Human Growth and Development - A Matter of Principles ID
350-053 Authors as Published
Novella J. J. Ruffin, Ruffin, Ph.D., Assist Assistant ant Professor Professor and Extension Extension Child Child Development Development Special Specialist, ist, Virginia State University, Virginia Dept. of Education Licensed School Psychologist and NCSP There is a set of principles that characterizes the pattern and process of growth and development. These principles or characteristics describe typical development as a predictable predictable and orderly orderly process; process; that that is, we we can predict predict how most childre children n will develop develop and that they will develop at the same rate and at about the same time as other children. Although there are individual differences in children's personalities, activity levels, and timing of developmental milestones, such as ages and stages, the principles and characteristics of development are universal patterns. Principles of Development
1. Development proceeds from the head downward. This is called the cephalocaudle principle. This principle describes the direction of growth and development. According to this principle, the child gains control of the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. Infants develop control of the head and face movements within the first two months after birth. In the next few months, they are able to lift themselves up by using their arms. By 6 to 12 months of age, infants start to gain leg control and may be able to crawl, stand, or walk. Coordination of arms always precedes coordination of legs. 2. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. This is the principle principle of proxim proximodistal odistal develop development ment that also describe describess the direction direction of development. This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child's arms develop develop before before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the the fingers fingers and toes. toes. Finger and and toe muscles muscles (used (used in fine fine motor motor dexterity) dexterity) are the last to develop in physical development. 3. Development depends on maturation and learning. Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities. Changes in the brain and and nervous system account largely largely for for maturation. maturation. These These changes changes in the brain and and nervous system help children children to to improve improve in thinking thinking (cognitive (cognitive)) and motor (physical) skills. Also, children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills (Readiness ). For example, a four-month-old cannot use language because the infant's brain has not matured enough to allow the child to talk. By two years old, the brain has developed further and with help from others, the child will have the capacity to say and understand words. Also, a child can't
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write or draw until he has developed the motor control to hold a pencil or crayon. Maturational patterns are innate, that is, genetically programmed. The child's environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the child's experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. A stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child to develop to his or her potential. Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex. Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example, learning relationships between things (how things are similar), or classification, is an important ability in cognitive development. The cognitive process process of learning learning how an apple apple and orange orange are alike begins begins with with the most most simplistic or concrete thought of describing the two. Seeing no relationship, a preschool preschool child child will describe describe the the objects objects according according to some some property property of the object, object, such as color. Such a response would be, "An apple is red (or green) and an orange is orange." The first level of thinking about how objects are alike is to give a description or functional relationship (both concrete thoughts) between the two objects. "An apple and orange are round" and "An apple and orange are alike because you you eat them" them" are typical typical respons responses es of three, three, four and five year olds. olds. As children develop further in cognitive skills, they are able to understand a higher and more complex relationship between objects and things; that is, that an apple and orange exist in a class called fruit. The child cognitively is then capable of classification. Growth and development is a continuous process. As a child develops, he or she adds to the skills already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills. Most children follow a similar pattern. Also, one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development. For example, in motor development, there is a predictable sequence of developments that occur before walking. The infant lifts and turns the head before he or she can turn over. Infants can move their limbs (arms and legs) before grasping an object. Mastery of climbing stairs involves increasing skills from holding on to walking alone. By the age of four, most children can walk up and down stairs with alternating feet. As in maturation, in order for children to write or draw, they must have developed the manual (hand) control to hold a pencil and crayon. Growth and development proceed from the general to specific. In motor development, the infant will be able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger. The infant's first motor movements are very generalized, undirected, and reflexive, waving arms or kicking before being able to reach or creep toward an object. Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements. There are individual rates of growth and development. Each child is different and the rates at which individual children grow is different. Although the patterns and sequences for growth and development are usually the same for all children, the rates at which individual children reach developmental stages will be different. Understanding this fact of individual differences in rates of development should cause us to be careful about using and relying on age and stage characteristics to describe or label children. There is a range of ages for any developmental task to take place. This dismisses the notion of the "average child". Some children will
walk at ten months while others walk a few months older at eighteen months of age. Some children are more active while others are more passive. This does not mean that the passive child will be less intelligent as an adult. There is no validity to comparing one child's progress with or against another child. Rates of development also are not uniform within an individual child. For example, a child's intellectual development may progress faster than his emotional or social development. An understanding of the principles of development helps us to plan appropriate activities and stimulating and enriching experiences for children, and provides a basis for for understanding understanding how to encourage encourage and and support support young young children's children's learning. learning.
Catalog Course Description:
The study of human growth and development across the life span with emphasis upon normal growth and milestones achieved in the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional systems. Educational and familial contexts are highlighted. Objectives:
1. Define and different differentiate iate among among the research research methods methods used used in human human growth growth and development, including cross-sectional, longitudinal and sequential designs. The student should also be able to define the major techniques used in descriptive statistics and the elements of basic experimental designs used in the study of developmental psychology. 2. Name and describe describe the following following theories theories of developm development: ent: a. Piaget's theory of intellectual development; b. Erickson's Erickson's psychoso psychosocial cial theory theory of personal personality; ity; c. maturational theory/stages (Gessell); d. Kohlberg's theory of moral development; e. behavioral and social learning theories; and f. others 3. List and and describe describe the major stages of human human growth growth and development. development. 4. State appropr appropriate iate behavioral behavioral expectat expectations ions and developm developmental ental tasks tasks associated associated with with each major stage of development. 5. State and discuss (pro and and con) the the basic issues issues of of the nature/nur nature/nurture ture controvers controversies. ies. Human Growth & Development introduces preservice educators, nursing students and others to lifespan development. During the semester students will become knowledgeable with the major theories of development that have been empirically studied. Topics covered include:
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Developmental theories, research methods, and history (Chapter l); l);
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Biology of development A. Biological basis of Development (Chapter (Chapter 2) 2) B. Prenatal Development (Chapter (Chapter 3) 3)
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Infancy and toddlerhood A. Overview (Chapter (Chapter 4) 4) B. Cognitive Development (Chapter (Chapter 5) 5) C. Emotional and Social Development (Chapter 6)
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Early childhood A. Physical and Cognitive Development (Chapter (Chapter 7) 7) B. Emotional and Social Development (Chapter (Chapter 8) 8)
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Middle childhood A. Physical and Cognitive Development (Chapter (Chapter 9) 9) B. Emotional and Social Development (Chapter (Chapter 10) 10)
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Adolescence A. Physical and Cognitive Development (Chapter (Chapter 11) 11) B. Emotional and Social Developement (Chapter (Chapter 12) 12)
VII. Early adulthood A. Physical and Cognitive Development (Chapter (Chapter 13) 13) B. Emotional and Social Development (Chapter (Chapter 14) 14) VIII. Middle adulthood A. Physical and Cognitive Development (Chapter 15) B. Emotional and Social Development (Chapter 16) IX.
Late adulthood A. Physical and Cognitive Development (Chapter 17) B. Emotional and Social Development (Chapter 18)
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Death, dying and bereavement (Chapter 19)
Because Human Growth & Development is a broad field, this is an introductory course and there is a large amount and variety of material to cover, the course's information has been divided into units consisting of 1 or 2 chapters per unit, each of which incorporates certain data-based instructional principles. The reading for each unit is found in the assigned chapter of the required text, and you will be provided with study questions to help you master the content and prepare for exams.
ITASC Principles:
The following are COE Conceptual Framework Principles (modified from INTASC statements). Not every principle will be addressed in every course but students and faculty should be aware of them all and the COE motto: Developing Professionals for Schools. (Teacher is the college student in training. Teacher could be any developing professional, a classroom teacher, a school counselor or school psychologist, etc.) 1. The teacher teacher understands understands the the central central concepts, concepts, tools tools of inquiry, inquiry, and structur structures es of the fields of knowledge he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students. 2. The teacher teacher understand understandss how children children learn learn and develop develop and provides provides learning learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social, and personal development. 3. The teacher teacher understands understands how how students students differ differ in their their approaches approaches to to learning learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners. 4. The teacher teacher understands understands and and uses a variety variety of instructional instructional strategies strategies to encourage encourage students' development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills. 5. The teacher teacher uses uses an underst understanding anding of of individual individual and and group group motivation motivation and behavior behavior to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. 6. The teacher teacher uses knowledge knowledge of effective effective verbal, verbal, nonverbal, nonverbal, and media media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom. 7. The teacher teacher plans plans instruction instruction based based upon upon knowledge knowledge of subject subject matter, matter, students, students, the the community, and curriculum goals. 8. The teacher teacher understands understands and and uses formal formal and and informal informal assessme assessment nt strategies strategies to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of the learner. 9. The teacher teacher is a reflect reflective ive practitioner practitioner who continually continually evaluates evaluates,, using qualitat qualitative ive and quantitative resources, the effects of his or her choices and actions on others and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally. 10. The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, families, businesses, and agencies in the larger community to support students' learning and well-being.
Human Learning and Development Human Learning and Development
Human Learning and Development The study of growth through learning and development can help us to know a child more systematically and thereby allowing us to be better mentors. As teachers, we are able to observe the student at various cross sectional stages of life that enables us to develop methods to assist them in understanding the world, as well as giving us the means to reach into their mind. Knowing more about growth through learning and development will help you to generate questions when talking and educating students that will deepen our knowledge of them; questions that otherwise might not have occurred. Like Piaget, Erikson maintained that children develop in a predetermined order and instead of focusing on cognitive maturity he was interested in how children socialize as it would affect their sense of self. Vygotsky differentiated between between our higher and lower mental functions conceiving our lower functions to be those that are genetically inherited while our higher functions develop through social interaction. Socialization and our perception of acceptance do have extreme impacts on our sense of self that really does determine our development and growth as was shown to me during my service learning experiences. Truly being in the classroom with students is what can make or break the future teacher as it is interacting with those young individuals that make the job not a job, job, but a life life path. path. I experienced experienced several several stages stages of development development to which which I had to step back and realign my perception as to accurately handle the situation. Being forced into a shell and reflecting anger is a protection device that adolescent's can't understand, but they use very well and through observing the same young girl on 3 separate occasions, I had realized that she had perfected the art of protection as to not let anyone close to her within her scope of existence. She seemed to remove her armor when sitting with with a group group of other young girls, as if she truly...
Child development that occurs from birth to adulthood was largely ignored throughout much of history. Children were often viewed simply as small versions of adults and little attention was paid to the many advances in cognitive abilities, language usage, and physical physical growth growth that occurs occurs during during childhood childhood and adolesce adolescence. nce.
Interest in the field of child development finally began to emerge early in the 20th-century, but it tended tended to focus focus on abnormal abnormal behavior. behavior. Eventual Eventually, ly, researchers researchers became became increasingl increasingly y interested in other topics including typical child development as well as the influences on development. An understanding of child development is essential, allowing us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early early adulthood. adulthood. Some of the major major theories theories of child developme development nt are known known as grand theories; they attempt to describe every aspect of development, often using a stage approach. Others are known as mini-theories; they instead focus only on a fairly limited aspect of development, such as cognitive or social growth. The following are just a few of the many child development theories that have been proposed proposed by theorist theoristss and researchers. researchers. More More recent recent theories theories outline outline the developme developmental ntal stages of children and identify the typical ages at which these growth milestones occur. Psychoanalytic Child Development Theories Sigmund Freud
The theories proposed by Sigmund Freud stressed the importance of childhood events and experiences, but almost exclusively focused on mental disorders rather that normal functioning. According to Freud, child development is described as a series of 'psychosexual stages.' In "Three Essays on Sexuality" (1915), Freud outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage involves the satisfaction of a libidinal desire and can later play a role role in adult adult personality. personality. If If a child does not successfully successfully complet completee a stage, stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a fixation that would later influence adult personality personality and behavior. Learn more more in this this article article on Freud’s stages of psychosexual development.. development Erik Erikson
Theorist Erik Erikson also proposed a stage theory of development, but his theory encompassed human growth throughout the entire human lifespan. Erikson believed that each stage of development was focused on overcoming a conflict. For example, the primary primary conflict conflict during during the adolescent adolescent period period involves involves establishi establishing ng a sense sense of personal personal identity. Success or failure in dealing with the conflicts at each stage can impact overall functioning. During the adolescent stage, for example, failure to develop an identity results in role confusion. Learn more about this theory in this article on Erikson’s stages of psychosocial psychos ocial developme development nt.. Cognitive Child Development Theories
Theorist Jean Piaget suggested that children think differently than adults and proposed a stage theory of cognitive development. He was the first to note that children play an active role in gaining knowledge of the world. According to his theory, children can be thought of as "little scientists" who actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world. Learn more in this article on Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. development. Behavioral Child Development Theories
Behavioral theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences behavior and are based upon the theories of theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B. F. Skinner. These theories deal only with observable behaviors. Development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments, stimuli and reinforcement. This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no consideration to internal thoughts or feelings. Instead, it focuses purely on how experience shapes who we are. Learn more about these behavioral theories in these articles on classical conditioning and operant conditioning. conditioning. Social Child Development Theories John Bowlby
There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowbly proposed proposed one of the earliest earliest theories theories of social developm development. ent. Bowlby Bowlby believed believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development and continue to influence social relationships throughout life. Learn more in this overview of attachment theory.. theory Albert Bandura
Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory. theory. According to this theory of child development, children learn new behaviors from observing other people. people. Unlike behaviora behaviorall theories, theories, Bandura Bandura believed believed that external external reinforce reinforcement ment was not the only way that people learned new things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment could also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information. Lev Vygotsky
Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has gone on to become very influential, especially in the field of education. Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences. His sociocultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at large were responsible for the development of higher order functions. Final Thoughts
As you can see, some of psychology's best known thinkers have developed theories to help explore and explain different aspects of child development. Today, contemporary psychologists psychologists often draw draw on a variety variety of theories theories and perspect perspectives ives in order order to understand understand how kids grow, behave and think.
Human growth is based on biological events that cause you to grow physically that naturally occur during the early stages of your life. Developmental growth, however, is the product of psychological psychological and social social growth, growth, emphasized emphasized by environmental environmental and and individual individual behavioral behavioral factors, factors, sometimes sometimes more more simply simply referre referred d to as maturity. maturity. While While both both of these these
natural processes are vastly different, both growth and development are closely related steps in producing healthy adults.
Human Growth From early childhood until adolesence, or sometimes early adulthood, growth plates on the ends of long bones, called epiphyseal plates, allow bones to grow. This occurs through osteoclasts and osteoblasts breaking up old bone tissue and rebuilding new bone. It only happens during early human growth and will stop after the epiphyseal plates close. As bone grows, so does tissue and muscle throughout your body. While bone growth ceases early in life, muscles will continue to grow through strength training. Job Australia 5 urgent open positions. Apply now! Job Australia jobrapido.com/j jobrapi do.com/job+aust ob+australia ralia Sponsored Links
Time Frame Several psychology and sociology theorists have coined theories of human development. One of the most widely taught theories is Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages of development. Just as human growth takes place continually at different rates for children and adolescents, developmental stages follow similar patterns. For instance, children will grow throughout childhood, but one child may grow at a slower rate than another. Likewise, development will eventually take place in children and adolescents but these stages may come at different rates for different children. A large difference between physical physical growth growth and development development,, however, however, is that physical physical growth growth from bone largely largely stops at some point. Adults will likely lose and gain weight through fat and muscle growth and loss but will not grow taller after growth plates close. Development continues throughout life, from childhood, adolescence and adulthood, until death.
Developmentally Challenged According to Erikson's theory, successful completion of each stage of development is necessary to move on to the next stage of life development. Unfortunately, if a stage of development is never completed, that individual may not complete a healthy life-long development. For example, in early stages of life, a child learns competence sometime between the ages of six and 12. If this child's competence is hindered for some reason, he may have difficulty graduating to the next developmental stage, which is identity versus role confusion. This adolescent could grow into adulthood feeling inferior and lacking competence, which is often crucial for successful, healthy living.
Development Stages Early life stages are based on the development of the sense of self. These stages involve trusting others, self control, shame, competence and self faith. As a person progresses from childhood to adulthood, each stage may last for a longer period. For example, the first developmental stage of life, which involves trust and mistrust, lasts from birth until approximately 1 year old. However, the fourth developmental stage of competency and inferiority could last from age 6 to age 12.
Adulthood Stages Stages six through eight of human development occur during adulthood. Each of these three stages either occur in early adulthood, mid-adulthood or late adulthood. Early adulthood focuses on intimate relationships outside the family. During this time, you will either commit to long-term relationships or avoid relationships and commitment. Midadulthood concentrates on furthering your career and raising families. Late adulthood centers on preparing for the end of life and either embracing this stage or living with regret on the choices made throughout life.
Read more: http://www.livestrong.com/article/473407-difference-between-human-growthdevelopment/#ixzz1xIw3r8r0
