap aphs hs Educational Educational planning: planning: a biblio bibliogra graphy phy (1 964) Educa Educatio tional nal planning planning: : a directory directory of trai training a d research institutions Educati Educationa onal l planning planning
USSR
(1968)
Funda Fundame menta ntals ls f educationa educational l lanning lanning (full list Manp Ma npow ower er
(1 968)
front
s volu volu e)
educational lanning (1968)
Method Methodolo ologi gies es of education educational al lanning for for developing countries countries hesswas (1968) Mono Monogr grap aphi hirs rs fric in
e ti
, in F
h onl only: y: list available
request)
w educatio educational nal medi media a n action: action: case stu studi diesfor planners (1967. hree hree volumes o o educati educationa onal l plan planne ners rs W. chramm, The new media: . Coombs F. ahnert, Lyle (1967. report including including anal analyt ytic ical al conclusion conclusions s based the ab e three volu volume mes s of case stu studi s) Prob Proble lems ms a d st at gies f educational lanning: les ons Qnalitatiue a aspects spects of educat education ional alplanning Research Research for educational educational lanning: lanning: note by William Platt (1970)
m Latin A er
(1 965)
969)
emergent need need on emergent
e following book books, s, rodu rodu ed in but not publis published hed by the Ins Institute, re obtainable throug through h norm normal al booksel booksellin ling g channels: channels: y HBctor Corre Co., cranton, Pa., 1969 Published by Intern Internati ationa onal l world d educat education ional al risi : a analysis y p H. The worl York, on do n and Published Published by Oxfo Oxford rd Univer Universit sity y Press, Press, and Toronto, Toronto, 1968 Quantitat Quantitatiue iue meth method od
educational educational lannin
Intern Inte rnat atio iona nal l Ins Insti titu tute te r Educatio Educational nal Planning Planning
e International Inst Instit itute ute for for Educat Education ional al Plan Plannin nin (IIEP) s esta establi blishe shed d by Unesco Unes co 1963 serve serve as as an a n internati international onalcentre centre for for ad ced ce d trai traini ning ng a d researc in the f d of educa educatio tional nal planning. planning. It basic financing provided by Unesco and e Ford Fo rd Foundation and physical physical s by the G t of of Franc France. e. t als also o rec recei eive ves s supplemental supplemental support support f m priv privat ate e a d gove govern rnme ment ntal al sources. eI s expa expand nd knowl kno wled edge ge and an d the supply supply of competent competent e ts in educat education ional al plan planni ning ng in orde order r to a t al a l nation nations s to accelerate accelerate their educ educat atio iona na development. th s e r the Insti Institu tute te co-o co-ope pera rate ted dwith inter interest ested ed traini training ng d resear research ch organi organizati zations ons thro throug ugho hout ut the the world. world. e governing boar bo ard d of the the Chairman Menzbers
follows:
Sydney Sydn ey Caine (Unit (United ed Kingdom), Ki ngdom), former Dir Dircc ccto tor, r, Scho School ol of Ec s and an d l Scien Science ce Hell He llmu mut t Becker (Fe (Fede dera ral l Republic Republic of Germany), Germany), Pres Presid iden ent, t, Federation Federation of Adult Education Education Centres Centres Alain 6( , Technical Technical Adviser, Minis Ministr try y of Educat Education ion Robe Robert rto oC s( , form former er Minis Minister ter Econom Eco nomic ic Plann Plannin ing g and Development Richard H. h (United S tes tes of America), America), Director, Director, Deve De velo lopm pmen ent t vi s Departm Depa rtmen ent, t, er io l B k Reco Reconst nstru ruct ctio ion n and an d Dev Devel elopm opmen en (IBRD) Abde Abdell-Az Aziz iz l-Ko l- Kous ussy sy (United (United b Re , Dirc Dircct ctor or, , Regional Regional Centre for for Educational Educational Planning a d Administration n the the b Coun Countr trie ie Joseph K rbo rb o Uppe Up per r , Pres Presid iden ent, t,National National Co is of the the Republi Republic c of Up r Volt Volta a for for Une U nesc sc D. Kothari Kothari , Ch ma , nive nivers rsit ity y Gran Grants ts mi on rasa rasad d , Director, Director, Asia Asian n Inst Instit itute ute for for E P. Develop Dev elopment ment and an d Plan Planni ning ng Phili Philippe ppe de Seynes ( an ), Under Under-Se -Secre cretar tary-G y-Gene eneral ral r E d Socia Socia Apdirs, United Nations .S y (Uni (U nion on of of Sov Sovie iet tS t Re bl s), s), Methodologica Methodological l Adminis Administra tration tion Depa Depart rtme ment nt, , Mini Minist stry ry of Highe Highe d Speci Special aliz ized ed Second Secondary ary Educ Educati ation on (RSFSR) Fergus B. Wils Wilson on (United (United Kingdom Kingdom), ), Chief, Agri Agricu cult ltur ural al Education Education Bran Branch ch, , Rural Rural st ut ons ons d Serv Servic ices es Division Division, , d Agricul Agriculture ture Organization of the the United United Nati Nation on
Inqui Inquirie ries sa t the Inst Instit itut ute e d requests for for copies of should should be be adressed to: to: e Dire Direct ctor or IIEP, e EugeneEuge ne-Dela Delacrok crok Paris-16"
atest progres progress s report report
