Operating System

Chapter 1

Understanding and usage of Operating System Structure : 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

Introduction Objectives What is an Operating System? History of Operating System Operating System Concepts

1.0 Introduction Without software, a computer is basically a useless lump of metal. With its software, a computer can store, process and retrieve information and engage in many other valuable activities to earn its keep. Computer software can be divided roughly into two kinds: System program, which manage the operation of the computer itself, and application programs, which perform the actual work the user wants. The most fundamental system program is Operating System, which controls all the computer resources and provides the base upon which the application program can be written. A modern computer system consists of one or more processors, some main memory, disk, printers, network interfaces and other input/output devices. It is all in all, a complex system. Writing programs correctly, is an extremely difficult job. If every programmer had to be concerned with how disk drives work, and with all things that could go wrong when reading a disk, it is unlikely that many programs could be written at all. Some way had to be found to shield programmers from the complexity of the hardware. The way that has evolved gradually is to put a layer of software on top of bare hardware to manage all parts of the system. This layer of software is the O p eratin g System.

1

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The situation is shown in the following figure. At the bottom hardware, which

Banking System

Airline Reservation

Web Browser

Compilers

Editors

Command Interpreter

Application Programs System Software

Operating System

Hardware

Next comes primitive software that directly controls these devices. This software is

In this layer Input / Output devices are controlled by loading values into special

Finally above the system programs come the application programs. These programs

1.1 Objectives: At the end of this unit you should be able to define Operating System

\u2022

Trace the history of Operating System

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1.2 What is an Operating System An Operating system is a program that controls the execution of application

Convenience : It makes computer more convenient to use

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Efficiency : It allows the computer system resources to be used in an efficient

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manner Ability to solve: It should be constructed in such a way as to permit the

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effective development, testing and introduction of new system functions without at the same time interfacing with service. The Operating system typically provides services in the following areas : Program Creation: Operating system services editors and debuggers, to

\u2022

assist programmer in creating programs.

Program Execution: Program execution needs instructions and data to be

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loaded in to main menu, Input / Output devices and files to be initialized and other resources to be prepared. The operating system handles these all tasks for the user. Access to Input / Output devices: Each Input / Output device requires its

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own peculiar set of instructions of controlsignals

for

operation.

Controlled access to files: Operating system provides protection mechanisms

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to controlled access to files System Access: Operating System controls access to the system as a whole

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and to specific system resources.



























System to grant request of an application errors and so on. In each case,

•

Accounting : A good Operating System collects usage statistics for various

resources and monitors performance parameters such as response time, which can be used for billing purposes on a multi-user system. Operating System as Resource Manager:

A computer is a set of resources, the operating system is responsible for managing

Operating System is nothing more than the computer program. This provides

1.3 History of Operating System: •

First three digital computers

were designed by English Mathematician

Charles Babbage in 1792-1871. It was purely mechanical design. •

After Babbage’s efforts little progress was made in constructing digital computers. In (1945-1955)

First Generation Computers with Vacuum

tubes and plug boards were evolved. In these days a single group of people

designed, built, programmed, operated and maintained each machine. Programming was done in Machine Language. •

Second Generation (1955-65) Transistors and Batch System. Here for the

first time between the programmers and maintenance persons, T ransistors



























room batch system was to collect a tray full of jobs in the Input / Output room and then read them onto a magnetic tape just to reduce the wasted time. •

Third Generation (1965-1980) Integrated Chips and Multiprogramming

In this generation,

Integrated circuits were used, providing a major

Job3

While one job was waiting for Input/Output to complete, another job could be

Another major feature in Third Generation System was the concept of time sharing, in which each user has an On-line terminal. As multiprogramming

allows the processor to handle multiply and batch jobs at a time, the processor



























Program A

Run

Program B

Wait

Combined

Run A

•

Fourth

Wait

Run

Run B

Generation

Wait

Run

Wait

Wait

Run A

(1980-present):

Run

Run B Personal

Wait Computers:

With the

development of LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuits, chips containing

(Large Personal Computers). Usually they are connected together by

hardware. An interesting development that began during middle 1980’s is the growth of

1.5 Operating System Concepts: Operating Systems are among the most complex pieces of software. Five major achievements in the development of Operating System are •

Process

•

Memory Management

•

Scheduling and Resource Management

•

Information protection and security





























•

Processes : It is somewhat more general term than job. Process is a program

that is in execution. Three major lines of computer system development

The concept of process provides the foundation process consists of the following three components. •

An executable program

•

The associated data needed by the program

•

Execution context of program

Execution context includes the information that the Operating System needs to manage the process and that the processor needs to properly execute the process. If two processes A and B exist in a portion of the main memory, each process is





























•

Process Isolation : Operating System must prevent independent process from

interfacing with data and memory of each other. •

Automatic Allocation and Management : Programs should be dynamically

allocated memory across the memory is required. Operating System can achieve efficiency by assigning memory to jobs only as needed. •

Support of Modular Programming : Programmers should be able to define

program modules and to create, destroy and alter the size of modules dynamically. •

Protection and Access Control : Sharing of memory at any level of memory

hierarchy. Operating System must allow portions of memory to be accessible in various ways by various users. •

Long term storage : Many users and application require means for storing

information for extended periods. Operating Systems meet these requirements with the concept of Virtual Memory

•

Information protection and security : Operating System must support a

variety of protection and security mechanism to computer system and the





























policy enforces restrictions concerning which users have access to which classifications •

Access Control : Is concerned with regulating user access to the total system,

•

Information flow control : Regulates the flow of data within the system and its delivery to users

•

Scheduling and Resource Management :

A key task of the Operating

system is manage the various resources available to it (main memory space,

•

Fairness : Typically, we would like all processes that are competing for the

•

Differential responsiveness : On the other hand, the operating system may





























short-term scheduler, or dispatcher, to pick one. A common strategy is to give each

System Structure As more and more features have been added to operating systems and as the





























Chapter 1 - EXERCISE True or False

1. Operating System is a System Software

Fill in the blanks

1. Process is a program that is in ______________

manner































Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION TO DOS Disk Operating System manages your computer’s resources. The part of Disk

Interpreter. However, I will use the term command prompt to refer to it since the

prompt is its visible part that you use to communicate with the kernel. More precisely, the

The Disk Operating System shell is actually an interface between you and the































any boot record or system files. If drive A: does not have these it goes to the drive C:,

A>_ or C>_ will be displayed along with a flashing cursor depending upon whether

MS-DOS is a command-driven operating system. This means that there are a set of































The file name must contain one to eight characters. The extension is optional and, if

CHAPTER.TXT

NOTES.DAT

MATH.HW

SCIENCE.RPT

DO_TODAY

EXPENSES.$$

Letter.Jan

Personal

Off_Jan.10

DATA….DAT is illegal because of the two periods. The file name and extension are separated by a period, which makes the period an illegal character in DOS file names. NEW.DATA is illegal because of extension DATA is more than three characters

DOSFILENAME.DAT is illegal because the file name portion of a DOS file name can not exceed eight characters. CON.DAT is illegal because CON is a DOS device name. DOS reserves several































DIR/W The above displays the files and directory entries across the screen

A>DIR *.EXE You will see all the files having extension .EXE will be displayed. A>DIR S*.EXE You will see all the files having primary name which starts with S and with extension .EXE will be displayed. C:\>DIR A: is the command from drive C to see directory of disk in drive A. C:\>DIR C: is the command to see the directory of C:. C:\>DIR *. is the command to see the names of just the sub directories present in the root directory of the hard disk C. C:\> DIR FILENAME.* is the command to display the files having the same primary name (say FILENAME) but different extension.































2. ASSIGN -- Changes the name of a disk drive Format ASSIGN A = C ASSIGN A=C;B=C Assign 3. ATTRIB – Displays and changes read-only and archive attributes of a disk file Format ATTRIB +R ambig ATTRIB –R ambig

4. BACKUP – Makes a floppy-disk backup of your hard disk Format BACKUP C:\*.* A:/S BACKUP C:\ambig A:/S/M 5. BREAK – Allows program termination if you type ^ Break Format BREAK ON BREAK = ON BREAK

































Format DATE DATE 6-9-89 11. DEL (OR ERASE) – Deletes disk files Format DEL PNAME.EXT DEL ambig 12. DISKCOMP – Compares two floppy disks Format DISKCOMP A: B: DISKCOMP A: A: 13. DISKCOPY – Duplicates a complete floppy disk Format DISKCOPY A: B: DISKCOPY A: A:

































23. MEM – Displays amount of total and available memory Format MEM MEM /PROGRAM 24. MODE – Configures the video screen and serial ports Format MODE COM1:2400,N,8,1,P MODE LPT1:=COM1

25. MORE – Stops scrolling when the screen is filled Format |MORE MORE

































Format RESTORE A: C:\*.* /S RESTORE A: C:\*.* /S/N

33. SET – Changes and displays the current state of DOS features Format SET COMSPEC=C:\COMMAND.COM SET SET SPOOLER = 48K 34. SORT – Sorts lines of a text file Format SORT FILE2 DIR|SORT /R+10|MORE

































VERIFY = ON VERIFY 43. VOL – Displays the disk name and serial number Format VOL VOL A: 44. XCOPY – Makes backup copies of files Format XCOPY C:\DOS\*.* /M XCOPY C:\DOS\*.* /A

































Chapter 3

WINDOWS NT AND WINDOWS’98 Structure : 3.0

Introduction

3.1

Objectives

3.2

What is Windows NT ?



































•

Menu Bar : Contains menus with related commands and options that help

you control the window and its contents. •

Control Menu Button :- Contains menu commands that help you to control



































WindowsNT



































NT is easily portable to variety of platforms because of the modular nature of Windows NT architecture.

3.3 Windows NT features and Architecture



































•

New Technology File System (NTFS) introduced by Windows NT

•

Virtual File Allocation Table (VFAT) introduced by Windows 95

5. Security :

Windows NT’s security features are mandatory logou procedure,



































•

POSIX Complaint application

•

Operating System/2 1.x character based programs New 32-bit application





























































































































































three character extension like .doc file and size refers to size of file in bytes, kilo bytes or mega bytes as appropriate.

















































user privileges Enter.and As aexistence power, Go ofto other keeps programs a test of folders on youryou computer. have gone Most previously. common To Commands access on right one click of those, menu click are: the drop down list and choose the path. You can also access go to by using Ctrl + G is explorer.

























click the folder, menu. object, other paste type Similarly is from use to the drag edit the Name. if mouse menu. the you items You are to Other can creating highlight from always is one to Drag aall Place folder rename the the to objects on items other adesktop, folder from you there by want one choose choosing areplace to various move new to and drag or then folder rename copy. destinations. another. from from file Toright menu ensure click orthat right menu. theclick objects menu youand are typing dragging new are name copied and not moved, you should hold down the Ctrl Key while you are dragging.

























pops it is compressed up offering and a special sent to setaof folder options called to help recycle you bin decide thathow is, itto ismove not removed the file or from your folder. hard drive. Use Recycle the following Bin is a steps goodto intermediate move a file place or folder. to keep files you are pretty sure you want to delete. If you want to get it back, you can always open the recycle bin and use its restore option to get the object.

















































options pertaining to the Objects at hand. The same options are available from main menu also, but are more conveniently reachable with right Click. A good example of right click item is task bar.

























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assign a key combination that will run the short cut from any where. Example : to jump to My Computer, With out having to first minimize all your other windows.

























supports many settings. and interface take different aUnless settings, second types you snapshot. soof know that printers different what With from you two desk are many profiles, top doing, different appearances you it iscan best printer choose tocan keep manufacturers. be which the associated default Some of printing settings. configuration with different features users toof use NT logging atinclude system inlocal start to theand up. system. This remote isYou useful can printing, when also specify you print want “Roaming” spooling to add or with print job monitoring remove hardware configuration andwhich forwarding, permits printer your desk security top appearance and foreignto client be available support to forevery operatingmachine system such on your as Macintosh hardware.and UNIX

























sort of “Mission Programs adding andtoremoving add Central” them. test parts Double page forofNT appears NT click Workstation. Workstation the inAccessibility printers Some itself. Window, of Double Options the settings click Click icon, once the behind you on Add/Remove will thethe find test icons options pagecan 2. the Select Start -> Settings -> Printers be reached for programs addingicon sound from inprint other to thethe Control job directions, usual andPanel. visual thenbut select cues, The others Add/Remove adding document can visual be reached -> function cues pause to only has theby two sound way parts, of cues, the one and Control on 3. Double Click a printer installed in your computer Panel.tabthe making each : key board and mouse easier to use for those of us with dexterity problems. Select properties from print Not all these 4. settings are obvious, so when youmenu come across one that is unclear, right

click the text and then click the what is this? button for more information. After you have made your settings, do not leave until you click the General tab to check the Automatic Reset section. Put a check mark next to Turn Off Accessibility Features After Idle to turn off the options if the computer is not used for the period specified in the Minutes box. Clear the check box if you want to make the selected options permanent.

























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•

























thethe In choices Add Fonts for viewing dialog icons box, you andcan lists, specify you will thefind drive anand option directory called List where Fonts the by font(s) similarity.If reside(s). Ifthere you select is onethe or List more Fonts TrueType by Similarity or PostScript optionfonts and then at the select location a font you inspecify, the dropwill they down show boxup at the in the topList of the of Fonts FontsBox. folder, Highlight the other the fonts fontwill or fonts line up you inwant terms toof install their degree and click of similarity. the OK button. Before you make a commitment, you can right click any of the font names and select Open (or just double click). A window will open with a complete view of the font in question. TrueType fonts that you may have located elsewhere can be moved in to this folder. Fonts do not have to be physically located in the WINNT/Fonts folder to be recognized by NT Workstation. You can make a shortcut to a font in another folder and put the shortcut in the Fonts folder. The shortcut is all you need for the font to be installed.

























has a similar monitors, look but when a very you different click a upper feel from textWindows’95. line in your e-mail, Point at the a desk browser top icon popsand up a hand appears. on theThe adjacent icon ismonitor immediately selected and you have to click only once to activate the short cut. The Active desktop gives you the ease of use of a web browser. Internet explorer 4 steps with Windows’98 so that many windows have a web browser feel. You will find new navigation buttons and add bars, making it easy for you to browse files on browse web sites, with out having to change windows or programs. The start menu has new favorites choice, so you can quickly go to your favorite web site and customize the task bar by adding a windows tool bar. Other new features are :

























one perform and program receive many at a data time. other broadcast Ittasks uses through a graphical of webout pages, user yourmultimedia interface(GUI) work. The components streams which and allows of data windows you packets to use the pictures screen include: from and TV graphics, stations instead and networks of having to type out long commands to operating system.

































































































in windows applications. Menu commands are organized in a logical groups. Different menu options and different menus will appear within the menu depending on the task you are currently performing. Items on menu bar, are organized to help you find the command you want. Example all commands that relate to editing functions such as cut, copy and paste are found in the edit menu.

























keys generally commands youcombine, often use.Alt, YouCtrl canor display Shift keys, a short with cutamenu letterby key. right If a clicking short keyan isobject available, such as theitdesk is tested top, window, on the pull folder down or file menu andto so right on. The of commands the command. that a short cut menu displays depend on the item and its location. These menus are often referred to as pop-up menus.

























Documents that contain (or preview button move Microsoft help you willahead Web information only pane) site work through iscontaining always as are far pages represented visible. back information you as If have the you byfirst a viewed, hid and document page the help left in you for the with pane, viewed order a question the mark. When you click icon when you Windows on have changes a you document, viewed 98. opened to read them the its contents “show”. Windows Click display HelpShow, Program in the and preview the left pane pane on the left Forward screen. reappears

Options

























options in actual box. Some simply ask you to confirm an operation before it is executed. Others ask you to choose a drive, folder, filename, type, network path or any of numerous options. Some components of dialog box are:

























Back Space Shift+Home End

Deletes the Selects the next character character to the inleft the of direction the insertion of thepoint arrow

Shift+Arrow Key Home

Moves the selected Pastes insertiontext point from to the thebeginning clip boardof the line

Arrow Keys

Moves the insertion point one character in the direction of

Moves the Copies the insertion selected text point toto the the clip end board of the line

























when you created with save your it. When Word you processor, save a document, “Spread Sheets” those documents for files created will be with saved your inspread “My Documents” sheet software folder andunless so forth. you instruct the program otherwise with or without these folder, you may want to create move folders for your files.

























st Quarter” or “Letters” on the and that would tell you to what in it. You might checkwrite spaces, the fortitle “1 your bar folder’s , Address name. boxYou , or may the folder nottab, use icon anyin ofthe the Folder following pane

to put in it,characters, determine and help you which which findfolder your have paperwork special is open.meaning later. Cheating to the operating folders in system: Windows’98 \ / : * ?is“ < > similar.

!.

























drives-and move Each howtime around files and youthe press folders window Tab, areto it organized, cycles highlight to the To theopen next ion you My window. want. Computer, Release Pressclick enthe ter its Alt toicon open Keyon the desktop. theThe when highlighted the icons titlethat ofdrive the appear window or in folder. the you My want computer to see window appearsvary in the from switching computer to computer.window. Depending on what components are installed on your computer.

























the window looks asFolder it would have Windows 95. In order toand change the function of the Web Make close page the the selections (point to Options select you in want dialog icons, tosingle box haveand your click open folders to open the Display files desktop and Properties folders act and orbox look run folder window, you need tosuits set the options. items). the instead, way Click that where best Classic you can Style you. setfolder ifThen options you want click tothe customize OKfolder to return and the to your display. thedesktop Folder To have Options to work youras they did dialog desktop box. in resemble Windows the 95Windows (single click 95 desktop, selects icons, selectdouble-click Use Windows opens Classic files and folders or runs items). To individually specify the settings you want to use, choose Custom and then click S etti n gs.

























dialog box without saving yourfolder settings, pply to save yourfolder settings Forward Go to the next on or theArecently opened list Up Cut

without closingGo the box. in the folder hierarchy updialog one level Remove a selected item from the folder and store it in

























Views the down arrow next to views toWhen view, follow steps1 and 2 Detail of “Changing the Appearance of the Folder Window”. Undo Undo the last(Click action you performed select one of these views from a list or choose to view you click Next, the wizard offers a set of graphic files that are found in the Windows Delete Remove a as selected the folder a Webitem Pagefrom the folder and send it to directory. Most are wallpaper artwork.



























click Browse. From the Look In drop down list, select the drive and folder where your picture files are stored. Then select the name of the file and click Open. •

Select the colors for the text that appears beneath your icons from the Icon

•

Click Next. The wizard confirms your choice of picture

•

Click Finish (Click Back if you need to return to a previous step)

Selecting Files and Folders Before you can perform an operation on a file or folder,

you must select (or highlight) the item so Windows knows which one you want to use. To select files or folders : •

Single file or folder Point to the file or folder icon, or use the arrow keys to

move the highlighting to the file or folder icon you want to select. •

Multiple contiguous files or folders Point to the first file or folder icon, hold

down the Shift key, and point to the last file or folder icon. This method

•

Multiple non-contiguous files or folders Point to the first file or folder icon,

hold down the Ctrl key, and point to each of the additional file or folder icons you want. •

All the file or folder icons in the Window Choose Edit, Select All from the

menu or press Ctrl + A •

All except the file or folder icons you have currently selected . Choose Edit, Invert Selection from the menu

Moving Files and Folders Windows 98 lets you move files and folders to different

Folders or different drives. You can do this by copying and pasting the files or Folders, or



























•

Open the drive or folder window where the file or folder is stored. This is the Source Window

•

Open the drive or folder window where you want to put the file or folder. This is the destination window

•

If the windows you have open are for folders on the same drive, you can just drag the file or folder icon from the source window to the destination window.

To move files or folders using the cut and paste method : •

Open the drive or folder window where the file or folder is stored

•

Select the files or folders you want to move

•

Choose Edit, Cut from the menu or click the Cut button on the toolbar. This

•

Open the drive or folder window where you want to put the file or folder

•

Choose Edit, Paste from the menu or click the Paste button on the toolbar

Copying Files and Folders Copying files and folders to different folders or different

drives is similar to moving files and folders. To copy files and folders using the drag-anddrop method : •

Open the drive or folder window where the file or folder is stored. This is the source window

•

Open the drive or folder window where you want to put the file or folder. This is the destination window.

•

If the windows you have open are for folders on different drives, you can just drag the file or folder icon from the source window to the destination window

Deleting Files and Folders When you delete files or folders from your hard disk or

a Network drive, they are removed from their current window and placed in the Recycle



























•

Press the Delete key, click the Delete button on the toolbar, or choose File, Delete from the menu

•

A windows 98 alert box appears, asking if you are sure you want to send the

Renaming Files and Folders To give a different name to a file or folder •

Select the file or folder you want to rename

•

Choose File, Rename from the menu, or click on the icon with the right

•

Enter the text for the new name

•

Press Enter

Creating Shortcuts: Shortcuts provide you with easy access to files and programs.

Once you place a shortcut icon on the desktop, you can click that icon to start up a program or open file or folder that you use frequently. To create a shortcut from My Computer : •

Open My Computer

•

Select the drive, folder, or file for which you want to create the document

•

Choose File, Create Shortcut, or right-click and choose Create Shortcut from the Shortcut menu

•

A copy of the icon appears in the window with the words “Shortcut To” in front of the name. Drag that icon from the folder on to the desktop

Finding Files What do you do if you are not sure of a file name or the folder where it is stored. My Computer has a Find feature to help you search for the file. •

Open the My Computer Window



























•

In the Named box, enter the name of the file you want to find. If you do not

Options, Case Sensitive from the menu if you want to find a file that is in

uppercase but not find a file with the same name that is in lowercase •

The Look In box should already show the name of the drive you selected

•

To search through all the folders in the specified drive, check Include Sub folders

•

If you want to look in a specific folder, click Browse to open the Browse for Folder dialog box and select the folder you want to search.

•

Click Find Now

•

When the search is complete, a list of files or folders matching your search

•

Click New Search to clear the search criteria so you can search for another file

You can also search for files based on the created or last modified date : •

Follow steps1 through 7 for finding a file, but do not enter a file name in the Named box

•

Click the Date tab of the Find dialog box

•

Select Find all files. From the drop-down list select Created, Modified or Last Accessed

•

Choose one of three options. Select B etw een (and enter the starting and



























The Recycle Bin What is the Recycle Bin ? The Recycle Bin is a temporary storage area on your hard disk (drive C). When you

Windows Explorer The Explorer window is divided in to two panes. On the left is

the list of drives and folders. The right pane displays the contents of the selected drive or folder. (same as in Windows NT) At the top of the window is the Title Bar, which tells you the name of the Window you have open. You move the window by dragging the title bar. Beneath the title bar is the menu bar, which contains commands that you may give to the program. Below the menu bar is the Tool bar. If your toolbar is not showing, Choose View, Toolbars, Standard Buttons from the menu.

The address bar appears below the toolbar. To turn the display of the address bar on

At the bottom of the screen is the Status Bar. The status bar displays the number of

Choose one of the following to place in the left pane of the Explorer Window : •

Search When the Search Explorer bar appears, type a phrase or word you

want to look for on the Web, Usenet News, or both (choose which from the Search list box). To select an Internet search engine, click on your choice in





























•

Favorites

When the Favorites Explorer bar appears, it displays a list of

folders or Web pages that you added to your Favorites folder. These locations are the ones you visit most frequently •

History A list of your most recently visited Web Pages appears in the History

Explorer bar, separated by the days on which you visited them. The number of days displayed is set in the Internet Options of Internet Explorer •

Channels The Channels Explorer bar displays a list of channel categories.

When you click a category, the available channels in that category are listed. A Channel is a Web site to which you can subscribe to receive information •

All Folders The All Folders Explorer bar is the default view. It shows the

hierarchy of drives and folders on your system •

None Choose None to remove the Explorer bar from the Explorer Window

Changing Displays In order to change the functionality of the folder window, you

need to set the folder options. •

Choose View, Folder Options from the Explorer menu, or choose Settings, Folder Options from the Start Menu. The Folder Options dialog box appears

•

Click the General tab, if it is not already displayed

•

Select Web style to make the folder and your desktop look and work like a





























o

Active Desktop If you want your desktop to look and act like a Web

Page, click Enable all web-related content on my desktop. Click Customize

to close the Folder Options dialog box and open the

Display Properties dialog box o

Browse folders as follows

Each time you open a folder in My

Computer, that folder will open as another separate window if you

open each folder in the same window. o

View Web Content in folders To display all folders as Web Pages so

that you can add information, change fonts, or set background, click For all folders with HTML content. o

Click items as follows To set the number of clicks required to select

or open items, select either Single-click to open an item (point to select) or Double-Click to an open an item (single-click to select) •

Click OK to save your settings and close the dialog box, Can cel to





























The Explorer Toolbar Buttons Click

To

Back

Return to the previously opened folder

Forward

Go to the next folder on the recently opened folder list

Up Cut

in the Windows Clipboard Store a duplicate of a selected item in the Windows Clipboard Place a duplicate of Clipboard contents in the folder

Delete

to the Recycle Bin Display the Properties dialog box for the selected item Cycle between the Large Icon, Small Icon, List

Searching for a File Use the Explorer to search a drive, to find a file or folder, or to

Search for a computer by name if you have a network. To find a file : •

Open the Explorer

•

Select the drive you want to search





























•

If you want to search for a file that contains specific text, enter some of that text in the Containing text box

•

The Look in box should already show the name of the drive you selected

•

To search through all the folders in the specified drive, check Include Subfolders

•

If you want to look in a specific folder, click Browse to open the Browse for Folder dialog box and select the folder you want to search

•

Click Find Now

•

When the search is complete, a list of files or folders matching your search

•

Click New Search to clear the search criteria so you can search for another file

Selecting Files and Folders Before you can perform an operation on a file or folder,

you must select (or highlight) the item so Windows knows which one you want to use. To select files or folders : •

Single file or folder Point to the file or folder icon, or use the arrow keys to

move the highlighting to the file or folder icon you want to select •

Several files or folders that are together Point to the first file or folder icon,

hold down the Shift key, and point to the last file or folder icon. This method





























Moving Files and Folders There are two ways to move files and folders to different

Folders or different drives. One method is called drag and drop. •

From the All Folders pane, open the drive or folder where the file or folder you want to move is stored by clicking on the drive or folder icon

•

Drag the file or folder icon from the Contents pane to the drive or folder icon

The second method is to use cut and paste : •

From the All Folders pane, open the drive or folder where the file or folder you want to move is stored

•

From the Contents pane, select the file file or folder you want to move

•

Choose Edit, Cut from the menu or click the Cu t button on the toolbar. This

•

In the All Folders pane, open the drive or folder where you want to put the file or Folder

•

Choose Edit, Paste from the menu or click the Paste button on the toolbar. The contents of the Clipboard appear in the folder or drive

Copying Files and Folders Copying files and folders to different folders or different

drives is similar to moving. To do this using the drag and drop method :































Deleting Files and Folders: When you delete files or folders from your hard disk or

a network drive, they are removed from their current folder and placed in the Recycle Bin. If necessary, you can recover them from the Recycle Bin To delete a file or folder : •

Select the files or folders to be deleted

•

Press the Delete key, click the Delete button on the toolbar, or choose File, Delete from the menu

•

A Windows 98 alert box appears, asking if you are sure you want to send the selected files or folders to the Recycle Bin. If you are, select Yes. If not, select No and the operation will cease.

Renaming Files and Folders To give different name to a file or folder : •

Select the file or folder you want to rename

•

Choose File, Rename from the menu, or click the icon with the right mouse































File Names Files needed to run programs are generally installed on your hard disk

when you install the programs. You create new files in your application programs when

File Creation Date and Time When you first save a file, Windows automatically

records the date and time that you saved it.When you open the file again and make

File Attributes: There are four attributes that can be assigned to files : •

Read-Only You can open a read-only file and read it or print it, but you can not change it or delete it. This protects the original file from being changed.

•

Archive Some programs use this option to determine which files are to be































The Properties dialog box provides you with information about the file : •

File name

•

Type (of file)

•

Location (what drive and folder it is in)

•

Size (in kilobytes and actual number of bytes)

•

MS-DOS name (includes extension)

•

Created (date and time the file was created)

•

Modified (date and time the file was last modified)

•

Accessed (date the file was last opened)

•

Attributes (Read-only, Archive, Hidden, System)

Editing an Existing File Type To edit an existing file type : •

Choose View, Folder Options from the My Computer or Windows Explorer































•

Select the File Types tab

•

Under Registered file types, select the file type you want to remove

•

Click Remove

•

Windows requests a confirmation that you want to remove the file type. Click Yes

•

Click Close

Changing the Icon for a File Type Every file type has an icon associated with it. To

change the icon for an existing file type : •

Choose View, Folder Options from the My Computer or Windows Explorer

•

Select the File Types tab































To restore your files : •

Choose Programs, Accessories, System Tools, Backup from the Start menu

•

When the Microsoft Backup dialog box appears, click Restore backed up files and then click OK

•

The Restore Wizard opens. In the Restore from box, select the type of

•

The Restore Wizard locates all backup files at the indicated location. To select

•

After a short logging process, the What to restore screen appears. This screen

































correct one before inserting it into your tape or floppy drive. If you used a network drive, be sure that drive is available. Then click OK •

When the operation is complete, Microsoft Backup alerts you. Click OK

•

The Restore Progress dialog box appears showing the status of the restore and the number of files and bytes restored. Click OK

•

The Microsoft Backup window appears. To close the window, choose Job, Exit or click the Close button

































































The Control Panel contains a set of icons indicating the different areas that you can

•

Set Accessibility Options Some disabilities can make computer operation

difficult. Accessibility options provide ways to adjust computer hardware to make computing easier for impaired operators. •

Add New Hardware Windows 98 detects most new hardware automatically.

This capability is referred to as the plug and play feature of Windows 98.

































•

Change Settings for Multimedia Devices If you are using audio or video

devices with your computer, you adjust the settings for those devices through the Control Panel. •

Set or Change Password Protect your computer from unauthorized people by

assigning passwords. •

Change Regional Settings If you are working outside the United States, you

can change the standard settings for how currency, numbers, dates and times appear. •

Modify Internet Settings Specify where your temporary Internet files are

































•

Choose Settings, Control Panel from the Start menu and then click the Display icon, or right-click the desktop and choose Properties from the pop-

up menu •

When the Display Properties dialog box appears, select the Screen Saver tab

•

From the Screen Saver drop-down list, select a screen saver. A sample



































Active Desktop Arranging Icons When shortcuts are added to the Desktop, they are not arranged

neatly. You can control, or arrange the appearance of icons on the Desktop.



































Wallpaper Wallpaper makes your desktop interesting and fun. To select a wallpaper

for your desktop background : •

Open the Display Properties dialog box



































•

Click Apply to see how the desktop will look with the pattern or wallpaper you selected

•

Click OK to accept your choice and close the dialog box



































•

Click Next

•

The Select Program Folder dialog box appears. From the listing in Select folder to place shortcut in, select a folder where the new program logically



































enters asterisks in the text box. Click OK. Windows may ask you to confirm the password by entering it again. If so, type it and click OK. Then your desktop appears. Setting Up a Password To set up a Windows password :





























































































































































4.4.2 History 4.1.2 4.3.2 Tree Logging Structure of InUNIX 4.1.3 S 4.3.3 4.4.3 Di Popularity hel rect l ori esand Success of UNIX 4.3.4 Operating System Services

























significantand Company inroads Project into MAC large of Corporations the Massachusetts and Government Institute of Technology Organizations to develop where its a robustness new operating established system called it on the Multics. operating The goals system of the of choice Multics for system database were work to provide (Example Oracle, Sybase simultaneous computer & Informix) access Theto Internet a large is community the third and of users, most to significant supply ample phase of the computation power and data storage, and to allow users to share their data easily, if

























systemathat called newitproduct evolved into UNIX anSystem early version V, and AT of the & TUNIX announced file system. official Although supportthis for early version of System V. the UNIX system held much promise, it could not realize its potential until it was used in a real project. Ritchie has developed a new language called ‘C’, and in 1973, the UNIX operating system was rewritten in C.

























of mental you preparation save a file, to the do before operating youIII system start feeling makes comfortable. sure your file That isn’t is,written UNIX is onnot top 2. When UNIX system released very friendly. of an existing file. 3. Name the Scientist who give the paper discover of or File system

























services towhether programs, it’s viewing a file created the system in a text as processor a set of layers. or a The driver operating used to send system is commonlyinstructions called the system to a pointer kernelisorcontained just the kin ernaelfile. .

























the standard system such as C compiler the sh ell , cc ed iis tors in the , and outermost document layer preparation offile the k ern packages el: it involves , have gradually aC 2. Who taken over, when your delete a preprocessor, become synonymous assembler, withand the loader, name “all UNIX separate Systemlower-level ”. programs. 3. List out the program around the kernel 4. Give the another name of command-line interpreter

























figure 2) every non leaf node of the file system structure is a directory of files, and files at the leaf nodes of the tree are either directories, regular files, or special device files.

















































slashAccess file. operations that user/invocation contains (‘/‘) character and permission object as ofathe result, and code shell. can specifies produced the be The kernel set shell aindependently file byof usually that compilation thecan UNIX execution beto provided of system control source a command by does rcode ead staring not , (a wsynchronously, C rite contain at program ,this andfile many execute for system root andfor permission. functions example). waiting traversing that Second, theare command part a the command of file to the tree. terminate “kernel” can be anin before executable theirreading systems. file the thatnext contains command a sequence line. of shell command lines. Finally, a command can be internal shell command.

























2) What is p 4) root ath?give one example 3) Who 5) Check allocate whether main the memory followingfor statements program execution True/False 6) Who control access to peripheral devices

























account with connect). Thisthe message computer also system indicates .Youthat can’t the simply previous sit down user at has any “logged terminal out” and start working as in DOS/Windows. (disconnected).

























Password: UNIX system V release AT & T 3B2

























2) Who 6) Whatsets is login the required name or user environment name when login is done 3) List 7) Whatdifferent is Password shells 4) Close 8) Explain the how book to and logindraw in UNIX the kernel-shell relation ship diagram 5) Ask your system administrator and create your own account

























5.4.1 5.1.2 5.2.2 5.3.2 5.1.3 5.2.3 5.3.3 5.4.2 5.2.4 5.3.4 5.4.3 5.2.5 5.4.4

Starting The Whatlogin Creating is LINUX? with files session vi and directories The Moving Features Understanding Shell around of interface LINUX File the file permission Checking Searching Moving Copying Directories for text and deleting and permission files Exitingnumbers Using the shellwith command

























overis a the network For that,system, you need least a 3.5-inch floppy disk drive kernel, which heartinstead. of the operating Inat the 1980s and 1990s, while and a network connected to a computer that has the Red Hat Linux software Microsoft flooded the world with personal computers running DOS and Windows packages available. operating systems, power users demanded more from an operating system. They ached for system that could run on networks, support many users at once (multiuser), and run many programs at once (multitasking). DOS and Windows didn’t cut it.

























Many Window are disk Novell dozens drives, of networks) these system of CD-ROMs, desktop system (or and simply X.25 managers processes removable X). (a packet-switching X handles you make disks can it(such the choose possible functions asnetwork from. Zip fordrives), L of (Red INUX opening type Hat sound that toprovides work X-based iscards, popular as a in server. GUI several tape Europe), applications devices, desktop are also video managers, and available. cards, displaying and butmost focuses themanything onon X server Gnome else process you and can KDE.) (the think process of. that manages your screen, mouse, and keyboard).

























2. Is LINUX is a free software? 3. Who wrote LINUX operating system. 4. Mention at least five important features of LINUX system.

























processes, are the only from and person many file system using different the from computer, window the shell. managers. you This start chapter by The logging window also describes in.manager Logging the provides inshell identifies theyou environment as a particular specific and user. helps look and youfeel tailor of the it toGUI. your needs.

















































you are existing from login shell that started when you first logged in), 2. When youyour login intoshell your(the account, which p romp t appears. type l ogout to exit the shell . 3. Use pwd command to know your current directory.

4. Use cd .. command and then use pwd to know where you are. 5. Type echo $HOME command and then use pwd. 6. Type l ogout and see the effect. 7. Type exi t from login mode and watch the difference with respect to

























computerRAM is stored. (ram*Files ), and are CD-ROM organized (cd* within ). (Users a hierarchy normally ofaccess directories. theseEach devices directory can contain directly files, as through well as the other device directories. flies.)

















































viewinghave others the files to your in this file.directory. Permission Thebits p ermission appear sasfor rwxrwxrwx the d irectory . Theis first rwxr-xr-x. three bits The coming apply to section the owner’s explains permission what these , the next permissions three apply are. to the owner’s group, and the

























Change the location of~a file file,names use the rwx mv r-x command. To copy a file one location to $ mv abc chmod 755 r-x another, use the cp command. To remove a file, use the rm command. Here are some $ cp abc def examples: chmod 644 file names rw- r-- r— $ cp abc ~ file names chmod 000 $ rm abc

--- --- ---

























2.around Name files few subdirectories of root directory edit and move quickly and efficiently. The vi in LINUX System is exactly 3. What is home directory similar vi in UNIX syst em . 4. Work with mkdir, chmod, and ls commands 5. Explain file permissions 6. Watch file permission of any file 7. Work with mv, cp, and rm command

























of text. When you are character done typing at apress time. Esc. To move Try moving left andaround right you within can also thatuse text with the following commands: Backspace and the spacebar, respectively. If you prefer to keep you fingers on the keyboard, use h (left), I (right), j (down), or k (up) to move the cursor.

















































case matter in upper-left L inu x, so using brackets is one way to 5. that Move thedoes cursor to the corner of the screen. words that could have different capitalization: 6. search Delete for from the current character to the end of the current line. 7. Move the cursor ½ page at a time in forward direction. 8. Move the cursor ½ page at a time in backward direction. 9. Search for the word ‘hello’. 10. Search for the word ‘the’. 11. Go to the last line of the file. 12. Search backwards for the word ‘hello’.

Operating System

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