INDUS INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY V.P.O. Bath Bathu, u, Tehsil Har Haroli, oli, Dist Distt. t. Una, Hima Himachal chal Pra Pradesh desh-174301, ndia. Te l ! " 3 1 # 7 " 7 1 0 1 $ % $ 3 & - ' a i l ! n(o)iiuedu.in *e+site!.iiuedu.in
ASSIGNMENT 2 TRIBOLOGY
tudent ame
:
tudent /oll o
:
176
ourse!-
: B.Tech
emester
:
6th
Toic
: !u"#s
Teacher2 Teacher2 name
:
unil 'ehta
Nitish Kumar
ssinment ssinment *eiht *eiht ae
:
10 'ar5s
$UR$OSE
The assinment is desined to assess hat students ha6e learnt o6er last three ee5s
ASSIGNMENT OB%E&TIVE
The student must +e a+le to anal8e and understand concet o( desin snthesis and desin analsis.
'1 (hat t)*" +, ,u"#s ar" us"- i. a"r+.auti/a# s/i"./"0
ASSESSMENT GUIDAN&E
ndi6idual or in rou9
ndi6idual
To o+tain 40:!-
tudent must e;lain the +asic rincile +ehind the tas5.
To o+tain <0:!-
tudent mu must e; e;lain an and di di((erentiate al all e; e ;amle ith alication.
To o+tain a+o6e =0:!-
tudent ha has to to i i6e th the ri riht an ansers to to at at le least (i(i6e >uestions as5ed to him$her.
N+t"
1. ( an student is not su+mittin the assinment ithin the mentioned date, 30: mar5s ill +e deducted. %. o coin is alloed. ( an one is (ound uilt o( coin, then his$her assinment ill +e cancelled. 3. nsers must +e on their on lanuae and comuter rinted.
MarsGra-"s O3tai."-
&OMMENTS
?acult inature
Date
Ans 1
Types of fuel used in aeronautical science are:
1. Aviatio ation n fuel fuel 2. Aviati iation on Bio Biofu fuel el 3. Synt Synthe heti ticc Jet Jet Fuel Fuel
of petroleum!ased !ased fuel used fuel used to po"er 1. Aviati Aviation on Fuel Fuel : Aviatio viation n fuel fuel is a specialized type of petroleum aircraft. aircraft. #t is $enerally of a hi$her %uality %u ality than fuels used in less critical applications& such as heatin$ or road transport& and transport& and often contains additives to reduce the ris' of icin$ or e(plosion due to hi$h temperature& amon$ other properties. )ost aviation fuels availa!le for aircraft are 'inds of petroleum of petroleum spirit used spirit used in en$ines "ith spar' plu$s *i.e. piston *i.e. piston and and +an'el rotary en$ines,& rotary en$ines,& or fuel for -et tur!ine en$ines& "hich is also used in diesel aircraft en$ines. Production of aviation fuel
The production of aviation fuel falls into t"o cate$ories: fuel suita!le for tur!ine en$ines and en$ines and fuel suita!le for internal com!ustion en$ines. There en$ines. There are international specifications for each. Jet fuel is fuel is used in !oth tur!oprop and tur!oprop and -et -et aircraft& aircraft& and must maintain a lo" viscosity at viscosity at lo" temperature& meet definite limits in terms of density and calorific value& !urn c leanly& leanly& and remain chemically sta!le "hen heated to hi$h temperature. Aviation $asoline& $asoline& often referred to as av$as& is a hi$hly refined form of $asoline for $asoline for aircraft& "ith an emphasis on purity& anti'noc' characteristics characteristics and minimization of spar' spar' plu$ foulin$. plu$ foulin$. Av$as must meet performance $uidelines for !oth the rich mi(ture condition re%uired for ta'e off po"er settin$s and the leaner mi(tures used durin$ cruise to reduce fuel consumption. Av$as Av$as is sold in much lo"er volume than -et fuel& !ut to many more individual aircraft operators/ "hereas -et fuel is sold in hi$h volume to lar$e aircraft operators& such as airlines and military. Avgas
Av$as Av$as *aviation $asoline, is used in spar'i$nited internalcom!ustion en$ines en $ines in aircraft. aircraft. #ts formulation is distinct from mo$as *motor mo$as *motor $asoline, used in cars. cars. Av$as is formulated for sta!ility& sta!ility& safety& and predicta!le performance under a "ide ran$e of environments& and is typically used in aircraft that use reciprocatin$ or +an'el en$ines.
Jet fuel
Ground fueling of a MIG-29 from an URAL tanker
Jet fuel is a clear to stra"colored fuel& !ased on either an unleaded an unleaded 'erosene *Jet 'erosene *Jet A1,& or a naphtha naphtha'erosene !lend 'erosene !lend *Jet B,. #t is similar to diesel fuel& and fuel& and can !e used in either compression i$nition en$ines or en$ines or tur!ine en$ines. en$ines. JetA po"ers po"ers modern commercial airliners and is a mi( of pure 'erosene and antifreeze and !urns at temperatures at or a!ove 0 de$rees elsius *12 de$rees Fahrenheit,. 4erosene!ased fuel has a much hi$her flash point than $asoline!ased fuel& meanin$ that it re%uires si$nificantly hi$her temperature to i$nite. #t is a hi$h%uality fuel/ if it fails the purity and other %uality tests for use on -et aircraft& it is sold to other $round!ased users "ith less demandin$ re%uirements& li'e railroad en$ines.
Aviation Aviati on turbin tur binee fuel ( jet ( jet fuel): CIVIL J! F"L# Aviation Aviation tur!ine fuels are used for po"erin$ -et and tur!oprop en$ined aircraft and are not n ot to !e confused "ith Av$as. Av$as. 5utside former communist areas& there are currently t"o main $rades of tur!ine fuel in use in civil commercial aviation : Jet A1 and Jet A& A& !oth are 'erosene type fuels. There is another $rade of -et fuel& Jet B "hich is a "ide cut 'erosene *a !lend of $asoline and 'erosene, !ut it is rarely used e(cept in very cold climates.
J6T A1 Jet A1 is a 'erosene $rade of fuel suita!le for most tur!ine en$ined aircraft. #t is produced to a strin$ent internationally a$reed standard& has a flash point a!ov e 378 *18F, and a freeze point ma(imum of 098. #t is "idely availa!le outside the .S.A. Jet A1 meets the re%uirements of British specification ;6F STA< STA< 11 *Jet A1,& *formerly ;6=; 200 *A>T=,,& *A>T=,,& AST) specification ;1?@@ *Jet A1, and #ATA uidance )aterial *4erosine Type,&
Shell Jet Jet A-1 refueller truck on the ramp at Vancouver Vancouver International Airport . Note the signs indicating UN18! ha"ardous UN18! ha"ardous material and J#$ A-1 Jet A is a similar 'erosene type of fuel& produced produc ed to an AST) specification and normally only availa!le in the .S.A. #t has the same flash point as Jet A1 !ut a hi$her freeze point ma(imum *08,. #t is supplied a$ainst the AST) ;1?@@ *Jet A, specification. specification. J6T B
A US Airways Boeing 77 !eing 77 !eing fueled at "ort Lauderdale#$ollyw La uderdale#$ollywood ood International Air%ort . Jet B is a distillate coverin$ the naphtha an d 'erosene fractions. #t can !e used as an alternative to Jet A1 !ut !ecause it is more difficult to handle *hi$her flamma!ility,& there is only si$nificant demand in very cold climates "here its !etter cold "eather performance is important. #n anada it is supplied a$ainst the anadian an adian Specification A<SB 3.23 $ILI!A%&
JC0 JC0 is the military e%uivalent of Jet B "ith the addition o f corrosion inhi!itor and antiicin$
additives/ it meets the re%uirements of the .S. )ilitary Specification )#D;TD@?20 rade JC0. *As of Jan @& 20& JC0 and @ meet the same S )ilitary Specification,. JC0 also meets the re%uirements of the British Specification ;6F STA< 177 A>TAFS## *formerly ;6=; 20@0,&"here FS## stands for Fuel Systems #cin$ #nhi!itor. ATFS## *formerly ;6=; 20@2,. T=FS## A>T=FS## *formerly ;6=; 20@3,.
A fuel tru&k 'lling t(e aero%lane aero%lane Aviation fuel additives
Aviation Aviation fuel additives are compounds added to the fuel in very small %uantities& usually measura!le only in parts per million& to provide special o r improved %ualities. The %uantity to !e added and approval for its use in various $rades of fuel is strictly controlled !y the app ropriate specifications. A fe" additives in common use are as follo"s: 1. Anti'noc' additives reduce the tendency of $asoline to detonate. Tetraethy Tetraethyll lead *T6D, is the only approved anti'noc' additive for aviation use and has !een used in motor and aviation $asolines since the early 13s.
2. Antio(idants prevent the formation of $um deposits on fuel system components caused !y o(idation of the fuel in stora$e and also inhi!it the formation of pero(ide compounds in certain -et fuels. 3. Static dissipater additives reduce the hazardous effects of static electricity $enerated ! y movement of fuel throu$h modern hi$h flo"rate fuel transfer systems. Static dissipater additives do not reduce the need for E!ondin$ to ensure electrical continuity !et"een metal components *e.$. aircraft and fuellin$ e%uipment, nor do they influence hazards from li$htnin$ stri'es. 0. orrosion inhi!itors protect ferrous metals in fuel handlin$ systems& such as pipelines and fuel stora$e tan's& from corrosion. Some corrosion inhi!itors also improve the lu!ricatin$ properties *lu!ricity, of certain -et fuels. @. Fuel System #cin$ #nhi!itors *Antiicin$ additives, reduce the freezin$ point of "ater precipitated from -et fuels due to coolin$ at hi$h altitudes and prevent the formation of ice crystals "hich restrict the flo" of fuel to the en$ine. This type of ad ditive does not affect the freezin$ point of the fuel itself. Antiicin$ additives can also provide some protection a$ainst micro!iolo$ical $ro"th in -et fuel. ?. )etal deactivators suppress the catalytic effect "hich some metals& particularly copper& have on fuel o(idation. 9. Biocide additives are sometimes used to com!at micro!iolo$ical $ro"ths in -et fuel& often !y direct addition to aircraft tan's/ as indicated a!ove some antiicin$ additives appear to possess !iocidal properties. 7. Thermal Sta!ility #mprover additives are sometimes used in military JC7 fuel& to produce a $rade referred to as JC7G1& to inhi!it deposit formation in the hi$h temperature areas of the aircraft fuel system. Po'er boosting fluids
#t used to !e commonplace for lar$e piston en$ines to re%uire special fluids to increase their ta'e off po"er. Similar Similar in-ection systems are also incorporated in some tur!o-et and tur!oprop en$ines. The po"er increase is achieved !y coolin$ the air consumed& to raise its density and there!y increase the "ei$ht of air availa!le for com!ustion. This effect can !e o!tained !y usin$ "ater alone !ut it is usual to in-ect a mi(ture of methanol and "ater to produce p roduce a $reater de$ree of evaporative coolin$ and also a lso to provide additional fuel ener$y. For piston en$ines& methanol"ater mi(tures are used and these may have 1 percent of a corrosion inhi!itin$ oil added. The in-ection system may !e used to compensate for the po"er lost "hen operatin$ under hi$h temperature andor hi$h altitude conditions *i.e. "ith lo" air densities, or to o!tain increased ta'eoff po"er under normal atmospheric conditions& !y permittin$ hi$her !oost pressure for a short period. period. Both "ater alone and methanol"ater mi(tures are used in $as tur!ine en$ines& principally to
restore the ta'eoff po"er *or thrust, lost "hen operatin$ under lo" air density conditions. se of a corrosion inhi!itor in po"er !oost fluids supplied for these en $ines is not permitted. The methanol and "ater used must !e of very hi$h %uality to avoid formation of en$ine deposits. The "ater must !e either demineralised or distilled and the only adulterant permitted in the methanol is up to .@ per cent of pyridine if re%uired !y local re$ulations as a denaturant. #n the past there "ere several different $rades of "atermethanol "atermethanol mi(tures& e.$. 0@@@ for tur!ine en$ines& @@ for piston en$ines *this "as also availa!le "ith 1H corrosion inhi!itin$ oil and "as desi$nated @@1, and ?0& ho"ever& "ith decreasin$ demand Shell no" only supplies 0@@@. The ta!le sho"s the principal characteristics of Shell demineralised "ater and of the commonly used methanol"ater !lend.
"uel tank arrangement
2. Aviation iofuel : Aviation biofuel is a biofuel used for aircraft. #t is considered !y some to !e the primary means !y ! y "hich the aviation industry can reduce its car!on footprint. After a multiyear technical revie" from aircraft ma'ers& en$ine manufacturers and oil companies& !iofuels "ere approved for commercial use in July 211. Since then& some airlines airlines have e(perimented "ith usin$ of !iofuels on commercial fli$hts. The focus of the industry has no" turned to second $eneration sustainable biofuels that do not compete "ith food supplies. Production routes and sources:
Jet fuel is fuel is a mi(ture of a lar$e num!er of different hydrocar!ons different hydrocar!ons.. The ran$e of their sizes *molecular "ei$hts or car!on num!ers, is restricted !y the re%uirements for the product& for e(ample& freezin$ point or point or smo'e point. point. Jet fuels are sometimes classified as 'erosene as 'erosene or naphthatype. naphthatype. 4erosenetype fuels include Jet A& Jet A1& A1& JC@ and JC7.
The first route involves usin$ oil "hich is e(tracted from plant sources li'e -atropha li'e -atropha&& al$ae& tallo"s& tallo"s& other "aste oils& Ba!assu and Ba!assu and camelina to camelina to produce !ioSC4 *Bio derived de rived synthetic paraffinic 4erosene, !y crac'in$ and hydroprocessin$. hydroprocessin$. The $ro"in$ of al$ae to ma'e -et fuel is a promisin$ !ut still emer$in$ technolo$y. technolo$y. ompanies "or'in$ on al$ae -et fuel are Solazyme are Solazyme&& Ioney"ell 5C& Solena& Sapphire 6ner$y& 6ner$y& #mperium =ene"a!les& =ene"a!les& and A%uaflo" Bionomic orporation. orporation. niversities "or'in$ on al$ae -et fuel are Arizona State niversity and ranfield niversity )a-or investors for al$ae !ased SC4 research are Boein$& Boein$& Ioney"ell5C Ioney"ell5C&& Air
The second route involves processin$ solid !iomass solid !iomass usin$ pyrolysis usin$ pyrolysis to produce pyrolysis produce pyrolysis oil or oil or $asification to $asification to produce a syn$as "hich syn$as "hich is then processed into FT SC4 *FischerKTropsch *FischerKTropsch Synthetic Caraffinic 4erosene,. Future +roduction routes
Further research is !ein$ done on an alcoholto-et an alcoholto-et path"ay path"ay "here alcohols such as ethanol or ethanol or !utanol are !utanol are deo(y$enated and processed into -et fuels. #n addition& routes that use synthetic !iolo$y to directly create hydrocar!ons are !ein$ researched.
,. #-nt #-nte eti ticc Jet Jet Fue Fuell : A si$nificant effort is under "ay to certify FischerKTropsch *FT, Synthesized Caraffinic 4erosene *SC4, synthetic fuels for use in nited States and international aviation fleets. #n this effort is !ein$ led !y an industry co alition 'no"n as the ommercial Aviation Aviation Alternative Fuels F uels #nitiative *AAF#,& #nitiative *AAF#,& also supported !y a parallel initiative under "ay in the SAF& to certify FT fuel for use in all aviation platforms. The SAF has a stated $oal of certifyin$ its entire fleet for use "ith FT synthetic fuel !lends !y 211. The AAF# initiative aims to certify the civilian aviation fleet for FT synthetic fuels !lends !y 21& and has pro$rams under "ay to certify Iydroprocessed 6sters and Fatty Acids *I6FA, *I6FA, *a'a Iydro$enated =ene"a!le Jet *I=J,, SC4 !iofuels as early as 213. Iydroprocessed and hydrotreated have also !een used in lieu of hydro$enated. Both FT and I6FA !ased SC4s !lended "ith JC7 are specified in )#D;TD73133I.
Synthetic -et fuels sho" a reduction in pollutants po llutants such as S5(& <5(& particulate matter& and hydrocar!on emissions. #t is envisa$ed that usa$e of synthetic -et fuels "ill increase air %uality around airports "hich "ill !e particularly advanta$eous at inner city airports. •
•
Latar Air"ays !ecame Air"ays !ecame the first airline to operate a commercial fli$ht on a @:@ !lend of synthetic $as to Di%uid *TD, -et fuel and conventional -et fuel. The The natural $as derived synthetic 'erosene for the si(hour fli$ht from Dondon to ;oha came from Shells TD plant in Bintulu& )alaysia. The "orlds first passen$er aircraft fli$ht to use only synthetic -et fuel "as from Danseria #nternational Airport to Airport to ape To"n #nternational Airport on Airport on Septem!er 22& 21. The fuel "as developed !y Sasol. Sasol.
