U. S.Supreme meCourt
133N. N. J. L.350,44A. 2d333,affir ffirmed.
Eversonv.BoardofEducati on,330U. U. S.1( 1947)
I nas u i tb yat a x pa y e r ,t h eNe Ne wJ e r s e ySup r e me meCo u r th e l dt h a tt h es t a t e
Ever sonv.BoardofEducat i onoft heTown wns hi pofEwi ng No.52 Ar guedNovember20,1946 Deci ded February10,1947 330U. S.1 Sy l l a bu s Pur s u antt oaNe wJ e r s e ys t a t u t ea ut ho r i z i ngdi s t r i c tb o ar d so fe d uc a t i o n t oma ma ker ul e sa ndc o n t r a c t sf o rt het r a ns p o r t a t i o no fc h i l d r e nt oandf r o m s c h oo l so t he rt ha npr i v at es c h oo l so p er a t e df o rp r o fit , abo ar do fe duc a t i o n b yr e s o l ut i o na ut ho r i z e dt her e i mb ur s e me nto fp ar e n t sf o rf a r e sp ai df o r t h et r a ns p or t a t i o nb ypub l i cc a r r i e ro fc h i l dr e nat t e nd i n gpub l i ca nd Ca t h o l i cs c ho o l s .TheCa t h o l i cs c ho o l so p e r a t e dund ert he s up e r i nt e n de nc yo faCa t h o l i cp r i e s ta n d,i na dd i t i o nt os e c ul a re duc a t i o n, g av er e l i g i o usi ns t r uc t i o ni nt heCa t ho l i cFa i t h.Ad i s t r i c tt a xp ay e r c h al l e ng e dt hev al i d i t yund ert heFe d er a lCo ns t i t ut i o no ft hes t a t u t ea nd r e s o l ut i o ns of a ra st h e yaut ho r i z e dr e i mb ur s e me me ntt opa r e nt sf o rt he t r a ns p o r t a t i o no fc hi l d r e na t t e nd i n gs e c t a r i a ns c h o o l s .Noque s t i o nwa s r a i s e da st ow wh he t he rt h ee x c l us i o no fp r i v a t es c h o o l so p e r a t e df o rp r o fit
l e g i s l a t u r ew wa a swi wi t ho utp o we ru nd e rt h es t a t ec o ns t i t ut i o nt oa ut ho r i z e r e i mb ur s e me me ntt opa r e nt so fb usf a r e sp ai df o rt r a ns p o r t i ngt h e i r c h i l dr e nt os c h o ol so t he rt ha npub l i cs c ho o l s .1 32N. N. J . L.9 8,3 9A. 2 d7 5. Th eNe Ne wJ e r s e yCo u r to fEr r o r sa ndAp pe a l sr e v e r s e d ,ho l d i n gt h at ne i t he rt h es t a t u t eno rar e s o l ut i o np as s e dpur s u antt oi tv i o l a t e dt he s t a t ec o ns t i t u t i o no rt h ep r o vi s i o nso ft heFe de r a lCo ns t i t u t i o ni ni s s ue . 1 33N. N. J . L.3 50 ,4 4A. 2 d3 33 .Ona pp e alo ft hef e d e r alq ue s t i o nst ot h i s Co ur t ,affir ffir me d,p.3 3 0U.S .1 8. MR.JUS USTI CEBLACK del i ver edt heopi ni onoft heCourt . ANe w Je r s e ys t at ut eaut ho r i z e si t sl o c als c ho o ldi s t r i c t st omaker ul e s a ndc o nt r a c t sf o rt het r a ns p or t a t i o no fc h i l dr e nt oa ndf r o ms c h oo l s . [ Fo o t no t e1 ]Thea pp e l l e e ,at o wns h i pb o ar do fe d uc a t i o n,a c t i ngp ur s u ant t ot hi ss t a t u t e ,a ut ho r i z e dr e i mb ur s e me me n tt op ar e n t so fmo ne ye x p e nd e d b yt he mf o rt heb ust r a ns p o r t a t i o no ft he i rc h i l d r e no nr e g ul a rbus s e s o p e r at e dbyt h epub l i ct r a ns p o r t a t i o ns y s t e m. m.Pa r to ft hi smo mo ne ywa sf o r t hep a y me me n to ft r a n s p o r t a t i o no fs o me mec h i l d r e ni nt hec o mmu ni t yt o Ca t ho l i cp ar o c h i a ls c h o ol s .The s ec hur c hs c ho o l sg i v et h ei rs t ude nt s , i n a dd i t i o nt os e c u l a re duc a t i o n,r e g ul a rr e l i g i o u si n s t r u c t i o nc o nf o r mi mi ngt o t her e l i g i o ust e ne t sa ndmo mo d e so fwo r s h i poft heCa t h o l i cF ai t h.The s up er i nt e n de nto ft he s es c ho o l si saCa t ho l i cp r i e s t .
d e ni e de q ua lp r o t e c t i o no ft hel a ws ;no rd i dt her e c o r ds ho wt ha tt he r e
Theap pe l l a nt , i nhi sc a pa c i t ya sadi s t r i c tt a x pa y er ,fil e ds ui ti nas t a t e
we r ea n yc h i l d r e ni nt hedi s t r i c twh oa t t e nd e d,o rwo ul dha v eat t e nd e d
c o u r tc ha l l e ng i ngt h er i g hto ft heBo a r dt or e i mb ur s ep a r e nt so fp ar o c hi a l
b utf o rt hec o s to ft r a ns p or t a t i o n,a nybutp ub l i co rCa t ho l i cs c h o o l s .
s c ho o ls t ud e nt s .Hec o n t e nd e dt ha tt hes t a t u t ea ndt h er e s o l ut i o np as s e d
He He l d:
p ur s u antt oi tv i o l a t e dbo t ht heSt a t ea ndt h eFe d er a lCo ns t i t ut i o ns .Tha t c o u r th e l dt h att hel e g i s l a t u r ewa swi t ho utp o we rt oa ut ho r i z es u c h
1 .Thee x pe nd i t ur eo ft a xr a i s e df u nd st h usa ut ho r i z e dwa sf o rap ub l i c
p a y me me n tu nd e rt h es t a t ec o ns t i t ut i o n.1 3 2N. J . L.9 8 ,3 9A. 2 d7 5 .Th eNe w
p ur p o s e ,a nddi dno tv i o l a t et hed uepr o c e s sc l a us eo ft heFo ur t e e nt h
J e r s e yCo ur to fEr r o r sa ndAp pe a l sr e v e r s e d ,ho l d i n gt h atne i t he rt he
Ame ndme nt .Pp. 3 3 0U.S.58. 2 .Thes t a t u t ea ndr e s o l ut i o nd i dno tv i o l a t et h epr o v i s i o no ft h eFi r s t Ame ndme nt( madeappl i c abl et ot hes t at e sb yt heFo ur t e e nt h
s t a t u t eno rt her e s o l ut i o np as s e dpur s u antt oi twa si nc o n fli c twi t ht he St a t ec o n s t i t u t i o no rt h epr o v i s i o nso ft h eFe de r a lCo ns t i t u t i o ni ni s s ue . 1 3 3N. J . L.3 5 0,4 4A. 2 d3 3 3.Th ec a s ei sh e r eo nap pe a lu nd e r2 8U U. . S. C.§
Si nc et he r eh a sb e e nn oa t t a c ko nt hes t a t u t eo nt heg r o u ndt h atapa r to f
t opa yt hebusf a r e so fa l ls c h o o lc hi l d r e n,i nc l ud i n gt ho s ewhoat t e n d
i t sl a ng ua gee x c l ude sc h i l d r e na t t e n di ngpr i v at es c h oo l so p e r at e df o r
p ar o c hi a ls c h o o l s . Th eNe wJ e r s e yCo u r to fEr r o r sa ndAp pe a l sh a s
p r o fitf r o me nj o y i ngSt a t ep a y me ntf o rt he i rt r a ns p o r t a t i o n,wen e e dno t
r e a c h e dt hes a mec o nc l us i o n.Thef a c tt ha tas t a t el a w,p as s e dt os a t i s f ya
c o n s i d e rt h i se x c l us i o na r yl a ng ua ge ;i th asnor e l e v a nc yt oa ny
p ub l i cne e d ,c o i nc i d e swi t ht hepe r s o n ald es i r e so ft hei n di v i d ua l smo s t
c o ns t i t u t i o na lq ue s t i o nhe r epr e s e nt e d .[ Fo o t no t e2 ]Fur t he r mo r e ,i ft he
d i r e c t l ya ffe c t e di sc e r t a i nl yani na de q ua t er e a s o nf o rust os a yt h ata
e x c l u s i o nc l a us eh a db e e np r o p e r l yc h a l l e n ge d ,wed ono tk no wwhe t h e r
l e g i s l a t u r eha se r r o ne o us l yap pr a i s e dt hepub l i cn ee d .
Ne wJ e r s e y ' sh i g h e s tc o ur two ul dc o ns t r u ei t ss t a t u t e sa sp r e c l ud i ng p ay me nto ft hes c h o o lt r a ns p o r t a t i o no fa nygr o u po fp up i l s ,e v e nt ho s eo f apr i v at es c ho o lr unf o rp r o fit . [ Fo o t no t e3 ]Co ns e q u e nt l y , wep utt oo ne s i det h eq ue s t i o na st ot h ev al i d i t yoft h es t a t ut ea g ai ns tt hec l a i mt h ati t d o esno ta u t ho r i z epa y me ntf o rt het r a ns p o r t a t i o ng e ne r a l l yofs c h o o l c h i l d r e ni nNe wJ e r s e y .
I ti st r uet h att h i sCo ur tha s ,i nr a r ei ns t a nc e s ,s t r uc kdo wns t a t e s t a t u t e so nt h egr o u ndt h a tt hep ur p o s ef o rwhi c ht a xr a i s e df un dswe r e t ob ee x p e nd e dwa sn o tap ub l i co n L e .o anAs s o c i at i o nv .To pe ka, 2 0Wa l l . 6 55 P ; ar ke r s bur gv .Br o wn,1 0 6U.S.4 8 7;Th o mp s o nv . Co n s o l i d at e dGa s Ut i l i t i e sCo r p. ,3 0 0U.S .5 5.Butt heCo ur tha sal s op o i nt e doutt ha tt hi s f a r r e a c hi ngaut ho r i t ymus tb ee x e r c i s e dwi t ht hemo s te x t r e me
Theo nl yc o n t e nt i o nhe r ei st h a tt h es t a t es t a t u t eandt her e s o l ut i o n,
c a ut i o n.Gr e e nv .Fr a z i e r ,2 5 3U.S.2 3 3,2 5 3U.S .2 4 0. Ot he r wi s e , a
i ns o f a ra st he ya ut ho r i z e dr e i mb ur s e me ntt op ar e n t so fc h i l d r e n
s t a t e ' spo we rt ol e gi s l a t ef o rt h epub l i cwe l f a r emi g htb es er i o us l y
a t t e n di ngpa r o c hi a ls c h o ol s ,v i o l a t et heFe de r a lCo ns t i t u t i o ni nt he s et wo
c u r t a i l e d ,apo we rwhi c hi sap r i ma r yr e a s o nf o rt hee x i s t e n c eo fs t a t e s .
r e s p e c t s ,whi c ht os o mee x t e n to v e r l a p F .i r s t . The ya ut ho r i z et heSt a t et o
Ch ang i ngl o c a lc o n d i t i o n sc r e a t en e wl o c a lp r o b l e mswhi c hma yl e a da
t a keb yt a x at i o nt hepr i v a t ep r o p e r t yo fs o mea ndb e s t o wi tu p o no t he r st o
s t a t e ' spe o pl eandi t sl o c a la ut h o r i t i e st obe l i e v et h atl a wsaut ho r i z i ng
b eus e df o rt he i ro wnpr i v at ep ur p os e s .Thi s ,i ti sa l l e g ed ,v i o l a t e st h edue
ne wt y pe so fp ub l i cs e r v i c e sa r en e c e s s a r yt op r o mo t et heg e ne r a l
p r o c e s sc l a us eo ft h eFo u r t e e n t hAme n d me n t . Se c ond. Th es t a t u t ea n dt h e
we l l b e i ngo ft h epe o p l e .TheFo u r t e e nt hAme n dme n td i dno ts t r i pt h e
r e s o l ut i o nf o r c e di nha bi t a nt st op ayt a x e st ohe l ps up po r ta ndma i nt a i n
s t a t e so ft he i rp o we rt ome e tp r o b l e msp r e vi o us l yl e f tf o ri nd i v i d ua l
s c h o o l swhi c har ed e di c a t e dt o , a ndwhi c hr e g ul a r l yt e a c h ,t heCa t h o l i c
D i ds o nv .Ne w Or l e ans ,9 B bi e r s o l ut i o n . av 6U.S.9 7,9 6U.S .1 0 31 0 4 ; ar
Fa i t h.Thi si sa l l e g e dt obeaus eo fs t a t ep o we rt os up po r tc hur c hs c h o o l s c o n t r a r yt ot hep r o hi b i t i o no ft heFi r s tAme n dme ntwh i c ht heFo ur t e e n t h Ame ndme ntmadeappl i c abl et ot hes t at e s . Fi r s t . Thed uep r o c e s sa r g ume n tt h att hes t a t el a wt a x e ss o mep e o p l et o
v .Co nno l l y ,1 1 3U.S .2 7,1 1 3U.S .3 132 F ; al l br o o kI r r i g at i o nDi s t r i c tv . Br adl e y ,1 6 4U.S .1 1 2,1 6 4U.S.1 5 71 5 8 . I ti smuc ht o ol a t et oar g uet ha tl e g i s l a t i o ni nt e n de dt of ac i l i t a t et he o p po r t uni t yo fc h i l d r e nt oge tas e c ul a re duc a t i o ns e r v e snopub l i c
he l po t h e r sc a r r yo u tt he i rp r i v a t ep ur p o s e si sf r a me di nt wop ha s e s .The
p ur p o s e .Co c hr a nv .Lo u i s i a naSt a t eBo a r do fEd uc a t i o n ,2 8 1U.S.3 7 0;
fir s tp ha s ei st ha tas t a t ec a nno tt a xAt or e i mb ur s eBf o rt hec o s to f
Ho l me s ,J . ,i I n nt e r s t at eRy .v .Ma s s ac hus e t t s ,2 0 7U.S .7 9,2 0 7U.S.
t r a ns p or t i nghi sc h i l d r e nt oc hur c hs c ho o l s .Thi si ss a i dt ov i o l a t et h ed ue
87.Se e o pi ni o no fCo o l e y ,J. ,i nSt uar tv .Sc h oo lDi s t r i c tNo .1of
p r o c e s sc l a us eb e c a us et hec h i l d r e na r es e ntt ot h e s ec hur c hs c ho o l st o
Kal amaz o o , 3 0Mi c h .6 9( 1 8 74 ) .Thes a met hi ngi sn ol e s st r u eo f
s a t i s f yt h ep er s o na ld e s i r e so ft he i rp ar e nt s ,r a t h ert h ant h epub l i c ' s
l e g i s l a t i o nt or e i mb ur s ene e dypa r e nt s ,o ra l lp ar e n t s , f o rp ay me nto ft he
i nt e r e s ti nt hege ne r a le d uc a t i o no fa l lc h i l dr e n.Thi sar g ume nt , i fv al i d ,
f a r e so ft he i rc h i l d r e ns ot h att he yc a nr i d ei np ub l i cb us s e st oandf r o m
wo ul dap pl ye qua l l yt op r o hi b i ts t a t epa y me ntf o rt het r a ns p o r t a t i o no f
s c ho o l s ,r a t h e rt ha nr u nt her i s ko ft r a ffica ndo t h e rha z ar d si nc i d e ntt o
c h i l d r e nt oan yno n pu bl i cs c h o o l ,wh e t h e ro p e r a t e db yac hur c ho ra n y
wa l k i ngo r" hi t c hhi ki ng . "Se eBa r b i e rv . Co nno l l y , s u pr a ,at1 1 3U.S.
p r o v i d e st ha tt a xr a i s e df und swi l lb ep ai dt or e i mb ur s ei nd i v i d ua l so n
b e f o r ea ndc o n t e mp o r a ne o u swi t ht h ec o l o n i z a t i o no fAme r i c ah adb e e n
a c c o u nto fmo n e ys p e n tb yt h e mi nawa ywh i c hf ur t h e r sap ub l i c
fil l e dwi t ht ur mo i l ,c i v i ls t r i f eandpe r s e c ut i o ns ,g e ne r a t e di nl a r gepa r t
p r o g r a m.Se eCa r mi c h ae l v . So u t h e r nCo a l& Co k eCo . ,3 0 1U.S .4 9 5,301
b ye s t a bl i s h e ds e c t sde t e r mi ne dt oma i nt a i nt he i ra bs o l ut ep o l i t i c a la nd
U.S.5 1 8.Su bs i d i e sa ndl o a nst oi nd i v i d ua l ss u c hasf a r me r sa ndho me
r e l i g i o u ss u pr e ma c y . Wi t ht hep o we ro fg o v e r n me nts u pp o r t i ngt he m,a t
o wne r s ,a ndt op r i v a t e l yo wn e dt r a n s p o r t a t i o ns y s t e ms ,a swe l la sma ny
v a r i o ust i me sa ndpl a c e s ,Ca t h o l i c sh adpe r s e c ut e dPr o t e s t a nt s ,
o t he rk i nd so fb us i ne s s e s , ha v eb e enc o mmo np l a c ep r a c t i c e si no urs t a t e
Pr o t e s t a nt sh adpe r s e c ut e dCa t h o l i c s , Pr o t e s t a nts e c t sh adpe r s e c ut e d
a ndna t i o na lh i s t o r y .
o t h e rPr o t e s t a nts e c t s ,Ca t ho l i c so fo nes ha deo fb el i e fha dp er s e c u t e d
I n s o f a ra st h es e c o n dp ha s eo ft h ed uep r o c e s sa r g u me n tma yd i ffe rf r o m t h efir s t ,i ti sb ys ug ge s t i ngt ha tt a x at i o nf o rt r a ns p or t a t i o no fc hi l d r e nt o c h ur c hs c ho o l sc o ns t i t u t e ss upp or to far e l i g i o nb yt h eSt a t e . Buti ft h e l a wi si nv al i df o rt hi sr e as o n,i ti sbe c aus ei tv i o l at e st h eFi r s t Ame ndme nt ' spr o hi bi t i o nag ai ns tt hee s t abl i s hme nto fr e l i gi o nb yl a w. Thi si st hee x ac tq ue s t i o nr a i s e db yap pe l l a nt ' ss e c o ndc o nt e n t i o n,t o c o n s i d e r a t i o no fwhi c hwen o wt ur n . Se c ond. TheNe wJ e r s e ys t a t u t ei sc h al l e n ge dasa" l a wr e s p e c t i n ga n e s t a b l i s h me nto fr e l i g i o n . "T heFi r s tAme nd me n t ,a sma deap pl i c a b l et o t hes t a t e sb yt h eFo ur t e e nt h Mu , r do c kv .Pe nns y l v ani a,3 1 9U.S.1 0 5, c o mma nd st h atas t a t e" s h a l lma k en ol a wr e s p e c t i n ga ne s t a b l i s h me n to f r e l i g i o n,o rpr o hi b i t i ngt hef r e eex er c i s et he r e of .... "The s ewo r dso ft he Fi r s tAme n d me n tr e fl e c t e di nt h emi n dso fe a r l yAme r i c a n sav i v i d me nt a lp i c t ur eo fc o n di t i o nsa ndpr a c t i c e swhi c ht h e yf e r v e nt l ywi s h edt o s t a mpo uti no r d e rt op r e s e r v el i b e r t yf o rt he ms e l v e sandf o rt he i r po s t e r i t y .Do ub t l e s st h e i rg o alha sno tb e e ne nt i r e l yr e ac h ed ;b uts of a r ha st heNa t i o nmo v e dt o wa r di tt h att hee x p r e s s i o n" l a wr e s p e c t i nga n e s t a bl i s h me nto fr e l i g i o n"p r o b ab l ydo e sno ts ovi v i d l yr e mi ndp r e s e nt d ay Ame r i c anso ft hee v i l s ,f e ar s ,andpo l i t i c alpr o bl e mst hatc aus e dt hat e x pr e s s i o nt ob ewr i t t e ni nt oo urBi l lo fRi g ht s .Whe t he rt hi sNe wJ e r s e y l a wi so ner e s p e c t i ngan" e s t a bl i s h me nto fr e l i g i o n"r e q u i r e san und e r s t a nd i n go ft heme a ni ngo ft ha tl a ng ua ge ,p ar t i c u l a r l ywi t hr e s p ec t t ot hei mpo s i t i o no ft a x e s .Onc ea g ai n,[ Fo o t no t e4 ]t he r ef o r e,i ti sno t i n ap pr o p r i a t eb r i e fl yt or e v i e wt heb a c k gr o u ndande nv i r o n me n to ft he p e r i o di nwhi c ht h a tc o n s t i t u t i o n all a ng ua g ewa sf a s hi o n e da nda do p t e d . Al ar gepr o po r t i o no ft hee ar l ys e t t l e r so ft hi sc o unt r yc amehe r ef r o m
Ca t h o l i c so fa no t he rs h ad eo fb e l i e f ,a nda l lo ft he s eha df r o mt i met ot i me p e r s e c u t e dJ e ws .I ne ffo r t st of o r c el o y a l t yt owha t e v e rr e l i g i o usgr o u p h ap pe n e dt ob eo nt o pa ndi nl e a g uewi t ht h eg o v e r n me n to fap ar t i c u l a r t i mea ndpl a c e ,me nandwo me nh adbe e nfine d ,c a s ti nj a i l ,c r ue l l y t o r t ur e d ,a ndki l l e d .Amo ngt heo ff e ns e sf o rwhi c ht he s ep un i s h me n t s ha db e e ni nfli c t e dwe r es u c ht hi ng sa ss p e aki ngdi s r e s p e c t f ul l yo ft he v i e wso fmi ni s t e r so fg o v e r nme nt e s t a bl i s h e dc h ur c he s ,no na t t e nd anc ea t t ho s ec hur c h e s ,e x p r e s s i o nso fn onb el i e fi nt he i rd oc t r i ne s ,a ndf a i l ur et o p a yt a x e sa ndt i t h e st os u p po r tt h e m.[ Fo o t no t e5 ] The s ep r a c t i c e so ft heo l dwo r l dwe r et r a ns p l a nt e dt o ,a ndbe g ant ot hr i v e i n ,t hes o i lo ft hene wAme r i c a .Th ev e r yc h a r t e r sg r a nt e db yt h eEng l i s h Cr o wnt ot h ei n di v i d ua l sa ndc o mp a ni e sd e s i g n at e dt oma k et h el a ws whi c hwo ul dc o n t r o lt hede s t i ni e so ft hec o l o ni a l sa ut ho r i z e dt he s e i nd i v i d ua l sa ndc o mp ani e st oe r e c tr e l i g i o use s t a bl i s h me nt swhi c hal l , whe t he rb e l i e v e r so rno nb e l i e v e r s , wo ul dber e q ui r e dt os up po r ta nd a t t e n d.[ Fo o t no t e6 ]Ane x e r c i s eo ft hi sa ut ho r i t ywa sa c c o mp ani e db ya r e p e t i t i o no fma nyo ft heo l dwo r l dpr a c t i c e sa ndpe r s e c ut i o ns .Ca t ho l i c s f o u ndt h e ms e l v e sh o un de dandpr o s c r i b e db e c a us eo ft he i rf a i t h ;Qu ak e r s whof o l l o we dt he i rc o n s c i e nc ewe ntt oj a i l ;Ba pt i s t swe r ep ec ul i a r l y o b no x i o u st oc e r t a i nd o mi n an tPr o t e s t a nts e c t s ;me nandwo me no fv a r i e d f a i t hswhoha pp e ne dt ob ei nami no r i t yi napa r t i c u l a rl o c a l i t ywe r e p e r s e c u t e dbe c a us et he ys t e a df a s t l yp er s i s t e di nwo r s h i p pi ngGo do nl yas t he i ro wnc o ns c i e nc e sd i c t a t e d.[ Fo o t no t e7 ]Anda l l o ft h e s edi s s e nt e r s we r ec o mp e l l e dt op a yt i t he sa ndt a x e s[ Fo o t no t e8 ] t os u pp o r t g o v e r n me n t s p o n s o r e dc h u r c h e swh o s emi n i s t e r sp r e a c h e di n fla mma t o r y s e r mo nsd e s i g ne dt os t r e n gt he na ndc o ns o l i d at et hee s t a bl i s h edf a i t hb y e r a t igab ur n igha t r e da g ais td i s s e n t e r s .
The s ep r a c t i c e sb e c a mes oc o mmo n pl a c ea st os h o c kt hef r e e d o ml o v i n g
t hep l a no ft heHo l yaut ho ro fo urr e l i g i o n,whob e i ngLo r db o t ho fb o dy
c o l o ni a l si nt oaf e e l i ngofab ho r r e nc e .[ Fo o t no t e9 ]Thei mp o s i t i o no ft a x e s
a ndmi nd ,y e tc h o s eno tt opr o p ag at ei tb yc o e r c i o nso ne i t h e r...;t ha tt o
t opa ymi n i s t e r s ' s a l a r i e sa ndt obu i l da ndma i n t a i nc h ur c he sa ndc h ur c h
c o mp e lama nt of ur n i s hc o n t r i b ut i o n so fmo n e yf o rt h ep r o p ag a t i o no f
p r o pe r t ya r o us e dt he i ri nd i g na t i o n.[ Fo o t n o t e1 0] I twa st he s ef e e l i ng s
o pi ni o nswhi c hhed i s b e l i e v e si ss i nf ula ndt y r a nni c a l ;t ha te v e nt he
whi c hf o u nde x p r e s s i o ni nt h eFi r s tAme n dme nt .Noo n el o c a l i t ya ndno
f o r c i nghi mt os up po r tt hi so rt h att e a c he ro fh i so wnr e l i g i o uspe r s u as i o n
o neg r o upt hr o u gho utt heCo l o ni e sc a nr i g ht l ybeg i v e ne nt i r ec r e d i tf o r
i sd epr i v i n ghi mo ft hec o mf o r t a bl el i b er t yo fg i v i nghi sc o nt r i b ut i o nst o
ha v i ngar o u s e dt hes e n t i me ntt ha tc ul mi na t e di na do p t i o no ft heBi l lo f
t hep ar t i c u l a rp as t o rwho s emo r a l sh ewo ul dma kehi sp a t t e r n.... "
Ri g ht s ' pr o v i s i o nse mb r ac i ngr e l i g i o usl i b er t y .ButVi r g i ni a ,whe r et he e s t a bl i s h edc h ur c hha da c hi e v e dado mi na nti nflue nc ei npo l i t i c a la ffa i r s
Andt hes t at ut ei t s e l fe nac t e d
a ndwhe r ema n ye x c e s s e sa t t r a c t e dwi d epub l i ca t t e n t i o n ,p r o v i d e da
" Tha tn oma ns h a l l b ec o mp e l l e dt of r e q u e nto rs up po r ta nyr e l i g i o u s
g r e a ts t i mu l usa ndab l el e a d e r s h i pf o rt h emo v e me n t .Thep e o pl et he r e ,
wo r s hi p,p l a c e ,o rmi ni s t r ywha t s o e v e r ,no rs h al lb eenf o r c e d ,r e s t r a i ne d,
a sel s e whe r e ,r e a c he dt h ec o nv i c t i o nt h ati nd i v i d ua lr e l i g i o u sl i b er t y
mo l e s t e d ,o rb ur t he ne di nhi sb o d yo rg o o ds , no rs ha l lo t he r wi s es u ffe ro n
c o u l dbea c h i e v e db e s tu nd e rago v e r n me n twh i c hwa ss t r i p pe do fa l l
ac c o unto fhi sr e l i gi o uso pi ni o nso rbe l i e f . ...[ Fo o t n o t e1 4] "
po we rt ot a x ,t os u ppo r t , o ro t h er wi s et oas s i s ta nyora l l r e l i g i o ns ,o rt o
Thi sCo ur tha spr e v i o us l yr e c o g ni z e dt ha tt hepr o v i s i o nso ft heFi r s t
i nt e r f e r ewi t ht h eb el i e f so fa nyr e l i g i o usi nd i v i d ua lo rg r o up.
Ame ndme nt ,i nt hedr af t i ngandado pt i o no fwhi c hMa di s o nandJe ffe r s o n
Themo v e me ntt o wa r dt h i se n dr e a c he di t sd r a ma t i cc l i ma xi nVi r g i ni ai n
p l a y e ds u c hl e a di ngr o l e s ,ha dt hes a meo b j e c t i v e ,a ndwe r ei nt e nd e dt o
1 78 58 6whe nt h eVi r g i ni al e g i s l a t i v eb o dywa sa bo utt or e n e w Vi r g i ni a ' s
p r o v i d et hes a mep r o t e c t i o na g ai ns tg o v e r nme nt a li nt r us i o no nr e l i g i o us
t a xl e v yf o rt h es u pp o r to f t hee s t a b l i s h e dc h ur c h .Tho ma sJ e ffe r s o na nd
l i be r t yast heVi r g i n i as t a t ut R e .e y no l dsv .Uni t e dSt at e s ,s upr a,at98U.
J a me sMa di s o nl e dt hefi ghta g ai ns tt hi st a x .Ma di s o nwr o t eh i sg r e a t
S.1 6 4;Wa t s o nv . J o ne s , 1 3Wa l l .6 79 D ; av i sv .Be as o n,1 3 3U.S.3 3 3,133
Me mo r i a la ndRe mo n s t r a nc ea g a i n s tt h el a w.[ Fo o t n o t e1 1]I ni t , he
U.S.3 4 2.Pr i o rt ot hea do p t i o no ft h eFo u r t e e n t hAme n dme n t ,t h eFi r s t
e l o q ue nt l yar g ue dt ha tat r u er e l i g i o nd i dno tne e dt hes up po r to fl a w;
Ame ndme ntdi dno tappl yasar e s t r ai ntag ai ns tt hes t at e s .[ Fo o t n o t e1 5]
t h atnop er s o n,e i t h e rb el i e v e ro rn onb el i e v e r ,s ho ul dbet a x e dt os uppo r t
Mo s to ft he md i ds o o np r o v i d es i mi l a rc o ns t i t ut i o na lp r o t e c t i o nsf o r
ar el i g i o usi ns t i t u t i o no fa nyki nd;t h att hebe s ti nt e r e s to fas oc i e t y
r e l i gi o usl i be r t y .[ Fo o t no t e16]Buts o mes t a t e sp e r s i s t e df o ra bo uth a l fa
r e q u i r e dt ha tt h emi nd so fme na l wa y sb ewho l l yf r e e , a ndt ha tc r ue l
c e n t u r yi ni mp o s i ngr e s t r a i nt su po nt hef r e ee x e r c i s eo fr e l i g i o na ndi n
p er s e c ut i o nswe r et h ei ne v i t a bl er e s ul to fg o v e r nme nt e s t a bl i s h e d
d i s c r i mi na t i ngag ai ns tp a r t i c ul a rr e l i g i o usgr o ups .[ Fo o t n o t e1 7]I nr e c e nt
r e l i g i o n s .Ma di s o n ' sRe mo ns t r a n c er e c e i v e ds t r o n gs u pp o r tt hr o u g ho u t
y e ar s , s of a rast h epr o v i s i o na ga i n s tt hee s t a bl i s hme nto far e l i g i o ni s
Vi r g i ni a,[ Fo o t n o t e1 2]a ndt h eAs s e mb l ypo s t p o ne dc o ns i d e r a t i o no ft h e
c o n c e r ne d ,t heq ue s t i o nha smo s tf r e q ue nt l ya r i s e ni nc o n ne c t i o nwi t h
p r o p o s e dt a xme a s u r eun t i li t sn e x ts e s s i o n .Whe nt h ep r o p o s a lc a meu p
p r o po s e ds t a t ea i dt oc hur c hs c ho o l sa nde ffo r t st oc a r r yo nr e l i g i o us
f o rc o ns i de r a t i o na tt ha ts e s s i o n,i tn o to nl ydi e di nc o mmi t t e e ,b utt he
t e a c hi ng si nt hepub l i cs c ho o l si na c c o r d a nc ewi t ht het e n e t so fa
As s e mbl ye nac t e dt hef amo us" Vi r gi ni aBi l lf o rRe l i g i o usLi be r t y"
par t i c ul ars ec t . [ Fo o t no t e18 ]So mec hur c he sh a v ee i t he rs o u ghto r
o r i g i na l l ywr i t t e nb yTh o ma sJe ffe r s o n .[ Fo o t no t e1 3]Th epr e a mb l et o
a c c e p t e ds t a t efina nc i a ls u pp o r tf o rt h e i rs c h o o l s .He r eag ai n,t hee ffo r t s
t ha tBi l ls t a t e d ,a mo ngo t he rt hi ng s ,t ha t
t oo bt a i ns t a t ea i do ra c c e p t a nc eo fi th a v eno tb e e nl i mi t e dt oan yo ne
" Al mi g ht yGo dha t hc r e a t e dt hemi n df r e e ; t ha ta l la t t e mp t st oi nflue n c e
par t i c ul arf ai t h.[ Fo o t no t e1 9]Thes t a t ec o u r t s ,i nt hema i n,ha v e r e ma i ne df a i t hf ult ot h el a ng ua geo ft he i ro wnc o n s t i t ut i o na lp r o v i s i o ns
l i nebe t we e nt a xl e g i s l a t i o nwhi c hp r o v i d e sf und sf o rt hewe l f a r eo ft he g e ne r a lp ub l i ca ndt h atwhi c hi sd e s i g ne dt os u pp o r ti ns t i t ut i o nswhi c h t e a c hr e l i g i o n.[ Fo o t no t e2 0]
e s t a bl i s h me nto fr e l i g i o nb yl a w wa si nt e n de dt oe r e c t" awa l lo f s e p a r a t i o nb e t we e nc h ur c ha ndSt a t e R . "e y no l dsv .Uni t e dSt at e s , s upr a,at9 8U.S.1 6 4.
Th eme a n i n ga nds c o p eo ft h eFi r s tAme n dme n t , p r e v e n t i n g
Wemu s tc o n s i d e rt h eNe wJ e r s e ys t a t u t ei na c c o r d a nc ewi t ht h e
e s t a b l i s hme nto fr e l i g i o no rpr o hi b i t i ngt hef r e ee x e r c i s et he r e o f ,i nt he
f o r e g o i n gl i mi t a t i o n si mp o s e db yt h eFi r s tAme n d me n t . Bu twemu s tn o t
l i g hto fi t sh i s t o r yandt hee v i l si twa sde s i g ne df o r e v e rt os uppr e s s , ha v e
s t r i ket h ats t a t es t at u t edo wni fi ti swi t h i nt heSt a t e ' sc o ns t i t u t i o nal
b e e ns e v e r a lt i me se l a bo r a t e db yt hede c i s i o nso ft hi sCo ur tp r i o rt ot he a pp l i c a t i o no ft h eFi r s tAme nd me n tt ot h es t a t e sb yt heFo u r t e e nt h.
p o we r ,e v e nt ho ug hi ta pp r o ac h e st hev e r g eo ft ha tp o we r . Se eI nt e r s t at e Ry .v .Ma s s ac hus e t t s , s a,at2 Ho l me s ,J . ,upr 0 7U.S .8 5,2 0 7U.S.8 8.Ne w
[ Fo o t n o t e2 1]Th eb r o a dme a n i n gg i v e nt h eAme n dme n tb yt h e s ee a r l i e r
J er s e yc a nno t , c o ns i s t e nt l ywi t ht he" e s t a bl i s hme nto fr e l i g i o n "c l a us eo f
c a s e sh asb e e na c c e p t e db yt hi sCo ur ti ni t sd e c i s i o nsc o n c e r n i n gan
t heFi r s tAme n dme n t ,c o n t r i b ut et a xr a i s e df u nd st ot hes u pp o r to fa n
i nd i v i d ua l ' sr e l i g i o u sf r e e d o mr e n d e r e ds i nc et heFo u r t e e nt hAme n dme n t
i ns t i t u t i o nwhi c ht e a c h e st h et e ne t sa ndf a i t ho fa nyc hur c h.Ont heo t he r
wa si n t e r p r e t e dt oma ket h ep r o hi b i t i o nso ft heFi r s ta pp l i c a b l et os t a t e
hand,ot herl anguageoft heamendmentc ommandst hatNewJer se y
a c t i o na br i d gi ngr e l i g i o u sf r e e do m.[ Fo o t no t e22]The r ei se v e r yr e a s o nt o
c a nno th amp eri t sc i t i z e nsi nt hef r e ee xe r c i s eo ft he i ro wnr e l i g i o n .
g i v et hes a mea pp l i c a t i o na ndbr o a di nt e r p r e t a t i o nt ot he" e s t a bl i s h me nt
Co ns e q ue nt l y ,i tc a nno te x c l ud ei nd i v i d ua lCa t h o l i c s , Lut he r a ns ,
o fr e l i g i o n"c l a us e .Thei nt e r r e l a t i o no ft he s ec o mp l e me nt a r yc l a us e swa s
Mo h amme d ans , Ba p t i s t s , J e ws , Me t ho d i s t s , No n be l i e v e r s , Pr e s b y t e r i a ns ,
we l ls u mma r i z e di nas t a t e me n to ft heCo ur to fAp pe a l so fSo ut h
o rt heme mb e r so fa n yo t he rf a i t h, be c aus eo ft he i rf ai t h,o rl a c ko fi t , f r o m
Ca r o l i na ,[ Fo o t no t e2 3]q uo t e dwi t ha pp r o v a lb yt h i sCo ur ti nWa t s o nv .
r e c e i v i ngt h eb e ne fit so fp ub l i cwe l f a r el e g i s l a t i o n.Whi l ewedono tme a n
Jo ne s , 1 3Wa l l .6 7 9, 8 0U.S.7 3 0: " Thes t r uc t ur eo fo urg o v e r nme ntha s ,f o rt hepr e s e r v at i o no fc i v i l l i b er t y , r e s c u edt h et e mp or a li ns t i t u t i o nsf r o mr e l i g i o usi nt e r f e r e nc e .Ont he o t h e rha nd ,i th ass e c ur e dr e l i g i o u sl i b er t yf r o mt hei n va s i o noft h ec i v i l aut h or i t y . " The" e s t a b l i s h me n to fr e l i g i o n"c l a us eo ft heFi r s tAme n dme n tme a nsa t l e a s tt hi s :ne i t he ras t a t en o rt h eFe d e r alGo v e r n me ntc a ns e tupa c h ur c h .Ne i t h e rc a np as sl a wswhi c hai doner e l i g i o n ,a i da l l r e l i g i o n s ,o r p r e f e ro ner e l i g i o no v e ra no t he r .Ne i t he rc a nf o r c en o ri nflue nc eape r s o n t og ot oo rt or e ma i na wa yf r o mc h ur c ha g ai ns thi swi l lo rf o r c eh i mt o pr o f e s sabe l i e fo rd i s b e l i e fi na nyr e l i g i o n .Nope r s o nc a nb ep uni s he df o r e nt e r t a i ni ngorp r of e s s i n gr e l i g i o usbe l i e f so rd i s b e l i e f s ,f o rc hur c h a t t e n da nc eo rno n a t t e n da nc e . Not a xi na nya mo u nt ,l a r g eo rs ma l l ,c a n b el e v i e dt os uppo r ta nyr e l i g i o u sa c t i v i t i e so ri ns t i t u t i o ns ,wha t e v e rt he y ma yb ec a l l e d ,o rwh at e v e rf o r mt he yma ya do p tt ot e a c ho rp r a c t i c e r e l i g i o n Ne i t he ras t a t en o rt heFe d er a lGo v e r n me ntc a no p e nl yo r
t oi nt i ma t et ha tas t a t ec o ul dno tpr o v i det r a ns p or t a t i o no nl yt oc hi l dr e n a t t e n di ngpub l i cs c ho o l s ,wemus tb ec a r e f ul ,i np r o t e c t i ngt hec i t i z e nso f Ne wJ e r s e ya g ai ns ts t a t e e s t a bl i s h edc hur c he s ,t ob es ur et ha twed ono t i na dv e r t e nt l ypr o h i b i tNe wJ e r s e yf r o me x t e n di ngi t sg e ne r a ls t a t el a w b ene fit st oal li t sc i t i z e nswi t h outr e g ar dt ot he i rr e l i g i o usbe l i e f . Me a s u r e db yt h e s es t a nd a r d s ,wec a nn o ts a yt h att h eFi r s tAme n d me n t p r o h i b i t sNe wJ e r s e yf r o ms p e nd i n gt a x r a i s e df un dst op ayt h ebusf a r e s o fp ar o c hi a ls c h o o lp up i l sa sap ar to fag e ne r a lp r o gr a m und e rwhi c hi t p ay st h ef ar e so fp upi l sa t t e ndi ngpub l i ca ndot he rs c h oo l s .I ti s und o ub t e d l yt r uet ha tc hi l d r e na r ehe l p e dt og e tt oc hur c hs c ho o l s .The r e i se v e napo s s i b i l i t yt h ats o meo ft hec h i l d r e nmi g htn o tb es e ntt ot h e c h ur c hs c ho o l si ft hepa r e nt swe r ec o mp e l l e dt opa yt he i rc h i l d r e n' sb us f a r e so uto ft he i ro wnp o c k e t swhe nt r a ns p o r t a t i o nt oap ub l i cs c ho o l wo u l dha v ebe e np ai df o rb yt h eSt a t e . Thes a mepo s s i b i l i t ye x i s t swhe r e t hes t a t er e q ui r e sal o c a lt r a ns i tc o mp an yt opr o v i d er e d uc e df a r e st o s c h o olc h i l d r e n,i nc l udi ngt ho s eat t e nd i n gp ar o c h i a ls c h o ol s ,[ Fo o t no t e2 4]
t opr o t e c tc h i l d r e ng o i ngt oa ndf r o mc h ur c hs c ho o l sf r o mt hev e r yr e a l
t he i ra d v e r s a r y .St a t ep o we ri sn omo r et ob eus e ds oa st oh a nd i c a p
h az a r d so ft r a ffic , wo u l ds e r v emu c ht h es a mep ur p o s ea n da c c o mp l i s h
r e l i g i o n st ha ni ti st of a v ort he m.
muc ht h es a mer e s u l ta ss t a t ep r o v i s i o n si nt e nd e dt og ua r a nt e ef r e e t r a ns p o r t a t i o no faki ndwhi c ht h es t a t ed e emst ob ebe s tf o rt hes c h o o l c h i l dr e n' swe l f a r e .Andpa r e nt smi g htr e f us et or i s kt he i rc hi l d r e nt ot he s e r i o usd a ng e ro ft r a ffica c c i d e nt sg o i ngt oa n df r o mp ar o c hi a ls c h o o l st he a pp r o ac h e st owhi c hwe r en o tp r o t e c t e dbypo l i c e me n.Si mi l a r l y ,p ar e n t s mi g htb er e l uc t a ntt op er mi tt he i rc hi l d r e nt oa t t e nds c h oo l swhi c ht h e s t a t eh a dc u to fff r o ms u c hge n e r a lg o v e r n me n ts e r v i c e sa so r d i na r y po l i c ea ndfir epr o t e c t i o n,c o nne c t i o nsf o rs e wa gedi s p os a l , p ub l i c hi g hwa y sa nds i d e wa l k s .Ofc o u r s e ,c u t t i ngo ffc h ur c hs c ho o l sf r o mt h e s e s e r v i c e ss os e p a r a t ea nds oi nd i s p ut a bl yma r k e do fff r o mt her e l i g i o us
Thi sCo ur tha ss a i dt h atp ar e n t sma y ,i nt hed i s c h a r g eo ft he i rd ut y und e rs t a t ec o mp ul s o r ye duc a t i o nl a ws ,s e ndt he i rc h i l d r e nt oar e l i g i o us , r a t he rt h anap ub l i c , s c h o o li ft hes c ho o lme e t st h es e c u l a re duc a t i o na l r e q u i r e me nt swhi c ht hes t a t eh a sp o we rt oi mp o s e . Se ePi e r c ev . So c i e t yo f Si s t e r s ,2 6U.S.5 1 0. I ta pp e ar st h att he s ep a r o c h i a ls c h o o l sme e tNe w J e r s e y ' sr e q ui r e me nt s .TheSt a t ec o n t r i b ut e snomo ne yt ot hes c h o o l s .I t d o e sno ts up po r tt he m.I t sl e g i s l a t i o n,a sap pl i e d ,d o esnomo r et ha n p r o v i d eage ne r a lp r o gr a mt ohe l pp ar e n t sg e tt he i rc h i l d r e n,r e g a r d l e s s o ft he i rr e l i g i o n,s a f e l ya nde x pe di t i o us l yt oandf r o ma c c r e di t e ds c ho o l s .
f unc t i o nwo ul dma kei tf a rmo r ed i ffic u l tf o rt hes c ho o l st oo p e r a t e .But
Th eFi r s tAme n dme n th a se r e c t e dawa l lb e t we e nc h u r c ha nds t a t e .Th at
s u c hi so b v i o u s l yno tt hep ur p o s eo ft heFi r s tAme n dme n t .Th at
wa l lmu s tb ek e p th i g ha ndi mp r e g n a b l e .Wec o u l dno ta p pr o v et h e
Ame ndme ntr e qui r e st hes t at et obeane ut r ali ni t sr e l at i o nswi t hgr o ups o fr e l i g i o usbe l i e v e r sandno nb el i e v e r s ;i td o e sno tr e q ui r et h es t a t et obe
s l i g ht e s tb r e a c h.Ne wJ e r s e yha sno tb r e a c he di the r e . Affir me d.
