Essential Guide—High School Sampler

Contents Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics Grammar Chapter 1 The Parts of Speech

.......................................... Nouns .............................................................................................................. Pronouns ........................................................................................................ Verbs ............................................................................................................... Adjectives ...................................................................................................... Adverbs .......................................................................................................... Prepositions and Conjunctions ................................................................. Interjections .................................................................................................. Parts of Speech Review ..............................................................................

2 4 6 11 16 21 23 27 28

Chapter 2 The Sentence Base .............................................

30 32 33 40 42 47

A Sentence .................................................................................................... Subjects and Predicates ............................................................................. Sentence Fragments .................................................................................... Complements ................................................................................................. Sentence Patterns ........................................................................................

Chapter 3 Phrases .......................................................................... Prepositional Phrases ................................................................................. Appositives and Appositive Phrases ........................................................ Verbals and Verbal Phrases ....................................................................... Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers .......................................................... Phrase Fragments .........................................................................................

48 50 53 55 63 64

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Chapter 4

Clauses ......................................................................... Independent and Subordinate Clauses .................................................... The Uses of Subordinate Clauses ............................................................. Sentence Structure ...................................................................................... Clause Fragments and Run-on Sentences ...............................................

66 68 70 78 81

Usage Chapter 5 Using Verbs

............................................................... 84 Regular and Irregular Verbs ....................................................................... 86 Six Problem Verbs ........................................................................................ 93 Verb Tense ..................................................................................................... 96 Progressive and Emphatic Verb Forms .................................................... 101 Voice ............................................................................................................... 104 Mood ............................................................................................................... 106

Chapter 6

Using Pronouns

................................................. The Cases of Personal Pronouns .............................................................. Pronoun Problems ........................................................................................ Pronouns and Their Antecedents ..............................................................

108 110 117 122

Chapter 7 Subject / Verb Agreement ...........................

128 Agreement of Subjects and Verbs ............................................................. 130 Common Agreement Problems .................................................................. 134 Other Agreement Problems ........................................................................ 139

Chapter 8 Using Adjectives and Adverbs ...............

144 Degrees of Comparison ............................................................................... 146 Problems with Comparisons and Modifiers ............................................ 150

A Writer’s Glossary of Usage .............................................................. ..................................................................... 156

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Mechanics ......... Chapter 9 Capitalization ........................................................

176 176 Capitalizing First Words and the Pronoun I ............................................. ..... 1178 7 78 Capitalizing Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives ................................ 180

Capitalizing Titles ........................................................................................ 185

Chapter 10 End Marks and Commas

.......................... End Marks in Sentences ............................................................................. Periods in Abbreviations and Outlines .................................................... Commas That Separate ............................................................................... Commas That Enclose .................................................................................

188 190 192 194 200

Chapter 11 Italics and Quotation Marks .................

204 Italics (Underlining) ..................................................................................... 206 Quotation Marks ........................................................................................... 209 Other Uses of Quotation Marks ................................................................. 214

Chapter 12 Other Punctuation .........................................

216 Apostrophes .................................................................................................. 218 Semicolons and Colons .............................................................................. 223 Hyphens, Dashes, and Parentheses ......................................................... 227

Writing and the Six Traits

Chapter 13 Introduction to the Process of Writing ............................................................. Using the Writing Process .......................................................................... Prewriting ...................................................................................................... Drafting ........................................................................................................... Revising .......................................................................................................... Editing ............................................................................................................. Publishing ......................................................................................................

232 234 236 249 252 255 259

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Chapter 14 The Th Six Traits of Good Writing ........... Ideas ............................................................................................................... Organization .................................................................................................. Voice ............................................................................................................... Word Choice .................................................................................................. Sentence Fluency ......................................................................................... Conventions ...................................................................................................

Chapter 15 Writing Strong Sentences

...................... Prewriting ...................................................................................................... Drafting ........................................................................................................... Revising .......................................................................................................... Editing and Publishing ................................................................................

262 264 267 270 272 274 277 278 280 282 285 289

Chapter 16 Writing Powerful Paragraphs ............

292 Paragraph Structure .................................................................................... 294 Writing Informative Paragraphs ................................................................ 298

Writing Other Types of Paragraphs ........................................................... 307

Chapter 17 Descriptive Writing

....................................... Writing to Describe ...................................................................................... Prewriting ...................................................................................................... Drafting ........................................................................................................... Revising .......................................................................................................... Editing and Publishing ................................................................................

316 318 319 325 327 329

Chapter 18 Personal Writing ..............................................

330 332 333 338 3341 41 343 343

The Personal Narrative ............................................................................... Prewriting ...................................................................................................... Drafting ........................................................................................................... Revising .......................................................................................................... Editing and Publishing ................................................................................

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Chapter 19 Expository Writing

........................................ The Power of Expository Writing .............................................................. Prewriting ...................................................................................................... Drafting ........................................................................................................... Revising .......................................................................................................... Editing and Publishing ................................................................................

344 346 347 356 361 363

Chapter 20 Persuasive Writing ........................................

364 366 367 375 377

Writing to Persuade ..................................................................................... Prewriting ...................................................................................................... Drafting ........................................................................................................... Revising ..........................................................................................................

Editing and Publishing ................................................................................ 379

Chapter 21 Writing About Literature

........................ The Literary Analysis ................................................................................... Prewriting ...................................................................................................... Drafting ........................................................................................................... Revising ..........................................................................................................

380 382 383 399 402


Chapter 22 Creative Writing ............................................... Writing Creatively ........................................................................................ Writing a Story .............................................................................................. Writing a Play ............................................................................................... Writing a Poem ............................................................................................. Revising ..........................................................................................................

404 406 407 418 421 426


Chapter 23 Writing the Research Paper ................. The Research Paper .................................................................................... Prewriting ...................................................................................................... P Organizing ...................................................................................................... O r anniz rg izin i g .............. in Using Sources ............................................................................................... U siingg S ourc ou rces rc es ....... Drafting Revising D raft ra fttin ingg an andd Re R v si vi s n .................................................................................. Publishing ................................................................................ EEditing diti di ting ng aand ndd P Pub u li ub lish sh hi

430 432 443 453 458 472 475 ix

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Communication

Chapter 24 Communication for College

............... The Application Process ............................................................................ Admission Letters and Applications ........................................................ Interviewing ..................................................................................................

476 478 479 484

Chapter 25 Communication for the World of Work ...................................................................................

486 The Business Letter ..................................................................................... 488 Seeking Employment: Letters and Résumés ........................................... 491 Written Communication at Work ............................................................... 496

Chapter 26 Communication in the Digital Age ..................................................................................

504 Communicating on the Internet ................................................................. 505 Information Sources on the Internet ......................................................... 509

Chapter 27 Speeches and Presentations

............... Preparing and Delivering a Speech or Presentation ............................ Developing Your Critical Listening Skills ............................................... Participating in Group Discussions ..........................................................

512 513 518 520

Skill Building

Chapter 28 Vocabulary Power ...........................................

522 The Varieties of English .............................................................................. 523

Determining Word Meanings ..................................................................... 527

Chapter 29 Critical Thinking ..............................................

532 Thinking Skills .............................................................................................. 534 Logical Fallacies .......................................................................................... 543 Propaganda ................................................................................................... 549

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Chapter 30 Spelling ......................................................................

552 Spelling Patterns .......................................................................................... 554 Plurals ............................................................................................................ 556 Spelling Numbers ........................................................................................ 560

Chapter 31 Study Skills and Test-Taking ................. Learning Study Skills .................................................................................. Taking Standardized Tests .......................................................................... Tests of Standard Written English ............................................................. Taking Essay Tests .......................................................................................

562 563 568 573 576

Literature

A Guide to Literature Milestones in Literary History ................................................................... Literary Masters ........................................................................................... A Guide to Literary Genres ......................................................................... A Glossary of Literary Terms ...................................................................... The 100 Most Recommended Works ........................................................ The 10 Most Recommended Authors ........................................................ A Guide to Literary Analysis ......................................................................

582 590 608 616 623 634 636

Glossary of Grammar, Composition, and Thinking Skills .........................................................................

642

Index

............................................................................................................... 648

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APTER CH

Subject and Verb Agreement Singular subjects take singular verbs. Plural subjects take plural verbs. Subjects and verbs must agree in number.

QuickGuide Agreement of Subjects and Verbs page 130

A verb must agree in number with its subject. • A singular subject takes a singular verb. • A plural subject takes a plural verb. • The first helping verb must agree in number with the subject. • The agreement of a verb with its subject is not changed by any interrupting words. • When a relative pronoun is the subject of a subordinate clause, the antecedent determines the number of the verb.

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Common Agreement Problems page 134

Watch for these agreement issues as you write. • When compound subjects are joined by or, nor, either/or, or neither/nor, the verb agrees with the closer subject. • When compound subjects are joined by and or both/and, the verb is plural. • When compound subjects joined by and refer to only one person or thing, the verb is singular. • When the words every or each come before a compound subject that is joined by and, the verb is singular. • A verb must agree in number with an indefinite pronoun used as a subject. • The subject and the verb of an inverted sentence must agree in number.

Other Agreement Problems

Watch for these less common agreement issues.

page 139

• Use a plural verb with a collective noun subject that is thought of as a group of separate individuals.

• Use a singular verb with a collective noun subject that is thought of as a unit.

• A subject that expresses an amount, measurement, weight, or time is usually singular and takes a singular verb. • Use a singular verb when an amount tells how much. Use a plural verb when an amount tells how many. • Use a singular verb with the number of and a plural verb with a number of. • Use a singular verb with subjects that are plural in form but singular in meaning. • The verb part of a contraction must agree in number with the subject. • A verb agrees with the subject of a sentence, not with the predicate nominative. • A title is singular and takes a singular verb.

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Agreement of Subjects and Verbs

Agreement Issues Number Interrupting Words Relative Pronouns as Subjects

A verb must agree with its subject in number.

When certain keys on a piano are played together, they create a pleasant, harmonious sound. Other keys played together cause people to wrinkle their foreheads and hold their ears. In this way language is similar to music. Some subjects and verbs go together. Others do not. When a subject and a verb fit together, they are in agreement. This chapter will show you how to make subjects and verbs agree. Keep in mind this one basic rule as you go through the chapter.

Number Number indicates whether a noun or pronoun is singular or plural. This term also applies to verbs. Singular indicates one; plural indicates more than one. Most nouns form their plurals by adding –s or –es to the singular form, but a few nouns form their plurals irregularly. Pronouns form their plurals by changing forms, except for you, which has the same form for both singular and plural. Nouns Singular

cow, church, goose

Plural

cows, churches, geese

Pronouns Singular

I, you, he, she, it

Plural

we, you, they

Present tense verbs also have singular and plural forms. The third person singular form ends in –s or –es. Most verb forms that do not end in –s or –es are plural.


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Verbs Third Person Singular

(He, She, It) eats.

Others

(I, You, We, They) eat.

The verbs be, have, and do have irregular singular and plural forms for the present tense. Be also has irregular forms for the past tense. Present Tense Singular

Plural

I am, have, do

we are, have, do

you are, have, do

you are, have, do

he, she, it is, has, does

they are, have, do

Past Tense Singular

Plural

I was

we were

you were

you were

he, she, it was

they were

Because a subject and verb both have number, they must agree. A singular subject takes a singular verb. A plural subject takes a plural verb. Singular

Plural

The nightingale sings.

The nightingales sing.

The appetizer was good.

The appetizers were good.

The goose flies.

The geese fly.

He is outside.

They are outside.

She has a new teacher.

They have a new teacher.

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EXAMPLES

When be, have, and do are used as helping verbs, they must agree in number with the subject. The first helping verb must agree in number with the subject. The subjects in the following examples are underlined once; the verbs are underlined twice. Kim is acting.

Kim and Andrew are acting.

She does act.

They do like to rehearse.

Interrupting Words The agreement of a verb with its subject is not changed by any interrupting words. A verb always agrees with its subject—whether the verb comes right next to the subject or is separated from it by other words. If a phrase or a clause separates a subject and verb, a mistake in agreement sometimes occurs. The verb may be mistakenly made to agree with the object of a prepositional phrase or some other word that is closer to the verb. The subjects in the following examples are underlined once; the verbs are underlined twice. Notice that they agree in number—despite the words that

EXAMPLES

separate them. Prepositional Phrase

The winds at the summit were howling.

Participial Phrase

The backpack filled with ropes was put on the table.

Negative Statements

David, not one of his brothers, is going to climb.

Adjective Clauses

Hikers who are climbing the mountain prepare for every emergency.

(The plural verb were agrees with the plural subject winds, even though summit is closer to the verb.)

(Was agrees with the subject backpack—not with ropes.)

(Is agrees with the subject David—not with brothers.)

(Prepare agrees with the subject hikers—not with mountain.)


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EXAMPLES

Compound prepositions, such as in addition to, as well as, along with, and together with, often begin interrupting phrases. Make sure the verb always agrees with the subject, not with the object of the compound preposition. Shauna, in addition to her two cousins, is coming with us. (Is agrees with the subject Shauna—not with cousins, the object of the compound preposition in addition to.)

Relative Pronouns as Subjects

EXAMPLES

When a relative pronoun is the subject of a subordinate clause, the antecedent determines the number of the verb. Dr. Francis is the only surgeon in the country who knows how to perform this operation. (Who refers to only surgeon, which is singular, so the verb knows is singular.) Dr. Klein is one of a dozen doctors who make this hospital famous. (Who refers to a dozen doctors, which is plural, so the verb make is plural.)

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Common Agreement Problems

Common Problems Compound Subjects Indefinite Pronouns Subjects in Inverted Order

Watch for these common agreement issues.

In addition to interrupted subjects and verbs and relative pronouns, there are other agreement problems you should watch for.

Compound Subjects There are two rules to remember when a verb must agree with a compound subject. When subjects are joined by or, nor, either/or, or neither/nor, the verb agrees with the closer subject.

This rule applies to any combination of compound subjects: two or more singular subjects, two or more plural subjects, or one singular and one plural subject. The verb always agrees with the subject closer to it. Susanna or Dell is going to teach the computer class. (Is agrees with Dell, the subject closer to the verb.)

EXAMPLES

Either the roads or the sidewalks have been slated for repaving. (Have agrees with sidewalks, the subject closer to the verb.) Neither Art nor his brothers have ever owned a car. (Have agrees with brothers, the subject closer to the verb—even though Art is singular.) Neither the Lings nor their son plans to purchase an MP3 player. (In this case, plans agrees with the singular subject son because that subject is closer to the verb.)


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Different conjunctions are the basis of the second rule. When subjects are joined by and or both/and, the verb is plural.

The conjunctions and and both/and always suggest more than one. As a result, the verb is always plural—regardless of whether the individual subjects are singular, plural, or a combination of singular and plural.

EXAMPLES

Ted’s shovel and rake were missing from the shed. (Two things—the shovel and the rake—were missing. The verb must be plural to agree.) A rose and two irises were chosen best in the garden show. (Even though rose is singular, the verb is still plural because the rose and the two irises—together—were chosen best in the garden show.)

There are two exceptions to the second rule. On a few rare occasions, subjects joined by and refer to only one person or one thing. When this is the case, the verb must be singular.

EXAMPLES

The artist and gardener was given a standing ovation. (The artist and gardener is the same person.) Cheese and crackers is my favorite snack when I have friends over. (Cheese and crackers is considered one item.)

EXAMPLES

The other exception to the second rule involves the words every and each when they come before a compound subject that is joined by and. In this situation, each subject is considered separately. As a result, a singular verb is needed. Every man and woman is encouraged to register to vote. Each tree and bush was infested with insects.

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Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects In the previous chapter, you learned that some indefinite pronouns are singular, some are plural, and some can be either singular or plural. Remember this rule when using indefinite pronouns as subjects. A verb must agree in number with an indefinite pronoun used as a subject.

Common Indefinite Pronouns Singular

anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, neither, no one, one, somebody, someone

Plural

both, few, many, several

Singular or Plural

all, any, most, none, some

Singular

One of the students was asked to be a member of the

EXAMPLES

archaeology club. Plural

Few of my friends are going to the paleontology lecture tomorrow night.

Singular or Plural

Some of the water was spilled. Some of the pyramids were looted.


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Subjects in Inverted Order Most sentences are in natural order, with the subject coming before the verb. Some sentences, though, are in inverted order, with the subject following the verb or part of the verb phrase. Regardless of where a subject is located in a sentence, the verb must agree with it. The subject and the verb of an inverted sentence must agree in number.

There are several types of inverted sentences. To find the subject in an inverted sentence, turn the sentence around to its natural order. In the following examples, each subject is underlined once, and each verb is underlined twice. Inverted Order

Hidden for centuries in Cambodia’s tropical jungle was the mysterious city known as Angkor Thom. (The mysterious city was hidden in the jungle.)

Questions

Was the algebra equation solved before class ended?

EXAMPLES

(The equation was solved.) Are the chemicals stored safely in the cabinet? (The chemicals are stored safely in the cabinet.) Sentences Beginning with Here or There

Here is your world history textbook. (Your textbook is here.) There were too many people crowded into the gallery. (Occasionally you must drop here or there before putting the sentence into its natural order. Too many people were crowded into the gallery.)

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PUNCTUATION

Be careful when using contractions in a sentence that begins with there. Incorrect: There’s 400 apples in that box. When the sentence is put in natural order, “Four hundred apples is in that box,” the correct usage becomes clear. Correct: There are 400 apples in that box.


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Other Agreement Problems

Common Problems Collective Nouns Quantity and Time Words Singular Nouns with Plural Forms Contractions Subjects with Linking Verbs Titles

Watch for these agreement issues.

Although less common, a few other special situations may cause agreement problems. Look for these as you edit your written work.

Collective Nouns A collective noun, as you know, names a group of people or things. How a collective noun is used will determine its agreement with the verb. Common Collective Nouns audience

congregation

flock

league

band

crew

gang

orchestra

class

crowd

group

swarm

committee

faculty

herd

team

colony

family

jury

tribe

Use a singular verb with a collective noun subject that is thought of as a unit. Use a plural verb with a collective noun subject that is thought of as a group of separate individuals.

EXAMPLES

The class has been out for ten hours. (The class is acting together as a whole unit. Therefore, the verb is singular.) The class have not been able to come to an agreement. (Members of the class are acting as individuals—each with a separate opinion. Therefore, the verb is plural.)

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Quantity and Time Words Subjects that express quantities or times are usually considered singular, but they often have plural forms. A subject that expresses an amount, measurement, weight, or time is usually singular and takes a singular verb.

Agreement with Words for Quantity and Time Quantity

Twenty-six miles is the distance of a marathon race. (This is one unit of distance.) Fifteen million dollars was the price of the Louisiana Purchase. (This is one sum of money.) Three-fourths of the class is going on the museum trip. (This is one part of a group.) Fifty pounds is a heavy weight for many people to carry. (This is one unit of weight.)

Time

Five minutes was too long to wait for him. (This is one period of time.) Two weeks is considered a standard vacation. (This is one block of time.)


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Use a singular verb when an amount tells how much. Use a plural verb when an amount tells how many. Words Telling How Much or How Many How Much

Half of the meeting was devoted to questions. (How much of the meeting?) Fifty percent of the meeting was devoted to speeches.

How Many

Half of the students were not present. (How many students?) Twenty percent of the students were ill that day.

EXAMPLES

The Number of, A Number of These two expressions present different problems in agreement. Use a singular verb with the number of and a plural verb with a number of. The number of girls taking drafting class has doubled this year. A number of girls are taking drafting class this year.

Singular Nouns with Plural Forms Words like molasses, measles, economics, and physics look plural because they end in –s. They name single things, however, such as one type of food, one disease, or one area of knowledge. Use a singular verb with subjects that are plural in form but singular in meaning.

EXAMPLES

Mumps is a dangerous disease for adults to contract. Physics is his major in college. Molasses moves very slowly when it is poured. The country’s economics has never been completely understood.

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Contractions When you write a contraction, always say the two words that make up the contraction. Then check for agreement with the subject. The verb part of the contraction must agree in number with the subject. Singular

doesn’t, isn’t, wasn’t, hasn’t

Plural

don’t, aren’t, weren’t, haven’t

Singular

The concert doesn’t start until seven o’clock.

EXAMPLES

The train wasn’t going to arrive on time. Isn’t he a brilliant director? Plural

They haven’t seen the movie yet. The planes weren’t able to take off in the stormy weather. Don’t you like this composer?

Subjects with Linking Verbs A verb always agrees with its subject—regardless of any other word in the sentence. A verb agrees with the subject of a sentence, not with the predicate nominative.

EXAMPLES

Historical novels are a good way to learn history. (The plural verb are agrees with the plural subject novels—even though the predicate nominative way is singular.) The major reading problem is motivation and time. (Is agrees with the subject problem—not with the compound predicate nominative, motivation and time.)



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Titles Although a title may contain plural words, it is considered singular because it is the name of one book or one organization. Most multiword names of businesses and organizations are also considered singular.

EXAMPLES

A title is singular and takes a singular verb. Seven Gothic Tales was written by Isak Dinesen. The Home Owners Association is holding a mortgage seminar. The Girl Scouts was founded in Savannah, Georgia, by Juliette Gordon Low.

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APTER CH

Personal Writing In personal writing you are free to reflect upon events, people, and objects that hold particular meaning to you.

QuickGuide The Personal Narrative page 332

Personal writing can lead to a deeper understanding of events and greater knowledge of yourself. You are free to use your own personal voice and an informal structure in personal writing. Note: In the table below, the Six Traits of Good Writing are indicated in blue.

Prewriting page 333

A piece of personal writing begins and ends with the writer’s own experience. • Find a subject by sifting through your memories and choosing a meaningful one. Ideas • Use the Interpretation Checklist to go deep into the meaning that a particular subject has for you. Ideas / Voice • Determine your audience. Ideas / Voice / Word Choice • Choose the most suitable form: narration, description, character sketch, or perhaps a combination of all three. Ideas / Organization / Fluency

• List the details that will best develop your main idea and share the meaning of the experience. Ideas / Organization / Voice / Fluency

• Choose the appropriate organizational model. Organization

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Drafting

Find the voice and the tone that is right for your subject.

page 338

• Introduce your subject in a way that catches the reader’s interest and establishes your voice and tone. Ideas / Voice • Build the body of your piece from the details you have chosen so that you make the point you wish to share. Loop back to prewriting if necessary. Organization • Add a conclusion that leaves your reader with the idea or feeling you wish to convey. Organization / Voice / Word Choice • Choose a title that is true to your voice. Voice / Word Choice

Revising page 341

Find the right balance between vivid details and the overall impression you wish to make. • Revise your personal writing for adequate development and appropriate organization. Ideas / Organization • Revise your writing with an eye to make sure ideas flow smoothly from one to the other. Ideas / Organization / Word Choice / Fluency

• Use the Six Traits of Writing Checklist. Ideas / Organization / Voice / Word Choice / Sentence Fluency

Editing and Publishing page 343

Prepare your personal writing for an audience or reader. • Use the Editing for Conventions Checklist to polish your grammar, spelling, usage, and mechanics. Conventions • Refer to Ways to Publish Your Work for ideas on how to share your personal writing. Voice / Conventions

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The Personal Narrative Personal writing is a part of your day-to-day life. Friends and family may write letters or e-mails recounting to you what has happened to them. You may keep a journal or read biographies about others’ personal experiences. Writing a personal narrative about an event that had an impact on you or about a person you admire can be a very meaningful experience. Carefully choosing just the right details and words may lead to a deeper understanding of the event or person—and of yourself.

Personal Voice With personal writing, you are free to write from the first-person point of view, using the pronoun I. To express your own voice through your work, write in a natural, personal voice and adopt a less formal organizational structure than you do for academic or professional writing.

Examples of Personal Writing The following examples show that personal writing plays a regular part in our everyday lives. • You write to friends how you broke your leg on a skiing trip. • You describe your room to a pen pal. • A newcomer to your school writes an essay on how war and political unrest forced her to leave her homeland. • You write an e-mail message to your cousin in another state recounting an amusing anecdote you overheard. • You read in your baby book how at age three you gave yourself a haircut and ended up half bald. • You keep a journal during your first week as an intern at the local newspaper.



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Prewriting Personal writing begins and ends with the writer’s own experience.

Topics Finding a Subject Considering Your Audience Determining the Form Selecting and Developing Details Choosing an Organizational Model

The starting point of a piece of personal writing is your own experience. In the following excerpt from a personal narrative, writer Annie Dillard shares a childhood experience that had personal significance for her. Professional Model: Personal Narrative When I was six or seven years old, growing up in Pittsburgh, I used to take a precious penny of my own and hide it for someone else to find. It was a curious compulsion; sadly, I’ve never been seized by it since. For some reason I always “hid” the penny along the same stretch of sidewalk up the street. I would cradle it at the roots of a sycamore, say, or in a hole left by a chipped-off piece of sidewalk. Then I would take a piece of chalk, and, starting at the other end of the block, draw huge arrows leading up to the penny from both directions. After I learned to write I labeled the arrows: SURPRISE AHEAD or MONEY THIS WAY. I was greatly excited, during all this arrow-drawing, at the thought of the first lucky passerby who would receive in this way, regardless of merit, a free gift from the universe. But I never lurked about. I would go straight home and not give the matter another thought, until, some months later, I would be gripped again by the impulse to hide another penny. —Annie Dillard, Pilgrim at Tinker Creek

Finding a Subject To think of a subject for a piece of personal writing, look through your journal entries or recall experiences, people, places, and objects that have personal significance for you. For instance, you might recall a teacher who had a strong influence on you. You might visualize a special place or a simple object, such as a pair of sneakers, as the starting point for personal writing. The following chart will help you find appropriate subjects.

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Sources of Subjects for Personal Writing clothing or jewelry

newspapers and magazines

diaries

old toys or games

family stories

photograph albums

favorite places

school yearbooks

items in your desk

scrapbooks

letters from friends

souvenirs from vacations

To be meaningful, personal writing should include thoughtful interpretations of events. A checklist like the one below can provide useful avenues for thinking more deeply about possible topics for your personal writing. Interpretation Checklist ✓ Meaningful Subject (Choose one of the above or a subject of your own.) ✓ I will always remember this event / person / object because— (Jot down words that describe what this subject means to you. Use sensory details and vivid adjectives.) ✓ This event / person / object is worth writing about because— (Explain why you feel this subject is an important and interesting one to write about.) ✓ This event / person / object is important to me now because— (Write how this subject makes you feel, and why. Use strong language. Dig deep to find your own personal responses to this subject.)

Considering Your Audience Personal writing requires a unique consideration of audience and voice. In addition to determining your level of formality, you must determine what to do to draw your reader’s attention to your subject. You may need to provide precise, vivid details or surprising facts in order to help your audience imagine unfamiliar circumstances or understand the significance of events.



7/11/06 5:16:11 PM

Determining the Form One of the most common forms of personal writing is the personal narrative, in which the writer brings to life a significant event. There are, however, other forms you can use, such as a description or a character sketch. The chart below describes some of forms of writing you can use for personal writing. Forms of Personal Writing Narrative

Use a personal narrative to tell a true story. Think of a short story in which all the characters are real instead of fictional.

Anecdote

Use an anecdote to tell a short humorous story.

Description

Use description to describe an object or a location.

Character Sketch

Use a character sketch to describe a person who is important to you.

Selecting and Developing Details After determining your audience and the form, select and develop details that will bring your subject to life. If you are writing about a person, include details about facial expressions, gestures, and tone of voice. If you are writing about a place, include sensory and spatial details. Kind of Detail

Function

factual details

provide background information

sensory details

bring life to the writing

Chapter 18



7/11/06 5:16:12 PM

In the following excerpt, the writer E. B. White describes his return to a favorite childhood haunt—a camp at a lake in Maine. Notice how he has selected details that develop the main idea—that the week at the camp was memorable. Professional Model: Sensory Details in a Personal Narrative We had a good week at the camp. The bass were biting well and the sun shone endlessly, day after day. We would be tired at night and lie down in the accumulated heat of the little bedrooms after the long hot day and the breeze would stir almost imperceptibly outside and the smell of the swamp drift in through rusty screens. —E. B. White, “Once More to the Lake”

Now look at how another writer, Eudora Welty, introduces her selection “Listening“ with details that you can almost hear. The details develop the main idea, which is that listening was important in her family when she was young. Professional Model: Auditory Details in a Personal Narrative When I was young enough to still spend a long time buttoning my shoes in the morning, I’d listen toward the hall: Daddy upstairs was shaving in the bathroom and Mother downstairs was frying the bacon. They would begin whistling back and forth to each other up and down the stairwell. My father would whistle his phrase, my mother would try to whistle, then hum hers back. It was their duet. —Eudora Welty, One Writer’s Beginnings Be aware of Welty’s strong voice in the excerpt above. The love she feels for her parents is almost tangible in this description.



7/11/06 5:16:13 PM

Choosing an Organizational Model Most pieces of personal writing use developmental order. That is, ideas will be arranged in a progression so that one idea grows out of the previous idea and leads to the next idea. Within this overall pattern of organization, however, you will usually use individual paragraphs that have narrative, descriptive, or informative elements. Within each paragraph, you should use an appropriate method for organizing your details, as the following chart shows. Types of Order Kind of Writing

Kind of Details

Type of Order

Narrative

events in a story

chronological

Descriptive

top-bottom / bottom-top right-left / left-right

spatial order

Informative

background details

importance

Chapter 18



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Drafting Find the voice and the tone that is right for your subject.

Topics Drafting the Introduction Drafting the Body Drafting the Conclusion Choosing a Title

Even though personal writing is less formal than other types of writing, it should still include an interesting introduction, an effective body, and a memorable conclusion. Finding a title that creates interest in the reader is also important.

Drafting the Introduction Introduce your piece in a way that highlights the personal importance of the experience you are writing about. Include both information and emotional content in order to gain your readers’ interest and set the tone of the narrative. Functions of the Introduction in a Personal Narrative • It sets the tone of the narrative. • It captures the reader’s interest. • It presents the subject and purpose of the narrative. • It explains the main idea. • It reveals the writer’s point of view.

Set a Tone To choose an appropriate tone for your narrative, think about the effect that you want to have on your readers. Do you want them to identify with you—laugh, cry, or share your reactions? Do you want them to see you or your subject through someone else’s eyes? Once you have answered these questions, choose your words accordingly. Notice ways in which the writer’s voice determines the tone in each of the paragraphs on the next page.



7/11/06 5:16:15 PM

Student Model: Humorous Tone Who knew what lurked in those pale waters? All around me happy snorkelers surfaced, crowing with glee about the rainbow of fish that had nibbled at their fingertips. I looked at my own fingers with a sense of doom, absolutely certain that a razor-toothed barracuda was preparing to greet me when I went below. Grimly I locked my bloodless lips over the mouthpiece, ducked my head, breathed in water, and came up choking. Why in the world was I doing this?

Student Model: Angry Tone It was a raw, windy day, and I was furious. I hate swimming! Since I’m too skinny to look good in a bathing suit, I never go to the beach if I can help it. Here I was, though, all signed up for a free lesson in snorkeling—a sport I’d never wanted to try. Ow! Was that a sea urchin I just stepped on?

Student Model: Reflective Tone This little bay is my favorite spot in the world. When I go out very early in the morning before the crowds, it is like paradise. I never grow tired of the magic in that clear and silent world where I am surrounded by bright blue and yellow fish. In their world I cannot help feeling at peace.

Drafting the Body The body of your piece should develop the overall impression you are working toward through sensory details and your own personal style. Guidelines for Drafting the Body • Follow a logical order of ideas and details. • Make sure that each supporting paragraph adds to your overall impression. • Use transitions between sentences and paragraphs to give your piece fluency. • Choose words that bring your subject to life.

Chapter 18



7/11/06 5:16:16 PM

Looping Back to Prewriting As you draft your personal narrative, you may find you need to include more or richer details. To gather those details, it may be helpful to talk with family members or friends who are familiar with your subject or experienced it with you. Include these additional descriptive details in your draft.

Drafting the Conclusion The conclusion of a personal narrative should give readers a sense of completion and a lasting impression of the personal experience or insight that you have written about. Following are several appropriate ways to end a personal narrative. Ways to End a Personal Narrative • Summarize the body or restate the main idea in new words. • Add an insight that shows a new or deeper understanding of the experience. • Add a striking new detail or memorable image. • Refer to ideas in the introduction to bring your narrative full circle. • Appeal to your reader’s emotions.

The following paragraph concludes the narrative that was introduced in the third model paragraph on page 339. This conclusion both summarizes the experience of swimming in the morning and restates the main idea. Student Model: Conclusion After an early morning swim like this, I come out of the water and spread out on the sand to dry off. The sound of the waves soothes me, and I continue to picture the fish I have seen and the reef that I have explored. Days and even weeks later, I’m able to reflect back on that time and feel a moment of peace in the middle of a hectic day.

Choosing a Title When you have finished writing your draft, think creatively about the title. Not only should the title pique audience interest, it should reflect the voice and tone you have used in the piece.



7/11/06 5:16:16 PM

Revising Find the right balance between vivid details and the overall impression intended in your personal writing.

Topics Checking for Development Using the Six Traits of Writing Checklist

In a piece of personal writing, revising involves the important task of adding details for adequate development and checking for organization and fluency.

Checking for Adequate Development An effective piece of personal writing should touch the reader in some way. For instance, if you have narrated a personal experience, your writing should make the reader feel the way you did during that experience. The reader should be able to hear and see and touch everything as you did. Check your writing for vivid and interesting details. The following strategies will help you think of additional details as you revise. Strategies for Conjuring Details Events

Close your eyes and slowly visualize the experience that you are writing about. Write details as you “see” them in your mind’s eye.

Places

Visualize the place you are describing. Start at the left side and visualize slowly to the right. Then visualize the place from top to bottom or vice versa.

People

Visualize each person that you are writing about. Start by visualizing the head and face. How does the individual stand? What does his or her voice sound like to you? Write details as you “see” or “hear” them.

Feelings

Imagine yourself once again undergoing the experience that you are writing about. This time, focus on your feelings, thoughts, and impressions as you move through the experience.

Reflect on Events Make sure your writing is organized so that your reflections about events are clear. Copy the reflection chart that follows for use with all of your personal writing. In the left column, note the main topics as you have addressed them in your draft. In the right column, note your personal reflections on the topic. Revise your writing to incorporate any new ideas.

Chapter 18



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Reflection Chart Event

Reflection

The time that I . . .

makes me think of—

When I recall the object . . .

it makes me think of—

When I recall that person . . .

he / she makes me think of—

Using the Six Traits of Writing As you revise your personal writing, refer to the five elements in the checklist below. Think about these five elements not only as you revise your writing, but during the drafting stage also.

Six Traits of Writing Checklist Ideas ✓ Are your ideas clear and interesting? ✓ Do your ideas show a fresh perspective? ✓ Do your details capture the reader’s interest?

Organization ✓ Does your introduction pull in the reader and give solid clues as to what is coming? ✓ Does your writing have vivid and interesting details? ✓ Are your concluding statements memorable?

Voice ✓ Does this paper sound as though you wrote it? ✓ Does your writing make the audience care about your subject? ✓ Will your audience find your writing distinctive?

Word Choice ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Do your words create pictures for the reader? Do your words convey clear, precise thoughts? Have you used strong verbs and exact adjectives? Does your title entice the reader?

Sentence Fluency ✓ Are your sentences easy to read aloud? ✓ Are your sentences well constructed?



3/21/07 10:01:35 AM

Editing and Publishing Prepare your personal writing for an audience or reader.

After you have put it aside for a short time, reread your revised draft for the conventions of language—grammar, punctuation, spelling, and usage. Remember, it is still not too late to go back and reorganize your written paper.

Editing Refer to your Personalized Editing Checklist to make sure you are not repeating errors you have made in the past. The following checklist also will help you edit your work. Editing for Conventions Checklist ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Does your grammar conform to conventions? Do your transitions feel natural and unforced? Have you avoided run-on sentences and unintentional sentence fragments? Are all words spelled correctly?

Publishing You may decide to complete the writing process by sharing your writing with someone who was part of the experience you wrote about or with someone who may have an interest in it. Ways to Publish Your Work • • • •

Print your narrative for others to read. Read your narrative aloud. Perform your narrative in a staged reading. Submit your narrative to a newspaper or magazine.

Chapter 18



7/11/06 5:16:19 PM

A Guide to Literature Milestones in Literary History Year

Country

Author

Work

2000 B.C. to 1 A.D. c. 2000 B.C.

Babylonia

anonymous

The Epic of Gilgamesh

c. 1750 B.C.

Babylonia

Hammurabi

Code of Laws

c. 1240 B.C.

Egypt

anonymous

Book of the Dead

2000–800 B.C.

India

anonymous

Vedas

c. 725 B.C.

Greece

Homer

Iliad, Odyssey

c. 600 B.C.

India

anonymous

Upanishads

c. 560 B.C.

Greece

Aesop

Fables

458 B.C.

Greece

Aeschylus

Agamemnon

431 B.C.

Greece

Euripides

Medea

c. 430 B.C.

Greece

Sophocles

Oedipus the King

c. 430–424 B.C.

Greece

Herodotus

Histories

411 B.C.

Greece

Aristophanes

Lysistrata

c. 399–390 B.C.

Greece

Plato

Apology

c. 350 B.C.

China

Lao Tsu

Tao Te Ching

335 B.C.

Greece

Aristotle

Poetics

500–300 B.C.

India

anonymous

Mahabharata, Ramayana

23 B.C.

Italy

Horace

Odes

c. 19 B.C.

Italy

Virgil

Aeneid

582 Literature

Literature_RLS.indd 582

7/12/06 11:19:04 AM

Year

Country

Author

Work

1 A.D. to 1100 A.D. (Includes Old English Period 428–1100) 7

Italy

Ovid

Metamorphoses

c. 100

Italy

Plutarch

Lives

367

Egypt

St. Athanasius

New Testament codified

c. 613

Arabia

Mohammed

Koran

c. 725

England

anonymous

Beowulf

731

England

Bede

Ecclesiastical History of the English People

c. 1000

Persia

anonymous

The Thousand and One Nights

c. 1000

Japan

Lady Murasaki

The Tale of Genji

1300 to 1500 (Middle English Period in England) 1321

Italy

Dante Alighieri

The Divine Comedy

1353

Italy

Giovanni Boccacio

The Decameron

c. 1380–1400

England

anonymous

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

1400

England

Geoffrey Chaucer

The Canterbury Tales

1453

Germany

Johann Gutenberg

invented printing press with movable type, printed Gutenberg Bible

1470

England

Sir Thomas Malory

Morte D’arthur

1485 to 1660 (The Renaissance, includes Elizabethan Age) c. 1485

England

anonymous

Everyman

1513

Italy

Niccolo Machiavelli

The Prince

1516

England

Sir Thomas More

Utopia

1590

England

Edmund Spencer

The Faerie Queene

c. 1593

England

Christopher Marlowe

Doctor Faustus

c. 1602

England

William Shakespeare

Hamlet

1605, 1616

Spain

Miguel de Cervantes

Don Quixote

1606

England

Ben Jonson

Volpone

1611

England

anonymous

King James Bible (English translation)

c. 1614

England

John Webster

The Duchess of Malfi

1636

France

Pierre Corneille

El Cid

A Guide to Literature


| Milestones in Literary History 583

7/12/06 11:19:05 AM

Year

Country

Author

Work

1660 to 1800 (Neo-Classical Period) 1660–1669

England

Samuel Pepys

Diary

1666

France

Moliere

The Misanthrope

1667

England

John Milton

Paradise Lost

1668

France

Jean de La Fontaine

Fables

1675

England

John Bunyan

Pilgrim’s Progress

1677

England

John Dryden

All for Love

1677

France

Jean Racine

Phaedra

1700

England

William Congreve

The Way of the World

1712

England

Alexander Pope

The Rape of the Lock

1719

England

Daniel Defoe

Robinson Crusoe

1726

Ireland

Jonathan Swift

Gulliver’s Travels

1728

England

John Gay

The Beggars’ Opera

1732–1757

America

Benjamin Franklin

Poor Richard’s Almanack

1749

England

Henry Fielding

Tom Jones

1751–1780

France

Denis Diderot et al.

Encyclopedie

1755

England

Samuel Johnson

Dictionary of the English Language

1759

France

Voltaire

Candide

1762

France

Jean Jacques Rousseau

The Social Contract

1773

Ireland

Oliver Goldsmith

She Stoops to Conquer

1776

America

Thomas Paine

Common Sense

1776

America

Thomas Jefferson

The Declaration of Independence

1777

England

Richard Brinsley Sheridan

The School for Scandal

1783–1793

England

William Blake

Songs of Innocence and Experience

1786

Scotland

Robert Burns

Poems

1791

Scotland

James Boswell

The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.

1792

England

Mary Wollstonecraft

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman

584 Literature


7/12/06 11:19:06 AM

Year

Country

Author

Work

1798 to 1865 (Romantic Period) 1798

England

William Wordsworth & Samuel Coleridge

Lyrical Ballads

1808, 1831

Germany

Wolfgang von Goethe

Faust

1812–1815

Germany

Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm

Grimm’s Fairy Tales

1813

England

Jane Austen

Pride and Prejudice

1817

England

Mary Shelley

Frankenstein

1818

England

Percy Bysshe Shelley

Ozymandias

1819

Scotland

Sir Walter Scott

Ivanhoe

1819–1824

England

George Gordon, Lord Byron

Don Juan

1819–20

America

Washington Irving

The Sketch Book

1821

England

Thomas DeQuincey

Confessions of an English Opium Eater

1825–31

Russia

Alexander Pushkin

Eugene Onegin

1835

Denmark

Hans Christian Andersen

Fairy Tales

1836

Russia

Nickolai Gogol

The Inspector General

1840

America

Edgar Allan Poe

Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque

1841–44

America

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Essays

1847

England

Charlotte Brontë

Jane Eyre

1848

England

Emily Brontë

Wuthering Heights

1849–1850

England

Charles Dickens

David Copperfield

1850

England

Alfred, Lord Tennyson

In Memoriam

1850

America

Nathaniel Hawthorne

The Scarlet Letter

1851

America

Herman Melville

Moby Dick

1852

America

Harriet Beecher Stowe

Uncle Tom’s Cabin

1854

America

Henry David Thoreau

Walden

1855

England

Robert Browning

Men and Women

1855

America

Walt Whitman

Leaves of Grass

1855

America

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

The Song of Hiawatha

1857

France

Gustave Flaubert

Madame Bovary

1859

England

Edward Fitzgerald

The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam

1860

France

Victor Hugo

Les Miserables

1863

America

Abraham Lincoln

Gettysburg Address

1863

France

Jules Verne

Around the World in Eighty Days




7/12/06 11:19:07 AM

Year

Country

Author

Work

1865 to 1914 (Realistic Period) 1865

England

Lewis Carroll

Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

1866

America

John Greenleaf Whittier

Snow-Bound

1866

Russia

Fyodor Dostoyevsky

Crime and Punishment

1868

America

Louisa May Alcott

Little Women

1868

Russia

Leo Tolstoy

War and Peace

1870

America

Bret Harte

The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches

1871

England

George Eliot

Middlemarch

1879

Norway

Henrik Ibsen

A Doll’s House

1881

France

Guy de Maupassant

La Maison Tellier

1883

Scotland

Robert Louis Stevenson

Treasure Island

1884

America

Mark Twain

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

1887

England

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle

A Study in Scarlet

1890

America

Emily Dickinson

Poems (posthumous)

1894–95

England

Rudyard Kipling

The Jungle Books

1895

England

Oscar Wilde

The Importance of Being Earnest

1897

France

Edmond Rostand

Cyrano de Bergerac

1898

England

H. G. Wells

The War of the Worlds

1900

England

Joseph Conrad

Lord Jim

1900

Russia

Anton Chekhov

1901

Sweden

1902

Ireland

William Butler Yeats

Cathleen Ni Houlihan

1902

France

Andre Gide

The Immoralist

1903

America

Henry James

The Ambassadors

1903

America

Jack London

The Call of the Wild

1907

Ireland

John Millington Synge

The Playboy of the Western World

1912

Ireland

George Bernard Shaw

Pygmalion

1912

India

Rabindranath Tagore

Gitanjali (Song Offerings)

1912

France

Anatole France

The Gods Are Athirst

1913

England

D. H. Lawrence

Sons and Lovers

1913–1927

France

Marcel Proust

Remembrance of Things Past

The Cherry Orchard

Nobel Prize established

586 Literature


7/12/06 11:19:08 AM

Year

Country

Author

Work

1914 to 1965 (Modern Period) 1914

First World War (1914–1918)

1916

America

1917

America

Carl Sandburg

Chicago Poems

1918

America

Willa Cather

My Antonia

1919

America

Sherwood Anderson

Winesburg, Ohio

1920

America

Edith Wharton

The Age of Innocence

1921

Ireland

James Joyce

Ulysses

1921

Italy

Luigi Pirandello

Six Characters in Search of an Author

1922

England

T. S. Eliot

The Waste Land

1922

Scotland

Sir James Frazer

The Golden Bough

1922

England

John Galsworthy

The Forsythe Saga

1922

America

Sinclair Lewis

Babbit

1924

England

E. M. Forster

A Passage to India

1924

Chile

Pablo Neruda

Twenty Love Poems and One Ode of Desperation

1925

America

F. Scott Fitzgerald

The Great Gatsby

1925

America

Theodore Drieser

An American Tragedy

1925

Austria

Franz Kafka

The Trial

Pulitzer Prize established

1926

America

Ernest Hemingway

The Sun Also Rises

1927

England

Virginia Woolf

To the Lighthouse

1927

Germany

Hermann Hesse

Steppenwolf

1929

America

William Faulkner

The Sound and the Fury

1929

Germany

Erich Maria Remarque

All Quiet on the Western Front

1930–1936

America

John Dos Passos

U. S. A.

1931

America

Pearl Buck

The Good Earth

1932

England

Aldous Huxley

Brave New World

1934

France

Jean Cocteau

The Infernal Machine

1937

England

J.R.R. Tolkien

The Hobbit

1938

America

Thornton Wilder

Our Town




7/12/06 11:19:08 AM

Year

Country

Author Work Second World War (1939–1945)

1939

America

Lillian Hellman

The Little Foxes

1939

America

John Steinbeck

The Grapes of Wrath

1940

America

Richard Wright

Native Son

1942

France

Albert Camus

The Stranger

1943

France

Jean-Paul Sartre

Being and Nothingness

1944

America

Tennessee Williams

The Glass Menagerie

1945

England

George Orwell

Animal Farm

1945

France

Jean Giradoux

The Madwoman of Chaillot

1946

America

Robert Penn Warren

All the King’s Men

1947

Israel

anonymous

Dead Sea Scrolls discovered

1949

America

Arthur Miller

The Death of a Salesman

1950

Mexico

Otavio Paz

The Labyrinth of Solitude

1950

France

Eugene Ionesco

The Bald Soprano

1950–1956

Ireland

C. S. Lewis

The Chronicles of Narnia

1952

Ireland

Samuel Beckett

Waiting for Godot

1952

Wales

Dylan Thomas

“Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night”

1953

America

Saul Bellow

The Adventures of Augie March

1954

England

William Golding

The Lord of the Flies

1956

England

John Osborne

Look Back in Anger

1956

America

Eugene O’Neill

Long Day’s Journey into Night

1956

Romania

Elie Wiesel

Night

1957

England

Harold Pinter

The Birthday Party

1957

America

James Agee

A Death in the Family

1957

Russia

Boris Pasternak

Doctor Zhivago

1957–1960

France

Lawrence Durrell

The Alexandria Quartet

1959

America

Lorraine Hansberry

A Raisin in the Sun

1959

Germany

Gunter Grass

The Tin Drum

1960

America

Harper Lee

To Kill a Mockingbird

1960

America

John Updike

Rabbit, Run

1961

America

Edward Albee

Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf?

1962

America

Robert Frost

In the Clearing

1939

588 Literature


7/12/06 11:19:09 AM

Year

Country

Author

Work

1965 to Present (Post-Modern Period) 1965

America

Truman Capote

In Cold Blood

1967

England

Tom Stoppard

Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead

1967

Colombia

Gabriel García Márquez

One Hundred Years of Solitude

1969

Ireland

1969

America

Philip Roth

Portnoy’s Complaint

1970

South Africa

Nadine Gordimer

A Guest of Honor

1972

Poland

Isaac Bashevis Singer

Enemies: A Love Story

1973

Russia

Alexander Solzhenitsyn

The Gulag Archipelago

1974

South Africa

Nadine Gordimer

The Conservationist

1975

Argentina

Jorge Luis Borges

The Book of Sand

1976

Nigeria

Wole Soyinka

Death and the King’s Horseman

1980

Ireland

Seamus Heaney

Selected Poems

1980

Italy

Umberto Eco

The Name of the Rose

1982

America

Alice Walker

The Color Purple

1983

South Africa

J.M. Coetzee

Life & Times of Michael K

1987

America

August Wilson

Fences

1987

America

Toni Morrison

Beloved

Booker Prize established

1990

St. Lucia

Derek Walcott

Omeros

2000

Canada

Margaret Atwood

The Blind Assassin




7/12/06 11:19:10 AM

Essential Guide—High School Sampler

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