Principles of Management - Question Bank

]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty

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]WBCHB]IAX @F NDCDKANAC_ DCO OAHBXB@C N@OAIIBCK (=:.;=4) X; NAHJDCBHDI Nòuia B ]drt D (? ndre quastb`cs) 4. [jdt bs Ndcdkanact0

Ndcdkanact bs h`charcao wbtj jundc gabcks wj`sa gajdvb`r bs jbkjiy ucpraobhtdgia. Avar sbcha pa`pia gakdc f`rnbck krùps t` dhjbava k`di, tjay hùio c`t dhjbava ds bcobvboudis. Ndcdkbck jds gaac assactbdi t` pr`vboa tja h``robcdtb`c `f bcobvboudi‒s aff`rts. Ndcdkanact bs fùco bc avary wdie `f ibfa. Ndcdkanact oàs c`t parf`rn spahbfbh l`gs. Bt n`tbvdtas `tjar pa`pia t` parf`rn spahbfbh l`gs. Ndcdkanact bs c`t o`bck tja w`re gut kattbck tja w`re o`ca tjrùkj tja aff`rt `f `tjars. Ndcdkanact grbcks t`katjar gdsbh rasùrhas p`puidri y ec`wc ds 6 N‒s ‘ Nac, Ndtarbdi, Ndhjbcas, Natjòs, N`cay dco Ndreat. _jbs jaips t` dhjbava tja axpahtao rasuits qubheiy dco ah`c`nbhdiiy bc tarns `f    

]ròuhtb`c Xdias ]r`fbt dco K`òwbii bc tja Ndreat

7. Axpidbc tja obffaract Ndcdkarbdi Xebiis

W`gart I Edrtz boactbfbao tjraa ebcos `f sebiis f`r donbcbstrdt`rs. _` tjasa fùrtj ndy ga dooao ds tja dgbibty t` oasbkc sìutb`cs. _jay dra ds fìi`ws< 4) _ahjcbhdi sebiis<  Bt bs tja ec`wiaoka `f d pr`fbhbachy bc dhtbvbtbas bcvìvbck natjòs, pr`haouras dco pr`hassas. pr`h assas.  Bt bcvìvas w`rebck wbtj tìis dco spahbfbh tahjcbquas. tah jcbquas. F`r axdnpia nahjdcbhs w`re wbtj t`ìs, tja suparvbs`rs jdva dgbibty t` tadhj tja lucb`rs j`w t`  usa tja t`ìs. Xbnbidriy dhhùctdcts dppiy spahbfbh tahjcbquas.  7) Jundc Xebiis< Bt bs tja dgbibty t` w`re wbtj pa`pia, bts h`-`pardtbva aff`rts5 bt bs tadnw`re, hradtbck dc acvbr`cnact fuii `f sahurbty dco dgia t` fraaiy axprass tjabr `pbcb`cs. 8) H`chaptudi sebiis < - Bt bs t` rah`kcbza sbkcbfbhdct aianacts bc d sbtudtb`c, dco t` ucoarstdco tja raidtb`csjbps dn`ck tja aianacts. ?) Oasbkc sebiis<  Bt bs tja dgbibty t` sìva pr`gians bc wdys tjdt wbii gacafbt tja actarprbsa. Ndcdkar nust jdva d f`rasbkjt, tja sebii `f d k`ò oasbkc ackbcaar bc w`rebck ùt d prdhtbhdi  sìutb`c t` d pr`gian. _jay nust dis` jdva tja vdiudgia sebii `f gabck dgia t` oasbkc d w`redgia sìutb`c wbtj rdtb`cdibty. 

EXH ‘ Oapt Oapt `f Nahjdcbhdi - X_BX_

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 8. @glahtbvas `f Xhbactbfbh Ndcdkanact

Ú Xhbactbfbh utbibzdtb`c `f vdrbùs rasùrhas ibea jundc p`war, ndtarbdi ath. Ú _` pr`vboa trdbcao dco affbhbact w`re f`rha. Ú _` pr`vboa stdcodrobza natjòs `f w`re. Ú _` pr`vboa d shbactbfbh gdsa f`r saiahtbck ndtarbdi, dco aqubpnact. Ú _` pr`vboa axtrd wdkas t` tja w`rear f`r jbkjar pròuhtb`c. Ú Wapidha ìo ruia `f tjungs t` caw shbactbfbh natjòs. Ú _` oavai`p d k`ò rdpp`rt gatwaac ndcdkanact dco w`rears. Ú _` dhjbava jbkjar pròuhtb`c, wbtj raouha h`sts dco ndxbnun affbhbachy. Ú Iass wdstdka. ?. Axpidbc Xystan Dppr`dhj `f Ndcdkanact.

_ja systans dppr`dhj t` ndcdkanact bcobhdtas tja fùrtj ndl`r tja`ry t ja`ry `f ndcdkanact tjùkjt hdiiao nòarc tja`ry. Nòarc tja`ry h`csboars dc `rkdcbzdtb`c ds dc dodptbva systan wjbhj jds t` dolust t` hjdckas bc bts acvbr`cnact. Dc `rkdcbzdtb`c bs c`w oafbcao ds d struhturao pr`hass bc wjbhj bcobvboudis bctardht f`r dttdbcbck `glahtbvas. Nadcbck `f "Xystan"< "Xystan"< _ja w`ro systan bs oarbvao fr`n tja tja Kraae w`ro nadcbck nadcbck t` grbck grbck t`katjar `r t` h`ngbca. D systan bs d sat `f bctarh`ccahtao dco bctar-raidtao aianacts `r h`np`cact pdrts t` dhjbava hartdbc k`dis. D systan jds tjraa sbkcbfbhdct sbkcbfbhdct pdrts< 4. Avary systan bs k`di-`rbactao dco bt nust jdva d purp`sa `r `glahtbva t` ga dttdbcao. 7. Bc oasbkcbck tja systan wa nust astdgibsj tja cahassdry drrdckanact `f h`np`cacts. 8. Bcputs `f bcf`rndtb`c, ndtarbdi dco acarky dra dii`hdtao f`r pr`hassbck ds par pidc s` tjdt tja ùtputs hdc dhjbava tja `glahtbva `f tja systan.

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 1. Obffaractbdta Dutj`rbty dco Wasp`csbgbibty Wasp`csbgbibty

Nadcbck `f dutj`rbty Dutj`rbty bs tja ebco `f rbkjt dco p`war tjrùkj wjbhj bt kuboas dco obrahts tja dhtb`cs `f `tjars s` tjdt tja `rkdcbzdtb`cdi k`dis hdc ga dhjbavao. Bt bs dis` raidtao wbtj oahbsb`c oah bsb`c ndebck. Bt bs vastao bc pdrtbhuidr p`sbtb`c, c`t t` tja pars`c gahdusa dutj`rbty bs kbvac gy dc bcstbtutb`c dco tjaraf`ra bt bs iakdi. Nadcbck `f rasp`csbgbibty Dutjactbh gòy `f dc `rkdcbzdtb`c bs t`p iavai ndcdkanact, t`p iavai ndcdkanact obraht tja sug`robcdtas. Oapdrtnactdi ndcdkars dco `tjar pars`ccai tdea tja obrahtb`c fr`n t`p iavai ndcdkanact t` parf`rn tja tdse. Dutj`rbty bs cahassdry t` parf`rn tja w`re .`ciy dutj`rbty bs c`t pr`vboao t` tja pa`pia gut `gibkdtb`c bs dis` pr`vboao. X` tja `gibkdtb`c t` parf`rn tja outbas dco tdse bs ec`wc ds rasp`csbgbibty. 6. Axpidbc tja ]rbchbpias `f Oaiakdtb`c `f Dutj`rbty.

4. ]rbchbpia `f pdrbty `f dutj`rbty dco rasp`csbgbibty- pdrbty `f dutj`rbty dco rasp`csbgbibty bs `ca `f tja bnp`rtdct prbchbpias `f oaiakdtb`c `f dutj`rbty. _jara bs aqudibty bc dssbkcao tdse dco p`war t` o` tja w`re. Dutj`rbty t` tja sug`robcdtas bs kbvac gy tja suparb`r `c tja gdsbs g dsbs `f dssbkcao tdse. X` Dutj`rbty t` tja sug`robcdtas bs kbvac catjar n`ra `r iass tjdc tja tdse `tjarwbsa tjara hdc ga bnpr`par utbibzdtb`c `f dutj`rbty dco nbsndcdkanact `f tdse. 7. ]rbchbpia `f dgsìutacass `f rasp`csbgbibty- dhh`robck t` bt, rasp`csbgbibty hdc‒t ga oaiakdtao. @ciy dutj`rbty hdc ga oaiakdtao. _ja pars`c wj` oaiakdtas oa iakdtas dutj`rbty bs jbnsaif rasp`csbgia f`r jbs sacb`rs. 8. ]rbchbpia `f ucbty `f h`nndco- dhh`robck t` bt, sug`robcdtas nust ga h`nndcoao gy `ca suparb`r, tjay sjùio tdea tjabr tdse fr`n `ca suparb`r dco sjùio ga dhhùctdgia fr` tjabr rasp`csbgbibty t`wdro tja suparb`r iavai `f `pardtb`c ?. ]rbchbpia `f fuchtb`cdi oafbcbtb`c `f dutj`rbty dco rasp`csbgbibty- ds par tjbs prbchbpia. Outbas dco tdse dssbkcao gy tja suparb`r dco tja dutj`rbty kbvac t` fuifbii tja tdse sjùio ga hiadriy axpidbcao dco oahboao. Gt tjbs sug`robcdtas hdc ec`w dgùt tja ibnbt `f `ca‒s rbkjt, outbas dco rasp`csbgbibty. 1. _ja shdidr hjdbc- dhh`robck t` bt, dutj`rbty fi`ws fr`n t`p t` g`tt`n. X` tjdt shdidr hjdbc bs tja gdsbs `f raidtb`csjbp gatwaac tja suparb`r dco sug`robcdtas. Bt anpjdsbzas tja raidtb`c gatwaac suparb`r dco sug`robcdtas gy wjbhj oaiakdtb`c wbii ga adsbar. ;. [jbhj dra tja obffaract ebcos `f pdrtcars bc ]drtcarsjbp ]drtcarsjbp gdsao `rkdcbzdtb`c0

D pdrtcarsjbp fbrn hdc jdva obffaract typas `f pdrtcars wbtj obffaract rìas dco ibdgbibtbas. Dc ucoarstdcobck `f tjasa typas bs bnp`rtdct f`r d hiadr ucoarstdcobck `f tjabr rbkjts dco rasp`csbgbibtbas. _jasa dra oashrbgao ds fìi`ws< (b) Dhtbva pdrtcar< Dc dhtbva pdrtcar bs `ca wj` h`ctrbgutas hdpbtdi, pdrtbhbpdtas bc tja ndcdkanact `f tja fbrn, sjdras bts pr`fbts dco i`ssas, dco bs ibdgia ib dgia t` dc ucibnbtao axtact t` tja hraobt`rs `f tja fbrn. _jasa pdrtcars tdea dhtudi pdrt bc hdrrybck ùt gusbcass `f tja fbrn `c gajdif `f `tjar pdrtcars. (bb) Xiaapbck `r o`rndct pdrtcar< ]drtcars wj` o` c`t tdea pdrt bc tja ody t` ody dhtbvbtbas `f tja gusbcass dra hdiiao siaapbck pdrtcars. D siaapbck pdrtcar, j`wavar, h`ctrbgutas hdpbtdi t` tja fbrn, sjdras bts pr`fbts dco i`ssas, dco jds ucibnbtao ibdgbibty. (bbb) Xahrat pdrtcar< D sahrat pdrtcar bs `ca wj`sa dss`hbdtb`c wbtj tja fbrn bs ucec`wc t` tja kacardi pugibh. @tjar tjdc tjbs obstbcht fadtura, bc dii `tjar dspahts ja bs ibea tja rast `f tja pdrtcars. Ja


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty h`ctrbgutas t` tja hdpbtdi `f tja fbrn, tdeas pdrt bc tja ndcdkanact, sjdras bts pr`fbts dco i`ssas, dco jds ucibnbtao ibdgbibty t`wdros tja hraobt`rs. cd na gy d fbrn, gut oàs (bv) C`nbcdi pdrtcar< D c`nbcdi pdrtcar bs `ca wj` dii`ws tja usa `f jbs/jar cdna c`t h`ctrbguta t` bts hdpbtdi. Ja/sja oàs c`t tdea dhtbva pdrt bc ndcdkbck tja fbrn, oàs c`t sjdra bts pr`fbt `r i`ssas gut bs ibdgia, ibea `tjar pdrtcars, t` tja tjbro pdrtbas, f`r tja rapdynacts `f tja fbrn‒s oagts. :. Obffaracha gatwaac oaiakdtb`c dco oahactrdibzdtb`c `f dutj`rbty Gdsas Cdtura

]urp`sa Waidtb`csjbp

_ahjcbquas ]drtbas

Wasp`csbgbibtbas Cahassbty H`ctrì

[btjordwdi dutj`rbty

Oaiakdtb`c `f dutj`rbty Oahactrdibzdtb`c `f dutj`rbty ]r`hass `f trdcsfarrbck dutj`rbty dco Oahactrdibzdtb`c bs oaiakdtb`c `f hradtb`c `f rasp`csbgbibty gatwaac dco obsparsb`c `f dutj`rbty. Bt bs c`t suparb`r dco sug`robcdtas bs hdiiao p`ssbgia wbtjùt oaiakdtb`c `f oaiakdtb`c. Bt hdc tdea pidha wbtjùt dutj`rbty oahactrdibzdtb`c Bt nbcbnbzas tja guroac `f ndcdkars Bt prapdras tja `rkdcbzdtb`cdi `f ucbt, oapdrtnacts `r pidct pdrtbhbpdcts `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c Waidtb`csjbp bs gatwaac suparb`r dco Waidtb`csjbp bs gatwaac t`p iavai, bnnaobdta sug`robcdtas dra ndcdkanact, oapdrtnacts dco bcobhdtao ucbts Bt bs tahjcbqua `f ndcdkanact usao Bt bs g`tj pjbi`s`pjy dco tahjcbqua t` kat tja tjbcks o`ca tjrùkj `tjars `f ndcdkanact Bt bs h`cfbcao t` ndcdkar dco Bt bcvìvas dii ndcdkars dt dii iavai sug`robcdtas dco raidtas raidtb`csjbp gatwaac oapdrtnacts, sahtb`cs dco ucbts. Dutj`rbty bs `ciy oaiakdtao, c`t Xuparb`r bs raibavao fr`n rasp`csbgbibtbas rasp`csbgbibtbas t`` Vary bnp`rtdct t` ndcdkanact Bt bs `ptb`cdi dco sbtudtb`cdi ds par pr`hass tja caao H`ctrì randbcs bc jdco `f suparb`r H`ctrì bs oaiakdtao dco wj` suparvbsa suparvbsa tja tja dhtbvbtbas dhtbvbtbas ` oahactrdibzao t` tja oapdrtnactdi sug`robcdtas ndcdkars `f Bt hdc ga wbtjordwc gy oaiakdt`r dt [btjordwdi `f dutj`rbty bs c`t dcy tbna sbnpia.

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]drt G (4= ndre quastb`cs) 4. Axpidbc tja bnp`rtdcha `f Ndcdkanact

_ja bnp`rtdcha `f ndcdkanact bc gusbcass bs ucbvarsdiiy dhhaptao. Bt dhts ds d orbvbck f`rha bc gusbcass. Nòarc gusbcass bs jbkjiy h`npatbtbva dco caao affbhbact dco hdpdgia ndcdkanact. Bt bs tjrùkj ndcdkanact tjdt gusbcass dhtbvbtbas dra `rkdcbzao dco h`couhtao affbhbactiy dco `glahtbvas dra dhjbavao. _ja fìi`wbck p`bcts wbii sukkast tja bnp`rtdcha `f ndcdkanact

4) @ptbnun usa `f rasùrhas< ndcdkanact fdhbibtbas `ptbnun utbibzdtb`c `f dvdbidgia jundc dco pjysbhdi rasùrhas, wjbhj iados t` pr`krass dco pr`sparbty `f d gusbcass actarprbsa. Avac wdstdka `f dii typas dra aibnbcdtao `r nbcbnbzao. 7) H`npatbtbva stracktj< Ndcdkanact oavai`ps h`npatbtbva stracktj bc dc actarprbsa. _jbs acdgias dc actarprbsa t` oavai`p dco axpdco bts dssats dco pr`fbts. 8) H`robdi bcoustrbdi raidtb`cs< Ndcdkanact oavai`ps h`robdi bcoustrbdi raidtb`c, acsuras gattar ibfa dco waifdra t` anpi`yaas dco rdbsas tjabr n`rdia tjrùkj subtdgia bchactbvas. ?) N`tbvdtas anpi`yaas< Bt n`tbvdtas anpi`yaas t` tdea n`ra bctarast dco bcbtbdtbva bc tja w`re dssbkcao dco h`ctrbgutas f`r rdbsbck pròuhtbvbty dco pr`fbtdgbibty `f tja actarprbsa. 1) Caw tahjcbquas< Ndcdkanact fdhbibtbas tja bctròuhtb`c `f caw ndhjbcas dco caw natjòs bc tja h`couht `f gusbcass dhtbvbtbas. Bt dis` grbcks usafui tahjcì`kbas oavai`pnacts dco bcc`vdtb`c bc tja ndcdkanact `f gusbcass dhtbvbtbas. 6) Affahtbva ndcdkanact< X`hbaty kats tja gacafbts `f affbhbact ndcdkanact bc tarns `f bcoustrbdi oavai`pnact, lustbha t` obffaract s`hbdi krùps, h`csunar‒s sdtbsfdhtb`c dco waifdra dco pr`par obshjdrka `f s`hbdi rasp`csbgbibtbas. ;) Axpdcsb`c `f gusbcass< Axpdcsb`c kr`wtj dco obvarsbfbhdtb`c `f d gusbcass ucbt dra p`ssbgia tjrùkj affbhbact ndcdkanact. Bt hradtas k`ò h`rp`rdta bndka t` d gusbcass actarprbsa. :) Xtdgbibty dco pr`sparbty< Affbhbact ndcdkanact grbcks suhhass stdgbibty dco pr`sparbty t` d gusbcass actarprbsa tjrùkj h``pardtb`c dco tadn spbrbt dn`ck anpi`yaas. 2) _adn spbrbt< Ndcdkanact oavai`ps tadn spbrbt dco rdbsas `vardii affbhbachy `f d gusbcass actarprbsa. 4=) Affahtbva usa `f ndcdkars< Ndcdkanact acsuras affahtbva usa `f ndcdkars s` tjdt tja gacafbts `f tjabr axparbacha, sebiis dco ndturbty dra dvdbidgia t` actarprbsa. 44) Xn``tj fuchtb`cbck< Ndcdkanact acsuras sn``tj, `roariy dco h`ctbcuùs fuchtb`cbck `f dc actarprbsa `var d i`ck parbò. Bt dis` rdbsas tja affbhbachy, pròuhtbvbty dco pr`fbtdgbibty `f dc actarprbsa. 47) Waouhas turc`var dco dgsactaabsn< Bt raouhas Idgùr turc`var dco dgsactaabsn dco acsuras h`ctbcubty bc tja gusbcass dhtbvbtbas dco `pardtb`cs. 48) Xùco `rkdcbzdtb`c< D oycdnbh dco pr`krassbva ndcdkanact kudrdctaas oavai`pnact `f sùco `rkdcbzdtb`c, wjbhj hdc fdha dcy sbtudtb`c ‘ fdv`rdgia `r ucfdv`rdgia wbtj adsa dco h`cfboacha. 1 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 7. Jacrb Fdyì 4? ]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact Ndcdkanact ]rbchbpias oavai`pao gy Jacrb Fdyì< 4. OBVBXB@C @F [@WE< [`re sjùio ga obvboao dn`ck bcobvboudis dco krùps t` acsura tjdt aff`rt dco dttactb`c dra f`husao `c spahbdi p`rtb`cs `f tja tdse. Fdyì prasactao w`re spahbdibzdtb`c ds tja gast wdy t` usa tja jundc rasùrhas `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. 7. DQ_J@WB_R< _ja h`chapts `f Dutj`rbty dco rasp`csbgbibty dra hi`saiy raidtao. Dutj`rbty wds oafbcao gy Fdyì ds tja rbkjt t` kbva `roars dco tja p`war t` axdht `gaobacha. Wasp`csbgbibty bcvìvas gabck dhhùctdgia, dco bs tjaraf`ra cdturdiiy dss`hbdtao wbtj dutj`rbty. [jàvar dssunas dutj`rbty dis` dssunas rasp`csbgbibty. 8. OBXHB]IBCA< D suhhassfui `rkdcbzdtb`c raqubras tja h`nn`c aff`rt `f w`rears. ]acditbas sjùio ga dppibao luobhbùsiy t` achùrdka tjbs h`nn`c aff`rt. ?. QCB_R @F H@NNDCO< [`rears sjùio rahabva `roars fr`n `ciy `ca ndcdkar. 1. QCB_R @F OBWAH_B@C< _ja actbra `rkdcbzdtb`c sjùio ga n`vbck t`wdros d h`nn`c `glahtbva bc d h`nn`c obrahtb`c. 6. XQG@WOBCD_B@C @F BCOBVBOQDI BC_AWAX_X _@ _JA KACAWDI BC_AWAX_X< _ja bctarasts `f `ca pars`c sjùio c`t tdea prb`rbty `var ` var tja bctarasts `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c ds d wjìa. ;. WANQCAWD_B@C< WANQCAWD_B@C< Ndcy vdrbdgias, suhj ds h`st `f ibvbck, suppiy `f qudibfbao pars`ccai, kacardi gusbcass h`cobtb`cs, dco suhhass `f tja gusbcass, sjùio ga h`csboarao bc oatarnbcbck d w`rear‒s rdta `f pdy. :. HAC_WDIB\D_B@C< HAC_WDIB\D_B@C< Fdyì oafbcao hactrdibzdtb`c ds i`warbck tja bnp`rtdcha `f tja sug`robcdta sug`robcdta rìa. Oahactrdibzdtb`c bs bchradsbck tja bnp`rtdcha. _ja oakraa t` wjbhj hactrdibzdtb`c `r oahactrdibzdtb`c sjùio ga do`ptao oapacos `c tja spahbfbh `rkdcbzdtb`c bc wjbhj tja ndcdkar bs w`rebck. 2. XHDIDW HJDBC< Ndcdkars bc jbardrhjbas dra pdrt `f d hjdbc ibea dutj`rbty shdia. Adhj ndcdkar, fr`n tja fbrst ibca suparvbs`r t` tja prasboact, p`ssass hartdbc dnùcts `f dutj`rbty. _ja ]rasboact p`ssassas tja n`st dutj`rbty5 tja fbrst ibca suparvbs`r tja iadst. I`war iavai ndcdkars sjùio diwdys eaap uppar iavai ndcdkars bcf`rnao `f tjabr w`re dhtbvbtbas. _ja axbstacha `f d shdidr hjdbc dco dojaracha t` bt dra cahassdry c ahassdry bf tja `rkdcbzdtb`c bs t` ga suhhassfui. 4=. @WOAW< F`r tja sdea `f affbhbachy dco h``robcdtb`c, dii ndtarbdis dco pa`pia raidtao t` d spahbfbh ebco `f w`re sjùio ga tradtao ds aqudiiy ds p`ssbgia. 44.

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p`ssbgia.

47. X_DGBIB_R @F _ACQWA _ ACQWA @F ]AWX@CCAI< Watdbcbck pròuhtbva anpi`yaas sjùio diwdys ga d jbkj prb`rbty `f ndcdkanact. Wahrubtnact dco Xaiahtb`c H`sts, ds waii ds bchradsao pròuhtralaht rdtas dra usudiiy dss`hbdtao wbtj jbrbck caw w`rears. 48. BCB_BD_BVA< Ndcdkanact sjùio tdea staps t` achùrdka w`rear bcbtbdtbva, wjbhj bs oafbcao ds caw `r doobtb`cdi w`re dhtbvbty ucoartdeac tjrùkj saif obrahtb`c. 4?. AX]BWB_ OA H@W]X< Ndcdkanact sjùio achùrdka jdrn`cy dco kacardi k`ò faaibcks dn`ck anpi`yaas.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 8. Axpidbc tja h`chapt `f Ndcdkanact.

Ndcdkanact bs dc dhtbvbty pr`hass h`np`sao `f s`na gdsbh fuchtb`cs, f`r kattbck tja `glahtbva `f dcy actarprbsa dhh`npibsjao tjrùkj tja aff`rts `f bts pars`ccai. [jaravar dco wjacavar `glahtbvas dra t` ga dhjbavao tjrùkj `rkdcbzao dco h`-`pardtbva acoadvùr, ndcdkanact gah`nas assactbdi f`r obrahtbck dco ucbfybck tja krùp aff`rts t`wdros d h`nn`c purp`sa. Ds jundc dbns dco gaibafs dra n`stiy radibzao tjrùkj tja astdgibsjnact `f obvarsa dss`hbdtb`cs bc ùr s`hbaty, ndcdkanact bs ucbvarsdiiy caaoao f`r `pardtbck dii suhj `rkdcbsdtb`c. Ndcdkanact, vbawao ds d fuchtb`cdi h`chapt, bs `f aqudi cahassbty t` tja aouhdtb`cdi raibkbùs, hjdrbtdgia dco `tjar c`c-gusbcass bcstbtutb`cs ds bt bs raqubrao f`r gusbcass @rkdcbzdtb`cs. Furtjarn`ra, tja kradtast dco tja n`st h`nprajacsbva `f ùr s`hbdi `rkdcbzdtb`cs, vbz., tja K`varcnact K `varcnact `f dii typas caaos ndcdkanact ds `tjars raqubra, parjdps n`ra tjdc dii `tjar s`hbdi `rkdcbzdtb`cs. _jdt tja K`varcnact wbtjùt raqubras d ndcdkanact pr`hass jds gaac dppiy p`bctao ùt bc tja stdtanact< D K`varcnact wbtjùt k`ò ndcdkanact bs d jùsa gubit `c sdco. ]ut bc sj`rt, ndcdkanact bs dc assactbdi dhh`npdcbnact `f dii s`hbdi `rkdcbzdtb`cs, dco bt bs t` ga fùco avarywjara ds d obstbcht, sapdrdta dco o`nbcdta dhtbvbty. _ja cdtura dco sbkcbfbhdcha `f tja dhtbvbty o` c`t hjdcka avac bf bt bs hdiiao donbcbstrdtb`c bc s`na s`hbdi bc sbtudtb`cs dco ndcdkanact bc `tjars. Ndcdkanact bs tja `ciy dhtbvdtbck aianact `f dcy actarprbsa f`r kattbck tjbcks o`ca tjrùkj bt pars`ccai. _ja l`g `f ndcdkanact bs t` pr`vboa oycdnbh iadoarsjbp tjdt h`ngbcas tja pròuhtbva gut pdssbva rasùrhas bct` d frubtfui `rkdcbzdtb`c. C`t `ciy oàs bt dodpt btsaif t` axbstbck `pp`rtucbtbas, rastrbhtb`cs dco prassuras, gut bt axarhbsas d p`sbtbva bcfiuacha ds waii ds t` ndea tja futura avacts fdvùrdgia f`r tja actarprbsa. [btj d vbaw t` kattbck tja axpahtao rasuits dco saabck tjdt tjbcks jdppac j dppac ds tjay sjùio, ndcdkanact jds t` gah`na d hradt`r `f tja ah`c`ny rdtjar tjac bts hradtura. Ndcdkanact f`rkas djado tjrùkj bcc`vdtb`cs bc `pardtbck sbtudtb`c dco tja do`ptbdc `f fdr-sbkjtao pidccbck. Bt vbsudibza tja futura, bcbtbdtas hjdckas dco dhjbavas tja purp`sa `f dcy actarprbsa ucoar jbkjiy oycdnbh h`cobtb`cs. Ds dc dhtbvbty pr`hass, ndcdkanact pidcs tja futura hùrsa `f dhtb`c, `rkdcbzas pa`pia dco tjabr w`re, obrahts tja `pardtb`c dc h`ctrìs tja parf`rndcha, dco tjus acsuras tja dhh`npibsjnact `f actarprbsa `glahtbvas. Dodptdtb`cs dco bcc`vdtb`cs parnadta tjrùkj adhj `f tjasa pjdsas `f tja ndcdkanact pr`hass. Ndcdkanact dhts ds d hradtbva dco bcvbk`rdtbck f`rha bc tja `rkdcbsdtb`c. Bt hradtas rasuit tjdt bs gbkkar tjdc tja sun t`tdi `f aff`rts put bc gy tja krùp. Ndcdkanact doos radi pius vdiua t` tja `pardtb`c `f dcy actarprbsa gy acibstbck ds ibttia axtrd vdiua ùt `f adhj pars`c. Bt pr`vboas caw boads, bndkbcdtb`cs dco vbsb`cs t` tja krùp w`rebck dco bctakrdtas bts aff`rts bc suhj d ndccar ds t` dhhùct f`r gattar rasuits. Bt acsuras d sn``tj fi`w `f w`re bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c gy f`husbck `c str`ck p`bcts, cautrdibzbck wade ibce, `varh`nbck obffbhuitbas dco astdgibsjbck tadn spbrbt. Ndcdkanact strbvas t` sahura tja ndxbnun rasuit gy tja usa `f nbcbnun rasùrhas. ?. „Ndcdkanact bs d h`ngbcdtb`c `f Drts, Xhbacha & ]r`fassb`c„ Axpidbc fuiiy.

Bt bs vary obffbhuit t` ucoarstdco ’[jdt bs Ndcdkanact„. Ndcy trbao dco kbvac obffaract oafbcbtb`cs `f ndcdkanact. Gut bf yù wdct t` ucoarstdco, ucoarstdco bts fadturas. Gy wjbhj wa ec`w tjdt, ndcdkanact bs ucbvarsdi, h`ctbcuùs, oycdnbh, hradtbva ath. dco hdc w`coar, bf tjara bs pr`par ndcdkanact.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty _` ucoarstdco bts sh`pa dco cdtura, wa jdva t` ucoarstdco bts fadturas, wjbhj hdc adsbiy hidrbfy tja tarn ndcdkanact. _jasa fadturas dra Drts, Xhbacha & ]r`fassb`c, wjbhj h`ngbck ndeas NDCDKANAC_. Fbrstiy wa wbii tdea Drts dco wjara bt bs bc Ndcdkanact. d. Drt raqubras sebiis wjarads bc ndcdkanact raqubras h`chaptudi, tahjcbhdi, jundc raidtb`cs dco oahbsb`c ndebck sebiis. g. Drt raqubras ec`wiaoka wjarads bc ndcdkanact raqubras iadrcbck dco dhqubrbck ec`wiaoka suhj ds Ndreatbck, Fbcdcha, _ahjcbhdi dco pròuhtb`c ath. h. Drt bs hradtbva wjarads bc ndcdkanact ds d obshbpibca bs tja fuchtb`c `f hradtbvbty. Bc tjbs hradtbvbty bs fdhbck tja hjdiiackas `f h`npatbtb`c. H`csboar bf wa wdct t` bctròuha ùr caw pròuht bc ndreat, tjac wa nust ndea ùr saif-radoy f`r h`npatbtb`c, b.a. H`npatbtb`c bc sdia, pròuhtb`c, dovartbsbck dco prbha. X` tjdt t` survbva bc tja ndreat. o. Drt bs pars`cdibzao wjarads bc ndcdkanact obffaract pa`pia o` d pdrtbhuidr tdse bc d obffaract wdy. Avary bcobvboudi jds bts `wc ndcdkanact styia. [a hdc hdtak`rbas tjan ds Oan`hrdtbh, Dut`hrdtbh, ]dtarcdibstbh, Gaur`hrdtbh ath. a. Drt bs d parf`rndcha wjarads bc ndcdkanact parf`rndcha bs saac gy pr`fbt, kr`wtj dco oavai`pnact. _jasa dra tja bcobhdt`rs, wjbhj oahboa tja ndcdkanact ds k`ò `r gdo. C`w wa h`na t` shbacha wjara bt bs bc ndcdkanact. d. Xhbacha bs d gòy `f `rkdcbzao ec`wiaoka wjarads bc ndcdkanact ds X`hbdi g. Xhbacha h`csbsts `f jbst`ry `f ndcdkanact tjùkjt. h. Xhbacha bs oavai`pao `var d parbò `f tbna wjarads ndcdkanact bs dis` oavai`pao `var d parbò `f tbna. Ds h`csboar tjdt bc ndcy h`npdcbas, Bc 421=‒s tja pròuhtbvbty bs 1=% gut bc 2=‒s bt axhaaos t` :=% dco bc 7=== bt axhaaos t` 21%. Bt bs lust oua t` ndcdkanact. Bc wjbhj hjdckas h`na bc vdrbùs obshbpibcas ibea jundc raidtb`cs, sarvbhas, fbcdcha, tahjcbhdi tah jcbhdi ath. ourbck tja wjìa bctarvdi. o. Xhbacha astdgibsjas hdusa dco affaht raidtb`csjbp wjarads bc ndcdkanact bf wa put n`ra w`rear `c w`re, tjdc tjara wbii ga n`ra pròuhtbvbty. Jara tja hdusa bs w`rears dco tja affaht bs bc tja pròuhtbvbty. a. Xhbacha jds praobhtbva p`war5 bc ndcdkanact dis` wa hdc o` praobhtb`cs. Ibea bf tja st`he axhjdcka rbsas tjac tja rdta `f pdrtbhuidr sjdra ndy `r ndy c`t rbsa. f. Wuias/Wakuidtb`cs dra varbfbao fr`n tbna t` tbna wjarads bc ndcdkanact caw ruias dra astdgibsjao dco ìo ruias dra hjdckao, s` tjdt t` jdva fuii usa `f rasùrhas bc d ndcdkanact. Dt idst wa h`na t` ]W@FAXXB@C, dco j`w bt bs raidtao t` ndcdkanact. Gaf`ra raidtbck ndcdkanact dco pr`fassb`c, wa nust ec`w wjdt bs pr`fassb`c. Ds bc pr`fassb`c wa raqubra oafbcbta parbò `f iadrcbck, bt caaos hartbfbhdta `f prdhtbha, hactrdibzao ruia ndebck dutj`rbty dco s`hbdi h`nnbtnact/`gibkdtb`c/dhhùctdg h`nnbtnact/`gibkdtb`c/dhhùctdgbibty. bibty. _jasa dra bc hdsa `f dhdoanbh `ca tjdt s`n atbnas w`c‒t dppibhdgia bc hdsa `f ndcdkanact ibea dcy`ca hdc gah`na ndcdkar wbtjùt dcy spahbfbh qudibfbhdtb`c `r parbò `f iadrcbck. Bt oàsc‒t caao dcy hartbfbhdta `f prdhtbha. _jasa dra c`t bc f`rhbgia ucoar dcy idw. Bf wa h`na t` prdhtbhdi dppr`dhj `f pr`fassb`c, wjbhj bs vary hi`sa t` prdhtbha `f ndcdkanact. Gy tjasa wa hdc ec`w tja rìas `f pr`fassb`c ndcdkar ds< d) Ec`wiaoka gdsa oahbsb`c bcstado `f dcy bctubtb`c `r praobhtb`cs. g) Gdsao `c axparbacha dco axpartbsa bc raqubra fbaio. d

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty h) Jaip bc naatbck h`npbtbvacass hjdiiackas. o) Dppiy tja`rbas `f ndcdkanact bc sìvbck `rkdcbzdtb`cdi pr`gians. a) Xapdrdtb`c `f `wcarsjbp fr`n ndcdkanact. Dt idst gy obshussbck tja Drts, Xhbacha dco ]r`fassb`c rìa bc ndcdkanact. Bt bs h`ngbcdtb`c `f dii tja tjraa dco bt sjùio ga d wdy `f ibfa. 1 . Oafbca tja oaiakdtb`c `f dutj`rbty. [j dt dra tja pr`gians bc oaiakdtb`c0 Axpidbc tja prbchbpias `f affahtbva oaiakdtb`c.

Oaiakdta nadcs t` kbva, `ffar, dco dii`t d pdrt `f dutj`rbty t` sug`robcdta. Dutj`rbty bs rbkjt t` dht `r oahboa. Avac tj` ukj yù jdva oaiakdtao d tdse t` s`na `ca aisa, y` u dra stbii rasp`csbgia f`r ndebck sura tja tdse bs o`ca `c tbna dco h`rrahtiy. _jara dra p`sbtbva dspahts dis` bc oaiakdtb`c ibea< d) g) h) o)

Jbkjar affbhbachy. Bchradsao n`tbvdtb`c. Oavai`ps tja sebiis `f yùr tadn. Gattar obstrbgutb`c `f w`re tjrùkj tja krùp.

_ja dnùct `f dutj`rbty yù oaiakdta bs up t` yù, ditjùkj bt sjùio ga acùkj t` h`npiata tja tdse. _jara dra vdrbùs oakraas `f oaiakdtb`c oaiakdtb `c ibea< d) I`w oakraa `f oaiakdtb`c< Bc tjasa suparb`r stdtas pdrtbhuid r tdse t` sug`robcdtas dco taii tjan t` rap`rt gdhe dftar bcvastbkdtb`c `c bt. g) Nòardta< Bc tjasa sug`robcdtas jds t` rap`rt gdhe wbtj dc dhtb`c pidc. h) Jbkj oakraa< bc tjasa sug`robcdta rap`rts gdhe dftar tdebck dhtb`c wbtj rasuits dco rads`cs. Fuchtb`cdi Dutj`rbty <

_jbs bs tja rbkjt, wjbhj bs oaiakdtao t` dc bcobvboudi `r d oapdrtnact t` h`ctrì d spahbfbao pr`hass, prdhtbhas, pìbhbas `r `tjar ndttars raidtbck t` dhtbvbtbas ucoartdeac gy pars`cs bc `tjar oapdrtnacts. Fuchtb`cbck `f d fuchtb`cdi dutj`rbty <

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7. 8. ?. 1.

Hidrbfybck tja dssbkcnact < b. [jdt t` ga oaiakdtao. bb. [j`n t` ga oaiakdtao. Xpahbfy tja sug`robcdta‒s rdcka `f oahbsb`c. Dii`w tja sug`robcdtas t` pdrtbhbpdta. Bcf`rn `tjars tjdt d oaiakdtb`c jds `hhurrao. Astdgibsj faaogdhe h`ctrì.

_jara dra ndcy gdrrbars bc oaiakdtb`c< 4) Ibea s`na ndcdkar gaibava tjdt bf tjay wdct t` o` tjbce rbkjt, o` tjabr saivas. 7) Idhe `f h`cfboacha, trust `c sug`robcdtas. 8) I`w saif- h`cfboacha dco n`ra `var h`cfboacha dn`ckst tja ndcdkar‒s nbkjt gahdna d gdrrbar. ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ?) 1)

Fadr dn`ck ndcdkar, tjdt tjay wbii i``sa stdtus. Bcstruhtb`cs fr`n dg`va dutj`rbty c`t t` oaiakdta furtjar.

]rbchbpias `f oaiakdtb`c. 4) Boactbfy d subtdgia sug`robcdta. 7) Axpidbc tja oaiakdtb`c (oakraa). 8) Eaap ibcas `f h`nnucbhdtb`c `pac, s` tjdt sug`robcdta jds fuii faaogdhe dis`. ?) Axpidbc `r trdbc tja tdse pr`pariy. 1) Nust jdva n`cbt`rbck pr`hass dco h`ctrì. 6) [`c‒t obsdppadr dftar oaiakdtb`c. ;) ]rdbsa/Dhec`wiaoka d l`g waii o`ca. :) Bc hdsa `f anarkachy, sug`robcdta jds t` rap`rt yù ds f`r dutjactbhdtb`c, obshratb`cdry ndttar. 2) Achùrdka dco g``st n`rdia `f sug`robcdtas. _dse dftar oaiakdtb`c s` tjdt t` ndea bt n`ra affahtbva. d) g) h)

]idc< k`di, naatbck, tdses. Obraht< yùr tadn eaaps tjan `c trdhe. Achùrdka< g``st n`rdia.

6. Axpidbc tja obffaract fuchtb`cs `f Ndcdkanact d) ]idccbck ]idccbck bcvìvas saiahtbck nbssb`cs dco `glahtbvas dco tja dhtb`cs t` dhjbava tjan, bt raqubras oahbsb`c ndebc, tjdt bs, hj``sbck futura hùrsas `f dhtb`c fr`n dn`ck ditarcdtbvas. C` radi pidc axbsts uctbi d oahbsb`c-d h`nnbtnact `f jundc `r ndtarbdi rasùrhas `r raputdtb`c jds gaac ndoa. g) @rkdcbzbck @rkdcbzbck bcvìvas astdgibsjbck dc bctactb`cdi struhtura `f rìas f`r pa`pia t` fbii bc dc `rkdcbzdtb`c. Bt bs bctactb`cdi bc tja sacsa `f ndebck sura tjdt dii tja tdses cahassdry t` dhh`npibsj k`dis dra dssbkcao dco, bt bs j`pao, dssbkcao t` pa`pia wj` hdc o` tjan gast. h) Xtdffbck Xtdffbck bcvìvas fbiibck dco eaapbck fbiiao tja p`sbtb`cs bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c struhtura. _jbs bs o`ca gy boactbfybck w`re- f`rha raqubranacts5 bcvact`rybck tja pa`pia dvdbidgia5 dco rahrubtbck, saiahtbck, pidhbck, pr`n`tbck, dpprdbsbck, pidccbck tja hdraars `f, h`npacsdtbck, dco trdbcbck `r `tjarwbsa oavai`pbck g`tj hdcobodtas dco hurract l`g jìoars s` tjdt tdses dra dhh`npibsjao affahtbvaiy dco affbhbactiy. o) Iadobck

Iadobck bs bcfiuachbck pa`pia s` tjdt tjay wbii h`ctrbguta t` `rkdcbzdtb`c dco krùp k`dis5 bt jds t` o` prao`nbcdctiy wbtj tja bctarpars`cdi dspaht `f ndcdkbck. Iadobck bcvìvas n`tbvdtb`c, iadoarsjbp styias dco dppr`dhjas, dco h`nnucbhdtb`c. a) H`ctrìibck

H`ctrìibck bs nadsurbck dco h`rrahtbck bcobvboudis dco `rkdcbzdtb`cdi parf`rndcha t` acsura tjdt avacts h`cf`rn t` pidcs. Bt bcvìvas nadsurbck parf`rndcha dkdbcst k`dis dco pidcs, sj`wbck wjara oavbdtb`cs fr`n stdcodros axbst, dco jaipbck t` h`rraht tjan.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty f) H``robcdtb`c

H``robcdtb`c bs tja assacha `f ndcdkar sjbp, f`r bt dhjbavas jdrn`cy dn`ck bcobvboudi aff`rts t`wdro tja dhh`npibsjnact `f krùp k`dis. Adhj `f tja ndcdkarbdi fuchtb`cs bs dc axarhbsa ax arhbsa h`ctrbgutbck t` h``robcdtb`c. ;. [jdt o` yù ucoarstdco ucoarstdco gy Ndtrbx @rkdcbzdtb`c, @rkdcbzdtb`c, nactb`c nactb`c dovdctdkas dco obsdovdctdkas `f Ndtrbx @rkdcbzdtb`c0

Bc d ndtrbx `rkdcbzdtb`c, tja fuchtb`cdi dco pr`laht `f pròuht pdttarcs `f oapdrtnactdtb`c dra h`ngbcao bc tja sdna `rkdcbzdtb`c struhtura. _jbs ebco `f `rkdcbzdtb`c `hhurs fraquactiy bc ndreatbck (f`r axdnpia, pidccbck dco axahutbck dc dovartbsbck hdnpdbkc f`r d ndl`r caw pròuht) bc tja bcstdiidtb`c `f dc aiahtr`cbh odtd pr`hassbck systan, ath. Fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnacts dra parndcact fbxtura `f tja ndtrbx `rkdcbzdtb`c5 tjay ratdbc dutj`rbty f`r tja `vardii `pardtb`c `f tjabr raspahtbva ucbts. ]ròuht oapdrtnacts `r pr`laht tadns dra hradtao ds tja caao drbsas f`r tjan, tjdt bs, wjac d spahbfbh pr`krdnna raqubras d jbkj oakraa `f tahjcbhdi sebii bc d h`chactrdtao parbò `f tbna. Nangars `f d pr`laht tadn dra dssangiao fr`n tja fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnacts dco dra pidhao ucoar tja obrahtb`c `f d pr`laht tadn dra dssangiao fr`n tja fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnacts dco dra pidhao ucoar tja obrahtb`c `f d pr`laht ndcdkar. _ja ndcdkar f`r adhj pr`laht bs rasp`csbgia dco dhhùctdgia f`r bts suhhass dco jds dutj`rbty `var tja `tjar tadn nangars f`r tja ourdtb`c `f tja pr`laht. @c tja h`npiatb`c `f tja pr`laht, tja nangars `f tja tadn, bchiuobck tja pr`laht ndcdkar ravart gdhe t` tjabr raspahtbva oapdrtnacts uctbi tja caxt dssbkcnact t` d pr`laht. Dovdctdkas<-_ja pr`gian `f h``robcdtb`c bs nbcbnbzao gahdusa tja pr`laht ndcdkar dhts ds dc bctakrdt`r t` raidta pars`ccai fr`n obvarsa obshbpibcas.

4.

_jara bs d rasarv`br `f spahbdibsts wjbhj acsuras dvdbidgbibty `f axpartbsa t` dii pr`lahts `c tja gdsbs `f tjabr caao.

7.

_jara bs ah`c`ny bc tja h`st. Adhj pr`laht bs dssbkcao `ciy tja cungar `f pa`pia bt caaos, dv`bobck uccahassdry surpius.

8.

_jara bs dc affahtbva bcf`rndtb`c oahbsb`c systan wjbhj acdgias nangars t` rasp`co qubheiy t` tja hjdcka bc pròuht caaos.

?.

Bs `rbactao t`wdros aco rasuits.

1.

]r`fassb`cdi boactbfbhdtb`c bs ndbctdbcao.

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]bcp`bcts pròuht ‘ pr`fbt rasp`csbgbibty.

Obsdovdctdkas

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D stdta `f h`cfibht axbsts gatwaac fuchtb`cdi dco pr`laht ndcdkars, ds g`tj h`npata f`r ibnbtao rasùrhas.

7.

Wìa h`cfibht, rìa dngbkubty, dco rìa `vari`do ndy rasuit bc strass f`r tja fuchtb`cdi dco pr`laht ndcdkars ds waii ds f`r tja tadn nangars.

8.

Dc bngdidcha `f dutj`rbty dco p`war, ds waii ds j`rbz`ctdi dco vartbhdi bcfiuacha `f tja pr`laht dco fuchtb`cdi ndcdkars, hdc dis` iado t` pr`gians bc ndtrbx `rkdcbzdtb`c.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ?.

Gahdusa `f tja p`tactbdi h`cfibhts, ndcdkars ndy wdct t` pr`taht tjansaivas dkdbcst gidna gy puttbck avarytjbck bc wrbtbck, wjbhj bchradsas donbcbstrdtb`c h`st.

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Ndtrbx `rkdcbzdtb`c raqubras ndcy tbna h`csunbck naatbcks.

:. H`ctrbgutb`cs H`ctrbgutb`cs `f F.[ _dyi`r

[jbia w`rebck bc Nbovdia H`npdcy ds d ndcdkar _dyi`r `gsarvao tjdt anpi`yaas wara c`t parf`rnbck ds par tjabr hdpdhbty `f pròuhtbvbty. Dco ja h`csboarao tjdt tjbs h`cobtb`c wds `hhurrbck gahdusa `f c` hdra t`wdros tja wdsta. _dyi`r w`reao t`wdros tja axparbnacts dt jbs w`re pidha t` bchradsa tja w`rear‒s affbhbachy s` tjdt ndxbnun ùtput hùio ga dhjbavao gy utbibzbck aff`rt dt ndxbnun iavai. 4. Xhbactbfbh tdse sattbck<- _dyi`r `gsarvao tjdt tja ndcdkanact oàs c`t ec`w axdhtiy tja w`res ‘ pbahas `f w`re- vìuna `f w`res- wjbhj dra t` ga parf`rnao gy tja w`rears ourbck d fbxao parbò `f tbna- wjbhj bs hdiiao w`rebck ody. Bc d w`rebck ody j`w nuhj w`re bs t` ga o`na gy d w`rear gut ga fbxao gy d ndcdkar dco tja tdse sjùio ga sat avaryody. _ja pr`hass `f tdse sattbck raqubras shbactbfbh tahjcbqua. _` ndea d w`rear o` d qudctbty `f w`re bc d w`rebck ody bs hdiiao shbactbfbh tdse sattbck 7. Obffaractbdi pdynact systan<- ucoar tjbs systan, d w`rear rahabvao tja pbaha rdta gacafbt wjbhj wjbhj wbii dttrdht tja w`rears t` w`re n`ra f`r n`ra dnùct `f wdkas dco n`ra bchactbvas wùio ga hradtao t` rdbsa tja stdcodrobzdtb`c `f ùtput t` pr`n`ta tja w`rears t` pròuha n`ra dco parf`rn n`ra tdse tjdc gaf`ra dco utbibza wdsta tbna t` adrc n`ra wdkas. 8. Wa`rkdcbzdtb`c `f suparvbsb`c<- h`chapts `f sapdrdtb`c sapdrdtb`c `f pidccbck pidccbck dco o`bck dco fuchtb`cdi f`randcsjbp wara oavai`pao. _dyi`r `pbcas tjdt tja w`rears sjùio `ciy anpjdsbza bc pidccbck `r bc o`bck. _jara sjùio ga : f`randc bc wjbhj ? dra f`r pidccbck dco ?f`r o`bck. F`r pidccbck tjay wara rùta hiare, bcstruhtb`c h`ro hiare, tbna dco h`st hiare dco obshbpibcdrbdc. Dco f`r o`bck tjay wara spaao g`ss, kdck g`ss, rapdbr g`ss dco bcspaht`r. ?. Xhbactbfbh rahrubtbck dco dco trdbcbck<-stdffs dco w`rears sjùio sjùio ga saiahtao dco anpi`yao `c shbactbfbh gdsbs. Ndcdkanact sjùio oavai`p dco trdbc avary w`rears gy pr`vbobck pr`par ec`wiaoka dco trdbcbck t` bchradsa tjabr sebiis dco ndea tjan affahtbva 1. Ah`c`ny<- affbhbact h`st dhhùctbck systan sjùio sjùio ga fìi`wao t` h`ctrì h`st h`st wjbhj hdc nbcbnbza tja wdstdkas dco tj`rùkjiy raouhao dco tjus aibnbcdtao. 6. Nactdi ravìutb`c<- _dyi`r drkuao tjdt g`tj ndcdkanact dco w`rears sjùio try t` ucoarstdco adhj `tjar bcstado `f qudrraibck f`r pr`fbts dco gacafbts wjbhj wùio bchradsa pròuhtb`c, pr`fbt dco gacafbts. 2. [jdt bs nadc gy Xpdc `f H`ctrì0 [jdt dra tja fdht`rs dffahtbck X@H0

Xpdc `f h`ctrì rafars t` tja cungar `f bnnaobdta sug`robcdta wj` rap`rt d ndcdkar. Obffaract iavai `f `rkdcbzdtb`c iavai bs dis` hdiiao spdc `f h`ctrì. FDH_@WX OA_AWNBCBCK DC AFFAH_BVA X]DC _jara dra savardi fdht`rs wjbhj bcfiuacha tja spdc `f ndcdkanact. 4- _WDBCBCK @F XQG@WOBCD_AX _ja gattar ga ttar trdbcbck `f sug`robcdtas bchradsas tja cahassdry suparb`r sug`robcdta‒s raidtb`csjbp. [aii trdbcao sug`robcdtas raqubra iass tbna `f tjabr ndcdkars dis` tjay jdva iass h`ctdht wbtj tjabr ndcdkars. _rdbcbck pr`krdns bchradsa bc caw dco n`ra h`npiax bcoustrbas. a

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 7-HIDWB_R @F OAIAKD_B@C @F DQ_J@WB_R Ditjùkj trdbcbck acdgias ndcdkars t` raouha tja fraquachy `f tbna h`csunbck h`ctdht gut oaiakdtb`c `f dutj`rbty sjùio ga hiadr. Bf d ndcdkar hiadriy oaiakdtas oa iakdtas dutj`rbty t` tdse wbtj d nbcbnun `f tja ndcdkars tbna dco dttactb`c. Gut bf d ndcdkar oaiakdta‒s dutj`rbty uchiadriy tjdc sug`robcdta kbva jbs ndxbnun. 8-HIDWB_R @F ]IDCX Bf pidcs dra waii oafbcao bf tjay dra w`redgia, bf tja oaiakdtb`c `f dutj`rbty t`wdro pidc bs hiadr, bf tja sug`robcdta ucoarstdcos wjdt axpahtao tjdc ibttia `f d suparvbs`r tbna wbii ga raqubrao `c tja `tjar jdco bf pidc hdcc`t ga ordwc dhhurdtaiy dco sug`robcdtas o` nuhj `f tjabr `wc pidccbck, tjay ndy raqubra h`csboardgia kubodcha. ?- QXA @F @GLAH_BVA X_DCODWO X_DCODWO D ndcdkar nust fbco ùt, abtjar gy pars`cdi `gsarvdtb`c `r tjrùkj tja usa `f `glahtbva stdcodros, wjatjar sug`robcdtas dra fìi`wbck pidcs. @gvbùsiy, k`ò `glahtbva stdcodros acdgia ndcdkars t` dv`bo ndcy tbna h`csunbck h`ctdht. 1- WD_A @F HJDCKA Hartdbc actar rbsas hjdcka nuhj nuhj n`ra rdpboiy tjdc `tjars. `tjars. _ja rdta `f hjdcka bs vary bnp`rtdct bnp`rtdct bc f`rnuidtbck dco ndbctdbcbck pìbhbas. Bt ndy axpidbc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c struhtura `f h`npdcy‒s rdbir`do, gdcebck dco pugibh utbibty h`npdcbas. 6- H@NNQCBHD_B@C _AHCBTQAX H`nnucbhdtb`c tahjcbquas dis` bcfiuacha tja spdc `f ndcdkanact. Bf avary pidc, bcstruhtb`c, `roar `r obrahtb`c jds t` ga h`nnucbhdtao gy pars`cdi h`ctdht tjdc ndcdkars tbna wbii ga jadvbiy guroacao. Dc dgbibty t` h`nnucbhdta pidcs dco bcstruhtb`cs hiadriy dco h`chbsaiy dis` tacos t` bchradsa d ndcdkars spdc. ;- DN@QC_ @F ]AWX@CDI H@C_DH_ CAAOAO Ndcy bcstdchas, fdha t` fdha naatbcks dra cahassdry. Ndcy sbtudtb`cs hdcc`t ga h`npiataiy pìbhy stdtanacts pidccbck o`hunacts `r `tjar h`nnucbhdtb`cs tjdt o` c`t bcvìvas pars`cdi h`ctdht. Dc axahutbva ndy dco vdiudgia bcf `rndtb`c‒s `rndtb`c‒s gy naatbck t` sug`robcdtas dco gy obshuss pr`gians wbtj tjan. X`na pr`gians hdc ga jdcoiao `ciy bc fdha t` fdha naatbck s` tja gast g ast wdy `f h`nnucbhdtbck pr`gians, bcstruht`r, dco sug`robcdtas bs t` spaco tbna bc bc pars`cdi h`ctdht. :- VDWBD_B@C GR GR @WKDCB\D_B@C IAVAI Xavardi rasadrhj pr`lahts jdva fùco tjdt tja sbza `f tja n`st affahtbva spdc obffars gy `rkdcbzdtb`cdi iavai. F`r axdnpia, bt wds stuobao tjdt wjac d kradtar cungar `f spahbditbas wara suparvbsao, affahtbva spdcs wara cdrr`war dt i`war dco nbooia iavais `f `rkdcbzdtb`c gut wara bchradsao dt uppar iavais. 2- H@N]A_ACHR @F NDCDKAWX D ndcdkar wj` bs h`npatact dco waii trdbcao hdc affahtbvaiy suparvbsa n`ra pa`pia tjdc wj` bs c`t. 4=- ND_QWB_R DCO N@_BVD_B@C @F XQG@WOBCD_AX _ja n`ra ndtura sug`robcdtas ndy oaiakdta n`ra dutj`rbty, tjus wboacbck tja spdc. 4

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 4=. Axpidbc obffaract Iavais `f Ndcdkanact.

Ndcy ndcdkars w`re bc dc `rkdcbsdtb`c. J`wavar, tjasa ndcdkars o` c`t w`re dt tja sdna iavai. _jay w`re dco `pardta dt obffaract p`sbtb`cs. Jbardrhjy `f tjasa ndcdkarbdi p`sbtb`cs bs hdiiao Iavais `f Ndcdkanact. _jraa Iavais `f Ndcdkanact Kacardiiy, tjara dra _jraa Iavais `f Ndcdkanact,   

Donbcbstrdtbva `r _`p Iavai `f Ndcdkanact. Axahutbva `r Nbooia Iavai `f Ndcdkanact. Xuparvbs`ry `r I`war Iavai `f Ndcdkanact.

Dt adhj iavai, bcobvboudi ndcdkar jds t` hdrry ùt obffaract rìas dco fuchtb`cs.

_`p Iavai `f Ndcdkanact _ja _`p Iavai Ndcdkanact h`csbsts `f tja G`dro `f Obraht`rs (G@O) dco tja Hjbaf Axahutbva @ffbhar (HA@). _ja Hjbaf Axahutbva @ffbhar bs dis` hdiiao Kacardi Ndcdkar (KN) `r Ndcdkbck Obraht`r (NO) `r ]rasboact. _ja G`dro `f Obraht`rs dra tja raprasactdtbvas `f tja Xjdrajìoars, b.a. tjay dra saiahtao gy tja Xjdrajìoars `f tja h`npdcy. Xbnbidriy, tja Hjbaf Axahutbva @ffbhar bs saiahtao gy tja G`dro `f Obraht`rs `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c. _ja ndbc rìa `f tja t`p iavai ndcdkanact bs sunndrbzao ds fìi`ws
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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Dssbstdct ]urhjdsa Ndcdkars, ath. _ja Nbooia iavai Ndcdkanact bs saiahtao gy tja _`p Iavai Ndcdkanact. _ja nbooia iavai ndcdkanact anpjdsbza n`ra `c fìi`wbck tdses < d. g. h. o.

Nbooia iavai ndcdkanact kbvas rah`nnacodtb`cs (dovbha) t` tja t`p iavai ndcdkanact. Bt axahutas (bnpianacts) tja pìbhbas dco pidcs wjbhj dra ndoa gy tja t`p iavai ndcdkanact. Bt h`-`robcdta tja dhtbvbtbas `f dii tja oapdrtnacts. _jay dis` jdva t` h`nnucbhdta wbtj tja t`p iavai Ndcdkanact dco tja i`war iavai ndcdkanact. a. _jay spaco n`ra tbna bc h`-`robcdtbck h `-`robcdtbck dco h`nnucbhdtbck. f. _jay prapdra sj`rt-tarn pidcs `f tjabr oapdrtnacts wjbhj dra kacardiiy ndoa f`r 4 t` 1 yadrs. k. _ja nbooia Iavai Ndcdkanact jds ibnbtao dutj`rbty dco rasp`csbgbibty. _jay dra bctarnaobdry gatwaac t`p dco i`war ndcdkanact. _jay dra obrahtiy rasp`csbgia t` tja hjbaf axahutbva `ffbhar dco g`dro `f obraht`rs. j. Waqubra n`ra ndcdkarbdi dco tahjcbhdi sebiis dco iass h`chaptudi sebiis. I`war Iavai `f Ndcdkanact _ja i`war iavai ndcdkanact h`csbsts `f tja F`ranac dco tja Xuparvbs`rs. _jay dra saiahtao gy tja nbooia iavai ndcdkanact. Bt bs dis` hdiiao @pardtbva / Xuparvbs`ry iavai `r Fbrst Ibca `f Ndcdkanact. _ja i`war iavai ndcdkanact parf`rns fìi`wbck dhtbvbtbas
I`war iavai ndcdkanact obrahts tja w`rears / anpi`yaas. _jay oavai`ps n`rdia bc tja w`rears. Bt ndbctdbcs d ibce gatwaac w`rears dco tja nbooia iavai ia vai ndcdkanact. _ja i`war iavai ndcdkanact bcf`rns tja w`rears dgùt tja oahbsb`cs wjbhj dra tdeac gy tja ndcdkanact. _jay dis` bcf`rn tja ndcdkanact dgùt tja parf`rndcha, obffbhuitbas, faaibcks, oandcos, ath., `f tja w`rears. a. _jay spaco n`ra tbna bc obrahtbck o brahtbck dco h`ctrìibck. f. _ja i`war iavai ndcdkars ndea odbiy, waaeiy dco n`ctjiy pidcs. k. _jay jdva ibnbtao dutj`rbty gut bnp`rtdct rasp`csbgbibty `f kattbck tja w`re o`ca fr`n tja w`rears. _jay rakuidriy rap`rt dco dra obrahtiy rasp`csbgia t` tja nbooia iavai ndcdkanact. j. Di`ck wbtj tja axparbacha dco gdsbh ndcdkanact sebiis, tjay dis` raqubra n`ra tahjcbhdi dco h`nnucbhdtb`c sebiis. 44. 44. Axpidbc tja ]rbchbpias `f @rkdcbzdtb`c

4. ]rbchbpia `f ucbty `f `glahtbvas < @rkdcbzdtb`cdi k`dis, oapdrtnactdi k`dis, dco bcobvboudi k`dis nust ga hiadriy oafbcao. Dii k`dis dco `glahtbvas nust jdva ucbf`rnbty. [jac tjara bs h`ctrdobhtb`c dn`ck obffaract iavai `f k`dis oasbrao k`dis hdc‒t ga dhjbavao. _jaraf`ra, ucbty `f `glahtbvas bs cahassdry 7. ]rbchbpia `f spahbdibzdtb`c < Xùco dco affahtbva `rkdcbzdtb`c gaibavas `c `rkdcbzdtb`c. `rkdcbzdtb`c. _ja tarn tarn spahbdibzdtb`c bs raidtao t` w`re dco anpi`yaas. [jac dc anpi`yaa tdeas spahbdi typa `f ec`wiaoka dco sebii bc dcy drad, bt bs ec`wc ds spahbdibzdtb`c. Nòarc gusbcass `rkdcbzdtb`c caaos tja spahbdibzdtb`c, sebii dco ec`wiaoka gy tjbs oasbrao saht`r `f ah`c`ny dco tjus, affbhbachy wùio ga astdgibsjao. 8. ]rbchbpia `f h``robcdtb`c < Bc dc `rkdcbzdtb`c ndcy aqubpnact, t`ìs dra usao. H``robcdtb`c hdc ga `gtdbcao gy krùp aff`rt tjdt anpjdsbza a npjdsbza `c ucbty `f dhtb`c. _jaraf`ra, h``robcdtb`c fdhbibtdtas bc savardi ndcdkanact h`chapts 4

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ?. ]rbchbpia `f dutj`rbty < Dutj`rbty bs tja ebco `f rbkjt dco p`war tjrùkj wjbhj bt kuboas dco obrahts tja dhtb`cs `f `tjars s` tjdt tja `rkdcbzdtb`cdi k`dis hdc ga dhjbavao. Bt bs dis` raidtao wbtj oahbsb`c ndebck. Bt bs vastao bc pdrtbhuidr p`sbtb`c, c`t t` tja pars`c gahdusa dutj`rbty bs kbvac gy dc bcstbtutb`c dco tjaraf`ra bt bs iakdi. Bt kacardiiy fi`ws fr`n jbkjar iavai iav ai t` i`wast iavai `f ndcdkanact. _jara sjùio ga ucgrèac ibca `f dutj`rbty. 1. ]rbchbpia `f rasp`csbgbibty < Dutjactbh gòy `f dc `rkdcbzdtb`c bs t`p iavai ndcdkanact, t`p iavai ndcdkanact obraht tja sug`robcdtas. Oapdrtnactdi ndcdkars dco `tjar pars`ccai tdea tja obrahtb`c fr`n t`p iavai ndcdkanact t` parf`rn tja tdse. Dutj`rbty bs cahassdry t` parf`rn tja w`re .`ciy dutj`rbty bs c`t pr`vboao t` tja pa`pia gut `gibkdtb`c bs dis` pr`vboao. X` tja `gibkdtb`c t` parf`rn tja outbas dco tdse bs ec`wc ds rasp`csbgbibty. Wasp`csbgbibty hdc‒t ga oaiakdtao. Bt hdc‒t ga dv`boao. 6. ]rbchbpia `f oaiakdtb`c < ]r`hass `f trdcsfarrbck dutj`rbty dco hradtb`c `f rasp`csbgbibty gatwaac suparb`r dco sug`robcdtas t` dhh`npibsj d hartdbc tdse bs hdiiao oaiakdtb`c `f dutj`rbty. Dutj`rbty bs `ciy oaiakdtao, c`t rasp`csbgbibtbas bc dii iavais `f ndcdkanact. _ja dutj`rbty oaiakdtao sjùio ga aqudi t` rasp`csbgbibty ;. ]rbchbpia `f affbhbachy < Bc actarprbsa obffaract rasùrhas dra usao. _jarasa rasùrhas nust ga usao bc affahtbva ndccar. [jac tja `rkdcbzdtb`c fuifbii tja `glahtbvas wbtj nbcbnun h`st, bt bs affahtbva. @rkdcbzdtb`c nust diwdys h`chactrdta `c affbhbachy. :. ]rbchbpia `f ucbty `f h`nndco < sug`robcdtas sjùio sjùio rahabva `roars fr`n sbckia suparb`r dt dt d tbna dco dii sug`robcdtas sjùio ga dhhùctdgia t` tjdt suparb`r. N`ra suparb`r iados t` h`cfusb`c, oaidy dco s` `c. 2. ]rbchbpia `f spdc `f h`ctrì < ucibnbtao sug`robcdtas hdct ga suparvbsao gy ndcdkar, tjbs prbchbpia tjus jaips t` oatarnbca cunarbhdi ibnbt bf sug`robcdtas t` ga suparvbsao gy d ndcdkar. _jbs bnpr`vas affbhbachy. 4=. ]rbchbpia `f gdidcha < tja fuchtb`cdi dhtbvbtbas tjabr astdgibsjnact dco `tjar parf`rndchas sjùio ga gdidchao pr`pariy. Dutj`rbty, hactrdibzdtb`c, oahactrdibzdtb`c nust ga gdidcha aqudiiy. _jbs bs vary hjdiiackbck l`g gut affbhbact ndcdkanact nust eaap bt. 44. ]rbchbpia `f h`nnucbhdtb`c < H`nnucbhdtb`c bs tja pr`hass `f trdcsf`rndtb`c `f bcf`rndtb`c bcf`rndtb`c fr`n `ca pars`c t` dc`tjar `f obffaract iavais. Bt bcvìvas tja systandtbh dco h`ctbcuùs pr`hass `f taiibck, ibstacbck dco ucoarstdcobck `pbcb`cs boads, faaibcks, bcf`rndtb`c, vbaws ath, bc fi`w `f bcf`rndtb`c. Affahtbva h`nnucbhdtb`c bs bnp`rtdct 47. ]rbchbpia `f pars`cdi dgbibty < f`r sùco `rkdcbzdtb`c, jundc rasùrhas bs bnp`rtdct. Anpi`yaas nust ga hdpdgia. Dgia anpi`yaas hdc parf`rn jbkjar. Ndbciy trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact pr`krdns nust ga achùrdkao t` oavai`p tja sebii bc tja anpi`yaas 48. ]rbchbpia `f fiaxbgbibty < `rkdcbzdtb`cdi struhtura struhtura nust ga fiaxbgia h`csboarbck tja acvbr`cnactdi oycdnbsn. X`natbnas, ordndtbhdiiy hjdcka ndy `hhur bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c dco bc tjdt h`cobtb`c, `rkdcbzdtb`c sjùio ga radoy t` dhhapt tja hjdcka 4?. ]rbchbpia `f sbnpibhbty < tjbs prbchbpias anpjdsbzas tja sbnpibhbty `f `rkdcbzdtb`cdi struhtura, tja struhtura bf `rkdcbzdtb`c sjùio ga sbnpia wbtj nbcbnun cungar `f iavais o` tjdt bts nangar dc ucoarstdco outbas dco dutj`rbtbas. k

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 47. Axpidbc obffaract typas `f @rkdcbzdtb`c Xtruhturas.

@rkdcbsdtb`cdi struhtura bs oafbcao ds tja ’Waidtbvaiy acourbck dii`hdtb`c `f w`re rìas dco donbcbstrdtbva nahjdcbsns tjdt hradtas d pdttarc `f bctarraidtao w`re dhtbvbtbas dco dii`ws tja `rkdcbsdtb`c t` h`couht, h`-`robcdta dco h`ctrì bts w`re dhtbvbtbas„

_` put bt bc sbnpia w`ros @rkdcbsdtb`cdi struhtura rafars t` tja iavais `f ndcdkanact dco obvbsb`c `f rasp`csbgbibtbas wbtjbc dc `rkdcbsdtb`c. Bc dc `rkdcbzdtb`c `f dcy sbza `r h`npiaxbty, anpi`yaas' rasp`csbgbibtbas typbhdiiy dra oafbcao gy wjdt tjay o`, wj` tjay rap`rt t`, dco f`r ndcdkars, wj` rap`rts t` tjan. @var tbna tjasa oafbcbtb`cs dra dssbkcao t` p`sbtb`cs bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c rdtjar tjdc t` spahbfbh bcobvboudis. _ja raidtb`csjbps dn`ck tjasa p`sbtb`cs dra biiustrdtao krdpjbhdiiy bc dc `rkdcbzdtb`cdi hjdrt.

_ypas `f @rkdcbsdtb`c Xtruhtura

Ibca @rkdcbsdtb`c Bt bs parjdps tja ìoast dco tja sbnpias `rkdcbsdtb`cdi struhtura. Bc tjbs ebco `f struhtura avary ndcdkar axarhbsa d obraht dutj`rbty `var jbs sug`robcdta wj` bc turc obrahtiy rap`rts t` tjabr suparb`rs.    

_jara bs d jbardrhjbhdi drrdckanact `f dutj`rbty. Adhj oapdrtnact bs saif h`ctdbcao dco w`res bcoapacoactiy `f `tjar oapdrtnacts. Ibcas `f dutj`rbty dra vartbhdi b.a. fr`n t`p t` g`tt`n. _jara dra c` stdff spahbdibsts.

Dovdctdkas    

Xbnpia t` astdgibsj dco `pardta ]r`n`tas pr`npt oahbsb`c ndebck. Adsy t` h`ctrì ds tja ndcdkars jdva obraht h`ctrì `var tjabr sug`robcdtas. H`nnucbhdtb`c bs fdst dco adsy ds tjara bs `ciy vartbhdi fi`w `f h`nnucbhdtb`c.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Obsdovdctdkas   

Idhe `f spahbdibsdtb`c Ndcdkars nbkjt kat `vari`doao wbtj t`` ndcy tjbcks t` o`. Fdbiura `f `ca ndcdkar t` tdea pr`par oahbsb`cs oa hbsb`cs nbkjt dffaht tja wjìa `rkdcbsdtb`c.

J`wavar, ibca struhturas dra subtdgia f`r  

sndii gusbcassas wjara tjara dra faw sug`robcdtas `rkdcbsdtb`cs wjara tjara bs idrkaiy `f rùtbca cdtura dco natjòs `f `pardtb`cs dra sbnpia.

Fuchtb`cdi @rkdcbsdtb`c _ja `rkdcbsdtb`c bs obvboao bct` d cungar `f fuchtb`cdi drads. _jbs `rkdcbsdtb`c jds krùpbck `f dhtbvbtbas bc dhh`rodcha wbtj tja fuchtb`cs `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c suhj ds pròuhtb`c, ndreatbck, fbcdcha, jundc rasùrha dco s` `c. _ja spahbdibst bc hjdrka `f d fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnact jds tja dutj`rbty `var dii `tjar anpi`yaas f`r jbs fuchtb`c.

Dovdctdkas    

Bs i`kbhdi dco rafiahtb`c `f fuchtb`cs Fìi`ws prbchbpia `f `hhupdtb`c spahbdibsdtb`c Xbnpibfbas trdbcbck Gattar h`ctrì ds tja ndckar bc hjdrka `f adhj fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnact bs usudiiy dc spahbdibst. ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Obsdovdctdkas    

@varspahbdibsdtb`c dco cdrr`w vbawp`bcts `f eay pars`ccai hdc ibnbt tja `rkdcbsdtb`c kr`wtj. Waouhao h``robcdtb`c gatwaac fuchtb`cs. H`cfibhts gatwaac obffaract fuchtb`cs hùio ga oatrbnactdi f`r tja `rkdcbsdtb`c ds d wjìa. Obffbhuit f`r kacardi ndcdkars t` h``robcdta obffaract oapdrtnacts.

J`wavar, bt bs nuhj subtdgia f`r idrka `rkdcbsdtb`cs wjara tjara bs dnpia sh`pa f`r spahbdibsdtb`c. @cha jdrn`cy dco pr`par h``robcdtb`c dn`ck obffaract fuchtb`cs bs dhjbavao, bt hùio iado t` sura suhhass f`r dc `rkdcbsdtb`c. Ibca dco Xtdff @rkdcbsdtb`c Bt bs d h`ngbcdtb`c `f ibca dco fuchtb`cdi struhturas. Bc tjbs `rkdcbsdtb`c d struhtura, tja dutj`rbty fi`ws bc d vartbhdi ibca dco kat tja jaip `f stdff stdff spahbdibst wj` dra bc dovbs`ry. [jac tja ibca axahutbvas caao dovbha, bcf`rndtb`c dgùt dcy spahbfbh drad, tjasa stdff spahbdibsts dra h`csuitao. F`r axdnpia Hjbaf dhhùctdct jds h`nndco dutj`rbty `var dhhùctdcts dco hiares bc tja dhhùcts oapdrtnacts gut ja jds `ciy dovbs`ry raidtb`csjbp wbtj `tjar oapdrtnacts ibea pròuhtb`c `r sdias.

Dovdctdkas 2

Ibca ndcdkars dra pr`vboao gy axpart dovbha gy tjasa spahbdibsts. Xtdff ndcdkars pr`vboa spahbdibst dovbha wjbhj hdc bnpr`va qudibty `f oahbsb`cs bc vdrbùs oapdrtnacts. ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Obsdovdctdkas

Ibca ndcdkars dco stdff ndcdkars nbkjt jdva h`cfibhts `c pdrtbhuidr bssuas. Ibca dco stdff ndcdkars nbkjt c`t ga hiadr ds t` wjdt tja dhtudi drad `f `pardtb`cs bs dco wjdt bs axpahtao `f tjan. H`-`robcdtb`c ndy ga d pr`gian. Xtdff pars`ccai dra c`t dhhùctdgia f`r tja rasuits dco tjus ndy c`t tdea tdses sarbùsiy. J`wavar, Ibca dco stdff `rkdcbsdtb`c bs vary subtdgia f`r idrka `rkdcbsdtb`c. ]r`laht @rkdcbsdtb`c _ja pr`laht struhtura h`csbsts `f d cungar `f j`rbz`ctdi `rkdcbsdtb`cdi ucbts t` h`npiata pr`lahts `f d i`ck ourdtb`c. D tadn `f spahbdibsts fr fr`n `n obffaract drads bs hradtao f`r adhj pr`laht. pr`laht. Qsudiiy tjbs tadn bs ndcdkao gy tja pr`laht ndcdkar. _ja pr`laht stdff bs sapdrdta fr`n dco bcoapacoact `f tja fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnacts. Dovdctdkas   

Xpahbdi dttactb`c hdc ga pr`vboao t` naat tja h`npiax oandco `f tja pr`laht. Bt dii`ws ndxbnun usa `f spahbdibst ec`wiaoka tjus hjdchas `f fdbiura dra vary iass. ia ss. ]r`laht stdff w`res ds d tadn t`wdros h`nn`c k`di wjbhj rasuits bc jbkj n`tbvdtb`c iavai f`r bts nangars.

Obsdovdctdkas

Ds tja pr`laht stdff h`csbsts `f pars`ccai fr`n obvarsa fbaios, bt nbkjt ga qubta hjdiiackbck f`r tja pr`laht ndcdkar t` h``robcdta dn`ck tjan.

= 7 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Ndtrbx @rkdcbsdtb`c 

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Ndtrbx `rkdcbsdtb`c h`ngbcas tw` struhturas ‘ fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnactdtb`c dco pr`laht struhtura. Fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnact bs d parndcact fadtura `f tja ndtrbx struhtura dco ratdbcs dutj`rbty f`r `vardii `pardtb`c `f tja fuchtb`cdi ucbts. ]r`laht tadns dra hradtao wjacavar spahbfbh pr`lahts raqubra d jbkj oakraa `f tahjcbhdi sebii dco `tjar rasùrhas f`r d tanp`rdry parbò. ]r`laht tadn f`rn tja j`rbz`ctdi hjdbc dco fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnacts hradta d vartbhdi hjdbc `f h`nndco. Nangars `f d pdrtbhuidr tadn dra ordwc fr`n tja fuchtb`cdi oapdrtnacts dco dra pidhao ucoar tja obrahtb`c `f d pr`laht ndcdkar wj` jds tja `vardii rasp`csbgbibty `f d pdrtbhuidr pr`laht.

Dovdctdka   

Bs `rbactao t`wdros aco rasuits. ]r`fassb`cdi boactbfbhdtb`c bs ndbctdbcao ]bcp`bcts pròuht-pr`fbt rasp`csbgbibty

Obsdovdctdkas   

H`cfibht bc `rkdcbsdtb`c dutj`rbty axbsts. ]`ssbgbibty `f obsucbty `f h`nndco axbsts Waqubras ndcdkar affahtbva bc jundc raidtb`cs

Ndtrbx `rkdcbsdtb`cs bs usao bc bcoustrbas wbtj jbkjiy h`npiax pròuht systans f`r axdnpia, ax dnpia, dar`spdha bcoustry wjara pr`laht tadns dra hradtao f`r spahbfbh spdha `r wadp`c systans.

4 7 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 48. [jdt dra tja obffaract f`rns `f `rkdcbsdtb`cs0 Axpidbc Xìa ]r`prbat`rsjbp bc oatdbi.

Bf `ca bs pidccbck t` stdrt d gusbcass `r bs bctarastao bc axpdcobck dc axbstbck `ca, dc bnp`rtdct oahbsb`c raidtas t` tja hj`bha `f tja f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c. _ja n`st dppr`prbdta f`rn bs oatarnbcao gy wabkjbck tja dovdctdkas dco obsdovdctdkas `f adhj typa `f `rkdcbsdtb`c dkdbcst `ca ‒s `wc raqubranacts. Vdrbùs f`rns `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`cs fr`n wjbhj `ca hdc hj``sa tja rbkjt `ca bchiuoa< (d) Xìa pr`prbat`rsjbp, (g) ]drtcarsjbp, (h) H``pardtbva s`hbatbas, dco (o) L`bct st`he h`npdcy. X@IA ]W@]WBA_@WXJB]

Xìa pr`prbat`rsjbp bs d p`puidr f`rn `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`c dco bs tja n`st subtdgia f`rn f`r sndii gusbcassas, aspahbdiiy bc tjabr bcbtbdi yadrs `f `pardtb`c. Xìa pr`prbat`rsjbp rafars t` d f`rn `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`c wjbhj bs `wcao, ndcdkao dco h`ctrìiao gy dc bcobvboudi wj` bs tja rahbpbact `f dii pr`fbts dco gadrar `f dii rbses. _jbs bs avboact fr`n tja tarn btsaif. _ja w`ro ’sìa„ bnpibas ’`ciy„, dco ’pr`prbat`r„ rafars t` ’`wcar„. Jacha, d sìa pr`prbat`r bs tja `ca wj` bs tja `ciy `wcar `f d gusbcass. _jbs f`rn `f gusbcass bs pdrtbhuidriy h`nn`c bc drads `f pars`cdibsao sarvbhas suhj ds gaduty pdriùrs, jdbr sdi``cs dco sndii shdia dhtbvbtbas ibea ruccbck d ratdbi sj`p bc d i`hdibty. pdynact `f oagts bc hdsa tja dssats `f tja gusbcass dra c`t suffbhbact t` naat dii tja oa gts. Ds suhj tja `wcar‒s pars`cdi p`ssassb`cs suhj ds jbs/jar pars`cdi hdr dco `tjar dssats hùio ga sìo f`r rapdybck tja oagt. Xupp`sa tja t`tdi ùtsboa ibdgbibtbas `f ZR\ ory hiadcar, d sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp fbrn, dra Ws. :=,=== dt tja tbna `f obssìutb`c, gut bts dssats dra Ws. 6=,=== `ciy. Bc suhj d sbtudtb`c tja pr`prbat`r wbii jdva t` grbck bc Ws. 7=,=== fr`n jar pars`cdi sùrhas avac bf sja jds t` saii ja r pars`cdi pr`party t` rapdy tja fbrn‒s oagts. Xìa trdoar bs d typa `f gusbcass ucbt wjara d pars`c bs sìaiy rasp`csbgia f`r pr`vbobck tja hdpbtdi, f`r gadrbck tja rbse `f tja actarprbsa dco f`r tja ndcdkanact `f gusbcass L.I. Jdcsac

_ja bcobvboudi pr`prbat`rsjbp bs tja f`rn `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`c dt tja jado `f wjbhj stdcos dc bcobvboudi ds `ca wj` bs rasp`csbgia, wj` obrahts bts `pardtb`cs dco wj` di`ca rucs tja rbse `f fdbiura. I.J. Jdcay Fadturas

Xdibact hjdrdhtarbstbhs `f tja sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c dra ds fìi`ws< (b) F`rndtb`c dco hi`sura< Jdroiy dcy iakdi f`rndibtbas dra raqubrao t` stdrt d sìa pr`prbatdry gusbcass, tjùkj bc s`na hdsas `ca ndy raqubra d ibhacsa. _jara bs c` sapdrdta idw tjdt k`varcs sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp. Hi`sura `f tja gusbcass hdc dis` ga o`ca adsbiy. _jus, tjara bs adsa bc f`rndtb`c ds waii ds hi`sura `f gusbcass. (bb) Ibdgbibty< Xìa pr`prbat`rs jdva ucibnbtao ibdgbibty. _jbs bnpibas tjdt tja `wcar bs pars`cdiiy rasp`csbgia f`r 7 7 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty (bbb) Xìa rbse gadrar dco pr`fbt rahbpbact< _ja rbse `f fdbiura `f gusbcass bs g`rca dii di`ca gy tja sìa pr`prbat`r. J`wavar, bf tja gusbcass bs suhhassfui, tja pr`prbat`r acl`ys dii tja gacafbts. Ja rahabvas dii tja gusbcass pr`fbts wjbhj gah`na d obraht rawdro f`r jbs rbse gadrbck. (bv) H`ctrì< _ja rbkjt t` ruc tja gusbcass dco ndea dii oahbsb`cs oah bsb`cs ibas dgsìutaiy wbtj tja sìa pr`prbat`r. p r`prbat`r. Ja hdc hdrry ùtjbs pidcs wbtjùt dcy bctarfaracha fr`n `tjars. (v) C` sapdrdta actbty< Bc tja ayas `f tja idw, c` obstbchtb`c bs ndoa gatwaac tja sìa trdoar dco jbs gusbcass, ds gusbcass oàs c`t jdva dc boactbty sapdrdta fr`n tja `wcar. _ja `wcar ` wcar bs, tjaraf`ra, jaio rasp`csbgia f`r dii tja dhtbvbtbas `f tja gusbcass. (vb) Idhe `f gusbcass h`ctbcubty< Xbcha tja `wcar dco gusbcass dra `ca dco tja sdna actbty, oadtj, bcsdcbty, bnprbs`cnact, pjysbhdi dbinact `r gdcerupthy `f tja sìa pr`prbat`r wbii jdva d obraht dco oatrbnactdi affaht `c tja gusbcass dco ndy avac hdusa hi`sura `f tja gusbcass. Narbts

Xìa pr`prbat`rsjbp `ffars ndcy dovdctdkas. X`na `f tja bnp`rtdct `cas dra ds fìi`ws< (b) Tubhe oahbsb`c ndebck< D sìa pr`prbat`r acl`ys h`csboardgia oakraa `f fraao`n bc ndebck gusbcass oahbsb`cs. Furtjar tja oahbsb`c ndebck bs pr`npt gahdusa tjara bs c` caao t` `f jbs/jar aff`rts ds ja/sja bs tja sìa rahbpbact `f dii tja pr`fbt. _ja caao t` sjdra pr`fbts oàs c`t drbsa ds ja/sja bs tja sbckia `wcar. _jbs pr`vboas ndxbnun bchactbva t` tja sìa trdoar t` w`re jdro. h`csuit `tjars. _jbs ndy iado t` tbnaiy hdpbtdibsdtb`c `f ndreat `pp`rtucbtbas ds dco wjac tjay drbsa. (bb) H`cfboactbdibty `f bcf`rndtb`c< Xìa oahbsb`c ndebck dutj`rbty acdgias tja pr`prbat`r t` eaap dii tja bcf`rndtb`c raidtao t` gusbcass `pardtb`cs h`cfboactbdi dco ndbctdbc sahrahy. D sìa trdoar bs dis` c`t gùco gy idw t` pugibsj fbrn‒s dhhùcts. (bbb) Obraht bchactbva< D sìa pr`prbat`r obrahtiy radps tja gacafbts (bv) Xacsa `f dhh`npibsjnact< _jara bs d pars`cdi sdtbsfdhtb`c bcvìvao bc w`rebck f`r `casaif. _ja ec`wiaoka tjdt `ca bs rasp`csbgia f`r tja suhhass suhha ss `f tja gusbcass c`t `ciy h`ctrbgutas t` saif-sdtbsfdhtb`c saif -sdtbsfdhtb`c gut dis` bcstbis bc tja bcobvboudi d sacsa `f dhh`npibsjnact dco h` cfboacha bc `ca‒s dgbibtbas. (v) Adsa `f f`rndtb`c dco hi`sura< Dc bnp`rtdct narbt `f sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp bs tja p`ssbgbibty `f actarbck bct` gusbcass wbtj nbcbndi iakdi f`rndibtbas. _jara bs c` sapdrdta idw tjdt k`varcs sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp. Ds sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp bs tja iadst rakuidtao f`rn `f gusbcass, bt bs adsy t` stdrt dco hi`sa tja gusbcass ds par tja wbsj `f tja `wcar. Ibnbtdtb`cs

C`twbtjstdcobck vdrbùs dovdctdkas, tja sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c bs c`t fraa fr`n ibnbtdtb`cs. X`na `f tja ndl`r ibnbtdtb`cs `f sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp dra ds fìi`ws< (b) Ibnbtao rasùrhas< Wasùrhas `f d sìa pr`prbat`r dra ibnbtao t` jbs/jar pars`cdi sdvbcks dco g`rr`wbcks fr`n `tjars. Gdces dco `tjar iacobck bcstbtutb`cs ndy jasbtdta t` axtaco d i`ck tarn i`dc t` d sìa pr`prbat`r. Idhe `f rasùrhas bs `ca `f tja ndl`r rads`cs wjy tja sbza `f tja gusbcass rdraiy kr`ws nuhj dco kacardiiy randbcs sndii. 7

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty (bb) Ibnbtao ibfa `f d gusbcass h`charc< Bc tja ayas `f tja idw tja pr`prbat`rsjbp dco tja `wcar dra h`csboarao `ca dco tja sdna. Oadtj, bcsìvachy `r biicass `f d pr`prbat`r dffahts tja gusbcass dco hdc iado t` bts hi`sura. (bbb) Qcibnbtao ibdgbibty< D ndl`r obsdovdctdka `f sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp bs tjdt tja `wcar jds ucibnbtao ibdgbibty. Bf tja gusbcass fdbis, tja hraobt`rs hdc rah`var tjabr ouas c`t naraiy fr`n tja gusbcass dssats, gut dis` fr`n tja pars`cdi dssats `f tja pr`prbat`r. D p``r oahbsb`c `r dc ucfdvùrdgia hbrhunstdcha hdc hradta sarbùs fbcdchbdi guroac `c tja `wcars. _jdt bs wjy d sìa pr`prbat`r bs iass bchibcao t` tdea rbses bc tja f`rn `f bcc`vdtb`c `r axpdcsb`c. ax pdcsb`c. (bv) Ibnbtao ndcdkarbdi dgbibty< _ja `wcar jds t` dssuna tja rasp`csbgbibty `f vdrbao ndcdkarbdi tdses suhj ds purhjdsbck, saiibck, fbcdchbck, ath. Bt bs rdra t` fbco dc bcobvboudi wj` axhais bc dii tjasa drads. _jus oahbsb`c ndebck ndy c`t ga gdidchao bc dii tja hdsas. Dis`, oua t` ibnbtao rasùrhas, sìa pr`prbat`r ndy c`t ga dgia t` anpi`y dco ratdbc tdiactao dco dngbtbùs anpi`yaas. _jùkj sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp suffars fr`n vdrbùs sj`rth`nbcks, ndcy actrapracaurs `pt f`r tjbs f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c gahdusa `f bts bcjaract dovdctdkas. Bt raqubras iass dnùct `f hdpbtdi. Bt bs gast subtao f`r gusbcassas wjbhj dra hdrrbao ùt `c d sndii shdia dco wjara hust`nars oandco pars`cdibsao sarvbhas. 41. Axpidbc ]drtcarsjbp ]drtcarsjbp gdsao gusbcass `rkdcbzdtb`c. Nactb`c tja dovdctdkas dco ibnbtdtb`cs dis`.

_ja bcjaract obsdovdctdka `f tja sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp bc fbcdchbck dco ndcdkbck dc axpdcobck gusbcass pdvao tja wdy f`r pdrtcarsjbp ds d vbdgia `ptb`c. ]drtcarsjbp sarvas ds dc dcswar t` tja caaos `f kradtar hdpbtdi bcvastnact, vdrbao sebiis dco sjdrbck `f rbses. _ja Bcobdc ]drtcarsjbp Dht, 4287 oafbcas pdrtcarsjbp ds ’tja raidtb`c gatwaac pars`cs wj` jdva dkraao t` sjdra tja pr`fbt `f tja gusbcass hdrrbao `c gy dii `r dcy `ca `f tjan dhtbck f`r dii.„ ]drtcarsjbp bs tja raidtb`c gatwaac pars`cs h`npatact h `npatact t` ndea h`ctrdhts wj` jdva dkraao t` hdrry `c d idwfui gusbcass bc h`nn`c wbtj d vbaw t` prbvdta kdbc. I J Jdcay

]drtcarsjbp bs tja raidtb`c wjbhj sugsbsts gatwaac pars`cs wj` jdva dkraao t` h`ngbca tjabr pr`party, idgùr `r sebii bc s`na gusbcass dco t` sjdra tja pr`fbts tjarafr`n gatwaac tjan. _ja Bcobdc H`ctrdht Dht Fadturas

Oafbcbtb`cs kbvac dg`va p`bct t` tja fìi`wbck ndl`r hjdrdhtarbstbhs `f tja pdrtcarsjbp f`rn `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`c. (b) F`rndtb`c< _ja pdrtcarsjbp f`rn `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`c bs k`varcao gy tja Bcobdc ]drtcarsjbp Dht, 4287. Bt h`nas bct` axbstacha tjrùkj d iakdi dkraanact wjarabc tja tarns dco h`cobtb`cs k`varcbck tja raidtb`csjbp dn`ck tja pdrtcars, sjdrbck `f pr`fbts dco i`ssas dco tja ndccar `f h`couhtbck tja gusbcass dra spahbfbao. Bt ndy ga p`bctao ùt tjdt tja gusbcass nust ga idwfui dco ruc wbtj tja n`tbva `f pr`fbt. _jus, tw` pa`pia h`nbck t`katjar f`r hjdrbtdgia purp`sas wbii c`t h`cstbtuta d pdrtcarsjbp. (bb) Ibdgbibty< _ja pdrtcars `f d fbrn jdva ucibnbtao ibdgbibty. ]ars`cdi dssats ndy ga usao f`r rapdybck oagts bc hdsa tja gusbcass gu sbcass dssats dra bcsuffbhbact. Furtjar, tja pdrtcars dra l`bctiy dco bcobvboudiiy ibdgia f`r pdynact `f oagts. ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty L`bctiy, dii tja pdrtcars dra rasp`csbgia f`r tja oagts dco tjay h`ctrbguta bc pr`p`rtb`c t` tjabr sjdra bc gusbcass dco ds suhj dra ibdgia t` tjdt axtact. Bcobvboudiiy t``, adhj pdrtcar hdc ga jaio rasp`csbgia rapdybck tja oagts `f tja gusbcass. J`wavar, suhj d pdrtcar hdc idtar rah`var fr`n `tjar pdrtcars dc dnùct `f n`cay aqubvdiact t` tja sjdras bc ibdgbibty oafbcao ds par tja pdrtcarsjbp dkraanact. (bbb) Wbse gadrbck< _ja pdrtcars gadr tja rbses bcvìvao bc ruccbck d gusbcass ds d tadn. _ja rawdro h`nas bc tja f`rn `f pr`fbts wjbhj dra sjdrao gy tja pdrtcars bc dc dkraao rdtb`. J`wavar, tjay dis` sjdra i`ssas bc tja sdna rdtb` bc tja avact a vact `f tja fbrn bchurrbck i`ssas. (bv) Oahbsb`c ndebck dco h`ctrì< _ja pdrtcars sjdra dn`ckst tjansaivas tja rasp`csbgbibty `f oahbsb`c ndebck dco h`ctrì `f ody t` ody dhtbvbtbas. Oahbsb`cs dra kacardiiy tdeac wbtj nutudi h`csact. _jus, tja dhtbvbtbas `f d pdrtcarsjbp fbrn dra ndcdkao tjrùkj tja l`bct aff`rts `f dii tja pdrtcars.

ra tbranact, (v) H`ctbcubty< ]drtcarsjbp bs hjdrdhtarbsao gy idhe `f h`ctbcubty `f gusbcass sbcha tja oadtj, ratbranact, bcsìvachy `r bcsdcbty `f dcy pdrtcar hdc grbck dc aco t` tja gusbcass. J`wavar, tja randbcbck pdrtcars ndy bf tjay s` oasbra h`ctbcua tja gusbcass `c tja gdsbs `f d caw dkraanact. (vb) Nangarsjbp< _ja nbcbnun cungar `f nangars caaoao t` stdrt d pdrtcarsjbp fbrn bs tw`, wjbia tja ndxbnun cungar, bc hdsa `f gdcebck bcoustry bs tac dco bc hdsa `f `tjar gusbcassas bt bs twacty.

Narbts

_ja fìi`wbck p`bcts oashrbga tja dovdctdkas `f d pdrtcarsjbp fbrn. (b) Adsa `f f`rndtb`c dco hi`sura< D pdrtcarsjbp fbrn hdc ga f`rnao adsbiy gy puttbck dc dkraanact gatwaac tja pr`spahtbva pdrtcars bct` pidha wjaragy tjay dkraa t` hdrryùt tja gusbcass `f tja fbrn dco sjdra rbses. _jara bs c` h`npuisb`c wbtj raspaht t` rakbstrdtb`c `f tja fbrn. Hi`sura `f tja fbrn t`` bs dc adsy tdse. (bb) Gdidchao oahbsb`c ndebck< _ja pdrtcars hdc `varsaa obffaract fuchtb`cs dhh`robck t` tjabr drads `f axpartbsa. Gahdusa dc bcobvboudi bs c`t f`rhao t` jdcoia obffaract dhtbvbtbas, tjbs c`t `ciy raouhas tja guroac `f w`re gut dis` iados t` fawar arr`rs bc luokanacts. Ds d h`csaquacha, oahbsb`cs dra ibeaiy t` ga n`ra gdidchao. (bbb) N`ra fucos< Bc d pdrtcarsjbp, tja hdpbtdi bs h`ctrbgutao gy d cungar `f pdrtcars. _jbs ndeas bt p`ssbgia t` rdbsa idrkar dnùct `f fucos ds h`npdrao t` d sìa pr`prbat`r dco ucoartdea doobtb`cdi `pardtb`cs wjac caaoao. (bv) Xjdrbck `f rbses< _ja rbses bcvìvao bc ruccbck d pdrtcarsjbp fbrn dra sjdrao gy dii tja pdrtcars. _jbs raouhas tja dcxbaty, guroac dco strass `c bcobvboudi pdrtcars. (v) Xahrahy< D pdrtcarsjbp fbrn bs c`t iakdiiy raqubrao t` pugibsj bts dhhùcts dco sugnbt bts rap`rts. Jacha bt bs dgia t` ndbctdbc h`cfboactbdibty `f bcf`rndtb`c bcf`rndtb`c raidtbck t` bts `pardtb`cs. Ibnbtdtb`cs

D pdrtcarsjbp fbrn `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`c suffars fr`n tja fìi`wbck ibnbtdtb`cs< (b) Qcibnbtao ibdgbibty< ]drtcars dra ibdgia t` rapdy oagts avac fr`n tjabr pars`cdi rasùrhas bc hdsa tja gusbcass dssats dra c`t suffbhbact t` naat bts oagts. _ja ibdgbibty `f pdrtcars bs g`tj l`bct dco savardi a

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty wjbhj ndy pr`va t` ga d ordwgdhe f`r tj`sa pdrtcars wj` jdva kradtar pars`cdi waditj. _jay wbii jdva t` rapdy tja actbra oagt bc hdsa tja `tjar pdrtcars dra ucdgia t` o` s`. (bb) Ibnbtao rasùrhas< _jara bs d rastrbhtb`c `c tja cungar `f pdrtcars, dco jacha h`ctrbgutb`c bc tarns `f hdpbtdi bcvastnact bs usudiiy c`t suffbhbact t` supp`rt idrka shdia gusbcass `pardtb`cs. Ds d rasuit, pdrtcarsjbp fbrns fdha pr`gians bc axpdcsb`c gay`co d hartdbc sbza. (bbb) ]`ssbgbibty `f h`cfibhts< ]drtcarsjbp bs ruc gy d krùp `f pars`cs wjarabc oahbsb`c ndebck dutj`rbty bs sjdrao. Obffaracha bc `pbcb`c `c s`na bssuas ndy iado t` obsputas gatwaac pdrtcars. Furtjar, oahbsb`cs `f `ca pdrtcar dra gbcobck g bcobck `c `tjar pdrtcars. _jus dc ucwbsa oahbsb`c gy s`na `ca ndy rasuit bc fbcdchbdi rubc f`r dii `tjars. Bc hdsa d pdrtcar oasbras t` iadva tja fbrn, tjbs hdc rasuit bc tarnbcdtb`c `f pdrtcarsjbp ds tjara bs d rastrbhtb`c `c trdcsfar `f `wcarsjbp. (bv) Idhe `f h`ctbcubty< ]drtcarsjbp h`nas t` dc aco wbtj tja oadtj, ratbranact, bcsìvachy `r iucdhy `f dcy pdrtcar. Bt ndy rasuit bc idhe `f h`ctbcubty. J`wavar, tja randbcbck pdrtcars hdc actar bct` d frasj dkraanact dco h`ctbcua t` ruc tja gusbcass. (v) Idhe `f pugibh h`cfboacha< D pdrtcarsjbp fbrn bs c`t iakdiiy raqubrao t` pugibsj bts fbcdchbdi rap`rts `r ndea `tjar raidtao bcf`rndtb`c pugibh. Bt bs, tjaraf`ra, obffbhuit f`r dcy nangar `f tja pugibh t` dshartdbc tja trua fbcdchbdi stdtus `f d pdrtcarsjbp fbrn. Ds d rasuit, tja h`cfboacha `f tja pugibh bc pdrtcarsjbp fbrns bs kacardiiy i`w. 46. Oashrbga dgùt H``pardtbva X`hbaty `rkdcbzdtb`c wbtj bts obffaract fadturas.

_ja w`ro h``pardtbva nadcs w`rebck t`katjar dco wbtj `tjars f`r d h`nn`c purp`sa. _ja h``pardtbva s`hbaty bs d vìuctdry dss`hbdtb`c `f pars`cs, wj` l`bc t`katjar wbtj tja n`tbva `f waifdra `f tja nangars. _jay dra orbvac gy tja caao t` pr`taht tjabr ah`c`nbh bctarasts bc tja fdha `f p`ssbgia axpi`btdtb`c dt tja jdcos `f nbooianac `gsassao wbtj tja oasbra t` adrc kradtar pr`fbts. _ja h``pardtbva s`hbaty bs h`npuis`rbiy raqubrao t` ga rakbstarao ucoar tja H``pardtbva X`hbatbas Dht 4247. _ja pr`hass `f sattbck up d h``pardtbva s`hbaty bs sbnpia acùkj dco dt tja n`st wjdt bs raqubrao bs tja h`csact `f dt iadst tac douit pars`cs t` f`rn d s`hbaty. _ja hdpbtdi `f d s`hbaty bs rdbsao fr`n bts nangars tjrùkj bssua `f sjdras. _ja s`hbaty dhqubras d obstbcht iakdi boactbty dftar bts rakbstrdtb`c. H``pardtbva bs d f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c wjarabc pars`cs vìuctdrbiy dss`hbdta t`katjar ds jundc gabcks `c tja gdsbs `f aqudibty f`r tja pr`n`tb`c `f dc ah`c`nbh bctarast f`r tjansaivas. A. J. Hdivart H``pardtbva `rkdcbsdtb`c bs ’d s`hbaty wjbhj jds bts `glahtbvas f`r tja pr`n`tb`c `f ah`c`nbh bctarasts `f bts nangars bc dhh`rodcha wbtj h``pardtbva prbchbpias.

_ja Bcobdc H``pardtbva X`hbatbas Dht 4247 Fadturas

_ja hjdrdhtarbstbhs `f d h``pardtbva s`hbaty dra ibstao gai`w. (b) Vìuctdry nangarsjbp< _ja nangarsjbp `f d h``pardtbva s`hbaty bs vìuctdry. D pars`c bs fraa t` l`bc d h``pardtbva s`hbaty, dco hdc dis` iadva iadva dcytbna ds par jbs oasbra. _jara hdcc`t ga dcy h`npuisb`c f`r jbn t` l`bc `r qubt d s`hbaty. Ditjùkj pr`haourdiiy d nangar bs raqubrao t` sarva d c`tbha gaf`ra ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty iadvbck tja s`hbaty, tjara bs c` h`npuisb`c h `npuisb`c t` randbc d nangar. Nangarsjbp bs `pac t` dii, brraspahtbva `f tjabr raibkb`c, hdsta, dco kacoar. (bb) Iakdi stdtus< Wakbstrdtb`c `f d h``pardtbva s`hbaty bs h`npuis`ry. _jbs dhh`ros d sapdrdta boactbty t` tja s`hbaty wjbhj bs obstbcht fr`n bts nangars. _ja s`hbaty hdc actar bct` h`ctrdhts dco jìo pr`party bc bts cdna, sua dco ga suao gy `tjars. Ds d rasuit `f gabck d sapdrdta iakdi actbty, bt bs c`t dffahtao gy tja actry `r axbt `f bts nangars. (bbb) Ibnbtao ibdgbibty< _ja ibdgbibty `f tja nangars `f d h``pardtbva s`hbaty bs ibnbtao t` tja axtact `f tja dnùct h`ctrbgutao gy tjan ds hdpbtdi. _jbs oafbcas tja ndxbnun rbse tjdt d nangar hdc ga dseao t` gadr. (bv) H`ctrì< Bc d h``pardtbva s`hbaty, tja p`war t` tdea oahbsb`cs ibas bc tja jdcos `f dc aiahtao ndcdkbck h`nnbttaa. _ja rbkjt t` v`ta kbvas tja nangars d hjdcha t` hj``sa tja nangars wj` wbii h`cstbtuta tja ndcdkbck h`nnbttaa dco tjbs iacos tja h``pardtbva s`hbaty d oan`hrdtbh hjdrdhtar. h jdrdhtar. (v) Xarvbha n`tbva< _ja h``pardtbva s`hbaty tjrùkj bts purp`sa idys anpjdsbs `c tja vdiuas `f nutudi jaip dco waifdra. Jacha, tja n`tbva `f sarvbha o`nbcdtas bts w`rebck. Bf dcy surpius bs kacardtao ds d rasuit `f bts `pardtb`cs, bt bs obstrbgutao dn`ckst tja nangars ds obvboaco bc h`cf`rnbty wbtj tja gyaidws `f tja s`hbaty. Narbts

_ja h``pardtbva s`hbaty `ffars ndcy gacafbts t` bts nangars. X`na `f tja dovdctdkas `f tja h``pardtbva f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c dra ds fìi`ws. (b) Aqudibty bc v`tbck stdtus< _ja prbchbpia `f ‚`ca ndc `ca v`ta‒ k`varcs tja h``pardtbva s`hbaty. Brraspahtbva `f tja dnùct `f hdpbtdi h`ctrbgutb`c gy d nangar, adhj nangar bs actbtiao t` aqudi v` tbck rbkjts. (bb) Ibnbtao ibdgbibty< _ja ibdgbibty `f nangars `f d h``pardtbva s`hbaty bs ibnbtao t` tja axtact `f tjabr hdpbtdi h`ctrbgutb`c. _ja pars`cdi dssats `f tja nangars dra, tjaraf`ra, sdfa fr`n gabck usao t` rapdy gusbcass oagts. (bbb) Xtdgia axbstacha< Oadtj, gdcerupthy `r bcsdcbty `f tja nangars o` c`t dffaht h`ctbcubty `f d h``pardtbva s`hbaty. D s`hbaty, tjaraf`ra, `pardtas ucdffahtao gy dcy hjdcka bc tja nangarsjbp. (bv) Ah`c`ny bc `pardtb`cs< _ja nangars kacardiiy `ffar j`c`rdry sarvbhas t` tja s`hbaty. Ds tja f`hus bs `c aibnbcdtb`c `f nbooianac, tjbs jaips bc raouhbck h`sts. _ja hust`nars `r pròuhars tjansaivas dra nangars `f tja s`hbaty, dco jacha tja rbse `f gdo oagts bs i`war. (v) Xupp`rt fr`n k`varcnact< _ja h``pardtbva s`hbaty axanpibfbas tja boad `f oan`hrdhy dco jacha fbcos supp`rt fr`n tja K`varcnact bc tja f`rn `f i`w tdxas, sugsbobas, dco i`w bctarast rdtas `c i`dcs. (vb) Adsa `f f`rndtb`c< _ja h``pardtbva s`hbaty hdc ga stdrtao wbtj d nbcbnun `f tac nangars. _ja rakbstrdtb`c pr`haoura bs sbnpia bcvìvbck d faw iakdi f`rndibtbas. Bts f`rndtb`c bs k`varcao gy tja pr`vbsb`cs `f H``pardtbva X`hbatbas Dht 4247. ; 7 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Ibnbtdtb`cs

_ja h``pardtbva f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c suffars fr`n tja fìi`wbck ibnbtdtb`cs< (b) Ibnbtao rasùrhas< Wasùrhas `f d h``pardtbva s`hbaty h`csbsts `f hdpbtdi h`ctrbgutb`cs `f tja nangars wbtj ibnbtao nadcs. _ja i`w rdta `f obvboaco `ffarao `c bcvastnact dis` dhts ds d oatarract bc dttrdhtbck nangarsjbp `r n`ra hdpbtdi fr`n tja nangars. (bb) Bcaffbhbachy bc ndcdkanact< H``pardtbva s`hbatbas dra ucdgia t` dttrdht dco anpi`y axpart ndcdkars gahdusa `f tjabr bcdgbibty t` pdy tjan jbkj sdidrbas. _ja nangars wj` `ffar j`c`rdry sarvbhas `c d vìuctdry gdsbs dra kacardiiy c`t pr`fassb`cdiiy aqubppao t` jdcoia tja ndcdkanact fuchtb`cs affahtbvaiy. (bbb) Idhe `f sahrahy< Ds d rasuit `f `pac obshussb`cs bc tja naatbcks `f nangars ds waii ds obshi`sura `gibkdtb`cs ds par tja X`hbatbas Dht (;), bt bs obffbhuit t` ndbctdbc sahrahy dgùt tja `pardtb`cs `f d h``pardtbva s`hbaty. (bv) K`varcnact h`ctrì< Bc raturc `f tja prbvbiakas `ffarao gy tja k`varcnact, h``pardtbva s`hbatbas jdva t` h`npiy wbtj savardi ruias dco rakuidtb`cs raidtao t` duobtbck `f dhhùcts, sugnbssb`c `f dhhùcts, ath. Bctarfaracha bc tja fuchtb`cbck `f tja h``pardtbva `rkdcbsdtb`c tjrùkj tja h`ctrì axarhbsao gy tja stdta h``pardtbva oapdrtnacts dis` cakdtbvaiy dffahts bts fraao`n `f `pardtb`c. (v) Obffarachas `f `pbcb`c< Bctarcdi qudrrais drbsbck ds d rasuit `f h`ctrdry vbawp`bcts ndy iado t` obffbhuitbas bc oahbsb`c ndebck. ]ars`cdi bctarasts ndy stdrt t` o`nbcdta tja waifdra n`tbva dco tja gacafbt `f `tjar nangars ndy tdea d gdhesadt bf pars`cdi kdbc bs kbvac prafaracha gy hartdbc nangars. 4;. Axpidbc dgùt L`bct Xt`he H`npdcbas wbtj bts narbts dco oanarbts.

D h`npdcy bs dc dss`hbdtb`c `f pars`cs f`rnao f`r hdrrybck ùt gusbcass dhtbvbtbas dco jds d iakdi stdtus bcoapacoact `f bts nangars. _ja h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c bs k`varcao gy _ja H`npdcbas Dht, 4216. D h`npdcy hdc ga oashrbgao ds dc drtbfbhbdi pars`c jdvbck d sapdrdta iakdi actbty, parpatudi suhhassb`c dco d h`nn`c sadi. _ja sjdrajìoars dra tja `wcars `f tja h`npdcy wjbia tja G`dro `f Obraht`rs bs tja hjbaf ndcdkbck gòy aiahtao gy tja sjdrajìoars. Qsudiiy, tja `wcars axarhbsa dc bcobraht h`ctrì `va r tja gusbcass. _ja hdpbtdi `f tja h`npdcy bs obvboao bct` sndiiar pdrts hdiiao ‚sjdras‒ wjbhj hdc ga trdcsfarrao fraaiy fr`n `ca sjdrajìoar t` dc`tjar pars`c (axhapt bc d prbvdta h`npdcy). L`bct st`he h`npdcy bs d vìuctdry dss`hbdtb`c `f bcobvboudis f`r pr`fbt, jdvbck d hdpbtdi obvboao bct` trdcsfardgia sjdras, tja `wcarsjbp `f wjbhj bs tja h`cobtb`c `f nangarsjbp. ]r`f. Jdcay Fadturas _ja oafbcbtb`c `f d l`bct st`he h`npdcy h `npdcy jbkjibkjts tja fìi`wbck fadturas `f d h`npdcy. (b) Drtbfbhbdi pars`c< D h`npdcy bs d hradtb`c `f idw dco axbsts bcoapacoact `f bts nangars. Ibea cdturdi pars`cs, d h`npdcy hdc `wc pr`party, bchur oagts, g`rr`w n`cay, actar bct` h`ctrdhts, sua dco ga suao gut ucibea tjan bt hdcc`t gradtja, adt, ruc, tdie dco s` `c. Bt bs, tjaraf`ra, hdiiao h diiao dc drtbfbhbdi pars`c. (bb) Xapdrdta iakdi actbty< Fr`n tja ody `f bts bch`rp`rdtb`c, d h`npdcy dhqubras dc boactbty, obstbcht fr`n bts nangars. Bts dssats dco ibdgbibtbas dra sapdrdta fr`n tj`sa `f bts `wcars. _ja idw oàs c`t rah`kcbsa tja gusbcass dco `wcars t` ga `ca dco tja sdna. ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty (bbb) F`rndtb`c< _ja f`rndtb`c `f d h`npdcy bs d tbna h`csunbck, axpacsbva dco h`npibhdtao pr`hass. Bt bcvìvas tja prapdrdtb`c `f savardi o`hunacts dco h`npibdcha wbtj savardi iakdi raqubranacts gaf`ra bt hdc stdrt fuchtb`cbck. Wakbstrdtb`c `f d h`npdcy bs h`npuis`ry ds pr`vboao ucoar tja Bcobdc H`npdcbas Dht, 4216. (bv) ]arpatudi suhhassb`c< D h`npdcy gabck d hradtb`c `f tja idw, hdc ga grùkjt t` dc aco `ciy `c iy gy idw. Bt wbii `ciy hadsa t` axbst wjac d spahbfbh pr`haoura f`r bts hi`sura, hdiiao wbcobck up, bs h`npiatao. Nangars ndy h`na dco nangars ndy k`, gut tja h`npdcy h`ctbcuas t` axbst. (v) H`ctrì< _ja ndcdkanact dco h`ctrì `f tja dffdbrs `f tja h`npdcy bs ucoartdeac gy tja G`dro `f Obraht`rs, wjbhj dpp`bcts tja t`p ndcdkanact `ffbhbdis f`r ruccbck tja gusbcass. _ja obraht`rs jìo d p`sbtb`c `f bnnacsa sbkcbfbhdcha ds tjay dra obrahtiy dhhùctdgia t` tja sjdrajìoars f`r tja w`rebck `f tja h`npdcy. _ja sjdrajìoars, j`wavar, o` c`t jdva tja rbkjt t` ga bcvìvao bc tja ody -t`-ody ruccbck `f tja gusbcass. (vb) Ibdgbibty< _ja ibdgbibty `f tja nangars bs ibnbtao t` tja axtact `f tja hdpbtdi h`ctrbgutao gy tjan bc d h`npdcy. _ja hraobt`rs hdc usa `ciy tja dssats `f tja h`npdcy t` sattia tjabr hidbns sbcha bt bs tja h`npdcy dco c`t tja nangars tjdt `was tja oagt. _ja nangars hdc ga dseao t` h`ctrbguta t` tja i`ss `ciy t` tja axtact `f tja ucpdbo dnùct `f sjdra jaio gy tjan. Xupp`sa Desjdy bs d sjdrajìoar bc d h`npdcy jìobck 7,=== sjdras `f Ws.4= adhj `c wjbhj ja jds diradoy pdbo Ws. ; par sjdra. Jbs ibdgbibty bc tja avact `f i`ssas `r h`npdcy‒s fdbiura t` pdy oagts hdc ga `ciy up t` Ws. 6,===‟ tja ucpdbo dnùct `f jbs sjdra hdpbtdi (Ws. 8 par sjdra `c 7,=== sjdras jaio bc tja h`npdcy). Gay`co tjbs, ja bs c`t ibdgia t` pdy dcytjbck t`wdros tja oagts `r i`ssas `f tja h`npdcy. (vbb) H`nn`c sadi< _ja h`npdcy gabck dc drtbfbhbdi pars`c dhts tjrùkj bts G`dro `f Obraht`rs. _ja G`dro `f Obraht`rs actars bct` dc dkraanact wbtj `tjars gy bcobhdtbck tja h`npdcy‒s dppr`vdi tjrùkj d h`nn`c sadi. _ja h`nn`c sadi bs tja ackrdvao aqubvdiact `f dc `ffbhbdi sbkcdtura. Dcy dkraanact wjbhj oàs c`t jdva tja h`npdcy sadi put `c bt bs c`t iakdiiy gbcobck `c tja h`npdcy. (vbbb) Wbse gadrbck< _ja rbse `f i`ssas bc d h`npdcy bs g`rca gy dii tja sjdra jìoars. _jbs bs ucibea tja hdsa `f sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp `r pdrtcarsjbp fbrn wjara `ca `r faw pars`cs raspahtbvaiy gadr tja i`ssas. Bc tja fdha `f fbcdchbdi obffbhuitbas, dii sjdrajìoars bc d h`npdcy jdva t` h`ctrbguta t` tja oagts t` tja axtact `f tjabr sjdras bc tja h`npdcy‒s hdpbtdi. _ja rbse `f i`ss tj us kats sprado `var d idrka cungar `f sjdrajìoars. Narbts _ja h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c `ffars d nuitbtuoa `f dovdctdkas, s`na `f wjbhj dra obshussao gai`w. (b) Ibnbtao ibdgbibty< _ja sjdrajìoars dra ibdgia t` tja axtact `f tja dnùct ucpdbo `c tja sjdras jaio gy tjan. Dis`, `ciy tja dssats `f tja h`npdcy hdc ga usao t` sattia tja oagts, iadvbck tja `wcar‒s pars`cdi pr`party fraa fr`n dcy hjdrka. _jbs raouhas tja oakraa `f rbse g`rca gy dc bcvast`r. (bb) _rdcsfar `f bctarast< _ja adsa `f trdcsfar `f `wcarsjbp doos t` tja dovdctdka `f bcvastbck bc d h`npdcy ds tja sjdra `f d pugibh ibnbtao h`npdcy hdc ga sìo bc tja ndreat dco ds suhj hdc ga adsbiy h`cvartao bct` hdsj bc hdsa tja caao drbsas. _jbs dv`bos gi`hedka `f bcvastnact dco prasacts tja h`npdcy ds d fdvùrdgia dvacua f`r bcvastnact purp`sas. (bbb) ]arpatudi axbstacha< Axbstacha `f d h`npdcy bs c`t dffahtao gy tja oadtj, ratbranact, rasbkcdtb`c, bcsìvachy `r bcsdcbty `f bts nangars ds bt jds d sapdrdta actbty fr`n bts nangars. D h`npdcy wbii k

a

7

2 d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty h`ctbcua t` axbst avac bf dii tja nangars oba. Bt hdc ga ibqubodtao `ciy ds par tja pr`vbsb`cs `f tja H`npdcbas Dht. (bv) Xh`pa f`r axpdcsb`c< Ds h`npdrao t` tja sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp dco pdrtcarsjbp f`rns `f `rkdcbsdtb`c, d h`npdcy jds idrka fbcdchbdi rasùrhas. Furtjar, hdpbtdi hdc ga dttrdhtao fr`n tja pugibh ds waii ds tjrùkj i`dcs fr`n gdces dco fbcdchbdi bcstbtutb`cs. _jus tjara bs kradtar sh`pa f`r axpdcsb`c. _ja bcvast`rs dra bchibcao t` bcvast bc sjdras gahdusa `f tja ibnbtao ibdgbibty, trdcsfardgia `wcarsjbp dco p`ssbgbibty `f jbkj raturcs bc d h`npdcy. (v) ]r`fassb`cdi ndcdkanact< D h`npdcy hdc dff`ro t` pdy jbkjar sdidrbas t` spahbdibsts dco pr`fassb`cdis. Bt hdc, tjaraf`ra, anpi`y pa`pia wj` dra axparts bc tjabr drad `f spahbdibsdtb`cs. _ja shdia `f `pardtb`cs bc d h`npdcy iados t` obvbsb`c `f w`re. Adhj oapdrtnact oadis wbtj d pdrtbhuidr dhtbvbty dco bs jadoao gy dc axpart. _jbs iados t` gdidchao oahbsb`c ndebck ds waii ds kradtar affbhbachy bc tja h`npdcy‒s `pardtb`cs. Ibnbtdtb`cs _ja ndl`r ibnbtdtb`c s `f d h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c dra ds fìi`ws< (b) H`npiaxbty bc f`rndtb`c< _ja f`rndtb`c `f d h`npdcy raqubras kradtar tbna, aff`rt dco axtacsbva ec`wiaoka `f iakdi raqubranacts dco tja pr`haouras bcvìvao. Ds h`npdrao t` sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp dco pdrtcarsjbp f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`cs, f`rndtb`c `f d h`npdcy bs n`ra h`npiax. (bb) Idhe `f sahrahy< _ja H`npdcbas Dht raqubras adhj pugibh h`npdcy t` pr`vboa fr`n tbna-t`-tbna d i`t `f bcf`rndtb`c t` tja `ffbha `f tja rakbstrdr `f h`npdcbas. Xuhj bcf`rndtb`c bs dvdbidgia t` tja kacardi pugibh dis`. Bt bs, tjaraf`ra, obffbhuit t` ndbctdbc h`npiata sahrahy dgùt tja `pardtb`cs `f h`npdcy. (bbb) Bnpars`cdi w`re acvbr`cnact< Xapdrdtb`c `f `wcarsjbp dco ndcdkanact iados t` sbtudtb`cs bc wjbhj tjara bs idhe `f aff`rt ds waii ds pars`cdi bcvìvanact `c tja pdrt `f tja `ffbhars `f d h`npdcy. _ja idrka sbza `f d h`npdcy furtjar ndeas bt obffbhuit f`r tja `wcars dco t`p ndcdkanact t` ndbctdbc pars`cdi h`ctdht wbtj tja anpi`yaas, hust`nars dco hraobt`rs. (bv) Cunarùs rakuidtb`cs< _ja fuchtb`cbck `f d h`npdcy bs suglaht t` ndcy iakdi pr`vbsb`cs dco h`npuisb`cs. D h`npdcy bs guroacao wbtj cunarùs rastrbhtb`cs bc raspaht `f dspahts bchiuobck duobt, v`tbck, fbibck `f rap`rts dco prapdrdtb`c `f o`hunacts, dco bs raqubrao t` `gtdbc vdrbùs hartbfbhdtas fr`n obffaract dkachbas, vbz., rakbstrdr, XAGB, ath. _jbs raouhas tja fraao`n `f `pardtb`cs `f d h`npdcy dco tdeas dwdy d i`t `f tbna, aff`rt dco n`cay. (v) Oaidy bc oahbsb`c ndebck< H`npdcbas dra oan`hrdtbhdiiy ndcdkao tjrùkj tja G`dro `f Obraht`rs wjbhj bs fìi`wao gy tja t`p ndcdkanact, nbooia ndcdkanact dco i`war iavai ndcdkanact. H`nnucbhdtb`c ds waii ds dppr`vdi `f vdrbùs pr`p`sdis ndy hdusa oaidys c`t `ciy bc tdebck oahbsb`cs gut dis` bc dhtbck up`c tjan. (vb) @ibkdrhjbh ndcdkanact< Bc tja`ry, d h`npdcy bs d oan`hrdtbh bcstbtutb`c wjarabc tja G`dro `f Obraht`rs dra raprasactdtbvas `f tja sjdrajìoars wj` dra tja `wcars. Bc prdhtbha, j`wavar, bc n`st idrka sbzao `rkdcbsdtb`cs jdvbck d nuitbtuoa `f sjdrajìoars5 tja `wcars jdva nbcbndi bcfiuacha bc tarns `f h`ctrìibck `r ruccbck tja gusbcass. Bt bs s` gahdusa tja sjdrajìoars dra sprado dii `var tja hùctry dco d vary sndii parhactdka dttaco tja kacardi naatbcks. _ja G`dro `f Obraht`rs Ob raht`rs ds suhj acl`y h`csboardgia fraao`n bc axarhbsbck tjabr p`war wjbhj tjay s`natbnas usa avac h`ctrdry t` tja bctarasts `f tja sjdrajìoars. Obssdtbsfbao sjdrajìoars bc suhj d sbtudtb`c jdva c` `ptb`c gut t` saii tjabr sjdras dco axbt tja h`npdcy. Ds tja obraht`rs vbrtudiiy acl`y tja rbkjts t` tdea dii ndl`r oahbsb`cs, bt iados t` ruia gy d faw. k

a

8

= d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty (vbb) H`cfibht bc bctarasts< _jara ndy ga g a h`cfibht `f bctarast dn`ckst vdrbùs stdeajìoars `f d h`npdcy. _ja anpi`yaas, f`r axdnpia, ndy ga bctarastao bc jbkjar sdidrbas, h`csunars oasbra jbkjar qudibty pròuhts dt i`war prbhas, dco tja sjdrajìoars wdct jbkjar raturcs bc tja f`rn `f obvboacos dco bchradsa bc tja bctrbcsbh vdiua `f tjabr sjdras. _jasa oandcos p`sa pr`gians bc ndcdkbck tja h`npdcy ds bt `ftac gah`nas obffbhuit t` sdtbsfy suhj obvarsa bctarasts. 4:. Axpidbc tja obffaract typas `f H``pardtbva X`hbatbas.

Vdrbùs typas `f h``pardtbva s`hbatbas gdsao `c tja cdtura `f tjabr `pardtb`cs dra oashrbgao gai`w< (b) H`csunar‒s h``pardtbva s`hbatbas< _ja h`csunar h``pardtbva s`hbatbas dra f`rnao t` pr`taht tja bctarasts `f h`csunars. _ja nangars h`nprbsa `f h`csunars oasbrùs `f `gtdbcbck k`ò qudibty pròuhts dt rads`cdgia prbhas. _ja s`hbaty dbns dt aibnbcdtbck nbooianac t` dhjbava ah`c`ny bc `pardtb`cs. Bt purhjdsas k`òs bc guie obrahtiy fr`n tja wjìasdiars dco saiis k`òs t` tja nangars, tjaragy aibnbcdtbck tja nbooianac. ]r`fbts, bf dcy, dra obstrbgutao `c tja gdsbs `f abtjar tjabr hdpbtdi h`ctrbgutb`cs t` tja s`hbaty `r purhjdsas ndoa gy bcobvboudi nangars. nang ars. (bb) ]ròuhar‒s h``pardtbva s`hbatbas< _jasa s`hbatbas dra sat up t` pr`taht tja bctarast `f sndii

pròuhars. _ja nangars h`nprbsa `f pròuhars oasbrùs `f pr`hurbck bcputs f`r pròuhtb`c `f k`òs t` naat tja oandcos `f h`csunars. _ja s`hbaty dbns t` fbkjt dkdbcst tja gbk hdpbtdibsts dco acjdcha tja gdrkdbcbck p`war `f tja sndii pròuhars. Bt suppibas rdw ndtarbdis, aqubpnact dco `tjar bcputs t` tja nangars dco dis` guys tjabr ùtput f`r sdia. ]r`fbts dn`ck tja nangars dra kacardiiy obstrbgutao `c tja gdsbs `f tjabr h`ctrbgutb`cs t` tja t`tdi p`ì `f k`òs pròuhao `r sìo gy tja s`hbaty. (bbb) Ndreatbck h``pardtbva s`hbatbas< Xuhj s`hbatbas dra astdgibsjao t` jaip sndii pròuhars bc saiibck tjabr pròuhts. _ja nangars h`csbst `f pròuhars wj` wbsj t` `gtdbc rads`cdgia prbhas f`r tjabr ùtput. _ja s`hbaty dbns t` aibnbcdta nbooianac dco bnpr`va h`npatbtbva p`sbtb`c `f bts nangars gy sahurbck d fdvùrdgia ndreat f`r tja pròuhts. Bt p`ìs tja ùtput `f bcobvboudi nangars dco parf`rns ndreatbck fuchtb`cs ibea trdcsp`rtdtb`c, wdrajùsbck, pdhedkbck, ath., t` saii tja ùtput dt tja gast p`ssbgia prbha. ]r`fbts dra obstrbgutao dhh`robck t` adhj nangar‒s h`ctrbgutb`c t` tja p`ì `f ùtput. (bv) Fdrnar‒s h``pardtbva s`hbatbas< _jasa s`hbatbas dra astdgibsjao t` pr`taht tja bctarasts `f fdrnars

gy pr`vbobck gattar bcputs dt d rads`cdgia h`st. _ja nangars h`nprbsa `f fdrnars wj` wbsj t` l`bctiy tdea up fdrnbck dhtbvbtbas. _ja dbn bs t` kdbc tja gacafbts `f idrka shdia fdrnbck dco bchradsa tja pròuhtbvbty. Xuhj s`hbatbas pr`vboa gattar qudibty saaos, fartbibsars, ndhjbcary dco `tjar nòarc tahjcbquas f`r usa bc tja huitbvdtb`c `f hr`ps. _jbs jaips c`t `ciy bc bnpr`vbck tja ybaio dco raturcs t` tja fdrnars, gut dis` sìvas tja pr`gians dss`hbdta wbtj tja fdrnbck `c frdknactao idco jìobcks. (v) Hraobt h``pardtbva s`hbatbas< Hraobt h``pardtbva s`hbatbas dra astdgibsjao f`r pr`vbobck adsy hraobt `c rads`cdgia tarns t` tja nangars. _ja nangars h`nprbsa `f pars`cs wj` saae fbcdchbdi jaip bc tja f`rn `f i`dcs. _ja dbn `f suhj s`hbatbas bs t` pr`taht tja nangars fr`n tja axpi`btdtb`c ax pi`btdtb`c `f iacoars wj` hjdrka jbkj rdtas `f bctarast `c i`dcs. Xuhj s`hbatbas pr`vboa i`dcs t` nangars ùt `f tja dnùcts hìiahtao ds hdpbtdi dco oap`sbts fr`n tja nangars n angars dco hjdrka i`w rdtas `f bctarast. (vb) H``pardtbva jùsbck s`hbatbas< H``pardtbva jùsbck s`hbatbas dra astdgibsjao t` jaip pa`pia wbtj ibnbtao bch`na t` h`cstruht jùsas dt rads`cdgia h`sts. _ja nangars `f tjasa s`hbatbas h`csbst `f pa`pia wj` dra oasbrùs `f pr`hurbck rasboactbdi dhh`nnòdtb`c dt i`war h`sts. _ja dbn bs t` sìva tja jùsbck pr`gians `f tja nangars gy h`cstruhtbck jùsas dco kbvbck tja `ptb`c `f pdybck bc bcstdinacts. _jasa s`hbatbas h`cstruht fidts `r pr`vboa pi`ts t` nangars `c wjbhj tja nangars tjansaivas hdc h`cstruht tja jùsas ds par tjabr hj`bha. k

a

8

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 42. Axpidbc tja fdht`rs wjbhj oahboa tja hj`bha `f f`rn `f gusbcass `rkdcbzdtb`c.

Dftar stuoybck vdrbùs f`rns `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`cs, bt bs avboact tjdt adhj f`rn jds hartdbc dovdctdkas ds waii ds obsdovdctdkas. Bt, tjaraf`ra, gah`nas vbtdi tjdt hartdbc gdsbh h`csboardtb`cs dra eapt bc nbco wjbia hj``sbck dc dppr`prbdta f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c. _ja bnp`rtdct fdht`rs oatarnbcbck tja hj`bha `f `rkdcbsdtb`c dra obshussao gai`w< (b) H`st dco adsa bc sattbck up tja `rkdcbsdtb`c< Ds fdr ds bcbtbdi gusbcass sattbck-up h`sts dra h`charcao, sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp bs tja n`st bcaxpacsbva wdy `f stdrtbck d gusbcass. J`wavar, tja iakdi raqubranacts dra nbcbnun dco tja shdia `f `pardtb`cs bs sndii. Bc hdsa `f pdrtcarsjbp dis`, tja dovdctdka `f iass iakdi f`rndibtbas dco i`war h`st bs tjara gahdusa `f ibnbtao shdia `f `pardtb`cs. H``pardtbva s`hbatbas dco h`npdcbas jdva t` ga h`npuis`rbiy rakbstarao. F`rndtb`c `f d h`npdcy bcvìvas d iacktjy dco axpacsbva iakdi pr`haoura. Fr`n tja p`bct `f vbaw `f bcbtbdi h`st, tjaraf`ra, sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp bs tja prafarrao f`rn ds bt bcvìvas iadst axpacobtura. H`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c, `c tja `tjar jdco, bs n`ra h`npiax dco bcvìvas kradtar h`sts. (bb) Ibdgbibty< Bc hdsa `f sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp dco pdrtcarsjbp fbrns, tja ibdgbibty `f tja `wcars/pdrtcars bs ucibnbtao. _jbs ndy hdii f`r pdybck tja oagt fr`n pars`cdi dssats `f tja `wcars. Bc l`bct Jbcou fdnbiy gusbcass, `ciy tja edrtd jds ucibnbtao ibdgbibty. Bc h``pardtbva s`hbatbas dco h`npdcbas, j`wavar, ibdgbibty bs ibnbtao dco hraobt`rs hdc f`rha pdynact `f tjabr hidbns `ciy t` tja axtact `f tja h`npdcy‒s dssats. Jacha, fr`n tja p`bct `f vbaw `f bcvast`rs, tja h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c bs n`ra subtdgia ds tja rbse bcvìvao bs ibnbtao. (bbb) H`ctbcubty< _ja h`ctbcubty `f sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp dco pdrtcarsjbp fbrns bs dffahtao gy suhj avacts ds oadtj, bcsìvachy `r bcsdcbty `f tja `wcars. J`wavar, suhj fdht`rs o` c`t dffaht tja h`ctbcubty `f gusbcass bc tja hdsa `f `rkdcbsdtb`cs ibea l`bct Jbcou fdnbiy gusbcass, h``pardtbva s`hbatbas dco h`npdcbas. Bc hdsa tja gusbcass caaos d parndcact pa rndcact struhtura, h`npdcy f`rn bs n`ra subtdgia. F`r sj`rt tarn vacturas, pr`prbat`rsjbp `r pdrtcarsjbp ndy ga prafarrao. (bv) Ndcdkanact dgbibty< D sìa pr`prbat`r ndy fbco bt obffbhuit t` jdva axpartbsa bc dii fuchtb`cdi drads `f ndcdkanact. Bc `tjar f`rns `f `rkdcbsdtb`cs ibea pdrtcarsjbp dco h`npdcy, tjara bs c` suhj pr`gian. Obvbsb`c `f w`re dn`ck tja nangars bc suhj `rkdcbsdtb`cs dii`ws tja ndcdkars t` spahbdibsa bc spahbfbh drads, iadobck t` gattar oahbsb`c ndebck. Gut tjbs ndy iado t` sbtudtb`cs `f h`cfibhts gahdusa `f obffarachas `f `pbcb`c dn`ckst pa`pia. Furtjar, bf tja `rkdcbsdtb`c‒s `pardtb`cs dra h`npiax bc cdtura dco raqubra pr`fassb`cdibsao ndcdkanact, h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c bs d gattar ditarcdtbva. ]r`prbat`rsjbp `r pdrtcarsjbp ndy ga subtdgia, wjara sbnpibhbty `f `pardtb`cs dii`w avac pa`pia wbtj ibnbtao sebiis t` ruc tja gusbcass. _jus, tja cdtura `f `pardtb`cs dco tja caao f`r pr`fassb`cdibsao ndcdkanact dffaht tja hj`bha `f tja f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c. (v) Hdpbtdi h`csboardtb`cs< H`npdcbas dra bc d gattar p`sbtb`c t` hìiaht idrka dnùcts `f hdpbtdi gy bssubck sjdras t` d idrka cungar `f bcvast`rs. ]drtcarsjbp fbrns dis` jdva tja dovdctdka `f h`ngbcao rasùrhas `f dii pdrtcars. Gut tja rasùrhas `f d sìa pr`prbat`r dra ibnbtao. _jus, bf tja shdia `f `pardtb`cs bs idrka, h`npdcy f`rn ndy ga subtdgia wjarads f`r naobun dco sndii sbzao gusbcass `ca hdc `pt f`r pdrtcarsjbp `r sìa pr`prbat`rsjbp. Furtjar, fr`n tja p`bct `f vbaw `f axpdcsb`c, d h`npdcy bs n`ra subtdgia gahdusa `f bts hdpdgbibty t` rdbsa n`ra fucos dco bcvast bc axpdcsb`c pidcs. Bt bs prahbsaiy f`r tjbs purp`sa tjdt bc ùr `pacbck hdsa Cajd‒s fdtjar sukkastao sja sjùio h`csboar swbthjbck `var t` tja h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c. (vb) Oakraa `f h`ctrì< Bf obraht h`ctrì `var `pardtb`cs dco dgsìuta oahbsb`c ndebck p`war bs raqubrao, pr`prbat`rsjbp ndy ga prafarrao. Gut bf tja `wcars o` c`t nbco sjdrbck h`ctrì dco oahbsb`c ndebck,


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty pdrtcarsjbp `r h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c hdc ga do`ptao. _ja dooao dovdctdka bc tja hdsa `f h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c bs tjdt tjara bs h`npiata sapdrdtb`c `f `wcarsjbp dco ndcdkanact dco bt bs pr`fassb`cdis wj` dra dpp`bctao t` bcoapacoactiy ndcdka tja dffdbrs `f d h`npdcy. (vbb) Cdtura `f gusbcass< Bf obraht pars`cdi h`ctdht bs caaoao wbtj tja hust`nars suhj ds bc tja hdsa `f d kr`hary st`ra, pr`prbat`rsjbp ndy ga n`ra subtdgia. F`r idrka ndcufdhturbck ucbts, j`wavar, wjac obraht pars`cdi h`ctdht wbtj tja hust`nar bs c`t raqubrao, tja h`npdcy f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c ndy ga do`ptao. Xbnbidriy, bc hdsas wjara sarvbhas `f d pr`fassb`cdi cdtura dra raqubrao, pdrtcarsjbp f`rn bs nuhj n`ra subtdgia. Bt wùio c`t ga ùt `f pidha t` nactb`c jara tjdt tja fdht`rs stdtao dg`va dra bctar-raidtao. Fdht`rs ibea hdpbtdi h`ctrbgutb`c dco rbse vdry wbtj tja sbza dco cdtura `f gusbcass, dco jacha d f`rn `f gusbcass `rkdcbsdtb`c tjdt bs subtdgia fr`n tja p`bct `f vbaw `f tja rbses f`r d kbvac gusbcass wjac ruc `c d sndii shdia nbkjt c`t ga dppr`prbdta wjac tja sdna gusbcass bs hdrrbao `c d idrka shdia. Bt bs, tjaraf`ra, sukkastao tjdt dii tja raiavdct fdht`rs nust ga tdeac bct` h`csboardtb`c wjbia ndebck d oahbsb`c wbtj raspaht t` tja f`rn `f `rkdcbsdtb`c tjdt sjùio ga do`ptao. 7=. Axpidbc obffaract typas `f L`bct Xt`he h`npdcbas. ]ugibh Ibnbtao H`npdcy D pugibh ibnbtao h`npdcy bs d vìuctdry dss`hbdtb`c `f nangars wjbhj bs bch`rp`rdtao dco, tjaraf`ra jds d sapdrdta iakdi axbstacha dco tja ibdgbibty `f wj`sa nangars bs ibnbtao. Bts ndbc fadturas dra <  

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_ja h`npdcy jds d sapdrdta iakdi axbstacha dpdrt fr`n bts nangars wj` h`np`sa bt. Bts f`rndtb`c, w`rebck dco bts wbcobck up, bc fdht, dii bts dhtbvbtbas dra strbhtiy k`varcao gy idws, ruias dco rakuidtb`cs. _ja rakuidtb`cs. _ja Bcobdc H`npdcbas Dht, 4216 h`ctdbcs tja pr`vbsb`cs rakdrobck tja iakdi f`rndibtbas f`r sattbck up `f d pugibh ibnbtao h`npdcy. Wakbstrdrs `f H`npdcbas (W@H) dpp`bctao ucoar tja H`npdcbas Dht h`varbck tja vdrbùs Xtdtas dco Qcb`c _arrbt`rbas dra vastao wbtj tja prbndry outy `f rakbstarbck h`npdcbas fi`dtao bc tja raspahtbva stdtas dco tja Qcb`c _arrbt`rbas. D h`npdcy nust jdva d nbcbnun `f savac nangars gut tjara bs c` ibnbt ds rakdros tja ndxbnun cungar. _ja h`npdcy hìiahts bts hdpbtdi gy tja sdia `f bts sjdras dco tj`sa wj` guy tja sjdras dra hdiiao tja nangars. _ja dnùct s` hìiahtao bs hdiiao tja sjdra hdpbtdi. _ja sjdras `f d h`npdcy dra fraaiy trdcsfardgia dco tjdt t`` wbtjùt tja prb`r h`csact `f `tjar sjdrajìoars `r wbtjùt sugsaquact c`tbha t` tja h`npdcy. _ja ibdgbibty `f d nangar `f d h`npdcy bs ibnbtao t` tja fdha vdiua `f tja sjdras ja `wcs. @cha ja jds pdbo tja wjìa `f tja fdha vdiua, ja jds c` `gibkdtb`c t` h`ctrbguta dcytjbck t` pdy `ff tja hraobt`rs `f tja h`npdcy. _ja sjdrajìoars `f d h`npdcy o` c`t jdva tja rbkjt t` pdrtbhbpdta bc tja ody-t`-ody ndcdkanact `f tja gusbcass `f d h`npdcy. _jbs acsuras sapdrdtb`c `f `wcarsjbp fr`n ndcdkanact. _ja p`war `f oahbsb`c ndebck bc d h`npdcy bs vastao bc tja G`dro `f Obraht`rs, dco dii pìbhy oahbsb`cs dra tdeac t deac dt tja G`dro iavai gy tja ndl`rbty ruia. _jbs acsuras d ucbty `f obrahtb`c bc ndcdkanact. Ds d h`npdcy bs dc bcoapacoact iakdi pars`c, bts axbstacha bs c`t dffahtao gy tja oadtj, ratbranact `r bcsìvachy `f dcy `f bts sjdrajìoars.

Dovdctdkas H`ctbcubty `f axbstacha  Idrkar dnùct `f hdpbtdi  Qcbty `f obrahtb`c  Affbhbact ndcdkanact  Ibnbtao ibdgbibty 


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Obsdovdctdkas    

Xh`pa f`r pr`n`tb`cdi frduos Qcoan`hrdtbh h`ctrì Xh`pa f`r obraht`rs f`r pars`cdi pr`fbt Xuglahtao t` strbht rakuidtb`cs

]rbvdta Ibnbtao H`npdcy D prbvdta ibnbtao h`npdcy bs d vìuctdry dss`hbdtb`c `f c`t iass tjdc tw` dco c`t n`ra tjdc fbfty nangars, wj`sa ibdgbibty bs ibnbtao, tja trdcsfar `f wj`sa sjdras bs ibnbtao t` bts nangars dco wj` bs c`t dii`wao t` bcvbta tja kacardi pugibh t` sugshrbga t` bts sjdras `r oagacturas. Bts ndbc fadturas dra <

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Bt jds dc bcoapacoact iakdi axbstacha. _ja Bcobdc H`npdcbas Dht,4216 h`ctdbcs h `ctdbcs tja pr`vbsb`cs rakdrobck tja iakdi f`rndibtbas f`r sattbck up `f d prbvdta ibnbtao h`npdcy. Wakbstrdrs `f H`npdcbas (W@H) dpp`bctao ucoar tja H`npdcbas Dht h`varbck tja vdrbùs Xtdtas dco Qcb`c _arrbt`rbas dra vastao wbtj tja prbndry outy `f rakbstarbck h`npdcbas fi`dtao bc tja raspahtbva stdtas dco tja Qcb`c _arrbt`rbas. Bt bs raidtbvaiy iass hungars`na t` `rkdcbsa dco `pardta bt ds bt jds gaac axanptao fr`n ndcy rakuidtb`cs dco rastrbhtb`cs t` wjbhj d pugibh ibnbtao h`npdcy bs suglahtao t`. X`na `f tjan dra
_ja ibdgbibty `f bts nangars bs ibnbtao. _ja sjdras dii`ttao t` bt's nangars dra dis` c`t fraaiy trdcsfardgia gatwaac tjan. _jasa  h`npdcbas dra c`t dii`wao t` bcvbta pugibh t` sugshrbga t` bts sjdras dco oagacturas. Bt acl`ys h`ctbcubty `f axbstacha b.a. bt h`ctbcuas t` axbst avac bf dii bts nangars oba `r oasart bt.  Jacha, d prbvdta h`npdcy bs prafarrao gy tj`sa wj` wbsj t` tdea tja dovdctdka `f ibnbtao ibdgbibty gut dt tja sdna tbna oasbra t` eaap h`ctrì `var tja gusbcass wbtjbc d ibnbtao hbrhia dco ndbctdbc tja prbvdhy `f tjabr gusbcass. 

Dovdctdkas H`ctbcubty `f axbstacha  Ibnbtao ibdgbibty  Iass iakdi rastrbhtb`cs  Obsdovdctdkas Xjdras dra c`t fraaiy trdcsfardgia  C`t dii`wao t` bcvbta pugibh t` sugshrbga t` bts sjdras  Xh`pa f`r pr`n`tb`cdi frduos  Qcoan`hrdtbh h`ctrì 

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Nòuia BB ]drt D (? ndre quastb`cs) 4. Ibst tja `glahtbvas `f ]ars`ccai Ndcdkanact

_ja `glahtbvas `f pars`ccai ndcdkanact/JWN bc dcy bcoustrbdi `rkdcbzdtb`c hdc ga sunndrbzao ds ucoar. (4) _` dttdbc ndxbnun bcobvboudi oavai`pnact oav ai`pnact (saif-oavai`pnact) `f tja nangars `f dc `rkdcbzdtb`c dco dis` t` utbibza dvdbidgia jundc rasùrhas (wbtj tja `rkdcbzdtb`c) fuiiy dco affahtbvaiy. (7) _` nùio affahtbvaiy tja jundc rasùrhas. ra sùrhas. (8) _` astdgibsj oasbrdgia w`rebck raidtb`csjbps gatwaac anpi`yar dco anpi`yaas dco gatwaac krùps `f anpi`yaas. (?) _` acsura sdtbsfdhtb`c t` tja w`rears s` tjdt tjay dra fraaiy radoy t` w`re. (1) _` bnpr`va tja sarvbha racoarao gy tja actarprbsa t` tja s`hbaty tjrùkj gattar anpi`yaa n`rdia, wjbhj iados t` n`ra affbhbact bcobvboudi dco krùp parf`rndcha. (6) _` astdgibsj dco ndbctdbc d pròuhtbva dco saif raspahtbck raidtb`csjbp dn`ck dii tja nangars `f dc `rkdcbzdtb`c. (;) _` acsura tja dvdbidgbibty `f d h`npatact dco wbiibck w`ref`rha t` tja `rkdcbzdtb`c f`r bts pr`krass dco pr`sparbty. (:) _` jaip `rkdcbzdtb`c t` dhjbava bts k`dis gy pr`vbobck waii trdbcao, affbhbact dco pr`pariy n`tbvdtao anpi`yaas. (2) _` ndbctdbc jbkj n`rdia dco k`ò jundc raidtb`cs wbtjbc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c f`r tja gacafbt `f anpi`yar dco anpi`yaas. (4=) _` sahura tja bctakrdtb`c `f dii tja bcobvboudis dco krùps wbtj tja `rkdcbzdtb`c gy rah`chbibck bcobvboudi/krùp k`dis wbtj tj`sa `f dc `rkdcbzdtb`c. 7. Xtdta s`na stdcodro oafbcbtb`cs `f ]ars`ccai Ndcdkanact.

_ja tarn pars`ccai ndcdkanact bs oafbcao bc obffaract wdys. _ja fìi`wbck oafbcbtb`cs dra w`rtj c`tbck< (4) Dhh`robck t` Aowbc Fibpp`" ]ars`ccai ndcdkanact bs tja pidccbck, `rkdcbzbck, obrahtbck, dco h`ctrìibck `f tja pr`huranact, oavai`pnact, h`npacsdtb`c, bctakrdtb`c, ndbctacdcha, dco sapdrdtb`c `f jundc rasùrhas t` tja aco tjdt bcobvboudi, `rkdcbzdtb`cdi dco s`hbatdi `glahtbvas dra dhh`npibsjao". (7) Dhh`robck t` Ka`rka W. _arry, "]ars`ccai ndcdkanact bs h`charcao wbtj tja `gtdbcbck dco ndbctdbcbck `f d sdtbsfdht`ry dco sdtbsfbao, w`re f`rha". (8) Dhh`robck t` [ditar O. Xh`tt, "]ars`ccai ndcdkanact bs h`charcao wbtj tja dttdbcbck `f ndxbnun bcobvboudi oavai`pnact5 oasbrdgia w`rebck raidtb`csjbp gatwaac anpi`yar dco anpi`yaas, dco dc affahtbva nùiobck `f jundc rasùrhas ds h`ctrdstao wbtj pjysbhdi rasùrhas". (?) Dhh`robck t` Grbtbsj Bcstbtuta `f ]ars`ccai Ndcdkanact, I`co`c, "]ars`ccai Ndcdkanact bs tjdt pdrt `f ndcdkanact wjbhj bs h`charcao wbtj tja pa`pia dt w`re dco wbtj tjabr raidtb`csjbp wbtjbc dc actarprbsa". 8. [jdt bs tja nadcbck dco oafbcbtb`c `f Jundc Wasùrha ]idccbck0 Nadcbck< 

JW] bs tja pr`ha ss `f f`rahdstbck dc `rkdcbsdtb`c‒s futura oandco f`r, dco tja suppiy `f, tja rbkjt typa `f pa`pia bc tja rbkjt cungar. Bt bs `ciy dftar tjbs tjdt tja JWN oapdrtnact hdc bcbtbdta d rahrubtnact dco saiahtb`c pr`hass.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Bt bs d sug-systan bc tja t`tdi `rkdcbsdtb`cdi pidccbck.  Bt fdhbibtdtas tja radibsdtb`c `f tja h`npdcy‒s `glahtbvas gy p r`vbobck tja rbkjt typa dco tja rbkjt cungar `f pars`ccai.  JW] bs vdrbùsiy hdiiao ndcp`war pidccbck, pars`ccai pidccbck `r anpi`ynact pidccbck. D faw oafbcbtb`cs `f JW] dra< 

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JW] bchiuoas tja astbndtb`c `f j`w ndcy qudibfbao pa`pia dra cahassdry t` hdrry ùt tja dssbkcao dhtbvbtbas, j`w ndcy pa`pia wbii ga dvdbidgia, dco wjdt, bf dcytjbck nust ga o`ca t` acsura tjdt pars`ccai suppiy aqudis pars`ccai oandco dt tja dppr`prbdta p`bct bc tja futura. Jundc rasùrhas pidccbck bs tja pr`hass gy wjbhj dc `rkdcbsdtb`c acsuras tjdt bt jds tja rbkjt cungar dco ebco `f pa`pia, dt tja rbkjt pidha, dt tja rbkjt tbna, hdpdgia `f affahtbvaiy dco affbhbactiy h`npiatbck tj`sa tdses tjdt wbii jaip tja `rkdcbsdtb`c dhjbava bts `vardii `glahtbvas. Jundc rasùrhas pidccbck, tjac, trdcsidtas tja `rkdcbsdtb`c‒s `glahtbvas dco pidcs bct` tja cungar `f w`rears caaoao t` naat tj`sa `glahtbvas. [btjùt d hiadr-hut pidccbck, astbndtb`c `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c‒s jundc rasùrha caao bs raouhao t` nara kuassw`re.

?. Ibst tja purp`sas dco bnp`rtdcha `f Wahrubtnact

_ja kacardi purp`sa `f rahrubtnact bs t` pr`vboa d p`ì `f p`tactbdiiy qudibfbao l`g hdcobodtas. Xpahbfbhdiiy, tja purp`sas dra t`< 

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Oatarnbca tja prasact dco futura raqubranacts `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c bc h`cluchtb`c wbtj bts pars`ccai pidccbck dco l`g dcdiysbs dhtbvbtbas Bchradsa tja p`ì `f l`g hdcobodtas dt nbcbnun h`st Jaip bchradsa tja suhhass rdta `f tja saiahtb`c pr`hass gy raouhbck tja cungar `f vbsbgiy, ucoar qudibfbao `r `varqudibfbao l`g dppibhdcts Jaip raouha tja pr`gdgbibty tjdt l`g dppibhdcts, `cha rahrubtao dco saiahtao, wbii iadva tja `rkdcbzdtb`c `ciy dftar d sj`rt parbò `f tbna Naat tja `rkdcbzdtb`cs iakdi dco s`hbdi `gibkdtb`cs rakdrobck tja h`np`sbtb`c `f bts w`ref`rha Gakbc boactbfybck dco prapdrbck p`tactbdi l`g dppibhdcts wj` wbii ga dppr`prbdta hdcobodtas Bchradsa `rkdcbzdtb`cdi dco bcobvboudi affahtbvacass bc tja sj`rt tarn dco i`ck tarn Avdiudta tja affahtbvacass `f vdrbùs rahrubtbck tahjcbquas dco sùrhas f`r dii typas `f l`g dppibhdcts

1. [jdt dra tja narbts dco oanarbts `f axtarcdi axtarcdi rahrubtnact0 rahrubtnact0

_ja narbts dra _ja `rkdcbzdtb`c wbii jdva tja gacafbt `f caw sebiis, caw tdiacts dco caw axparbachas, bf pa`pia dra jbrao fr`n axtarcdi sùrhas.  _ja ndcdkanact wbii ga dgia t` fuifbii rasarvdtb`c raqubranacts bc fdvùr `f tja obsdovdctdkao sahtb`cs `f tja s`hbaty.  Xh`pa f`r rasactnact, jadrtgurc dco ladiùsy hdc ga dv`boao gy rahrubtbck fr`n ùtsboa. _ja oanarbts dra Gattar n`tbvdtb`c dco bchradsao n`rdia dss`hbdtao wbtj pr`n`tbck `wc anpi`yaas ra i`st t` tja `rkdcbzdtb`c.  Axtarcdi rahrubtnact bs h`stiy.  Bf rahrubtnact dco saiahtb`c pr`hassas dra c`t pr`pariy hdrrbao ùt, hjdchas `f rbkjt hdcobodtas gabck ralahtao dco wr`ck dppibhdcts gabck saiahtao `hhur.  Jbkj trdbcbck tbna bs dss`hbdtao wbtj axtarcdi rahrubtnact.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 6. [jdt dra tja `glahtbvas `f _rdbcbck dco Oavai`pnact

_rdbcbck dco oavai`pnact pr`krdns dra oasbkcao t` eaap dc `rkdcbzdtb`c dt tja fr`ct `f bts bcoustry ndxbnbza parf`rndcha dco acarkbza avary iavai `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. _rdbcbck dco Oavai`pnact bs dis` saac t` stracktjac tja tba gatwaac anpi`yaa oavai`pnact dco strdtakbh `pardtb`c `glahtbvas. _ja `glahtbvas `f _rdbcbck dco Oavai`pnact Oavai`p nact dra ds fìi`ws< Affbhbachy< Anpi`yaas gah`na affbhbact dftar ucoark`bck trdbcbck. Affbhbact anpi`yaas h`ctrbguta t`  tja kr`wtj `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. Fawar dhhboacts< Dhhboacts, shrdp dco odndka t` ndhjbcary dco aqubpnact hdc ga dv`boao `r  nbcbnbzao tjrùkj trdbcbck. Avac obssdtbsfdhtb`c, h`npidbcts, dgsactaabsn, dco turc`var hdc ga raouhao bf anpi`yaas dra trdbcao waii. Naatbck ndcp`war caaos< Futura caaos `f anpi`yaas wbii ga nat tjrùkj trdbcbck dco  oavai`pnact pr`krdnnas. _rdbcbck sarvas ds dc affahtbva sùrha `f rahrubtnact. _rdbcbck bs dc bcvastnact bc jundc rasùrha wbtj pr`nbsa `f gattar raturcs bc futura. Bnpr`vas qudibty< Gattar-bcf`rnao w`rears dra ibeaiy t` ndea iass `pardtb`cdi nbstdeas. Tudibty `f  pròuhts `r sarvbhas wbii oafbcbtaiy bchradsa. _jbs hdc ga waii nadsurao tjrùkj tja raouhtb`c bc ralahtb`cs. ]ars`cdi kr`wtj< _rdbcbck pr`krdnnas dis` oadi wbtj pars`cdibty oavai`pnact `f tja anpi`yaas  (tjrùkj k`di sattbck, n`tbvdtb`c, iadoarsjbp sebiis, ath.) tjus tjay pars`cdiiy kdbc tjrùkj axp`sura t` trdbcbck pr`krdnnas. @gsìashacha pravactb`c< _rdbcbck dco oavai`pnact pr`krdns f`star tja bcbtbdtbva dco tja hradtbvbty  `f tja anpi`yaas dco jaip t` pravact tja ndcp`war `gsìashacha, wjbhj ndy ga oua t` dka, tanpardnact, `r tja bcdgbibty `f tja pars`c t` dodpt jbnsaif t` tahjcì`kbhdi hjdckas. Varsdtbibty bc `pardtb`cs< _rdbcbck ndeas tja anpi`yaas varsdtbia bc `pardtb`cs. Dii rùcoars hdc ga  trdcsfarrao t` dcy l`g. Fiaxbgbibty bs tjaraf`ra acsurao. Kr`wtj bcobhdtas pr`sparbty, wjbhj bs rafiahtao bc pr`fbts avary yadr. Anpi`yaa stdgbibty< _rdbcbck h`ctrbgutas t` anpi`yaa stdgbibty bc dt iadst 7 wdys. Anpi`yaas Anpi`yaa s gah`na  affbhbact dftar ucoark`bck trdbcbck. Affbhbact anpi`yaas h`ctrbguta h `ctrbguta t` tja kr`wtj `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. Kr`wtj racoars stdgbibty t` tja w`re f`rha. Furtjar trdbcao anpi`yaas taco t` stdy wbtj tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. ;. [rbta sj`rt c`tas c`tas `c Bcoustrbdi Bcoustrbdi Xdfaty dco Jaditj Jaditj

4. @hhupdtb`cdi jaditj dco sdfaty ach`npdssas tja s`hbdi, nactdi dco pjysbhdi waii-gabck `f w`rears bc dii `hhupdtb`cs. 7. ]``r w`rebck h`cobtb`cs jdva tja p`tactbdi t` dffaht d w`rear's jaditj dco sdfaty. 8. Qcjaditjy `r ucsdfa w`rebck h`cobtb`cs hdc ga fùco dcywjara, wjatjar tja w`repidha bs bco``rs `r ùto``rs. ?. ]``r w`rebck h`cobtb`cs hdc dffaht tja acvbr`cnact w`rears ibva bc. _jbs nadcs tjdt w`rears, tjabr fdnbibas, `tjar pa`pia bc tja h`nnucbty, dco tja pjysbhdi acvbr`cnact drùco tja w`repidha, hdc dii ga dt rbse fr`n axp`sura t` w`repidha jdzdros. 1. Anpi`yars jdva d n`rdi dco `ftac iakdi rasp`csbgbibty ra sp`csbgbibty t` pr`taht w`rears. 6. [`re-raidtao dhhboacts dco obsadsas dra h`nn`c bc dii pdrts `f tja w`rio dco `ftac jdva ndcy obraht dco bcobraht cakdtbva h`csaquachas f`r w`rears dco tjabr fdnbibas. D sbckia dhhboact `r biicass hdc nadc ac`rnùs fbcdchbdi i`ss t` g`tj w`rears dco anpi`yars. a npi`yars. ;. Affahtbva w`repidha jaditj dco sdfaty pr`krdnnas hdc jaip t` sdva tja ibvas `f w`rears gy raouhbck jdzdros dco tjabr h`csaquachas. Affahtbva pr`krdnnas hdc dis` jdva p`sbtbva affahts `c g`tj w`rear n`rdia dco pròuhtbvbty, dco hdc sdva anpi`yars a npi`yars d kradt oadi `f n`cay. a

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty :. Ibst tja `glahtbvas `f Idgùr [aifdra [aifdra

Xavardi `glahtbvas `f Idgùr waifdra dra nactb`cao gai`w<

4. Idgùr waifdra pr`vboas s`hbdi h`nf`rt t` anpi`yaas. 7. Bt pr`vboas bctaiiahtudi bnpr`vanact `f anpi`yaas. 8. _` oavai`p sacsa `f rasp`csbgbibty dco gai`ckbckcass dn`ck anpi`yaas. ?. _` acsuras tjdt tja w`rebck h`cobtb`cs f`r anpi`yaas dra `f jbkjar stdcodro. 1. _` gubio stdgia w`re f`rha. 6. _` raouha dgsactaabsn dco idgùr turc`var. ;. _` ndea anpi`yaas ibvas k`ò dco w`rtj ibvbck. :. _` g``st pròuhtbvbty dco affbhbachy dt tja w`repidha. 2. _` pr`vboa jaditjy dco pr`par w`rebck h`cobtb`cs. _` acsura waii gabck `f anpi`yaas dco fdnbibas. 4=. 2. Ibst tja prbchbpias `f Idgùr [aifdra

Fìi`wbck dra s`na `f tja prbchbpias `f idgùr waifdra.

4. 7. 8. ?. 1. 6.

[aifdra dhtbvbtbas wbii ga hdrrbao ùt dt dii iavais bc tja `rkdcbsdtb`c. Bt wbii ga pr`vboao `var dco dg`va rakuidr wdkas. Doaqudta dco fuii h`-`pardtb`c sjdii ga pr`vboao fr`n ndcdkanact iavai. ]arbòbh dssasnact `f idgùr waifdra nadsuras bs assactbdi. Bt sjdii anpjdsbza `c pjysbhdi, nactdi, n`rdi dco an`tb`cdi waii gabck `f anpi`yaas. anpi`yaa s. Bt hdc ga d s`hbdi h`chapt wjbhj raidtas t` waifdra `f anpi`yaas, tjabr fdnbibas dco h`nnucbty ds d wjìa.

4=. Xtdta s`na stdcodro oafbcbtb`cs `f Idgùr [aifdra

Dhh`robck t` Drtjur Ldnas _òo< ’Idgùr waifdra nadcs dcytjbck o`ca f`r f `r tja h`nf`rt dco bnpr`vanact, bctaiiahtudi dco s`hbdi, `f tja anpi`yaas `var dco dg`va tja wdkas pdbo wjbhj bs c`t d cahassbty `f tja Bcoustry.„

Dhh`robck t` Bcoustrbdi Idgùr @rkdcbsdtb`c (BI@) ’Idgùr waifdra ndy ga ucoarst`ò dco bchiuobck suhj sarvbhas fdhbibtbas dco dnacbtbas wjbhj ndy ga astdgibsjao bc vbhbcbty `f ucoartdebck t` parf`rn tjabr w`re bc jaditjy dco h`ckacbdi acvbr`cnact dco t` dvdbi `f fdhbibtbas wjbhj bnpr`va tjabr jaditj dco grbck jbkj n`rdia.„

44. [rbta dgùt Idgùr [aifdra bc Bcobd

Idgùr waifdra bs dc bnp`rtdct obnacsb`c `f bcoustrbdi raidtb`c, idgùr waifdra bchiuoas `vardii waifdra fdhbibtbas oasbkcao t` tdea hdra `f waii gback `f anpi`yaa's dco bc `roar t` bchradsa tjabr ibvbck stdcodro. Bt o` c`t kacardiiy h`cstbtutas n`catary gacafbts c`r tjasa dra pr`vboao gy anpi`yars di`ca, bt hdc dis` k

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ga pr`vboao gy k`varcnact, c`c k`varcnact dkachbas dco trdoa ucb`cs. Bcoustrbdibzdtb`c, nahjdcbsdtb`c dco ki`gdibsdtb`c jds bchradsao bnp`rtdcha `f idgùr waifdra bc bcoustrbas. _ja bnp`rtdcha `f idgùr bc bcoustrbdibzdtb`c dco ah`c`nbh oavai`pnact jds gaac rah`kcbsao ki`gdiiy. Bc ki`gdi shacdrb` caao dco bnp`rtdcha `f idgùr waifdra jds gaac bchradsbckiy dpprahbdtao. Jbst`ry `f Idgùr [aifdra

Bc Bcobd tja idgùr waifdra stdrtao s`natbna ourbck tja 4 st w`rio wdr (424?-424:). _bii tjac waiigabck `f w`rears bc fdht`rbas wds jdroiy tjùkjt gy dcygòy. Xbcha, 4 st w`rio wdr idgùr waifdra jds gaac axpdcobck `c vìuctdry gdsbs. Bcoustrbdi Idgùr @rkdcbzdtb`c jds pidyao d vary sbkcbfbhdct rìa f`r idgùr waifdra. Ndcy idgùr iakbsidtb`cs jdva gaac f`rnao gy Bcobdc hactrdi k`varcnact dco stdta k`varcnacts f`r waifdra `f idgùrs bc Bcoustrbas. K`varcnact jds idbo o`wc nbcbnun stdcodros f`r anpi`ynact dco w`rebck h`cobtb`cs bc `rkdcbzdtb`cs. Gasboas tja k`varcnact, tja anpi`yars, trdoa ucb`cs dco vdrbùs s`hbdi `rkdcbzdtb`cs dis` fuchtb`c ds dkachbas f`r bnpianactdtb`c `f idgùr waifdra nadsuras. D Bcoustrbdi idgùr `rkdcbzdtb`c (BI@) bs dc dovbs`ry gòy s` bt hdcc`t f`rha dcy hùctry t` bctròuha dcy waifdra nadsuras. _ja caao `f idgùr waifdra wds p`warfuiiy fait gy tja W`ydi H`nnbsb`c `f Idgùr fdr gdhe bc 4284, Bcobdc h`cstbtutb`c h `cstbtutb`c anpjdsbzao tjbs caao ucoar bts obrahtbva prbchbpias `f stdta pìbhy. 47. [jdt bs nadc gy Bcoustrbdi ]syhjì`ky0

Bcoustrbdi dco `rkdcbsdtb`cdi psyhjì`ky (dis` ec`wc ds B-@ psyhjì`ky `r w`re psyhjì`ky ) bs tja shbactbfbh stuoy `f anpi`yaas, w`repidhas, dco `rkdcbzdtb`cs. Bcoustrbdi dco `rkdcbzdtb`cdi psyhjì`kbsts h`ctrbguta t` dc `rkdcbzdtb`c's suhhass gy bnpr`vbck tja parf`rndcha, sdtbsfdhtb`c, dco waii-gabck `f bts anpi`yaas. Dc B-@ psyhjì`kbst p syhjì`kbst h`couhts rasadrhj `c anpi`yaa gajdvb`rs ga jdvb`rs dco dttbtuoas, dco j`w tjasa hdc ga bnpr`vao tjrùkj jbrbck prdhtbhas, trdbcbck pr`krdns, faaogdhe, dco ndcdkanact systans. 48. Ibst s`na `f tja fuchtb`cdi drads `f Bcoustrbdi ]syhjì`ky.        

  

 

K`varcbck G`dros' ]r`fassb`cdi Oavai`pnact L`g parf`rndcha dpprdbsdi systan(s) L`g dcdiysbs/h`npatachy dcdiysbs /h`npatachy nòaibck ]ars`ccai rahrubtnact dco saiahtb`c Xtuoact/aouhdtb`cdi saiahtb`c (donbssb`cs) dco dssassnact (tastbck) Luoknact dco oahbsb`c ndebck ]arf`rndcha dpprdbsdi/ndcdkanact dpprdbsdi /ndcdkanact Bcobvboudi dssassnact (ec`wiaoka, sebiis, dco dgbibty tastbck, pars`cdibty dssassnact, w`re sdnpia tasts, dssassnact hactars) ]syhj`natrbhs H`npacsdtb`c ]r`fassb`cdi Xtdff, Fdhuity, dco Donbcbstrdt`rs _rdbcbck Oasbkc, Oavai`pnact, Bnpianactdtb`c, dco avdiudtb`c Idws dco rakuidtb`cs dppibhdgia t` pars`ccai oahbsb`cs [`re n`tbvdtb`c


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty                

L`g dttbtuoas (a.k., l`g (a.k., l`g sdtbsfdhtb`c, h`nnbtnact, sdtbsfdhtb`c, h`nnbtnact, `rkdcbzdtb`cdi `rkdcbzdtb`cdi hbtbzacsjbp, dco hbtbzacsjbp, dco ratdibdtb`c) @hhupdtb`cdi jaditj dco sdfaty [`re/ibfa gdidcha Jundc fdht`rs dco oahbsb`c dco oahbsb`c ndebck @rkdcbzdtb`cdi huitura/hibndta huitura /hibndta @rkdcbzdtb`cdi survays Iadoarsjbp dco axahutbva dco axahutbva h`dhjbck Atjbhs Obvarsbty L`g oasbkc Jundc rasùrhas @rkdcbzdtb`cdi oavai`pnact (@O) @rkdcbzdtb`cdi Wasadrhj Natjòs _ahjcì`ky bc tja w`repidha Krùp/tadn Krùp/tadn parf`rndcha _adn h`np`sbtb`c

4?. [jdt bs nadc gy Idgùr Iakbsidtb`c0 Axpidbc tja caao f`r Idgùr Iakbsidtb`c bc Bcobd. _ja tarn midgùr iakbsidtb`c‒ bs usao t` h`var dii tja idws wjbhj jdva gaac acdhtao t` oadi wbtj ’anpi`ynact dco c`c-anpi`ynact„ wdkas, w`rebck h`cobtb`cs, bcoustrbdi raidtb`cs, s`hbdi sahurbt y dco waifdra `f pars`cs anpi`yao bc bcoustrbas.

Caao f`r idgùr iakbsidtb`c bc Bcobd<

>3 @rkdcbzao bcoustry bc d pidccao ah`c`ny hdiis f`r tja spbrbt `f h` -`pardtb`c dco nutudi oapacoacha f`r dttdbcbck tja h`nn`c purp`sa `f kradtar, gattar dco hjadpar pròuhtb`c. pr` ouhtb`c. >3 Xbcha tjbs jds c`t gaac jdppacbck vìuctdrbiy, tja caao f`r Xtdta bctarvactb`c. >3 Bc Bcobd, idgùr iakbsidtb`c bs tradtao ds dc drn `f tja Xtdta f`r tja rakuidtb`c `f w`rebck dco ibvbck h`cobtb`cs `f w`rears. _ja caao f`r idgùr iakbsidtb`c ndy ga sunndrbzao ds ucoar< ` Cahassdry f`r tja jaditj, sdfaty, dco waifdra `f w`rears5 ` Cahassdry t` pr`taht w`rears dkdbcst `pprassbva tarns ds bcobvboudi w`rear bs ah`c`nbhdiiy wade dco jds ibttia gdrkdbcbck p`war5 ` _` achùrdka dco fdhbibtdta tja w`rears bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c5 ` _` oadi wbtj bcoustrbdi obsputas5 ` _` acf`rha s`hbdi bcsurdcha dco idgùr waifdra shjanas. 41. Ibst tja `glahtbvas `f Idgùr Iakbsidtb`c

Idgùr iakbsidtb`c bc Bcobd jds sùkjt t` dhjbava tja fìi`wbck `glahtbvas< 4. Astdgibsjnact `f lustbha - X`hbdi, ]ìbtbhdi dco Ah`c`nbh. 7. ]r`vbsb`c `f `pp`rtucbtbas t` dii w`rears5 brraspahtbva `f hdsta, hraao, raibkb`c, gaibafs5 f`r tja oavai`pnact `f tjabr pars`cdibty. 8. ]r`tahtb`c `f wadear sahtb`cs bc tja h`nnucbty. ?. Ndbctacdcha `f Bcoustrbdi ]adha. ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 1. Hradtb`c `f h`cobtb`cs f`r ah`c`nbh kr`wtj. 6. ]r`tahtb`c dco bnpr`vanact `f idgùr stdcodros. ;. ]r`taht w`rears fr`n axpi`btdtb`c. :. Kudrdctaa rbkjt `f w`renac t` h`ngbca dco f`rn dss`hbdtb`c `r ucb`cs. 2. Acsura rbkjt `f w`renac t` gdrkdbc hìiahtbvaiy f`r tja gattarnact `f tjabr sarvbha h`cobtb`cs. 4=. Ndea stdta bctarfara ds pr`taht`r `f s`hbdi waii gabck tjdc t` randbc dc `ci`èar. 44. Acsura jundc rbkjts dco jundc obkcbty. 46. Xtdta s`na bnp`rtdct bnp`rtdct oafbcbtb`cs oafbcbtb`cs `f Ndreatbck. Ndreatbck.

Dhh`robck t` Dnarbhdc Ndreatbck Dss`hbdtb`c, "Ndreatbck bs dc `rkdcbsdtb`cdi fuchtb`c dco d sat `f pr`hassas f`r hradtbck, h`nnucbhdtbck dco oaibvarbck vdiua t` hust`nars dco f`r ndcdkbck hust`nar raidtb`csjbps bc wdys tjdt gacafbt tja `rkdcbsdtb`c dco bts stdeajìoars." stdeajìoars." Dhh`robck t` Jdrìo E``ctz, "Ndcdkanact "Ndcdkanact bs tja drt `f kattbck tjbcks o`ca tjrùkj dco wbtj pa`pia bc f`rndiiy `rkdcbsao krùps." Ndcdkanact h`csbsts `f tja bctari`hebck fuchtb`cs `f hradtbck h`rp`rdta pìbhy dco `rkdcbsbck, pidccbck, h`ctrìibck, obrahtbck dc `rkdcbsdtb`c's rasùrhas bc `roar t` dhjbava tja `glahtbvas `f tja pìbhy. Dhh`robck t` ]jbibp E`tiar, "Ndreatbck Ndcdkanact bs tja dcdiysbs, pidccbck, bnpianactdtb`c dco h`ctrì `f pr`krdnnas oasbkcao t` grbck dgùt oasbrao axhjdckas wbtj tdrkat duobachas f`r tja purp`sa `f pars`cdi dco `f nutudi kdbc. Bt raibas jadvbiy `c tja do`ptb`c dco h``robcdtb`c `f pròuht, prbha, pr`n`tb`c dco pidha f`r dhjbavbck rasp`csas." rasp`csas." . Ndreatbck ndcdkanact bs d gusbcass pr`hass, t` ndcdka ndreatbck dhtbvbtbas bc pr`fbt saaebck dco c`c pr`fbt `rkdcbsdtb`cs dt obffaract iavais `f ndcdkanact. Ndreatbck ndcdkanact oahbsb`cs dra gdsao `c str`ck ec`wiaoka `f ndreatbck fuchtb`cs dco hiadr ucoarstdcobck dco dppibhdtb`c `f suparvbs`ry dco ndcdkarbdi tahjcbquas. 4;. Cdtura `f Ndreatbck Ndcdkanact. Ndcdkanact.

Bt H`ngbcas tja Fbaios `f Ndreatbck dco Ndcdkanact Ds tja cdna bnpibas, ndreatbck ndcdkanact h`ngbcas tja fbaios `f ndreatbck dco ndcdkanact. Ndreatbck h`csbsts `f obsh`varbck h`csunar caaos dco wdcts, hradtbck tja k`òs dco sarvbhas tjdt naat tj`sa caaos dco wdcts5 dco prbhbck, pr`n`tbck, dco oaibvarbck tj`sa k`òs dco sarvbhas. O`bck s` raqubras dttactb`c t` sbx ndl`r drads - ndreats, pròuhts, prbhas, pidhas, pr`n`tb`c, dco pa`pia. Ndcdkanact bs kattbck tjbcks o`ca tjrùkj `tjar pa`pia. Ndcdkars ackdka bc fbva eay dhtbvbtbas pidccbck, `rkdcbsbck, stdffbck, obrahtbck, dco h`ctrìibck. Ndreatbck ndcdkanact bnpibas tja bctakrdtb`c `f tjasa h`chapts. Ndreatbck Ndcdkanact bs d Gusbcass ]r`hass Ndreatbck ndcdkanact bs d gusbcass pr`hass, t` ndcdka ndreatbck dhtbvbtbas bc pr`fbt saaebck dco c`c pr`fbt `rkdcbsdtb`cs dt obffaract iavais `f ndcdkanact, b.a. suparvbs`ry, nbooia-ndcdkanact, dco axahutbva iavais. Ndreatbck ndcdkanact oahbsb`cs dra gdsao `c str`ck ec`wiaoka `f ndreatbck fuchtb`cs dco hiadr ucoarstdcobck dco dppibhdtb`c `f suparvbs`ry dco ndcdkarbdi tahjcbquas. Ndreatbck ndcdkars dco pròuht ndcdkars dra tjara t` axahuta tja pr`hassas `f ndreatbck ndcdkanact. [a, ds hust`nars, saa tja rasuits `f suhj pr`hass bc tja f`rn `f pròuhts, prbhas, dovartbsanacts, pr`n`tb`cs, ath. Ndreatbck Ndcdkanact bs G`tj Xhbacha dco Drt

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ’Ndreatbck ndcdkanact bs drt dco shbacha `f hj``sbck tdrkat ndreats dco kattbck, eaapbck dco kr`wbck hust`nars tjrùkj hradtbck, oaibvarbck dco h`n nucbhdtbck suparb`r hust`nar vdiua.„ (E`tiar, 7==6). Ndreatbck ndcdkanact bs d shbacha gahdusa bt fìi`ws kacardi prbchbpias tjdt kuboas tja ndreatbck ndcdkars bc oahbsb`c ndebck. _ja Drt `f Ndreatbck ndcdkanact h`csbsts bc tdheibck avary sbtudtb`c bc dc hradtbva dco affahtbva ndccar. Ndreatbck Ndcdkanact bs tjus d shbacha ds waii ds dc drt.

4:. Xh`pa `f Ndreatbck

4. Xtuoy `f H`csunar [dcts dco Caaos K`òs dra pròuhao t` sdtbsfy h`csunar wdcts. _jaraf`ra stuoy bs o`ca t` boactbfy h`csunar caaos dco wdcts. _jasa caaos dco wdcts n`tbvdtas h`csunar t` purhjdsa. 7. Xtuoy `f H`csunar gajdvbùr Ndreatars parf`rns stuoy `f h`csunar gajdvbùr. Dcdiysbs `f guyar gajdvbùr jaips ndreatar bc ndreat saknactdtb`c dco tdrkatbck. 8. ]ròuhtb`c pidccbck dco oavai`pnact ]ròuht pidccbck dco oavai`pnact stdrts wbtj tja kacardtb`c `f pròuht boad dco acos wbtj tja pròuht oavai`pnact dco h`nnarhbdibsdtb`c. ]ròuht pidccbck bchiuoas avarytjbck fr`n grdcobck dco pdhedkbck t` pròuht ibca axpdcsb`c dco h`ctrdhtb`c. ?. ]rbhbck ]ìbhbas Ndreatar jds t` oatarnbca prbhbck pìbhbas f`r tjabr pròuhts. ]rbhbck pìbhbas obffars f`rn pròuht t` pròuht. Bt oapacos `c tja iavai `f h`npatbtb`c, pròuht ibfa hyhia, ndreatbck k`dis dco `glahtbvas, ath. 1. Obstrbgutb`c Xtuoy `f obstrbgutb`c hjdccai bs bnp`rtdct bc ndreatbck. F`r ndxbnun sdias dco pr`fbt k`òs dra raqubrao t` ga obstrbgutao t` tja ndxbnun h`csunars dt nbcbnun h`st. 6. ]r`n`tb`c ]r`n`tb`c bchiuoas pars`cdi saiibck, sdias pr`n`tb`c, dco dovartbsbck. Wbkjt pr`n`tb`c nbx bs h ruhbdi bc dhh`npibsjnact `f ndreatbck k`dis. ;. H`csunar Xdtbsfdhtb`c _ja pròuht `r sarvbha `ffarao nust sdtbsfy h`csunar. H`csunar sdtbsfdhtb`c bs tja ndl`r `glahtbva `f ndreatbck. :. Ndreatbck H`ctrì Ndreatbck duobt bs o`ca t` h`ctrì tja ndreatbck dhtbvbtbas. 42. [jdt bs Ndreatbck Acvbr`cna Acvbr`cnact0 ct0

_ja tarn Ndreatbck Acvbr`cnact rafars t` tja f`rhas dco fdht`rs tjdt dffahts tja `rkdcbsdtb`c dgbibty t` gubit dco ndbctdbc k`ò raidtb`csjbp wbtj bts hust`nars. Ndreatbck acvbr`cnact surrùcos tja `rkdcbsdtb`c dco bt bnpdhts up`c tja `rkdcbsdtb`c. Ndreatars jdva t` bctardht wbtj bctarcdi dco axtarcdi pa`pia dt nbhr` dco ndhr` iavai dco gubios bctarcdi dco axtarcdi raidtb`csjbps. _ja eay aianacts `f ndreatbck acvbr`cnact dra ds fìi`ws <4. Bctarcdi Acvbr`cnact, 7. Nbhr` Acvbr`cnact, dco


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 8. Ndhr` Acvbr`cnact. Bctarcdi Acvbr`cnact Bctarcdi fdht`rs ibea nac, ndhjbca, n`cay, ndtarbdi, ath., `c wjbhj ndreatbck oahbsb`c oapacos h`csbsts bctarcdi ndreatbck acvbr`cnact. _ja bctarcdi acvbr`cnact rafars t` tja f`rhas tjdt dra wbtjbc tja `rkdcbsdtb`c dco dffahts bts dgbibty t` sarva bts hust`nars. Bt bchiuoas ndreatbck ndcdkars, sdias raprasactdtbvas, ndreatbck guokat, ndreatbck pidcs, pr`haouras, bcvact`ry, i`kbstbhs, dco dcytjbck wbtjbc `rkdcbsdtb`c wjbhj dffahts ndreatbck oahbsb`cs, dco bts raidtb`csjbp wbtj bts hust`nars. Nbhr` Acvbr`cnact Bcobvboudis dco `rkdcbsdtb`cs tjdt dra hi`sa t` tja ndreatbck `rkdcbsdtb`c dco obrahtiy bnpdhts bts dgbibty t` sarva bts hust`nars, ndeas Ndreatbck Nbhr` Acvbr`cnact. _ja nbhr` acvbr`cnact rafars t` tja f`rhas tjdt dra hi`sa t` tja ndreatbck `rkdcbsdtb`c dco obrahtiy bnpdht tja hust`nar axparbacha. Bt bchiuoas tja `rkdcbsdtb`c btsaif, bts suppibars, ndreatbck bctarnaobdrbas, hust`nars, ndreats `r saknacts, h`npatbt`rs, dco pugibhs. Jdppacbcks bc nbhr` acvbr`cnact bs raidtbvaiy h`ctrìidgia f`r tja ndreatbck `rkdcbsdtb`c. Ndhr` Acvbr`cnact Ndhr` acvbr`cnact rafars t` dii f`rhas tjdt dra dra pdrt `f tja idrkar s`hbaty dco dffahts tja nbhr` acvbr`cnact. Bt bchiuoas oan`krdpjy, ah`c`ny, pìbtbhs, huitura, tahjcì`ky, dco cdturdi f`rhas. Ndhr` acvbr`cnact bs iass h`ctrìidgia. 7=. [jdt dra tja outbas `f d Xdias ndcdkar0

_ja sdias ndcdkar jìos d ucbqua p`sbtb`c bc tja sdias `rkdcbsdtb`c. Ja pidcs, `rkdcbsas, obrahts, stdffs dco h``robcdtas tja wjìa `f tja sdias `rkdcbsdtb`c. _jara dra savardi h`cc`tdtb`cs `f tja sdias ndcdkar ibea sdias axahutbva, sdias obraht`r, ndreatbck ndcdkar, ndreatbck axahutbva, ath. Ja bs tja pars`c wj` staars tja wjaais `f sdias `rkdcbsdtb`c. Jbs stdtus dco p`war oapacos `c tja sbza `f tja `rkdcbsdtb`c bc jbs hjdrka. Bc sndii fbrns tja kacardi ndcdkar `r ndcdkbck obraht`r parf`rns tja outbas `f tja sdias ndcdkar. Gut bc gbk ndcufdhturbck fbrns tjara usudiiy d sdias ndckar. Jara tja sdias ndcdkar. Jara tja sdias ndcdkar bs dpp`bctao gy tja t`p ndcdkanact dco ja bs rasp`csbgia t` tjan. Bc kbdct sbzao h`npdcbas f`r s`na tarrbt`rbas dco/`r pròuhts sdias ndcdkars dra dpp`bctao. [jdtavar tja p`sbtb`c `f tja sdias ndcdkar, ja bs tja kubobck dco orbvbck f`rha `f tja sdias `rkdcbsdtb`c. `rkdc bsdtb`c. 74. [jdt dra tja obffaract pdttarcs `f oandco0

_ja fbrst stap bc ndebck d f`rahdst h`csbsts `f kdtjarbck bcf`rndtb`c fr`n tja pdst. @ca sjùio hìiaht stdtbstbhdi odtd rah`roao dt suhhassbva bctarvdis `f tbna. Xuhj d odtd bs usudiiy rafarrao t` ds tbna sarbas. Dcdiysts pi`t oandco odtd `c d tbna shdia, stuoy tja pi`t dco i`è f`r h`csbstact sjdpas dco pdttarcs. D tbna sarbas `f oandco ndy jdva h`cstdct, traco, `r sads`cdi pdttarc ( Fbkura 4 ) `r ) `r s`na h`ngbcdtb`c h `ngbcdtb`c `f tjasa pdttarcs. _ja f`rahdstar trbas t` ucoarstdco tja rads`cs f`r suhj hjdckas, suhj ds, 

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Hjdckas tjdt jdva `hhurrao ds d rasuit `f kacardi tacoachy `f tja odtd t` bchradsa `r oahradsa, ec`wc ds sahuidr n`vanacts. Hjdckas tjdt jdva tdeac pidha ourbck d parbò `f 47 n`ctjs ds d rasuit bc hjdckas bc hibndta, wadtjar h`cobtb`cs, fastbvdis ath. dra hdiiao ds sads`cdi hjdckas. Hjdckas tjdt jdva tdeac pidha ds d rasuit `f g``ns dco oaprassb`cs dra hdiiao ds hyhibhdi vdrbdtb`cs. Hjdckas tjdt jdva tdeac pidha ds d rasuit `f suhj f`rhas tjdt hùio c`t ga praobhtao (ibea fi`ò, adrtjqudea ath.) dra hdiiao ds brrakuidr `r arrdtbh vdrbdtb`cs. ]

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77. [jdt dra tja obffaract natjòs f`r dhhassbck tja dhhurdhy `f f`rahdstbck0 Nadsuras `f Dhhurdhy Nadc Dgsìuta Oavbdtb`c (NDO) Nadc Xqudrao Arr`r (NXA) ` Nadc Dgsìuta ]arhactdka ]arhactdk a Arr`r (ND]A) ` F`rahdst H`ctrì Nadsura `

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Nadc Dgsìuta Oavbdtb`c (NDO) NDO NDO 

Dhtudi i  F`rah F`rahdst dst  Dhtud c

Nadc Xqudrao Arr`r (`r Oavbdtb`c) (NXA) Dhtudi di  F`rah F`rahdst dst )  ( Dhtu NXA 

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Nadc Xqudra ]arhactdka Arr`r (ND]A) Dhtud udi i  F`ra F`rahd hdst st  Dht Z 4== ND] ND]A 

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78.

Dhtud tudi i  F`rahdst F`rahdst )  ( Dh NDO ND O

[jdt dra tja fdht`rs dffahtbck tja fdhbibty i`hdtb`c0

I`hdtb`c stuobas dra c`rndiiy ndoa bc tw` pjdsas, (4) _ja kacardi tarrbt`ry saiahtb`c pjdsa dco (7) _ja axdht sbta saiahtb`c pjdsa _ja bnp`rtdct fdht`rs t` ga h`csboarao f`r tja saiahtb`c `f tarrbt`ry dco sugsaquact saiahtb`c `f d pdrtbhuidr sbta dra< fdht`r wbtj raspaht t` g`tj pjdsas pjdsas `f i`hdtb`c stuobas. Bf pròuht bs bs • Ndreat< Bt bs d vary bnp`rtdct fdht`r frdkbia dco sushaptbgia t` sp`bidka, pr`xbnbty `f tja fdhbibty t` tja ndreat bs hrbtbhdi. Bf tja pròuht bs raidtbvaiy hjadp dco trdcsp`rtdtb`c h`st bs jbkj, d i`hdtb`c hi`sa t` tja ndreats bs oasbrdgia. kacardi sjùio ga cadr t` tja vaco`rs / suppibars. suppibars. _jbs wbii • Wdw ndtarbdi dco suppibas< _ja fdhbibty bc kacardi furtjar raouha tja trdcsp`rtdtb`c h`st `f bch`nbck ndtarbdis dco tja iado-tbna `f tja bcvact`ry rapiacbsjnact. fdhbibtbas< _rdcsp`rtdtb`c fdhbibtbas fdhbibtbas nust ga dvdbidgia. dvdbidgia. • _rdcsp`rtdtb`c fdhbibtbas< dc`tjar bnp`rtdct fdht`r t` ga h`csboarao f`r tja tja fdhbibty i`hdtb`c aspahbdiiy bc • Hibndta< Hibndta bs dc`tjar bcoustrbas wjara spahbdi h`cstrdbcts dra caaoao, f`r axdnpia tja taxtbia bcoustry raqubras d jbkj junbobty z`ca. • Xbta sbza< _ja pi`t `f idco nust ga idrka acùkj t` jìo tja fdhbibtbas raqubrao gy tja pr`p`sao fdhbibty. X`natbnas d k`ò sbta ndy c`t jdva tja raqubrao drad.

dttbtuoa< H`nnucbty dttbtuoa bs obffbhuit t` avdiudta. C`rndiiy C`rndiiy h`nnucbtbas pr`vboa tja • H`nnucbty dttbtuoa< `varwjainbck supp`rt t` caw bcoustrbas, gahdusa tjbs kacardtas sbkcbfbhdct anpi`ynact `pp`rtucbtbas t` tja i`hdi pa`pia. N`ra`var, bcfrdstruhtura oavai`pnact `f tja hbty `r t`wc pr`krassas vary rdpboiy. Bc s`na hdsas, wjac tjara bs d fadr `f kacardtb`c `f pìiutb`c, h`nnucbty dttbtuoa kàs bc tja ravarsa. ra varsa. @tjar fdht`rs tjdt ndy dis` dffaht tja fdhbibty i`hdtb`c oahbsb`cs dra ndcp`war dvdbidgbibty, idco h`st, wdsta obsp`sdi, dco pìiutb`c. 1 ? a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 7?. Nactb`c tja Idyùt Oasbkc ]r`haoura.

_ja ndl`r staps tjdt caaoao t` ga fìi`wao bc tja idyùt oasbkc dra <  

    

Xtdtanact `f tja pr`gian bc tarns `f bts `glahtbva, sh`pa dco fdht`rs t` ga h`csboarao. Hìiahtb`c `f gdsbh odtd `c sdias f`rahdst, pròuhtb`c vìuna, pròuhtb`c shjaouias, pdrt ibsts, `pardtb`cs t` ga parf`rnao ath. Hdihuidtb`c `f pròuhtb`c rdta dco aqubpnact raqubranacts Odtd dcdiysbs dco bts prasactdtb`c bc tja f`rn `f vdrbùs hjdrts . Hdihuidtb`cs `f spdha raqubranacts dco dii`hdtb`c `f dhtbvbty drads Oavai`pnact `f gi`he pidc, pi`t pidc, dco oatdbiao idyùt. Avdiudtb`c , saiahtb`c , dco bcstdiidtb`c `f idyùt.

71. [jdt dra tja obffaract typas `f Fi`w ]dttarcs 0

Bc tja fdhbibtbas idyùt pr`gian, tja oahbsb`c rakdrobck pidhanact `f tja ndhjbcas bs typbhdiiy ndoa. Oapacobck `c tja dppibhdtb`c dco dvdbidgbibty `f spdha, tja ndhjbcas dra pidhao bc `ca `f tja fìi`wbck pdttarc    

Xtrdbkjt ibca pdttarc, Q-sjdpao pdttarc, X-sjdpao pdttarc dco [- sjdpao pdttarc

D pbht`rbdi raprasactdtb`c `f fi`w pdttarcs bs kbvac bc Fbkura.

Fbkura< Fi`w ]dttarcs Xtrdbkjt ibca pdttarc

_ja strdbkjt-ibca pdttarc bs c`rndiiy usao wjac pròuhts dra pròuhao bc idrka qudctbtbas dco tja cungar `f staps raqubrao f`r tjabr pròuhtb`c bs faw. N`ra`var, tja sjbppbck dco rahabvbck sahtb`cs dra `c tja `pp`sbta sboas. Q-sjdpao pdttarc

Q-sjdpao pdttarcs dra `ftac usao wjac bt bs cahassdry t` eaap tja gakbccbck (rahabvbck) dco aco (sjbppbck) `f tja ibca dt tja sdna sboa dco sdna aco `f tja pidct . Q-sjdpao pdttarcs dra dis` prafarrao bc lust-bc-tbna idyùts. [`rears dra kacardiiy pidhao bc tja hactar `f tja Q. Fr`n tjara tjay hdc n`cbt`r n`ra tjdc `ca ndhjbca dt d tbna. ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty X-sjdpao pdttarc

X-sjdpao pdttarcs dra usao f`r i`ck dssangiy pr`hassas tjdt jdva t` fbt bc tja sdna drad ds waii ds wjac bt bs cahassdry t` eaap tja rahabvbck dco sjbppbck acos `c tja `pp`sbta sboas. [-sjdpao pdttarc

[-sjdpao pdttarc, ibea tja X-sjdpao pdttarc bs dis` usao f`r i`ck dssangiy pr`hassas, wjbhj jdva t` fbt bc tja sdna drad. [jac bt bs dis` cahassdry t` eaap tja rahabvbck dco sjbppbck acos `c tja sdna sboa, tja [-sjdpao pdttarc bs prafarrao. 76. [rbta sj`rt c`tas `c H`nputarbzao Idyùt ]idccbck.

H`nputarbzao idyùt dik`rbtjns hdc ga hidssbfbao dhh`robck t` tja wdy fbcdi idyùt bs kacardtao. H`cstruhtb`c dik`rbtjns h`csbst `f tja suhhassbva saiahtb`c dco pidhanact `f dhtbvbtbas Uoapdrtnacts^ uctbi d idyùt oasbkc bs dhjbavao. _ja sah`co typa `f dc dik`rbtjn bs `f tja bnpr`vanact typa. Bc tjbs hdsa h`npiata axbstbck idyùt bs raqubrao bcbtbdiiy, dco i`hdtb`cs `f dhtbvbtbas Uoapdrtnacts dra bctarhjdckao ds s` t` bnpr`va tja idyùt oasbkc. D faw ec`wc dco n`st wboaiy dvdbidgia h`nputar pr`krdnnas dra DIOA], H@FDO, H@N]7, H@N]W@]IDC, H@NXGQI, H@WAID], H@XFDO, WDF_, KWDX], BNDKA, ND_, @FFBHA, ]IDCA_, WDND H@N]B, XQNB, ath.

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HWDF_ UH`nputarbzao Waidtbva Dii`hdtb`c `f Fdhbibty _ahjcbquas^ DIOA] UDut`ndtao Idyùt Oasbkc ]r`krdn^ H@WAID] UH`nputarbzao Waidtb`csjbp Idyùt ]idccbck^ H@FDO UH`nputarbzao Fdhbibtbas Dco Oasbkc^

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]IDCA_ U]idct Idyùt Avdiudtb`c _ahjcbqua^

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]drt G (4= ndre quastb`cs) 4. Axpidbc tja JWN Nòai0 _ja JWN nòai h`ctdbcs dii JW dhtbvbtbas. [jac tjasa dhtbvbtbas dra obshjdrkao affahtbvaiy, tjay wbii rasuit bc d h`npatact dco wbiibck w`ref`rha wj` wbii jaip radibza `rkdcbzdtb`cdi k`dis. _jara bs dc`tjar vdrbdgia v drbdgia bc tja nòai ‘ acvbr`cnact. Bt ndy ga stdtao tjdt tja JW fuchtb`c oàs c`t `pardta bc vdhuun. Bt bs bcfiuachao gy savardi bctarcdi dco axtarcdi f`rhas ibea ah`c`nbh, tahjcì`kbhdi, pìbtbhdi, iakdi, `rkdcbzdtb`cdi, dco pr`fassb`cdi h`cobtb`cs. JWN< bs d ndcdkanact fuchtb`c tjdt jaips ndcdkar‒s r ahrubt, saiaht, trdbc, dco oavai`p nangars f`r dc `rkdcbzdtb`c. Jundc Wasùrha ]idccbck< bs ucoarst`ò ds tja pr`hass `f f`rahdstbck dc `rkdcbzdtb`cs `rkdcbzdtb`cs futura oandco f`r, dco suppiy `f, tja rbkjt typa `f pa`pia bc tja rbkjt cungar. L`g Dcdiysbs< bs tja pr`hass `f stuoybck dco hìiahtbck bcf`rndtb`c raidtbck t` tja `pardtb`cs dco rasp`csbgbibtbas `f d spahbfbh l`g. _ja bnnaobdta bnnaobdta pròuhts `f tjbs dcdiysbs dra l`g oashrbptb`cs dco l`g spahbfbhdtb`c. Wahrubtnact< bs tja pr`hass `f fbcobck dco dttrdhtbck hdpdgia dppibhdcts f`r anpi`ynact. _ja pr`hass gakbcs wjac caw rahrubts dra sùkjt dco acos wjac tjabr dppibhdtb`cs dra sugnbttao. _ja rasuit bs d p`ì `f dppibhdcts fr`n wjbhj caw anpi`yaas dra saiahtao. Xaiahtb`c< bs tja pr`hass `f obffaractbdtbck gatwaac dppibhdcts bc `roar t` boactbfy (dco jbra) tj`sa wbtj kradtar ibeaibj`ò `f suhhass bc d l`g. ]idhanact< bs ucoarst`ò ds tja dii`hdtb`c `f pa`pia t` l`gs. Bt bs tja dssbkcnact `r ra-dssbkcnact `f dc anpi`yaa t` d caw `r obffaract l`g. _rdbcbck dco oavai`pnact< bt bs dc dttanpt t` bnpr`va hurract `r futura anpi`yaa parf`rndcha gy bchradsbck dc anpi`yaa‒s dgbibty t` parf`rn tjrùkj iadrcbck, usudiiy gy hjdckbck tja anpi`yaa‒s dttbtuoa `r bchradsbck jbs `r jar sebiis dco ec`wiaoka. _ja caao f`r trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact bs oatarnbcao gy anpi`yaa‒s parf`rndcha oafbhbachy, h`nputao ds fìi`ws<

_rdbcbck dco oavai`pnact caao > Xtdcodro parf`rndcha ‘ Dhtudi parf`rndcha Wanucardtb`c< bs tja h`npacsdtb`c h`npacsdtb`c dc anpi`yaa rahabvas bc raturc f`r jbs `r jar h`ctrbgutb`c t` tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. N`tbvdtb`c< bs d pr`hass tjdt stdrts wbtj d psyhjì`kbhdi `r pjysbì`kbhdi pjysbì`kbhdi oafbhbachy `r caao tjdt dhtbvdtas gajdvb`r `r d orbva tjdt bs dbnao dt d k`di `r dc bchactbva. ]drtbhbpdtbva ndcdkanact< [`rears pdrtbhbpdtb`c ndy gr`doiy ga tdeac t` h`var dii tarns `f dss`hbdtb`c `f w`rears dco tjabr raprasactdtbvas wbtj tja oahbsb`c ndebck pr`hass, rdckbck fr`n axhjdcka `f bcf`rndtb`c, h`csuitdtb`cs, oahbsb`cs dco cak`tbdtb`cs t` n`ra bcstbtutb`cdibzao f`rns suhj ds tja prasacha `f w`rears nangars `c ndcdkanact `r suparvbs`ry g`dros `r avac ndcdkanact gy w`rears tjansaivas ds prdhtbhao bc Ruk`sidvbd. ((BI@) H`nnucbhdtb`c< ndy ga ucoarst`ò ds tja pr`hass `f axhjdckbck bcf`rndtb`c, dco ucoarstdcobck dn`ck pa`pia. Xdfaty dco jaditj< Xdfaty nadcs fraao`n fr`n tja `hhurracha `r rbse `f bclury `r i`ss. Bc `roar t` acsura tja h`ctbcubck k`ò jaditj `f tjabr anpi`yaas, tja JWN f`husas `c tja caao f`r jaditjy w`rears dco jaditj sarvbhas.

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[aifdra< ds oafbcao gy BI@ dt bts Dsbdc Wakb`cdi H`cfaracha, oafbcao idgùr waifdra ds d tarn wjbhj bs ucoarst`ò t` bchiuoa suhj sarvbhas, fdhbibtbas, dco dnacbtbas ds ndy ga astdgibsjao bc `r bc tja vbhbcbty `f ucoartdebcks t` acdgia tja pars`c anpi`yao bc tjan t` parf`rn tjabr w`re bc jaditjy, h`ckacbdi surrùcobcks dco t` pr`vboa tjan wbtj dnacbtbas h`couhbva t` k`ò jaditj dco jbkj n`rdia. d

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ]r`n`tb`cs< nadcs dc bnpr`vanact bc pdy, prastbka, p`sbtb`c dco rasp`csbgbibtbas `f dc anpi`yaa wbtjbc jbs `r jar `rkdcbzdtb`c. _rdcsfar< bcvìvas d hjdcka bc tja l`g (dhh`npdcbao gy d hjdcka bc tja pidha `f tja l`g) `f dc anpi`yaa wbtjùt d hjdcka bc tja rasp`csbgbibtbas `r ranucardtb`c. Xapdrdtb`cs< Idy-`ffs, rasbkcdtb`cs dco obsnbssdis sapdrdta anpi`yaas fr`n tja anpi`yars. Bcoustrbdi raidtb`cs< bs h`charcao wbtj tja systans, ruias dco pr`haouras usao gy ucb`cs dco anpi`yars t` oatarnbca tja rawdro f`r aff`rt dco `tjar h`cobtb`cs `f anpi`ynact, t` pr`taht tja bctarasts `f tja anpi`yao dco tjabr anpi`yars, dco t` rakuidta tja wdys bc wjbhj anpi`yars tradt tjabr anpi`yaas. _rdoa Qcb`cs< dra vìuctdry `rkdcbzdtb`cs `f w`rears `r anpi`yars f`rnao t` pr`n`ta dco pr`taht tjabr bctarasts tjrùkj hìiahtbva dhtb`c. Obsputas dco tjabr sattianact< Bcoustrbdi obsputas nadc dcy obsputa `r obffaracha gatwaac anpi`yars dco anpi`yars, `r gatwaac anpi`yars dco w`renac, `r gatwaac w`renac dco w`renac, wjbhj bs h`ccahtao wbtj tja anpi`ynact `r c`c-anpi`ynact `r tarns `f anpi`ynact `r wbtj tja h`cobtb`cs `f idgùr `f dcy pars`c. 7. Obffaracha gatwaac ]ars`ccai Ndcdkanact dco JWN Obnacsb`c

]ars`ccai Ndcdkanact

JWN

4. Anpi`ynact h`ctrdht

Hdrafui oaibcadtb`c `f wrbttac h`ctrdhts

Dbns t` k` ‚gay`co‒ h`ctrdht.

7. Wuias

Bnp`rtdcha `f oavbsbck hiadr ruias

Hdc o`, ùti`è, bnpdtbacha wbtj ruia

]r`haouras

Gusbcass caao

C`rns/ hust`ns dco prdhtbhas

Vdiuas/nbssb`c Vdiuas/nbssb`c

N`cbt`rbck

Curturbck

Idgùr ndcdkanact ndcdkanact

Hust`nar

]bahanadi

Bctakrdtao

:. Xpaao `f oahbsb`c 2. Ndcdkanact rìa

Xi`w _rdcsdhtb`cdi _rdcsdhtb`c di

Fdst _rdcsf`rndtb`cdi _rdcsf`rndt b`cdi iadoarsjbp

4=. H`nnucbhdtb`c H`nnucbhdtb`c

Bcobraht

Obraht

Cak`tbdtb`c

Fdhbibtdtb`c

Xapdrdta, ndrkbcdi tdse L`g avdiudtb`c

Bctakrdtao, eay tdse ]arf`rndcha ]arf`rndcha raidtao

Xapdrdtaiy cak`tbdtao

Jdrn`cbzdtb`c Jdrn`cbzdtb`c

Hìiahtbva-gdrkdbcbck Hìiahtbva-gdrkdbcbck h`ctrdhts

Bcobvboudi h`ctrdhts

Ndcy

Faw

Obvbsb`c `f idgùr Wadhj tanp`rdry truha

_adn w`re Ndcdka hibndta dco huitura

H`ctrìiao dhhass t` hùrsas

Iadrcbck h`npdcbas

8. Kuboa t` ndcdkanact dhtb`c ?. Gajdvbùr rafaract 1. Ndcdkarbdi tdse vbs-í-vbs idgùr 6. Eay raidtb`cs ;. Bcbtbdtbvas

44. ]rbzao ndcdkanact ndcdkanact sebiis 47. Xaiahtb`c 48. ]dy 4?. H`cobtb`cs 41. Idgùr ndcdkanact ndcdkanact 46. L`g hdtak`rbas dco krdoas 4;. L`g oasbkc 4:. H`cfibht jdcoibck 42. _rdbcbck dco oavai`pnact

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]ars`ccai pr`haouras

[boa rdckbck huiturdi, struhturdi dco pars`ccai strdtakbas

74. Waspaht f`r anpi`yaas

Idgùr bs tradtao ds d t`ì wjbhj bs axpacodgia dco rapidhadgia

]a`pia dra tradtao ds dssats t` ga usao f`r tja gacafbt `f dc `rkdcbzdtb`c, bts anpi`yaas dco tja s`hbaty ds d wjìa

Bctarasts `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c dra upparn`st

Nutudibty `f bctarasts

]rahaoas JWN

Idtast bc tja avìutb`c `f tja suglaht

77. Xjdrao bctarast

78. Avìutb`c

8. Axpidbc tja fuchtb`cs `f JWN. D pars`ccai ndcdkar jds t` parf`rn tja gdsbh fuchtb`cs `f ndcdkanact. _jasa ndcdkarbdi fuchtb`cs bchiuoa' pidccbck, `rkdcbzbck, obrahtbck dco h`ctrìibck pars`ccai. _ja `pardtbva fuchtb`cs `f tja oapdrtnact dra< pr`huranact `f stdff, oavai`pnact `f stdff tjrùkj trdbcbck, pdynact `f h`npacsdtb`c t` stdff b.a. wdkas dco sdidrbas, bctakrdtb`c `f ndcp`war b.a. fdbr rah`chbibdtb`c rah`chbibdtb`c `f bcobvboudi, s`hbdi dco `rkdcbzdtb`cdi k`dis dco bctarasts b ctarasts dco ndbctacdcha `f stdff b.a. pr`vbobck tjan sdfaty dt tja w`re pidha dco dis` t` `ffar waifdra fdhbibtbas dco h`cvacbachas t` anpi`yaas. Bc grbaf, pars`ccai ndcdkanact ndcdkanact bcvìvas tja fìi`wbck `pardtb`cdi fuchtb`cs< (4) ]r`huranact `f ndcp`war< ]r`huranact nadcs dhqubrbck tja ndcp`war raqubrao gy dc `rkdcbzdtb`c fr`n tbna-t`-tbna. tbna-t`-tbna. _ja gdsbh ]rbchbpia bc pr`huranact bs "rbkjt ndc f`r tja rbkjt l`g". _ja pr`huranact fuchtb`c bchiuoas ndcp`war pidccbck dco f`rahdstbck, f`rahdstbck, rahrubtnact, saiahtb`c, dpp`bctnact, pidhanact dco bcouhtb`c `f anpi`yaas s` ds t` jdva d tadn `f affbhbact dco hdpdgia anpi`yaas f`r tja gacafbts `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. Avac pr`n`tb`cs dco trdcsfars dra h`varao gy tjbs gr`do pars`ccai fuchtb`c. (7) Oavai`pnact `f ndcp`war< Oavai`pnact `f ndcp`war (jundc rasùrha oavai`pnact) nadcs pidccbck dco axahutb`c `f tja trdbcbck pr`krdnnas f`r dii hdtak`rbas `f anpi`yaas bc `roar t` oavai`p caw sebiis dco qudibtbas raqubrao f`r w`rebck dt tja jbkjar iavai. Ndcp`war oavai`pnact bs p`ssbgia tjrùkj trdbcbck dco hdraar oavai`pnact pr`krdnnas dco c`t sbnpiy gy `ffarbck dttrdhtbva wdkas t` w`rears. Axahutbva oavai`pnact pr`krdnnas pr`krdnnas dra bctròuhao f`r tja gacafbt `f jbkjar-iavai ndcdkars Xbnbidriy5 futura ndcp`war raqubranact wbii ga, nat bctarcdiiy tjrùkj JWO pr`krdnnas. Bt dbns dt aouhdtbck dco trdbcbck anpi`yaas f`r tja bnpr`vanact `f `vardii parf`rndcha `f dc `rkdcbzdtb`c. JWO (Jundc Wasùrha Oavai`pnact) pr`krdnnas dra f`r aouhdtb`c, trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact `f axbstbck ndcp`war bc dc `rkdcbzdtb`c. _jbs bs f`r fdhbck caw pr`gians dco hjdiiackas ibeaiy t` oavai`p bc tja cadr futura. (8)

H`npacsdtb`c pdynact t` ndcp`war anpi`yao< @ca fuchtb`c `f JWN bs t` pdy h`npacsdtb`c (bc n`catdry f`rn) t` anpi`yaas f`r tja sarvbhas racoarao. F`r tjbs, d fdbr systan `f ranucardtb`c pdynact (wdkas dco sdidrbas) caaos t` ga bctròuhao. Wanucardtb`c t` anpi`yaas sjùio ga dttrdhtbva s` tjdt tja idgùr f`rha wbii ga sdtbsfbao dco obsputas, ath. wbii ga nbcbnbzao. Fdbr wdka pdynact dhts ds d n`tbvdtbck fdht`r.

(?) Bctakrdtb`c `f bctarasts `f ndcp`war dco tja `rkdcbzdtb`c< Ndcp`war bs bctarastao bc wdka pdynact wjbia `rkdcbzdtb`c bs bctarastao bc jbkjar pr`fbts, h`csunar i`ydity, ndreat raputdtb`c dco s` `c. JWN jds t` rah`chbia tja bctarasts `f tja bcobvboudi nangars `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c wbtj tj`sa `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. (1)

Ndbctacdcha `f ndcp`war< _jbs ndcp`war fuchtb`c raidtbck t` ndbctdbcbck sdtbsfbao ndcp`war bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c tjrùkj tja pr`vbsb`c `f waifdra fdhbibtbas. F`r tjbs, dttactb`c caaos t` ga kbvac t` jaditj dco sdfaty nadsuras, ndbctacdcha `f pr`par w`rebck h`cobtb`cs dt tja w`re pidha, pr`vbsb`c `f waifdra fdhbibtbas dco `tjar c`c-n`catdry gacafbts s` ds t` hradta affbhbact dco sdtbsfbao idgùr f`rha wbtj jbkj n`rdia. Avac hìiahtbva gdrkdbcbck dco w`rears pdrtbhbpdtb`c h`na wbtjbc tjbs gr`do pars`ccai fuchtb`c.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty (6)

]r`vbsb`c `f waifdra fdhbibtbas< Anpi`yaas dra `ffarao vdrbùs waifdra fdhbibtbas. _jay bchiuoa naobhdi, aouhdtb`cdi, rahradtb`c, rahradtb`c, jùsbck, trdcsp`rt dco s` `c.

(;) Nbsh. fuchtb`cs< Nbsh fuchtb`cs ucoar JWN bchiuoa ndbctacdcha ndbctacdcha `f sarvbha rah`ros `f anpi`yaas (wjbhj dra usao f`r pr`n`tb`cs/trdcsfars pr`n`tb`cs/trdcsfars parf`rndcha dpprdbsdi, ath.), pr`n`tb`cs dco trdcsfars `f anpi`yaas, ndbctdbcbck h`robdi bcoustrbdi raidtb`cs, bctròuhtb`c `f rdtb`cdi krbavdcha pr`haoura, parf`rndcha avdiudtb`c `f anpi`yaas, hdraar pidccbck `f anpi`yaas, ndbctacdcha `f obshbpibca, donbcbstarbck tja pìbhbas wbtj rakdro t` obshbpibcdry dhtb`c dco h`npibdcha `f vdrbùs idgùr idws.

?. Axpidbc tja avìutb`c `f JWN bc Bcobd B cobd

_ja bnp`rtdcha `f pars`ccai/jundc rasùrhas ndcdkanact bs c`w ucbvarsdiiy dhhaptao dco Bcobd bs c`t dc axhaptb`c t` tjbs ruia. Bc Bcobd, idrka gusbcass actarprbsas, pugibh saht`r actarprbsas dco avac naobun dco sndii actarprbsas dpp`bct pars`ccai ndcdkar `r jundc rasùrhas oavai`pnact (JWO) ndcdkar t` i`è dftar tja pars`ccai fuchtb`cs suhj ds rahrubtnact, pr`n`tb`cs dco trdcsfars, trdbcbck dco ndcp`war oavai`pnact, pr`vbsb`c `f waifdra fdhbibtbas, h`npacsdtb`c ndcdkanact dco s` `c. _ja tarn JWN bs d raidtbvaiy caw tarn anarkao ourbck tja 42;=s. Bt bs c`w usao ds d gattar dco nadcbckfui sugstbtuta t` pars`ccai ndcdkanact. JWN bs wboar bc sh`pa dco jds bts obstbcht pjbi`s`pjy. _ja pr`hass `f bcoustrbdi oavai`pnact stdrtao bc Bcobd rdtjar idta. Bt wds ourbck tja Grbtbsj Wuia dco tjdt t`` dftar tja Fbrst [`rio [dr tjdt taxtbia, luta, br`c dco staai dco `tjar `rkdcbsao bcoustrbas stdrtao bc Bcobd. Wahrubtnact, wdka pdynact, waifdra fdhbibtbas dco `tjar pars`ccai pr`gians wara c`tao `ciy wjac idgùr hidss wds anpi`yao `c d idrka shdia bc tja bcoustrbdi saht`r. _jbs bs tja stdrtbck parbò f`r pars`ccai ndcdkanact bc Bcobd. Bc tja adriy Grbtbsj parbò dco prb`r t` tjdt pars`ccai ndcdkanact dco pars`ccai fuchtb`cs wara dgsact, (Wafaracha t` s`na pars`ccai fuchtb`cs dco systandtbh ndcdkanact `f rasùrhas wds ndoa bc Edutbiyd's Drtjdsjdstrd ourbck tja ?tj hactury Ga.) ds bcoustrbdi dhtbvbtbas wara axtranaiy ibnbtao. _jay wara dis` h`couhtao `c d sndii shdia. Ds h`npdrao t` Bcobd, tja bcoustrbdi kr`wtj wds rdpbo bc Aur`pa. Ds d rasuit, tja h`chapt `f pars`ccai fuchtb`cs dco pars`ccai ndcdkanact ndoa rdpbo pr`krass. _ja h`chapt `f pars`ccai ndcdkanact fuchtb`c bc Bcobd bs gdsao `c sbnbidr h`chapt oavai`pao bc Aur`pa nuhj adribar. _ja pars`ccai fuchtb`c bc Bcobd jds gaac tja pròuht(ùth`na) `f vdrbùs fdht`rs suhj ds bcoustrbdi kr`wtj, idgùr, iakbsidtb`c, axpi`btdtb`c `f w`rears bc tja adriy parbò dco tjabr oandco f`r hartdbc gdsbh cahassbtbas `f ibfa. (a.k. fdbr wdka, waaeiy, jìbody, assactbdi fdhbibtbas dt tja w`re pidha)_ja caao f`r idgùr `ffbhars bc Bcobdc bcoustry wds fait/radibzao ds adriy ds 4272 f`r tja pr`tahtb`c `f idgùr f`rha bc bcoustrbdi ucbts. Bc 4284, tja nangars `f G`ngdy Nbii `wcars' Dss`hbdtb`c dpp`bctao Idgùr @ffbhars bc tjabr taxtbia nbiis (`c vìuctdry gdsbs) f`r tja sattianact `f krbavdchas dco obsputas `f anpi`yaas. Xbnbidr drrdckanact wds bctròuhao bc tja luta nbiis bc Gackdi (ucoar tja iadoarsjbp `f Luta Nbiis Dss`hbdtb`c). _ja idgùr waifdra `ffbhars wara kbvac tja rasp`csbgbibty t` pr`n`ta sp`rts dco waifdra dhtbvbtbas dco pr`vboa f`ò sj`ps (hdctaac fdhbibty) t` w`rears. Dftar Bcoapacoacha, ndcy pr` idgùr iakbsidtb`cs wara ndoa f`r tja pr`tahtb`c dco waifdra `f w`rears. _ja sh`pa `f pars`ccai ndcdkanact fuchtb`c wds ndoa n`ra gr`do dco ibgardi. Ndcy pr`vbsb`cs rakdrobck rahrubtnact, sdidry pdynact dco h`cobtb`cs `f sarvbha wara idbo o`wc. _jbs kdva rah`kcbtb`c t` tja pars`ccai ndcdkanact fuchtb`c bc tja bcoustrbdi astdgibsjnacts. astdgibsjnacts. Krdoudiiy, tja caao `f pars`ccai ndcdkanact dco bts rìa bc h`robdi idgùr raidtb`cs dco fdbr tradtnact t` anpi`yaas caao wara rah`kcbzao gy bcoustrbdi `rkdcbzdtb`cs. ]ars`ccai oapdrtnacts ucoar tja iadoarsjbp `f pars`ccai ndcdkars wara stdrtao bc tja h`npdcbas. Ibgardi waifdra fdhbibtbas wara bctròuhao f`r tja gacafbt `f anpi`yaas. Xuhj nadsuras tdeac f`r tja pr`tahtb`c dco waifdra `f anpi`yaas acidrkao tja sh`pa `f pars`ccai ndcdkanact. Avac trdbcbck dco ndcp`war


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty oavai`pnact pr`krdnnas dooao caw obnacsb`cs t` tja dhtbvbtbas `f pars`ccai ndcdkanact. Ndcy h`npdcbas jdva c`w, prapdrao waii-oafbcao pars`ccai pa rs`ccai pìbhbas, krbavdcha dco `tjar pr`haouras dco ibgardi pdhedka `f waifdra fdhbibtbas. Xuhj doobtb`cdi dhtbvbtbas/fuchtb`cs ucoar pars`ccai ndcdkanact rdbsao tja bnp`rtdcha dco p`puidrbty `f pars`ccai oapdrtnact. 1. Axpidbc tja Wahrubtnact pr`hass

Wahrubtnact bs d pr`hass `f fbcobck dco dttrdhtbck hdpdgia dppibhdcts f`r anpi`ynact. _ja pr`hass gakbcs wjac caw rahrubts dra sùkjt dco acos wjac tjabr dppibhdtb`cs dra sugnbttao. _ja rasuit bs d p`ì `f dppibhdcts fr`n wjbhj caw anpi`yaas dra saiahtao. D waii-pidccao dco waii-ndcdkao rahrubtbck aff`rt wbii rasuit bc jbkj qudibty dppibhdcts, wjarads d jdpjdzdro dco pbahanadi aff`rt wbii rasuit bc d naob`hra `cha. Xavardi fdht`rs suhj ds axtarcdi fdht`rs ibea suppiy dc oandco ucanpi`ynact rdta, idgùr ndreats dco pìbtbhdi dco iakdi h`csboardtb`cs, bctarcdi fdht`rs ibea rahrubtbck pìbhy, sbza, h`st `f rahrubtbck ath k`varc tja rahrubtbck pr`hass. _ja pr`hass h`nprbsas `f 1 bctar raidtao stdkas< 4. 7. 8. ?. 1.

]idccbck Xtrdtaky oavai`pnact Xadrhjbck Xhraacbck Avdiudtb`c dco h`ctrì B ]idccbck

_ja fbrst stdka bc rahrubtnact pr`hass bs pidccbck. ]idccbck bcvìvas trdcsidtb`c `f ibeaiy l`g vdhdchbas dco bcf`rndtb`c dgùt tja cdtura `f tjasa l`gs bct` d sat `f `glahtbvas `r tdrkats tjdt spahbfy tja cungar dco tja typa `f dppibhdcts t` ga h`ctdhtao. Cungar `f h`ctdhts< `rkdcbsdtb`cs diwdys pidc t` dttrdht n`ra dppibhdcts tjdc tjay pidc t` jbra. X`na `f tj`sa h`ctdhtao wbii ga ucbctarastao ucqudibfbao `r g`tj. Adhj tbna d rahrubtnact pr`hass bs h`ctanpidtao, `ca tdse bs t` astbndta tja cungar `f dppibhdcts cahassdry t` fbii dii tja vdhdchbas wbtj qudibfbao pa`pia. _ypa `f h`ctdhts< tjbs rafars t` tja typa `f pa`pia t` ga bcf`rnao dgùt tja l`g `pacbcks. _ja typas `f pa`pia oapaco `c tja tdses dco rasp`csbgbibtbas bcvìvao dco tja qudibfbhdtb`cs dco axparbacha axpahtao. _jasa oatdbis dra dvdbidgia tjrùkj l`g oashrbptb`c dco l`g spahbfbhdtb`c.

BB

Xtrdtaky oavai`pnact

@cha bt bs ec`wc j`w ndcy dco wjdt typa `f rahrubts dra raqubrao, h`csboardtb`c caaos t` ga kbvac t` ndea `r guy anpi`yaas, tahjcbhdi s`pjbstbhdtb`c `f rahrubtnact dco saiahtb`c oavbhas, ka`krdpjbh obstrbgutb`c `f idgùr ndreats h`nprbsbck l`g saaears, sùrhas `f rahrubtnact, dco saquachbck tja dhtbvbtbas bc tja rahrubtnact pr`hass. Ndea `r guy rafars t` jbra iass sebiiao anpi`yaas do t` bcvast bc trdbcbck dco aouhdtb`c pr`krdnnas `r jbra sebiiao pr`fassb`cdis. _ja sah`co oahbsb`c o ahbsb`c bc strdtakbh raidtas t` tja natjòs usao bc rahrubtnact dco saiahtb`c. _ja dovact `f h`nputars jds ndoa bt p`ssbgia f`r anpi`yars t` shdc cdtb`cdi dco bctarcdtb`cdi dppibhdcts qudibfbhdtb`cs. Bt jds dis` ndoa p`ssbgia f`r l`g saaears t` kdbc gattar dhhass. Bc `roar t` raouha h`sts, h`npdcbas i`è bct` tja cdtb`cdi ndreats ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty f`r ndcdkarbdi anpi`yaas, rakb`cdi `r i`hdi ndreats f`r tahjcbhdi anpi`yaas, dco i`hdi ndreats f`r hiarbhdi dco giua-hìidr anpi`yaas. _ja sùrhas f`r rahrubtnact ndy ga bctarcdi `r axtarcdi. _ja bctarcdi sùrhas wùio ga prasact anpi`yaas, rafarrdis kbvac gy tja anpi`yaas, f`rnar anpi`yaas `r pravbùs dppibhdcts. [jarads tja axtarcdi sùrhas wùio ga h`csuitdcts, jadojuctars, dovartbsanacts, anpi`yaa axhjdckas, hdnpus rahrubtnact, h`ctrdht`rs, obspidhao pars`cs, rdob` dco taiavbsb`c, dhqubsbtb`cs dco narkars, h`npatbt`rs, bctarcdtb`cdi rahrubtnact ath. tjac g`tj tja sùrhas `f rahrubtnact dra avdiudtao. G`tj jdva tjabr `wc dovdctdkas dco obsdovdctdkas. BBB Xadrhjbck

@cha d rahrubtnact pidc dco strdtaky dra w`reao ùt, tja sadrhj pr`hass hdc gakbc. Bt bcvìvas tw` staps< 4. Xùrha dvbdtb`c 7. Xaiibck 4. Xùrha Dvbdtb`c< _ypbhdiiy sùrhas dco sadrhj natjòs dra dhtbvdtao gy bssudchas `f dc anpi`yaa raqubsbtb`c. _jbs nadcs tjdt c` dhtudi rahrubtbck tdeas pidha uctbi ibca ndcdkars jdva varbfbao tjdt d vdhdchy oàs axbst `r wbii axbst. Bf tja `rkdcbsdtb`c jds pidccao waii dco o`ca d k`ò l`g `f oavai`pbck bts sùrhas dco sadrhj natjòs, dhtbvdtb`c s``c rasuits bc d fi`ò `f dppibhdtb`cs dco/`r rasunas. _ja dppibhdtb`c rahabvao nust ga shraacao. _j`sa wj` pdss jdva t` ga h`ctdhtao, dco bcvbtao f`r bctarvbaw. Qcsuhhassfui dppibhdcts nust ga sact iattars `f rakrat. 7. Xaiibck

_ja sah`co bssua t` ga doorassao bc tja sadrhjbck pr`hass h`charcs h`nnucbhdtb`c. Jara, h`ctdhts dra tbkjtr`pa. @c t`ca jdco tjay wdct ds ndcy dppibhdtb`cs dco `c tja `tjar jdco tjay nust rasbst `varsaiibck `f tjabr vbrtuas. Bc saiibck tja `rkdcbsdtb`c g`tj nassdka dco tja naobd caao dttactb`c. Xaiahtb`c `f naobun `r naobd jds t` ga o`ca wbtj i`t `f hdra. BV Xhraacbck Xhraacbck `f dppibhdcts hdc ga rakdroao ds dc bctakrdi pdrt `f rahrubtbck pr`hass. _ja saiahtb`c pr`hass wbii gakbc dftar tja dppibhdcts jdva gaac shrutbcbzao dco sj`rt-ibstao. Dppibhdtb`cs rahabvao bc rasp`csa t` dovartbsanact dra shraacao dco `ciy tja aibkbgia dppibhdcts dra hdiiao f`r bctarvbaw.

_ja purp`sa `f shraacbck bs t` ran`va fr`n tja rahrubtbck pr`hass, dt dc adriy stdka tj`sa dppibhdcts wj` dra vbsbgiy ucqudibfbao f`r tja l`g. Affahtbva shraacbck hdc sdva d kradt oadi `f tbna dco n`cay. Hdra nust ga tdeac tjdt p`tactbdiiy k`ò anpi`yaas dra c`t i`st dco w`nac dco nbc`rbtbas rahabva fuii dco fdbr h`csboardtb`c. Bc shraacbck, hiadr l`g spahbfbhdtb`cs dra bcvdiudgia. Dppibhdtb`cs dra luokao `c tja gdsbs `f tjabr ec`wiaoka, sebiis, dgbibtbas, dco bctarasts raqubrao t` o` tja l`g. _ja tahjcbquas usao t` shraac dppibhdcts vdry oapacobck `c tja hdcobodta sùrhas dco rahrubtbck natjòs usao. Bctarvbaws dco dppibhdtb`c gidces dra usao t` shraac wdie bcs. Hdnpus rahrubtars dco dkachy raprasactdtbva‒s usa bc bctarvbaws dco rasunas. Wafarachas hjahes dra dis` usafui bc shraacbck. V Avdiudtb`c dco h`ctrì Avdiudtb`c dco h`ctrì bs cahassdry ds h`csboardgia h`sts dra bchurrao bc tja rahrubtnact pr`hass. _ja h`sts kacardiiy bchurrao dra d

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty       

Xdidrbas f`r rahrubtars Ndcdkanact dco pr`fassb`cdi tbna spact `c prapdrbck l`g oashrbptb`c, l`g spahbfbhdtb`c, dovartbsanacts, dkachy ibdbs`c, dco s` f`rtj _ja h`st `f dovartbsanact dco `tjar rahrubtnact natjòs ibea dkachy faas H`st `f pròuhbck supp`rtbck ibtardtura Wahrubtnact `varjados dco donbcbstrdtbva axpacsas H`st `f `vartbna dco ùtsùrhbck wjbia tja vdhdchbas dra randbc ucfbiiao H`st `f rahrubtbck ucsubtdgia hdcobodtas f`r saiahtb`c pr`hass

Tuastb`cs sjùio diwdys ga dseao ds t` wjatjar tja rahrubtnact natjòs usao dra vdibo dco wjatjar tja rahrubtnact pr`hass btsaif bs vdibo. Xtdtbstbhdi bcf`rndtb`c `c tja h`st `f dovartbsanacts, tbna tdeac f`r tja pr`hass ath sjùio ga kdtjarao dco avdiudtao. J`wavar, axarhbsas saan t` ga saio`n hdrrbao ùt bc prdhtbha. Avdiudtb`c `f rahrubtnact pr`hass<

_ja rahrubtnact pr`hass jds tja `glahtbva `f sadrhjbck f`r dco `gtdbcbck dppibhdtb`cs fr`n l`g saaears bc suffbhbact suffbhbact cungars dco qudibty. qudibty. Eaapbck bc nbco nbco tjasa `glahtbvas, tja tja avdiudtb`c avdiudtb`c nbkjt bchiuoa<      

Waturc rdta `f dppibhdtb`c sact ùt Cungar `f subtdgia hdcobodtas f`r saiahtb`c Watactb`c dco parf`rndcha `f tja hdcobodtas saiahtao H`st `f rahrubtnact pr`hass _bna idpsao odtd H`nnacts `c bndka pr`lahtao

6. Axpidbc tja Xaiahtb`c pr`hass.

Xaiahtb`c bs tja pr`hass `f pbhebck bcobvboudis wbtj raqubsbta qudibfbhdtb`cs dco h`npatacha t` fbii l`gs bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. D f`rndi oafbcbtb`c `f saiahtb`c bs bt bs tja pr`hass `f obffaractbdtbck gatwaac g atwaac dppibhdcts bc `roar t` boactbfy tj`sa wbtj d kradtar ibeaibj`ò `f suhhass. Xaiahtb`c bs sbkcbfbhdct ds bt jds bts bnpdht `c w`re parf`rndcha dco anpi`yaa h`st. Xaiahtb`c bs kacardiiy o`ca gy tja JW oapdrtnact `ftac bc h`csuitdtb`c wbtj tja ibca ndcdkars. Xaiahtb`c ]r`hass Xaiahtb`c bs d i`ck pr`hass, h`nnachbck fr`n tja praibnbcdry bctarvbaw `f tja dppibhdcts dco acobck wbtj tja h`ctrdht `f anpi`ynact. Bc prdhtbha, tja pr`hass obffars dn`ck `rkdcbzdtb`cs dco gatwaac tw` obffaract l`gs wbtjbc tja sdna `rkdcbzdtb`c. Xaiahtb`c Xaiah tb`c pr`haoura f`r sacb`r ndcdkars wbii ga i`ck-ordwc dco rbk`rùs, gut bt bs sbnpia dco sj`rt wjbia jbrbck sj`p -fi``r w`rears. Acvbr`cnactdi Fdht`rs Dffahtbck Xaiahtb`c Xaiahtb`c bs bcfiuachao gy savardi fdht`rs. N`ra pr`nbcact dn`ck tjan dra suppiy dco oandco `f spahbfbh sebiis bc tja idgùr ndreat, ucanpi`ynact rdta, idgùr-ndreat h`cobtb`cs, iakdi dco pìbtbhdi h`csboardtb`cs, h`npdcy‒s bndka, h`npdcy‒s p` ibhy, JW], dco h`st `f jbrbck. _ja idst tjraa h`cstbtuta tja bctarcdi acvbr`cnact dco tja randbcbck f`rn tja axtarcdi acvbr`cnact `f tja saiahtb`c pr`hass. 1

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 4. ]raibnbcdry ]raibnbcdry Bctarvbaw

_ja dppibhdtb`cs rahabvao fr`n l`g saaears dra suglaht t` shrutbcy s` ds t` aibnbcdta ucqudibfbao dppibhdcts. _jbs bs usudiiy fìi`wao gy d praibnbcdry bctarvbaw tja purp`sa `f wjbhj bs n`ra `r iass tja sdna ds shrutbcy `f dppibhdtb`cs, tjdt bs, aibnbcdtb`c `f ucqudibfbao dppibhdtb`cs. Xhrutbcy acdgias tja JW spahbdibsts t` aibnbcdta ucqudibfbao l`gsaaears gdsao `c tja bcf`rndtb`c suppibao bc tjabr dppibhdtb`cs f`rns. ]raibnbcdry bctarvbaw, `c tja `tjar jdco, jaips ralaht nbsfbts f`r rads`cs, wjbhj obo c`t dppadr bc tja dppibhdtb`c f`rns. Gasboas, praibnbcdry bctarvbaw, `ftac hdiiao ‚hùrtasy bctarvbaw‒, bs d k`ò pugibh raidtb`cs axarhbsa. 7. Xaiahtb`c _asts

L`g saaears wj` pdss tja shraacbck dco tja praibnbcdry bctarvbaw dra hdiiao f`r tasts. Obffaract typas `f tasts ndy ga donbcbstarao, oapacobck `c tja l`g dco tja h`npdcy. Kacardiiy, tasts dra usao t` oatarnbca tja dppibhdct‒s dgbibty, dptbtuoa dco pars`cdibty. Dgbibty tasts dssbst bc oatarnbcbck j`w waii dc bcobvboudi hdc parf`rn tdses raidtao t` tja l`g. Dc axhaiiact a xhaiiact axdnpia `f tjbs bs tja typbck tast kbvac t` d pr`spahtbva anpi`yaa f`r d sahratdrbdi l`g. Dc dptbtuoa tast jaips t` oatarnbca d pars`c‒s p`tactbdi t` iadrc bc d kbvac drad. Dc axdnpia `f suhj d tast bs tja Kacardi Ndcdkanact Dptbtuoa _ast wjbhj ndcy gusbcass stuoacts tdea prb`r t` kdbcbck donbssb`c t` d krdoudta gusbcass shj`ì pr`krdnna. ]ars`cdibty tasts dra kbvac t` nadsura nadsura d pr`spahtbva anpi`yaa‒s anpi`yaa‒s n`tbvdtb`c t` fuchtb`c fuchtb`c bc d pdrtbhuidr w`rebck acvbr`cnact. _jara dra vdrbùs tasts oasbkcao t` dssass d hdcobodta‒ s pars`cdibty. _ja Garsactar -suffbhbachy, caur`tbh tacoachy, s`hbdgbibty, ]ars`cdibty Bcvact`ry, f`r axdnpia, nadsuras `ca‒s saif -suffbhbachy, bctr`varsb`c dco axtr`varsb`c, i`hus `f h`ctrì, dco saif-h`cfboacha. _ja _jandtbh Dpparhaptb`c tast (_D_) dssassas dc bcobvbo udi‒s dhjbavanact dco n`tbvdtb`cdi iavais. @tjar pars`cdibty tasts, suhj ds tja Hdibf`rcbd ]syhjì`kbhdi Bcvact`ry (H]B), tja _jurst`ca _anpardnact Xurvay (__X), Nbccas`td Nuitbpjdsbh ]ars`cdibty Bcvact`ry (NN]B), dco Kubiof`ro-\bnnarndc _anpardnact Xurvay, jdva gaac oasbkcao t` dssass spahbfbh pars`cdibty trdbts.

Dptbtuoa tasts bcobhdta tja dgbibty `r fbtcass `f dc bcobvboudi t` ackdka suhhassfuiiy bc dcy cungar `f spahbdibzao dhtbvbtbas. _jay h`var suhj drads ds hiarbhdi dptbtuoa, cunarbhdi dptbtuoa, nahjdcbhdi dptbtuoa, n`t`r-h``robcdtb`c, fbckar oaxtarbty dco ndcudi oaxtarbty. Bctarast tasts dra usao t` nadsura dc bcobvboudi‒s dhtbvbty prafarachas. _jasa tasts dra pdrtbhuidriy usafui f`r stuoacts h`csboarbck ndcy hdraars `r anpi`yaas oahbobck up`c h draar hjdckas.

Krdpjì`ky tast bs oasbkcao t` dcdiysa tja jdcowrbtbck `f dc bcobvboudi. Bt jds gaac sdbo tjdt dc bcobvboudi‒s jdcowrbtbck hdc sukkast tja oakraa `f acarky, bcjbgbtb`cs dco sp`ctdcabty, ds waii ds obshi`sa tja bob`sychrdhbas, dco aianacts `f gdidcha dco h`ctrì. F`r axdnpia, gbk iattars dco anpjdsbs `c hdpbtdi iattars bcobhdta d tacoachy t`wdros o`nbcdtb`c dco h`npatbtbvacass. D sidct t` tja rbkjt, nòardta prassura dco k`ò iakbgbibty sj`w iadoarsjbp p`tactbdi. Anpi`yars usudiiy h`csuit krdpjì`kbsts t` suppianact tjabr usudi pars`ccai rahrubtnact pr`haouras. ]ìykrdpj tasts dra oasbkcao t` acsura dhhurdhy `f tja bcf`rndtb`c kbvac bc tja dppibhdtb`cs. Oapdrtnact st`ras, tradsury `ffbhas dco lawaiiary sj`ps ‘ tjdt bs tj`sa jbkjiy vuicardgia t` tjaft `r swbcoibck ‘ ndy fbco pìykrdpj tasts usafui. 6 1 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 8. Anpi`ynact Bctarvbaw

_ja caxt stap bc tja saiahtb`c pr`hass bs anpi`ynact bctarvbaw. Dc bctarvbaw bs h`couhtao dt tja gakbccbck dco dt tja aco `f tja saiahtb`c pr`hass. _ja anpjdsbs jara bs `c tja idttar. Bctarvbaw bs d f`rndi, bc-oaptj h`cvarsdtb`c h`couhtao t` avdiudta tj a dppibhdct‒s dhhaptdgbibty. dhhaptdgbibty. Bt bs h`csboarao t` ga dc axhaiiact saiahtb`c oavbha. Bts p`puidrbty stans fr`n bts fiaxbgbibty. Bctarvbaw hdc ga dodptao t` ucsebiiao, sebiiao, ndcdkarbdi dco pr`fassb`cdi anpi`yaas. Bt dii`ws d tw`-wdy axhjdcka `f bcf`rndtb`c, tja bctarvbawars iadrc dgùt tja dppibhdct, dco tja dppibhdct iadrcs dgùt tja anpi`yar. J`wavar, bctarvbaws o` jdva sj`rth`nbcks. Dgsacha `f raibdgbibty bs `ca ibnbtdtb`c. C` tw` bctarvbawars `ffar sbnbidr sh`rbck dftar bctarvbawbck dc dppibhdct. Idhe `f vdibobty bs dc`tjar ibnbtdtb`c. _jbs bs gahdusa, faw oapdrtnacts usa stdcodrobzao quastb`cs up`c wjbhj vdibodtb`c stuobas hdc ga h`couhtao. Fbcdiiy, gbdsas `f bctarvbawars ndy hiùo h iùo tja `glahtbvbty `f bctarvbaws. _ja anpi`ynact bctarvbaw hdc ga `ca-t`-`ca, saquactbdi `r pdcai. Bc `ca-t`-`ca bctarvbaw, tjara dra `ciy tw` pdrtbhbpdcts ‘ tja bctarvbawar dco tja bctarvbawaa. _jbs hdc ga tja sdna ds tja praibnbcdry bctarvbaw obshussao adribar. _ja saquactbdi bctarvbaw tdeas tja `ca-t`-`ca d stap furtjar dco bcvìvas d sarbas `f bctarvbaws, usudiiy utbibzbck tja stracktj dco ec`wiaoka-gdsa `f adhj bctarvbawar, s` tjdt adhj bctarvbawar hdc dse quastb`cs bc raidtb`c t` jbs suglaht drad `f adhj hdcobodta, ds tja hdcobodta n`vas fr`n r``n t` r``n. _ja pdcai bctarvbaw h`csbsts `f tw` `r n`ra bctarvbawars dco tja fbkura ndy k` up t` ds ndcy ds 41. Dcy pdcai bctarvbaw bs iass bctbndta dco n`ra f`rndi tjdc tja `ca-t`-`ca, gut bf jdcoiao dco `rkdcbzao waii, bt hdc pr`vboa d waditj `f bcf`rndtb`c. Bf c`t jdcoiao hdrafuiiy, tja pdcai bctarvbaw hdc ndea tja hdcobodta faai bii dt adsa dco h`cfusao dgùt wj`sa quastb`c t` dcswar dco wj`n t` doorass. Bctarvbawars tjansaivas dra ibeaiy t` axparbacha cbkjtndra, c`t ec`wbck wj` wbii dse wjbhj quastb`c dco bc wjdt `roar. ?. Wafaracha & Gdhekrùco Hjahes

Ndcy anpi`yars raquast cdnas, doorassas, dco taiapj`ca cungars `f rafarachas, f`r tja purp`sa `f varbfybck bcf`rndtb`c dco parjdps, kdbcbck doobtb`cdi gdhekrùco bcf`rndtb`c `c dc dppibhdct. Ditjùkj ibstao `c tja dppibhdtb`c f`rn, rafarachas dra c`t usudiiy hjaheao uctbi dc dppibhdct jds suhhassfuiiy radhjao tja fùrtj stdka `f d saquactbdi saiahtb`c pr`hass. [jac tja idgùr ndreat bs vary tbkjt, `rkdcbzdtb`cs s`natbnas jbra dppibhdcts gaf`ra hjahebck rafarachas. ]ravbùs anpi`yars, ec`wc pugibh fbkuras, ucbvarsbty pr`fass`rs, cabkjgùrs `r frbacos hdc dht ds rafarachas. ]ravbùs anpi`yars dra prafardgia gahdusa tjay dra diradoy dwdra `f tja dppibhdct‒s parf`rndcha. Gut, tja pr`gian wbtj tja rafaracha bs tja tacoachy `c tja pdrt `f tja pravbùs anpi`yar t` `var-rdta tja dppibhdct‒s parf`rndcha lust t` kat rbo `f tja pars`c. @rkdcbzdtb`cs c`rndiiy saae iattars `f rafarachas `r taiapj`ca rafarachas. _ja idttar bs dovdctdkaùs gahdusa `f bts dhhurdhy dco i`w h`st. _ja taiapj`ca rafaracha dis` jds tja dovdctdka `f sìbhbtbck bnnaobdta, raidtbvaiy hdcobo h`nnacts, dco dttbtuoas hdc s`natbnas ga bcfarrao fr`n jasbtdtb`cs dco bcfiahtb`cs bc spaahj. Bt ndy ga stdtao tjdt tja bcf`rndtb`c kdtjarao tjrùkj rafarachas jdroiy bcfiuacha saiahtb`c oahbsb`cs. _ja rads`cs dra `gvbùs< a

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty _ja hdcobodta dppr`dhjas `ciy tj`sa pars`cs wj` wùio spade waii dgùt jbn. ]a`pia ndy wrbta fdvùrdgiy dgùt tja hdcobodta bc `roar t` kat rbo `f jbn.  ]a`pia ndy c`t ibea t` obvuika tja trutj dgùt d hdcobodta, iast bt nbkjt odndka `r rubc jbs  hdraar. Bc savardi hdsas, rafarachas dra d f`rndibty dco dra saio`n varbfbao gy tja anpi`yar. 

1. Xaiahtb`c Oahbsb`c

Dftar `gtdbcbck bcf`rndtb`c tjrùkj tja prahaobck staps, saiahtb`c oahbsb`c ‘ tja n`st hrbtbhdi `f dii tja staps ‘ nust ga ndoa. _ja `tjar stdkas bc tja saiahtb`c pr`hass jdva gaac usao t` cdrr`w tja cungar `f hdcobodtas. _ja fbcdi oahbsb`c jds t` ga ndoa fr`n tja p`ì `f bcobvboudis wj` pdss tja tasts, bctarvbaws dco rafaracha hjahes. _ja vbaws `f tja ibca ndcdkar wbii ga kacardiiy h`csboarao bc tja fbcdi saiahtb`c gahdusa bt bs ja wj` bs rasp`csbgia f`r tja parf`rndcha `f tja anpi`yaa. _ja JW ndcdkar pidys d hrbtbhdi rìa bc tja fbcdi saiahtb`c. 6. ]jysbhdi Axdnbcdtb`c

Dftar tja saiahtb`c oahbsb`c dco gaf`ra tja l`g `ffar bs ndoa, tja hdcobodta bs raqubrao t` ucoark` d pjysbhdi fbtcass tast. D l`g `ffar bs, `ftac, h`ctbckact up`c tja hdcobodta gabck oahidrao fbt dftar tja pjysbhdi axdnbcdtb`c. _ja rasuits `f tja naobhdi fbtcass tast dra rah`roao bc d stdtanact dco dra prasarvao bc tja pars`ccai rah`ros. _jara dra savardi `glahtbvas gajbco d pjysbhdi tast. @gvbùsiy, `ca rads`c f`r d pjysbhdi tast bs t` oataht bf tja bcobvboudi hdrrbas dcy bcfahtbùs obsadsas. Xah`coiy, tja tast dssbsts bc oatarnbcbck wjatjar dc dppibhdct bs pjysbhdiiy fbt t` parf`rn tja w`re. _jbro, tja pjysbhdi axdnbcdtb`c bcf`rndtb`c ndy ga usao t` oatarnbca bf tjara dra hartdbc pjysbhdi hdpdgbibtbas wjbhj obffaractbdta suhhassfui dco iass suhhassfui anpi`yaas. Fùrtj, naobhdi hjahe-up pr`tahts dppibhdcts wbtj jaditj oafahts fr`n ucoartdebck w`re tjdt hùio ga oatrbnactdi t` tjansaivas `r nbkjt `tjarwbsa acodckar tja anpi`yar‒s pr`party. Fbcdiiy, suhj dc axdnbcdtb`c wbii pr`taht tja anpi`yar fr`n w`rears‒ h`npacsdtb`c hidbns tjdt dra c`t v dibo gahdusa tja bclurbas `r biicassas wara prasact wjac anpi`yaa wds jbrao. ;. L`g @ffar

_ja caxt stap bc tja saiahtb`c pr`hass bs l`g `ffar t` tj`sa dppibhdcts wj` jdva hr`ssao dii tja pravbùs juroias. L`g `ffar bs ndoa tjrùkj d iattar `f dpp`bctnact. Xuhj d iattar kacardiiy h`ctdbcs d odta gy wjbhj tja dpp`bctaa nust rap`rt `c outy. _ja dpp`bctaa nust ga kbvac rads`cdgia tbna f`r rap`rtbck. _jbs bs pdrtbhuidriy cahassdry wjac ja bs diradoy bc anpi`ynact, bc wjbhj hdsa tja dpp`bctaa bs raqubrao t` `gtdbc d raibavbck hartbfbhdta fr`n tja pravbùs anpi`yar. Dkdbc, d caw l`g ndy raqubra n`vanact t` dc`tjar hbty wjbhj nadcs h`csboardgia prapdrdtb`c dco n`vanact `f pr`party. _ja h`npdcy ndy dis` wdct tja bcobvboudi t` oaidy tja odta `f rap`rtbck `c outy. Bf tja caw anpi`yaa‒s fbrst l`g up`c l`bcbck tja h`npdcy bs t` k` `c trdbcbck, tja `rkdcbzdtb`c ndy raquast tjdt tja bcobvboudi oaidys l`bcbck tja h`npdcy uctbi parjdps d waae gaf`ra suhj trdbcbck gakbcs. Cdturdiiy tjbs prdhtbha hdcc`t ga dgusao aspahbdiiy bf tja bcobvboudi bs ucanpi`yao dco oàs c`t jdva suffbhbact fbcdchas. Oahachy oandcos tjdt tja ralahtao dppibhdcts ga bcf`rnao dgùt tjabr c`c-saiahtb`c. _jabr dppibhdtb`cs ndy ga prasarvao f`r futura usa, bf dcy. Bt caaos c` anpjdsbs tjdt tja dppibhdtb`cs `f saiahtao hdcobodtas nust dis` ga prasarvao f`r futura rafarachas. ]

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:. H`ctrdhts `f Anpi`ynact

Dftar tja l`g `ffar jds gaac ndoa dco tja hdcobodtas dhhapt tja `ffar, hartdbc o`hunacts caao t` ga axahutao gy g y tja anpi`yar dco tja hdcobodta. h dcobodta. @ca suhj o`hunact bs tja dttastdtb`c f`rn. _jbs f`rn h`ctdbcs hartdbc vbtdi oatdbis dgùt tja hdcobodta wjbhj dra dutjactbhdtao dco dttastao gy jbn. Dttastdtb`c f`rn wbii ga d vdibo rah`ro f`r futura rafaracha. _jara bs dis` d caao f`r prapdrbck d h`ctrdht `f anpi`ynact. _ja gdsbh bcf`rndtb`c tjdt sjùio ga bchiuoao bc d wrbttac h`ctrdht `f anpi`ynact wbii vdry dhh`robck t` tja iavai `f tja l`g, gut tja fìi`wbck hjaheibst sats ùt tja typbhdi jadobcks. d

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty  

          



L`g _btia Outbas, bchiuobck d pjrdsa suhj ds ’_ja anpi`yaa wbii parf`rn suhj outbas dco wbii ga rasp`csbgia t` suhj d pars`c ds tja h`npdcy ndy fr`n f r`n tbna t` tbna obr aht.„ Odta wjac h`ctbcuùs anpi`ynact stdrts dco tja gdsbs f`r hdihuidtbck sarvbha Wdta `f pdy, dii`wdchas, `vartbna dco sjbft rdtas, natjò `f pdynacts Jùrs `f w`re bchiuobck iuchj grade dco `vartbna dco sjbft drrdckanacts Jìbody drrdckanacts Iacktj `f c`tbha oua t` dco fr`n anpi`yaa Krbavdcha pr`haoura Obshbpibcdry pr`haoura [`re Wuias Drrdckanacts f`r tarnbcdtbck anpi`ynact Drrdckanacts f`r ucb`c nangarsjbp Xpahbdi tarns raidtbck t` rbkjts t` pdtacts dco oasbkcs, h`cfboactbdi bcf`rndtb`c dco rastrdbcts `c trdoa dftar tarnbcdtb`c `f anpi`ynact Anpi`yar‒s rbkjt t` vdry tarns `f tja h`ctrdht suglaht t` pr`par c`tbfbhdtb`c gabck kbvac

Ditarcdtbvaiy hdiiao anpi`ynact dkraanacts `r sbnpiy g`cos, h`ctrdhts `f anpi`ynact sarva ndcy usafui purp`sas. Xuhj h`ctrdhts saae t` rastrdbc l`g j`pars, t` pr`taht ec`wiaoka dco bcf`rndtb`c tjdt nbkjt ga vbtdi t` d h`npdcy‒s jaditj g`tt`n ibca, dco t` pravact h`npatbt`rs fr`n p`dhjbck jbkjiy vdiuao anpi`yaas. Kradt hdra bs tdeac t` ordft tja h`ctrdht f`rns. @ftac, sarvbhas `f idw fbrns dra f`rns ordftao dco fbcdibzao.

ackdkao t` kat tja

N`st anpi`yars bcsbst `c dkraanacts gabck sbkcao gy cawiy jbrao anpi`yaas. Gut jbkj anpi`yaa turc`var saht`rs suhj ds s`ftwdra, dovartbsbck dco naobd dra n`ra pr`ca t` usa suhj h`ctrdhts. _ja ordwgdhe wbtj tja h`ctrdhts bs tjdt bt bs bnp`ssbgia t` acf`rha tjan. D oatarnbcao anpi`yaa bs gùco t` iadva tja `rkdcbzdtb`c, h`ctrdht `r c` h`ctrdht. _ja anpi`yaa bs prapdrao t` pdy tja pacdity f`r gradhjbck tja dkraanact `r tja caw anpi`yar wbii pr`vboa h`npacsdtb`cs. Bt bs f`r tjbs rads`c tjdt savardi h`npdcbas jdva shrdppao tja h`ctrdhts dit`katjar. Ibctds dco @kbivy dco Ndtjar dra axdnpias. H`chiuobck tja Xaiahtb`c ]r`hass H`ctrdry t` p`puidr parhaptb`c, tja saiahtb`c pr`hass wbii c`t aco wbtj axahutbck tja anpi`ynact h`ctrdht. _jara bs dc`tjar stap ‘ d n`ra sacsbtbva `ca- radssurbck tj`sa hdcobodtas wj` jdva c`t gaac saiahtao. Xuhj hdcobodtas nust ga tìo tjdt tjay wara c`t saiahtao c`t gahdusa `f dcy sarbùs oafbhbachbas bc tjabr pars`cdibtbas, gut gahdusa tjabr pr`fbias obo c`t ndthj tja raqubranacts `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. _jay nust ga tìo tjdt tj`sa wj` wara saiahtao wara o`ca puraiy `c raidtbva narbt. 2. Avdiudtb`c `f tja Xaiahtb`c ]r`krdnna

_ja gr`do tast `f tja affahtbvacass `f tja saiahtb`c pr`hass bs tja qudibty `f tja pars`ccai jbrao. Dc `rkdcbzdtb`c nust jdva h`npatact dco h`nnbttao pars`ccai. _ja saiahtb`c pr`hass bf pr`pariy o`ca wbii acsura dvdbidgbibty `f suhj anpi`yaas. J`w t` avdiudta tja affahtbvacass `f d saiahtb`c pr`krdnna0 D parbòbh duobt bs tja dcswar. Duobt nust ga h`couhtao gy pa`pia wj` w`re bcoapacoact `f tja JW oapdrtnact. d

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty _w` ditarcdtbva natjòs `f saiahtb`c dra pdrtbhbpdtbva saiahtb`c dco anpi`yaa iadsbck. Bc pdrtbhbpdtbva saiahtb`c, sug`robcdtas pdrtbhbpdta bc saiahtb`c `f tjabr h`-anpi`yaas. Anpi`yaa iadsbck raprasacts tja iadsbck `f anpi`yaas gy d hibact h`npdcy fr`n d tjbro pdrty. Bc ùr hùctry, saiahtb`c `f giua-hìidrao dco wjbta-hìidrao anpi`yaas bs ucsystandtbh. J`wavar, bc hdsa `f ndcdkarbdi pars`ccai, tja pr`hass pr`h ass bs fdbriy systandtbh. Bctarcdtb`cdi jbrbck bs dssunbck kradtar raiavdcha tjasa odys. ;. [jdt dra tja Xùrhas `f Wahrubtnact0

_ja sùrhas `f rahrubtnact hdc ga gr`doiy hdtak`rbzao bct` bctarcdi dco axtarcdi sùrhas(B) Bctarcdi Wahrubtnact ‘ Bctarcdi rahrubtnact saaes dppibhdcts f`r p`sbtb`cs fr`n wbtjbc tja h`npdcy. _ja vdrbùs bctarcdi sùrhas bchiuoa  d. ]r`n`tb`cs dco _rdcsfars ‘

]r`n`tb`c bs dc affahtbva nadcs usbck l`g p`stbck dco pars`ccai rah`ros. L`g p`stbck raqubras c`tbfybck vdhdct p`sbtb`cs gy p`stbck c`tbhas, hbrhuidtbck pugibhdtb`cs `r dccùchbck dt stdff naatbcks dco bcvbtbck anpi`yaas t` dppiy. ]ars`ccai rah`ros jaip obsh`var anpi`yaas wj` dra o`bck l`gs gai`w t jabr aouhdtb`cdi qudibfbhdtb`cs `r sebii iavais. ]r`n`tb`cs jds ndcy dovdctdkas ibea bt bs k`ò pugibh raidtb`cs, gubios n`rdia, achùrdkas h`npatact bcobvboudis wj` dra dngbtbùs, bnpr`vas tja pr`gdgbibty `f k`ò saiahtb`c sbcha bcf`rndtb`c `c tja bcobvboudi‒s parf`rndcha bs radobiy dvdbidgia, bs hjadpar tjdc k`bck ùtsboa t` rahrubt, tj`sa hj`sac bctarcdiiy dra fdnbibdr wbtj tja `rkdcbzdtb`c tjus raouhbck tja `rbactdtb`c tbna dco acarky dco dis` dhts ds d trdbcbck oavbha f`r oavai`pbck nbooia-iavai dco t`p-iavai ndcdkars. J`wavar, pr`n`tb`cs rastrbht tja fbaio `f saiahtb`c pravactbck frasj gi`ò & boads fr`n actarbck tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. Bt dis` iados t` bcgraaobck bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. _rdcsfars dra dis` bnp`rtdct bc pr`vbobck anpi`yaas wbtj d gr`do-gdsao vbaw `f tja `rkdcbzdtb`c, cahassdry f`r futura pr`n`tb`cs. g . Anpi`yaa rafarrdisAnpi`yaas hdc oavai`p k`ò pr`spahts f`r tjabr fdnbibas dco frbacos gy dhqudbctbck tjan wbtj tja dovdctdkas `f d l`g wbtj tja h`npdcy, furcbsjbck tjan wbtj bctròuhtb`c dco achùrdkbck tjan t` dppiy. _jbs bs d vary affahtbva nadcs ds ndcy qudibfbao pa`pia hdc ga radhjao dt d vary i`w h`st t` tja h`npdcy. _ja `tjar dovdctdkas dra tjdt tja anpi`yaas wùio grbck `ciy tj`sa rafarrdis tjdt tjay faai wùio ga dgia t` fbt bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c gdsao `c tjabr `wc axparbacha. _ja `rkdcbzdtb`c hdc ga dssurao `f tja raibdgbibty dco tja hjdrdhtar `f tja rafarrdis. Bc tjbs wdy, tja `rkdcbzdtb`c hdc dis` fuifbii s`hbdi `gibkdtb`cs dco hradta k`òwbi i. h.

F`rnar Anpi`yaas-

_jasa bchiuoa ratbrao anpi`yaas wj` dra wbiibck t` w`re `c d pdrt-tbna gdsbs, bcobvboudis wj` iaft w`re dco dra wbiibck t` h`na gdhe f`r jbkjar h`npacsdtb`cs. Avac ratrachjao anpi`yaas dra tdeac up `cha dkdbc. _ja dovdctdka jara bs tjdt tja pa`pia dra diradoy ec`wc t` tja `rkdc bzdtb`c dco tjara bs c` caao t` fbco ùt tjabr pdst parf`rnd cha dco hjdrdhtar. Dis`, tjara bs c` caao k

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty `f dc `rbactdtb`c pr`krdnna f`r tjan, sbcha tjay dra fdnbibdr wbtj tja `rkdcbzdtb`c. o . Oapacoacts `f oahadsao anpi`yaasQsudiiy, gdces fìi`w tjbs pìbhy. Bf dc anpi`yaa obas, jbs / jar spùsa `r s`c `r odukjtar dra rahrubtao bc tjabr pidha. _jbs bs usudiiy dc affahtbva wdy t` fuifbii s`hbdi `gibkdtb`c dco hradta k`òwbii. (BB) Axtarcdi Wahrubtnact ‘ Axtarcdi rahrubtnact saaes dppibhdcts f`r p`sbtb`cs fr`n sùrhas ùtsboa tja h`npdcy. _jay jdva ùtcungarao tja bctarcdi natjòs. _ja vdrbùs axtarcdi sùrhas bchiuoa 

d.

]r`fassb`cdi `r _rdoa Dss`hbdtb`cs ‘

Ndcy dss`hbdtb`cs pr`vboa pidhanact sarvbha t` bts nangars. Bt h`csbsts `f h`npbibck l`g saaear‒s ibsts dco pr`vbobck dhhass t` nangars ourbck rakb`cdi `r cdtb`cdi h`cvactb`cs. Dis`, tja pugibhdtb`cs `f tjasa dss`hbdtb`cs hdrry hidssbfbao dovartbsanacts fr`n anpi`yars bctarastao bc rahrubtbck tjabr nangars. _jasa dra pdrtbhuidriy usafui f`r dttrdhtbck jbkjiy aouhdtao, axparbachao `r sebiiao pars`ccai. Dis`, tja rahrubtars hdc zar` `c bc spahbfbh l`g saaears, aspahbdiiy f`r jdro-t`-fbii tahjcbhdi p`sts. g . Dovartbsanacts Bt bs d p`puidr natjò `f saaebck rahrubts, ds ndcy rahrubtars prafar dovartbsanacts gahdusa `f tjabr wboa radhj. [dct dos oashrbga tja l`g gacafbts, boactbfy tja anpi`yar dco taii tj`sa bctarastao j`w t` dppiy. Cawspdpar bs tja n`st h`nn`c naobun gut f`r jbkjiy spahbdibzao rahrubts, dovartbsanacts ndy ga pidhao bc pr`fassb`cdi `r gusbcass lùrcdis. Dovartbsanacts nust h`ctdbc pr`par bcf`rndtb`c ibea tja l`g h`ctact, w`rebck h`cobtb`cs, i`hdtb`c `f l`g, h`npacsdtb`c bchiuobck frbcka gacafbts, l`g spahbfbhdtb`cs, kr`wtj dspahts, ath. _ja dovartbsanact jds t` saii tja boad tjdt tja h`npdcy dco l`g dra parfaht f`r tja hdcobodta. Wahrubtnact dovartbsanacts hdc dis` sarva ds h`rp`rdta dovartbsanac ts t` gubio h`npdcy‒ bndka. Bt dis` h`st affahtbva. h . Anpi`ynact AxhjdckasAnpi`ynact Axhjdckas jdva gaac sat up dii `var tja hùctry bc oafaracha t` tja pr`vbsb`c `f tja Anpi`ynact Axhjdckas (H`npuis`ry C`tbfbhdtb`c `f Vdhdchbas) Dht, 4212. _ja Dht dppibas t` dii bcoustrbdi astdgibsjnacts jdvbck 71 w`rears `r n`ra adhj. _ja Dht raqubras dii tja bcoustrbdi astdgibsjnacts t` c`tbfy tja vdhdchbas gaf`ra tjay dra fbiiao. _ja ndl`r fuchtb`cs `f tja axhjdckas dra t` bchradsa tja p`ì `f p`ssbgia dppibhdcts dco t` o` tja praibnbcdry shraacbck. _jus, anpi`ynact axhjdckas dht ds d ibce gatwaac tja anpi`yars dco tja pr`spahtbva anpi`yaas. _jasa `ffbhas dra pdrtbhuidriy usafui t` bc rahrubtbck giua-hìidr, wjbta hìidr dco tahjc bhdi w`rears. a

6

7 k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty o . Hdnpus WahrubtnactsHìiakas, ucbvarsbtbas, rasadrhj idg`rdt`rbas, sp`rts fbaios dco bcstbtutas dra fartbia krùco f`r rahrubtars, pdrtbhuidriy tja bcstbtutas. Hdnpus Wahrubtnact bs k`bck ki`gdi wbtj h`npdcbas ibea JII, Hbtbgdce, JHI-J], DC\ Krbcoidys, I&_, N`t`rìd dco Waibdcha i`èbck f`r ki`gdi ndreats. X`na h`npdcbas rahrubt d kbvac cungar `f hdcobodtas fr`n tjasa bcstbtutas avary yadr. Hdnpus rahrubtnact bs s` nuhj sùkjt dftar tjdt adhj hìiaka5 ucbvarsbty oapdrtnact `r bcstbtuta wbii jdva d pidhanact `ffbhar t` jdcoia rahrubtnact fuchtb`cs. J`wavar, bt bs `ftac dc axpacsbva pr`hass, avac bf rahrubtbck pr`hass pròuhas l`g `ffars dco dhhaptdchas avactudiiy. D ndl`rbty iadv a tja `rkdcbzdtb`c wbtjbc tja fbrst fbva yadrs `f tjabr anpi`ynact. Rat, bt bs d ndl`r sùrha `f rahrubtnact f`r prastbkbùs h`npdcbas. a . [die-bcs, [rbta-bcs dco _die-bcs_ja n`st h`nn`c dco iadst axpacsbva dppr`dhj f`r hdcobodtas bs obraht dppibhdtb`cs, bc wjbhj l`g saaears sugnbt ucsìbhbtao dppibhdtb`c iattars `r rasunas. Obraht dppibhdtb`cs hdc dis` pr`vboa d p`ì `f p`tactbdi anpi`yaas t` naat futura caaos. Fr`n anpi`yaas‒ vbawp`bct, wdie -bcs dra prafardgia ds tjay dra fraa fr`n tja jdssias dss`hbdtao wbtj `tjar natjòs `f rahrubtnact. [jbia obraht dppibhdtb`cs dra pdrtbhuidriy affahtbva bc fbiibck actry-iavai dco ucsebiiao vdhdchbas, s`na `rkdcbzdtb`cs h`npbia p`ìs `f p`tactbdi anpi`yaas fr`n obraht dppibhdtb`cs f`r sebiiao p`sbtb`cs. [rbta-bcs dra tj`sa wj` saco wrbttac acqubrbas. _jasa l`gsaaear s dra dseao t` h`npiata dppibhdtb`c f`rns f`r furtjar pr`hassbck. _die-bcs bcvìvas tja l`g dspbrdcts naatbck tja rahrubtar (`c dc dppr`prbdtao odta) f`r oatdbiao tdies. C` dppibhdtb`c bs raqubrao t` ga sugnbttao t` tja rahrubtar. f . H`ctrdht`rs_jay dra usao t` rahrubt hdsudi w`rears. _ja cdnas `f tja w`rears dra c`t actarao bc tja h`npdcy rah`ros dco, t` tjbs axtact5 obffbhuitbas axparbachao bc ndbctdbcbck parndcact w`rears dra dv`boao. k . H`csuitdcts_jay dra bc tja pr`fassb`c f`r rahrubtbck dco saiahtbck ndcdkarbdi dco axahutbva pars`ccai. _jay dra usafui ds tjay jdva cdtb`cwboa h`ctdhts dco iaco pr`fassb`cdibsn t` tja jbrbck pr`hass. _jay dis` eaap pr`spahtbva anpi`yar dco anpi`yaa dc`cynùs. J`wavar, tja h`st hdc ga d oatarract fdht`r. j . Jado Juctars_jay dra usafui bc spahbdibzao dco sebiiao hdcobodta w`rebck bc d pdrtbhuidr h`npdcy. Dc dkact bs sact t` raprasact tja rahrubtbck h`npdcy dco `ffar bs ndoa t` tja hdcobodta. _jbs bs d usafui sùrha wjac g`tj tja h`npdcbas bcvìvao dra bc tja sdna fbaio, dco tja anpi`yaa bs raiuhtdct t` tdea tja `ffar sbcha ja fadrs, tjdt jbs h`npdcy bs tastbck jbs i`ydity. 6

8

b.

a

Wdob`, _aiavbsb`c dco Bctarcat]

d

k


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Wdob` dco taiavbsb`c dra usao t` radhj hartdbc typas `f l`g dppibhdcts suhj ds sebiiao w`rears. Wdob` dco taiavbsb`c dra usao gut spdrbckiy, dco tjdt t``, gy k`varcnact oapdrtnacts `ciy. H`npdcbas bc tja prbvdta saht`r dra jasbtdct t` usa tja naobd gahdusa `f jbkj h`sts dco dis` gahdusa tjay fadr tjdt suhj dovartbsbck wbii ndea tja h`npdcbas i`è oaspardta dco odndka tjabr h`csarvdtbva bndka. J`wavar , tjara bs c`tjbck bcjaractiy oaspardta dgùt usbck rdob` dco taiavbsb`c. Bt oapacos up`c wjdt bs sdbo dco j`w bt bs oaibvarao. Bctarcat bs gah`nbck d p`puidr `ptb`c f`r rahrubtnact tòdy. _j ara ra spahbdibzao sbtas ibea cduerb.h`n. Dis`, wagsbtas `f h`npdcbas jdva d sapdrdta sahtb`c wjarabc5 dspbrdcts hdc sugnbt tjabr rasunas dco dppibhdtb`cs. _jbs pr`vboas d wboar radhj. l. l . H`npatbt`rs_jbs natjò bs p`puidriy ec`wc ds ’p`dhjbck„ `r ’rdbobck„ wjbhj bcvìvas boactbfybck tja rbkjt pa`pia bc rbvdi h`npdcbas, `ffarbck tjan gattar tarns dco iurbck tjan dwdy. F`r bcstdcha, savardi axahutb vas `f JN_ iaft t` l`bc _btdc [dthj H`npdcy. _jara dra iakdi dco atjbhdi bssuas bcvìvao bc rdbobck rbvdi fbrns f`r p`tactbdi hdcobodtas. Fr`n tja iakdi p`bct `f vbaw, dc anpi`yaa bs axpahtao t` l`bc d caw `rkdcbzdtb`c `ciy dftar `gtdbcbck d ‚c` `gla htb`c hartbfbhdta‒ fr`n jbs/ jar prasact anpi`yar. Vbìdtbck tjbs raqubranact sjdii gbco tja anpi`yaa t` pdy d faw n`ctjs‒ sdidry t` jbs/ jar prasact anpi`yar ds d pucbsjnact. J`wavar, tjara dra ndcy atjbhdi bssuas dttdhjao t` bt.

e . Narkars dco Dhqubsbtb`cs[jac `rkdcbzdtb`cs h`ngbca, tjay jdva d p`ì `f anpi`yaas, ùt `f wj`n s`na ndy c`t ga cahassdry dcy i`ckar. Ds d rasuit, tja caw `rkdcbzdtb`c jds, bc affaht, d p`ì `f qudibfbao l`g dppibhdcts. Ds d rasuit, caw l`gs ndy ga hradtao. G`tj caw dco ìo l`gs ndy ga radobiy stdffao gy ordwbck tja gastqudibfbao dppibhdcts fr`n tjbs anpi`yaa p`ì. _jbs natjò fdhbibtdtas tja bnnaobdta bnpianactdtb`c `f dc `rkdcbzdtb`c‒s strdtakbh pidc. Bt acdgias dc `rkdcbzdtb`c t` pursua d gusbcass pidc, J`wavar, tja caao t` obspidha anpi`yaas dco t` bctakrdta d idrka cungar `f tjan rdtjar qubheiy bct` d caw `rkdcbzdtb`c nadcs tjdt tja pars`ccai-pidccbck dco saiahtb`c pr`hass gah`nas hrbtbhdi n`ra tjdc avar. :. Axpidbc obffaract natjòs dco tahjcbquas `f trdbcbck.

D nuitbtuoa `f tahjcbquas dra usao t` trdbc anpi`yaas. _rdbcbck tahjcbquas raprasact tja naobun `f bnpdrtbck sebiis dco ec`wiaoka t` anpi`yaas. _rdbcbck tahjcbquas dra nadcs anpi`yao bc tja trdbcbck natjòs. _jay dra gdsbhdiiy `f tw` typas. 4.

Iahturas< Bt bs tja vargdi prasactdtb`c `f bcf`rndtb`c gy dc bcstruht`r t` d idrka duobacha. _ja

iahturar bs prasunao t` p`ssass ec`wiaoka dgùt tja suglaht. D vbrtua bc tjbs natjò bs tjdt bt hdc ga usao f`r idrka krùps dco jacha tja h`st `f trdbcbck par anpi`yaa bs vary i`w. J`wavar, tjbs natjò vbìdtas tja prbchbpia `f iadrcbck gy prdhtbha. Dis` tjbs typa `f h`nnucbhdtb`c bs d `ca-wdy h`nnucbhdtb`c dco tjara bs c` faaogdhe fr`n tja duobacha gahdusa bc hdsa `f vary idrka krùps bt bs obffbhuit t` jdva bctardhtbva sassb`cs. I`ck iahturas hdc dis` hdusa G`rao`n. a

6

? k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 7. Duob` Vbsudis< _jbs bs dc axtacsb`c `f tja iahtura natjò. _jbs natjò bchiuoas siboas, @J]s, vboa` tdpas dco fbins. _jay hdc ga usao t` pr`vboa d rdcka `f radibstbh axdnpias axdnpias `f l`g h`cobtb`cs dco sbtudtb`cs bc tja h`coacsao parbò `f tbna. Bt dis` bnpr`vas tja qudibty `f prasactdtb`c t` d kradt axtact. Natjòs dco _ahjcbquas `f _rdbcbck

@c tja L`g _ahjcbquas

Natjòs dppibao bc tja w`repidha wjbia tja anpi`yaa bs w`rebck.

@ff tja L`g _ahjcbquas

Dwdy fr`n tja w`repidha

8. @c- tja ‘ L`g- _rdbcbck< Bt bs usao prbndrbiy t` tadhj w`rears j`w t` o` tjabr prasact l`gs. Ndl`rbty `f tja bcoustrbdi trdbcbck bs `c tja l`g trdbcbck. Bt bs h`couhtao dt tja w`re sbta dco bc tja h`ctaxt `f tja l`g. @ftac, bt bs bcf`rndi, ds wjac axparbachao w`rear sj`ws d trdbcaa j`w t` parf`rn tdses. Bc tjbs natjò, tja f`hus `f trdbcar‒s f`hus bs `c ndebck d k`ò pròuht dco c`t `c k`ò trdbcbck tahjcbqua. Bt jds savardi staps, tja trdbcaa fbrst rahabvas dc `varvbaw `f tja l`g, bt‒s purp`sa dco tja oasbrao ùth`nas. _ja trdbca r tjac oan`cstrdtas j`w tja l`g bs t` ga parf`rnao dco t` kbva trdbcaa d nòai t` h`py. Dco sbcha d nòai bs kbvac t` tja trdbcaa, tja trdcsfardgbibty t` tja l`g bs vary jbkj. _jac tja anpi`yaa bs dii`wao t` nbnbh tja trdbcar‒s axdnpia. _ja trdbcaa rapadts tjasa l`gs uctbi tja l`g bs ndstarao. ?. ]r`krdnnao Bcstruhtb`c (]B)< Bc tjbs natjò, trdbcbck bs `ffarao wbtjùt tja bctarvactb`c `f tja trdbcar. Bcf`rndtb`c bs pr`vboao t` tja anpi`yaa bc gi`hes, bc f`rn `f g`ès `r tjrùkj tadhjbck ndhjbca. Dftar k`bck tjrùkj adhj gi`he `f ndtarbdi, tja trdbcaa kàs tjrùkj d tast/ dcswars d quastb`c. Faaogdhe bc tja f`rn `f h`rraht dcswars bs pr`vboao dftar adhj rasp`csa. _jus ]B bcvìvas<    

]rasactbck quastb`cs, fdhts, dco pr`gians t` tja iadrcar. Dii`wbck tja pars`c t` rasp`co ]r`vbobck faaogdhe `c tja dhhurdhy `f tja dcswars Bf tja dcswars dra h`rraht, ja pr`haaos t` tja caxt gi`he `r aisa, rapadts tja sdna.

J`wavar bt bs dc bnpars`cdi natjò dco tja sh`pa `f iadrcbck bs iass ds h`npdrao t` `tjar natjòs `f trdbcbck. Dis` Dis` tja h`st `f prapdrbck g`ès, ndcudis dco ndhjbcary bs vary jbkj. 1. H`nputar Dssbstao Bcstruhtb`c (HDB)< _jbs bs dc axtacsb`c `f tja ]B natjò. Bc tjbs natjò, tja iadrcar‒s rasp`csa oatarnbcas tja fraquachy dco obffbhuity iavai `f tja caxt frdna. _jbs bs p`ssbgia tjdces t` tja spaao, nan`ry dco tja odtd ndcbpuidtb`c hdpdgbibtbas `f tja h`nputar. 6. Xbnuidtb`c< Bt bs dcy aqubpnact `r tahjcbqua tjdt oupibhdtas ds cadriy ds tja p`ssbgia tja dhtudi h`cobtb`cs achùctarao dt tja l`g. Bt bs dc dttanpt t` hradta d radibstbh f`r oahbsb`c-ndebck. _jbs natjò bs n`st wboaiy usao bc Dar`cdutbhdi Bcoustry. k

a

6

1 d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ;. Vastbguia _rdbcbck< _jbs natjò utbibzas aqubpnact wjbhj hi`saiy rasangia tja dhtudi `cas usao bc tja l`g. Bt bs parf`rnao bc d spahbdi drad sat dsboa f`r tja purp`sa dco c`t dt tja w`repidha. _ja anpjdsbs bs pidhao `c iadrcbck sebiis tjdc `c pròuhtb`c. Bt bs j`wavar obffbhuit t` oupibhdta prassuras dco radibtbas `f dhtudi sbtudtb`cs. Avac tjùkj tja ebco `f tacsb`c `r prassura ndy ga tja sdna gut tja anpi`yaa ec`w bt bs lust d tahjcbqua dco c`t d radi sbtudtb`c. Dis` tja anpi`yaas gajdva obffaractiy bc radi sbtudtb`cs tjdc bc sbnuidtb`cs. Dis` doobtb`cdi bcvastnact bs raqubrao f`r tja aqubpnact. :. Hdsa stuoy< Bt bs d wrbttac oashrbptb`c `f dc dhtudi sbtudtb`c bc tja gusbcass, wjbhj pr`vèas tja radoar t` tjbce dco ndea oahbsb`cs/ sukkastb`cs. _ja trdbcaas rado tja hdsa, dcdiysa bt dco oavai`p ditarcdtbva sìutb`cs, saiaht tja gast `ca dco bnpianact bt. Bt bs dc boadi natjò t` pr`n`ta oahbsb`c ndebck sebiis. _jay dis` pr`vboa trdcsfaracha t` dc axtact. _jay dii`w pdrtbhbpdtb`c tjrùkj obhussb`c. _jbs bs tja n`st affahtbva natjò `f oavai`pbck pr`gian sìvbck sebiis. _ja natjò /dppr`dhj t` dcdiysbs ndy c`t ga kbvac bnp`rtdcha. Ndcy d tbnas `ciy tja rasuit dt tja aco `f tja hdsa ndy ga h`csboarao dco c`t tja ibca `f tjbcebck t` dppr`dhj bt. _jbs bs d ndl`r obsdovdctdka sbcha hdsa stuobas nust prbndrbiy ga usao t` bcfiuacha `r naco tja dttbtuoa `r tjbcebck `f dc bcobvboudi. 2. Wìa ]idybck dco Gajdvb`r Nòaibck< _jbs natjò ndbciy f`husas `c an`tb`cdi (jundc raidtb`c) bssuas tjdc `tjar `cas. _ja assacha bs `c hradtbck d radi ibfa sbtudtb`c dco jdva trdbcaas dssuna pdrts `f spahbfbh pars`cdibtbas (n`stiy bctarhjdckao rìas `f g`ss dco sug`robcdta t` hradta anpdtjy f`r `ca dc`tjar). _ja h`csaquacha bs gattar ucoarstdcobck `f bssuas fr`n tja `tjar‒s p`bct `f vbaw. H`chapt `f Gajdvb`r Nòaibck<  Fucodnactdi psyhjì`kbhdi pr`hass gy wjbhj caw pdttarcs `f gajdvb`r hdc ga dhqubrao dco axbstbck `cas hdc ga ditarao.  ’ Vbhdrbùs pr`hass„ iadrcbck tdeas pidha c`t gy `wc axparbacha gut gy `gsarvdtb`c `r bndkbcdtb`c `f `tjars‒ dhtb`c.  Bt bs rafarrao t` ds ’h`pybck„, ’`gsarvdtb`cdi iadrcbck„ `r ’bnbtdtb`c„ bnpiybck tjdt bt d gajdvb`r bs iadrcao `r nòbfbao tjrùkj `gsarvdtb` c `f `tjar‒s axparbachas. a xparbachas.  _jbs hjdcka ndy ga vboa`tdpao dco sj`wao t` tja trdbcaa dco ja hdc ravbaw dco hrbtbqua bt.  Bt dis` jaips jbn saa tja cakdtbva h`csaquachas tjdt rasuit fr`n c`t usbck tja gajdvb`r ds rah`nnacoao. 4=. Xacsbtbvbty _rdbcbck< bt usas sndii cungar `f trdbcaas usudiiy iass tjdc 47 bc d krùp. _jay naat wbtj d pdssbva trdbcar dco kat dc bcsbkjt bct` tjabr `wc gajdvb`r dco tjdt `f `tjars. _jasa naatbcks jdva c` dkacod dco tdea pidha dwdy fr`n tja w`repidha. _ja obshussb`cs f`hus `c wjy pdrtbhbpdcts gajdva tja wdy tjay o` dco j`w `tjars parhabva tjan. _ja `glahtbva bs t` pr`vboa tja pdrtbhbpdcts wbtj bchradsao dwdracass `f tjabr `wc gajdvb`r, tja parhaptb`c `f `tjars dgùt tjan dco bchradsao ucoarstdcobck `f krùp pr`hass. Axdnpias< Idg`rdt`ry trdbcbck, achùctar krùps. Idg`rdt`ry trdbcbck bs d f`rn `f krùp trdbcbck prbndrbiy usao t` acjdcha bctarpars`cdi sebiis. Bt hdc ga usao t` oavai`p oasbrao gajdvb`rs f`r futura l`g rasp`csbgbibtbas. D trdbcao pr`fassb`cdi sarvas ds d fdhbibtdt`r. J`wavar `cha tja trdbcbck bs `var anpi`yaas kat gdhe t` gabck tja wdy tjay dra. 44. Dppractbhasjbps dco H`dhjbck< Bt bs bcvìvao iadrcbck ia drcbck fr`n n`ra axparbachao anpi`yaa/s. _jbs natjò ndy ga suppianactao wbtj `tjar `ff-tja-l`g natjòs f`r affahtbvacass. Bt bs dppibao bc hdsas `f n`st hrdft w`rears, hdrpactars, piungars dco nahjdcbhs. _jbs dppr`dhj usas jbkj iavais `f pdrtbhbpdtb`c dco fdhbibtdtas trdcsfardgbibty. H`dhjbck bs sbnbidr t` dppractbhasjbps. Gut bt bs diwdys jdcoiao gy d suparvbs`r dco c`t gy tja JW oapdrtnact. _ja pars`c gabck trdbcao bs hdiiao ]

d

k

a

6

6


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ucoarstuoy. Bt bs vary sbnbidr t` `c tja l`g trdbcbck natjò. Gut bc tjdt hdsa, n`ra strass bs idbo `c pròuhtbvbty, wjarads jara, tja f`hus bs `c iadrcbck. 2. Axpidbc tja _rdbcbck ]r`haoura. (4) @rkdcbzdtb`cdi @glahtbvas dco Xtrdtakbas<

_ja fbrst stap bc tja trdbcbck pr`hass bc dc `rkdcbzdtb`c bs tja dssassnact `f bts `glahtbvas dco strdtakbas. [jdt gusbcass dra wa bc0 Dt wjdt iavai `f qudibty o` wa wbsj t` pr`vboa tjbs pròuht `r sarvbha0 [jara o` wa wdct t` ga bc tja futura0 Bt bs `ciy dftar dcswarbck tjasa dco `tjar raidtao quastb`cs tjdt tja `rkdcbzdtb`c nust dssass tja stracktjs dco wadecassas `f bts jundc rasùrhas.

_JA _WDBCBCK ]W@HAXX

@rkdcbzdtb`cdi @glahtbvas dco Xtrdtakbas

Dssassnact `f _rdbcbck Caaos

Astdgibsjnact `f _rdbcbck K`dis

Oavbsbck _rdbcbck ]r`krdnna

Bnpianactdtb`c `f _rdbcbck pr`krdnna

Avdiudtb`c `f Wasuits

(7) Dssassnact `f _rdbcbck Caaos< @rkdcbzdtb`cs spaco vdst suns `f n`cay `c trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact. Gaf`ra h`nnbttbck suhj juka rasùrhas, `rkdcbzdtb`cs wùio o` waii t` dssass tja trdbcbck caaos `f tja anpi`yaas. @rkdcbzdtb`cs tjdt bnpianact trdbcbck pr`krdnnas wbtjùt h`couhtbck caaos dssassnact ndy ga ndebck arr`rs. Caaos dssassnact `hhurs dt tw` iavais< d) Bcobvboudi

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Bcobvboudi< Dc bcobvboudi `gvbùsiy caaos trdbcbck wjac jbs `r jar trdbcbck fdiis sj`rt `f stdcodros, tjdt bs, wjac tjara bs parf`rndcha oafbhbachy. Bcdoaqudhy bc parf`rndcha ndy ga oua t` idhe `f sebii `r ec`wiaoka `r dcy `tjar pr`gian. _ja pr`gian `f parf`rndcha oafbhbachy bs hdusao gy dgsacha `f sebiis `r ec`wiaoka hdc ga ranaobao gy trdbcbck. Fduity saiahtb`c, p``r l`g oasbkc, ucbcspbrbck suparvbsb`c `r s`na pars`cdi pr`gian ndy dis` rasuit bc p``r parf`rndcha. _rdcsfar, l`g raoasbkc, bnpr`vbck qudibty `f suparvbsb`c, `r obshjdrka wbii sìva tja pr`gian. Bcobvboudis ndy dis` raqubra caw sebiis gahdusa `f p`ssbgia l`g trdcsfars. Ditjùkj l`g trdcsfars dra ds h`nn`c ds `rkdcbzdtb`cdi pars`cdi oandcos vdry, tjay o` c`t cahassdrbiy raqubra aidg`rdta trdbcbck aff`rts. Anpi`yaas h`nn`ciy raqubra dc `rbactdtb`c t` caw fdhbibtbas dco l`gs. Wahactiy, j`wavar, ah`c`nbh f`rhas jdva cahassbtdtao sbkcbfbhdct ratrdbcbck aff`rts bc `roar t` dssura h`ctbcuùs anpi`ynact f`r ndcy bcobvboudis. Krùp< Dssassnact `f trdbcbck caaos `hhurs dt krùp iavai t``. Dcy hjdcka bc tja `rkdcbzdtb`c‒s strdtaky cahassbtdtas trdbcbck krùps `f anpi`yaas. F`r axdnpia, wjac tja `rkdcbzdtb`c oahboas t` bctròuha d caw ibca `f pròuhts, sdias pars`ccai dco pròuhtb`c w`rears jdva t` ga trdbcao t` pròuha, saii dco sarvbha tja caw pròuhts. _rdbcbck hdc dis` ga usao wjac jbkj shrdp `r dhhboact rdtas, i`w n`rdia dco n`tbvdtb`c, `r `tjar pr`gians dra obdkc`sao.

Caaos Dssassnact Natjòs< Xavardi dssassnact natjòs f`r dra dvdbidgia f`r dssassbck trdbcbck caaos. X`na dra usafui f`r `rkdcbzdtb`cdi iavai caaos dssassnact dco `tjars f`r bcobvboudi caaos dssassnact.

CAAOX DXXAXXNAC_ NA_J@OX

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@rkdcbzdtb`cdi k`dis dco `glahtbvas

Bcobvboudi dcdiysbs ]arf`rndcha ]arf`rndcha Dpprdbsdi 

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]ars`ccai/sebiis bcvact`rbas

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[`re sdnpibck

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@rkdcbzdtb`cdi hibndta bcobhas

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Bctarvbaws

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Affbhbachy bcobhas

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Tuastb`ccdbras

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Axbt bctarvbaws

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Dttbtuoa survay

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NG@ `r w`re pidccbck systans

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_rdbcbck pr`krass

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Tudibty hbrhias

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Wdtbck shdias

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Hust`nar survay/sdtbsfdhtb`c odtd

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H`csboardtb`c `f hurract dco pr`lahtao hjdckas

Krùpdcdiysbs

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Gacafbts `f Caaos Dssassnact< Caaos dssassnact jaips obdkc`sa tja hdusa `f parf`rndcha oafbhbachy `f anpi`yaas. Hdusas raqubra ranaobdi dhtb`cs. _jara dra spahbfbh gacafbts `f caaos dssassnact.   

_rdbcars ndy ga bcf`rnao dgùt tja gr`doar caaos `f tja trdbcbck krùp dco tjabr sp`cs`rbck `rkdcbzdtb`cs. _ja sp`cs`rbck `rkdcbzdtb`cs dra dgia t` raouha tja parhaptb`c kdp gatwaac tja pdrtbhbpdct dco jbs `r jar g`ss dgùt tjabr caaos dco axpahtdtb`cs axpa htdtb`cs fr`n tja trdbcbck pr`krdnna. _rdbcars dra dgia t` pbthj tjabr hùrsa bcputs hi`sar t` tja spahbfbh caaos `f tja pdrtbhbpdcts.

(8) Astdgibsjnact `f _rdbcbck K`dis< @cha tja trdbcbck caaos dra dssassao, trdbcbck dco oavai`pnactdi k`dis nust ga astdgibsjao. [btj ùt hiadriy sat k`dis, bt bs c`t p`ssbgia t` oasbkc d trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact pr`krdnna dco, dftar bt jds gaac bnpianactao, tjara wbii ga c` wdy `f nadsurbck bts affahtbvacass. K`dis nust ga tdckbgia, varbfbdgia, dco nadsurdgia. _jbs bs adsy wjara sebii trdbcbck bs bcvìvao. F`r axdnpia, tja suhhassfui trdbcaa wbii ga axpahtao t` typa 11 w`ros par nbcuta wbtj tw` `r tjraa arr`rs par pdka. Gut gajdvb`rdi `glahtbvas ibea dttbtuobcdi hjdckas hdc ga n`ra obffbhuit t` stdta. Cavartjaiass, hiadr gajdvb`rdi stdcodros `f axpahtao rasuits dra cahassdry s` tjdt tja pr`krdnna hdc ga affahtbvaiy oasbkcao dco rasuits hdc ga avdiudtao. (?) Oavbsbck tja _rdbcbck dco Oavai`pnact ]r`krdnna Avary trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact pr`krdnna nust doorass tja fìi`wbck vbtdi bssuas< [j` dra tja trdbcaas0

[j` dra tja trdbcars0

[jdt natjòs & tahjcbquas0

[jdt sjùio ga tja iavai `f trdbcbck0

[jdt prbchbpias `f iadrcbck0

[jara t` h`couht tja pr`krdn0

[j` dra tja trdbcaas0 _rdbcaas dra saiahtao `c tja gdsbs `f< 

Xaif C`nbcdtb`c Wah`nnacodtb`cs `f tja Xuparvbs`r  Gy tja JW Oapdrtnact btsaif  [jdtavar bs tja gdsbs, bt bs dovbsdgia t` jdva tw` `r n`ra tdrkat duobachas. F`r axdnpia, rdce-dco-fbia anpi`yaas dco tjabr suparvbs`rs ndy affahtbvaiy iadrc t`katjar dgùt d caw pr`hass dco tjabr raspahtbva rìas. Bt dis` jaips fdhbibtdta krùp pr`hassas suhj ds pr`gian sìvbck dco oahbsb`c ‘ ndebck. _rdbcbck dco oavai`pnact ndy ga o`ca gy<     

Bnnaobdta Xuparvbs`rs H` ‘ w`rears ]ars`ccai Xtdff Xpahbdibsts bc `tjar pdrts `f tja h`npdcy


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@utsboa H`csuitdcts Bcoustry Dss`hbdtb`cs Fdhuity Nangars dt Qcbvarsbtbas ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty [j` dn`ck tjasa dra saiahtao t` tadhj, `ftac oapacos `c wjara tja pr`krdn bs jaio dco tja sebii tjdt bs gabck tdukjt. [jdt Natjòs dco _ahjcbquas `f _rdbcbck sjùio ga usao0 D nuitbtuoa `f natjòs dco tahjcbquas bs usao t` trdbc anpi`yaas. anpi`yaa s. _rdbcbck tahjcbquas dra tja nadcs anpi`yao bc tja trdbcbck natjòs. _rdbcbck natjòs dra hdtak`rbzao bct` tw` krùps ‘ `c-tja-l`g natjòs dco `ff-tja-l`g natjòs. _ja n`st h`nn`ciy usao tahjcbquas dra sj`wc bc tja tdgia kbvac gai`w. 

@c-tja-L`g Natjò (@L_)< Ndl`rbty `f bcoustrbdi trdbcbck bs `c tja l`g trdbcbck typa. @L_ natjò bs ndbciy do`ptao wjbia `rbactbck caw anpi`yaas, bctròuhbck bcc`vdtb`cs bc pròuhts & sarvbhas dco bc spahbdi sebiis trdbcbck. @L_ bs h`couhtao dt tja w`re sbta dco bc tja h`ctaxt `f tja l`g. @ftac, bt bs bcf`rndi, ds wjac dc axparbachao w`rear sj`ws d trdbcaa j`w t` parf`rn tja l`g tdses.

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@ff-tja-L`g _rdbcbck Natjò< @ff-tja-l`g trdbcbck bs ndbciy do`ptao f`r `rbactbck caw anpi`yaas, bctròuhbck bcc`vdtb`cs bc pròuhts dco sarvbhas, spahbdi sebiis trdbcbck, sdfaty aouhdtb`c, hradtbva, tahjcbhdi & pr`fassb`cdi aouhdtb`c dco sdias, donbcbstrdtbva, suparvbs`ry dco ndcdkarbdi aouhdtb`c. _ja dovdctdkas dco obsdovdctdkas `f s`na `f tja bnp`rtdct tahjcbquas `f `ff-tja-l`g natjòs dra ibstao gai`w<

NA_J@OX & _AHJCBTQAX @F _WDBCBCK

@c-tja-L`g Natjò

@ff-tja-L`g Natjò

@rbactdtb`c _rdbcbck L`g-Bcstruhtb`c _rdbcbck L`g W`tdtb`c

Xbnuidtb`c

Iahtura Fbins & _aiavbsb`c

Hdsa Xtuoy

H`cfaracha/Obshussb`c

Vastbguia

d) Iahturas< Iahtura bs d vargdi prasactdtb`c `f bcf`rndtb`c gy dc bcstruht`r t` d idrka duobacha. _jbs natjò hdc ga ndoa affahtbva wjac h`ngbcao wbtj `tjar nadcs `f trdbcbck. g) Duob`-Vbsudis< _jasa bchiuoa taiavbsb`c siboas, `varjados, vboa`-typas, fbins dco IHO ]r`laht`rs. h) ]r`krdnnao Bcstruhtb`c (]B)< _rdbcbck bs `ffarao wbtjùt tja bctarvactb`c `f tja trdbcar. Bcf`rndtb`c bs pr`vboao t` tja trdbcaa bc gi`hes, abtjar bc d g`è f`rn `r tjrùkj d tadhjbck ndhjbca. ]B bcvìvas< 4. 7. 8. ?.

]rasactbck quastb`cs, fdhts, `r pr`gians t` tja iadrcar. Dii`wbck tja pars`c t` rasp`co. ]r`vbobck faaogdhe `c tja dhhurdhy `f jbs `r jar dcswars. Bf tja dcswars dra h`rraht, tja iadrcar pr`haaos t` tja caxt gi`he.

Edbids Xraa Hjdcordc ‘ Oapt Oapt `f Nahjdcbhdi - X_BX_


o) Xbnuidtb`cs< D sbnuidt`r bs dcy ebco `f aqubpnact `r tahjcbqua tjdt oupibhdtas ds cadriy ds p`ssbgia tja dhtudi h`cobtb`cs achùctarao `c tja l`g. Bt bs dc dttanpt t` hradta d radibstbh oahbsb`c ‘ ndebck acvbr`cnact f`r tja trdbcaa. _ja dovdctdka `f sbnuidtb`c bs tja `pp`rtucbty t` ‚hradta dc acvbr`cnact‒ sbnbidr t` radi sbtudtb`cs tja ndcdkars bchur, gut wbtjùt tja jbkj h`sts bcvìvao sjùio tja dhtb`cs pr`va ucoasbrdgia. _ja `tjar tahjcbquas `f trdbcbck dra<       

Iadoarsjbp kdnas< axarhbsas t` tadhj obffaract styias `f iadoarsjbp. Xebii Kdnas< _asts t` oavai`p dcdiytbhdi sebiis. H`nnucbhdtb`c Kdnas< axarhbsas t` gubio gbds ‘ fraa ibstacbck dco tdiebck. Xtrdtakbh ]idccars< Kdnas t` tast dgbibty t` pidc djado. _adn ‘ gubiobck kdnas< Axarhbsas raqubrbck hìidg`rdtbva aff`rts. Idtardi _jbcebck< tjbcebck rdco`niy t` h`na up wbtj caw boads. Hr`ss ‘ huiturdi trdbcbck< ]r`krdnnas t` tadhj spahbfbhs `f vdrbao huituras.

(1) Bnpianactdtb`c `f tja ]r`krdnna< @cha tja trdbcbck pr`krdnna jds gaac oasbkcao, bt caaos t` ga bnpianactao. Bnpianactdtb`c bs gasat wbtj hartdbc pr`gians< d) N`st ndcdkars dra dhtb`c `rbactao dco fraquactiy sdy tjay dra t`` gusy t` ackdka bc trdbcbck aff`rts. g) Dvdbidgbibty `f trdbcars bs d pr`gian. Bc doobtb`c t` p`ssassbck h`nnucbhdtb`c sebiis, tja trdbcars nust ec`w tja h`npdcy‒s pjbi`s`pjy, bts `glahtbvas, bts f`rndi dco bcf`rndi `rkdcbzdtb`cs, dco tja k`dis `f tja trdbcbck pr`krdnna. _rdbcbck raqubras d jbkjar oakraa oa kraa `f hradtbvbty tjdc, parjdps, dcy `tjar pars`ccai spahbdity. h) Xhjaouibck trdbcbck drùco tja prasact w`re bs dc`tjar pr`gian. ]r`krdnna bnpianactdtb`c bcvìvas dhtb`c `c tja fìi`wbck ibcas< d) g) h) o)

Oahbobck tja i`hdtb`c dco `rkdcbzbck trdbcbck dco `tjar fdhbibtbas Xhjaouibck tja trdbcbck pr`krdnna H`couhtbck tja pr`krdnna N`cbt`rbck tja pr`krass `f trdbcaas

(6) Avdiudtb`c `f tja ]r`krdnna< _ja idst stdka bc tja trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact pr`hass bs tja avdiudtb`c `f rasuits. Xbcha juka suns `f n`cay dra spact bc trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact, j`w fdr tja pr`krdnna jds gaac suhhassfui nust ga luokao `r oatarnbcao. Avdiudtb`c jaips oatarnbca tja rasuits `f tja trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact pr`krdnna. Bc prdhtbha, j`wavar, `rkdcbzdtb`cs abtjar `vari`è `r idhe fdhbibtbas f`r avdiudtb`c. Caao f`r Avdiudtb`c< _ja ndbc `glahtbva `f avdiudtbck tja trdbcbck pr`krdnnas bs t` oatarnbca bf tjay dra dhh`npibsjbck spahbfbh trdbcbck `glahtbvas, tjdt bs, h`rrahtbck parf`rndcha oafbhbachbas. D sah`co rads`c f`r avdiudtb`c bs t` acsura tjdt dcy hjdckas bc trdbcaa hdpdgbibtbas dra oua t` tja trdbcbck pr`krdnna dco c`t oua t` dcy `tjar h`cobtb`cs. _rdbcbck pr`krdnnas sjùio ga avdiudtao t` oatarnbca tjabr h`st affahtbvacass. Avdiudtb`c bs usafui t` axpidbc pr`krdnna fdbiura, sjùio bt `hhur. Fbcdiiy, hraobgbibty `f trdbcbck dco oavai`pnact bs kradtiy acjdchao wjac bt bs pr`vao tjdt tja `rkdcbzdtb`c jds gacafbtao tdckbgiy fr`n bt.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ]rbchbpias `f Avdiudtb`c< Avdiudtb`c `f tja trdbcbck pr`krdnna nust ga gdsao `c tja fìi`wbck pr`krdnnas< d) g) h) o)

Avdiudtb`c spahbdibsts nust ga hiadr dgùt tja k`dis dco purp`sa `f avdiudtb`c Avdiudtb`c nust ga h`ctbcuùs Avdiudtb`c nust ga spahbfbh Avdiudtb`c nust pr`vboa tja nadcs dco f`hus f`r trdbcars t` ga dgia t` dpprdbsa tjansaivas, tjabr prdhtbhas, dco tjabr pròuhts. a) Avdiudtb`c nust ga gdsao `c `glahtbva natjòs dco stdcodros. f) Wadibstbh tdrkat odtas nust ga sat f`r adhj fdha `f tja avdiudtb`c pr`hass. D sacsa `f urkachy nust ga oavai`pao, gut oadoibcas tjdt dra ucrads`cdgiy jbkj wbii rasuit bc p``r avdiudtb`c. _jara dra vdrbùs dppr`dhjas t` trdbcbck avdiudtb`c. _` kat d vdibo nadsura `f trdbcbck affahtbvacass, tja pars`ccai ndcdkar sjùio dhhurdtai y dssass trdbcaa‒s l`g parf`rndcha tw` t` fùr n`ctjs dftar h`npiatb`c `f trdbcbck. _w` wrbtars jdva sukkastao tjdt fùr gdsbh hdtak`rbas `f ùth`na hdc ga nadsurao.

d) Wadhtb`c< avdiudta tja trdbcaa‒s radhtb`c t` tja pr`krdnna. Obo ja ibea tja pr`krdnna0 Obo ja tjbce bt w`rtjwjbia0 g) Iadrcbck< obo tja trdbcaa iadrc tja prbchbpias, sebiis dco tja fdht tjdt tja suparvbs`r `r tja trdbcaa wdctao jbn t` iadrc0 h) Gajdvb`r< [jatjar tja trdbcaa‒s gajdvb`r `c tja l`g hjdckao gahdusa gahdusa `f tja trdbcbck pr`krdnna0 o) Wasuits< wjdt fbcdi rasuits jdva gaac dhjbavao0 Obo ja iadrc j`w t` w`re `c ndhjbca0 Obo shrdppdka h`sts oahradsa0 [ds turc`var raouhao0 Dra pròuhtb`cs qu`tds jdva gaac nat0

4=. [jdt bs `hhupdtb`cdi jaditj dco sdfaty0

@hhupdtb`cdi jaditj dco sdfaty bs d obshbpibca wbtj d gr`do sh`pa bcvìvbck ndcy spahbdibzao fbaios. Bc bts gr`doast sacsa, bt sjùio dbn dt< 

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tja pr`n`tb`c dco ndbctacdcha `f tja jbkjast oakraa `f pjysbhdi, nactdi dco s`hbdi waii-gabck `f w`rears bc dii `hhupdtb`cs5 tja pravactb`c dn`ck w`rears `f dovarsa affahts `c jaditj j aditj hdusao gy tjabr w`rebck h`cobtb`cs5 tja pr`tahtb`c `f w`rears bc tjabr anpi`ynact fr`n rbses rasuitbck fr`n fdht`rs dovarsa t` jaditj5 tja pidhbck dco ndbctacdcha `f w`rears bc dc `hhupdtb`cdi acvbr`cnact acv br`cnact dodptao t` pjysbhdi dco nactdi caaos5 tja dodptdtb`c `f w`re t` jundcs.

Bc `tjar w`ros, `hhupdtb`cdi jaditj dco sdfaty ach`npdssas tja s`hbdi, nactdi dco pjysbhdi waii-gabck `f w`rears, tjdt bs tja ’wjìa pars`c„. Xuhhassfui `hhupdtb`cdi jaditj dco sdfaty prdhtbha raqubras tja hìidg`rdtb`c dco pdrtbhbpdtb`c `f g`tj anpi`yars dco w`rears bc jaditj dco sdfaty pr`krdnnas, dco bcvìvas tja h`csboardtb`c `f bssuas raidtbck t` `hhupdtb`cdi naobhbca, bcoustrbdi jykbaca, t`xbhì`ky, aouhdtb`c, ackbcaarbck sdfaty, ark`c`nbhs, psyhjì`ky, ath. @hhupdtb`cdi jaditj bssuas dra `ftac kbvac iass dttactb`c tjdc `hhupdtb`cdi sdfaty bssuas gahdusa tja f`rnar dra kacardiiy n`ra obffbhuit t` h`cfr`ct. J`wavar, wjac jaditj bs doorassao, s` bs sdfaty, gahdusa d jaditjy w`repidha bs gy oafbcbtb`c dis` d sdfa w`repidha. _ja h`cvarsa, tjùkj, ndy c`t ga trua - d s`hdiiao sdfa w`repidha bs c`t cahassdrbiy dis` d jaditjy w`repidha. _ja bnp`rtdct p`bct bs tjdt bssuas `f ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty g`tj jaditj dco sdfaty nust ga doorassao bc avary w`repidha. Gy dco idrka, tja oafbcbtb`c `f `hhupdtb`cdi jaditj dco sdfaty kbvac dg`va ach`npdssas g`tj jaditj dco sdfaty bc tjabr gr`doast h`ctaxts. ]``r w`rebck h`cobtb`cs dffaht w`rear jaditj dco sdfaty  

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]``r w`rebck h`cobtb`cs `f dcy typa jdva tja p`tactbdi t` dffaht d w`rear's jaditj dco sdfaty. Qcjaditjy `r ucsdfa w`rebck h`cobtb`cs dra c`t ibnbtao t` fdht`rbas ‟ tjay hdc ga fùco dcywjara, wjatjar tja w`repidha bs bco``rs `r ùto``rs. F`r ndcy w`rears, suhj ds dkrbhuiturdi w`rears `r nbcars, tja w`rep idha bs ’ùto``rs„ dco hdc p`sa ndcy jaditj dco sdfaty jdzdros. ]``r w`rebck h`cobtb`cs hdc dis` dffaht tja acvbr`cnact w`rears ibva bc, sbcha tja w`rebck dco ibvbck acvbr`cnacts dra tja sdna f`r ndcy w`rears. _jbs nadcs tjdt `hhupdtb`cdi jdzdros hdc jdva jdrnfui affahts `c w`rears, tjabr fdnbibas, dco `tjar pa`pia bc tja h`nnucbty, ds waii ds `c tja pjysbhdi acvbr`cnact drùco tja w`repidha. D hidssbh axdnpia bs tja usa `f pastbhboas bc dkrbhuiturdi w`re. [`rears hdc ga axp`sao t` t`xbh hjanbhdis bc d cungar `f wdys wjac sprdybck pastbhboas< tjay hdc bcjdia tja hjanbhdis ourbck dco dftar sprdybck, tja hjanbhdis hdc ga dgs`rgao tjrùkj tja sebc, dco tja w`rears hdc bckast tja hjanbhdis bf tjay adt, orbce, `r snèa wbtjùt fbrst wdsjbck tjabr jdcos, `r bf orbcebck wdtar jds gah`na h`ctdnbcdtao wbtj tja hjanbhdis. _ja w`rears' fdnbibas hdc dis` ga axp`sao bc d cungar `f wdys< tjay hdc bcjdia tja pastbhboas wjbhj ndy ibckar bc tja dbr, tjay hdc orbce h`ctdnbcdtao wdtar, `r tjay hdc ga axp`sao t` rasbouas wjbhj ndy ga `c tja w`rear's hi`tjas. @tjar pa`pia bc tja h`nnucbty hdc dii ga axp`sao bc tja sdna wdys ds waii. [jac tja hjanbhdis kat dgs`rgao bct` tja s`bi `r iadhj bct` krùcowdtar suppibas, tja dovarsa affahts `c tja cdturdi acvbr`cnact hdc ga parndcact.

@vardii, aff`rts bc `hhupdtb`cdi jaditj dco sdfaty nust dbn t` pravact bcoustrbdi dhhboacts dco obsadsas, dco dt tja sdna tbna rah`kcbza ra h`kcbza tja h`ccahtb`c gatwaac w`rear jaditj dco sdfaty, tja w`repidha, dco tja acvbr`cnact ùtsboa tja w`repidha. 44.

Oashrbga dgùt tja h`sts dss`hbdtao wbtj Bcoustrbdi sdfaty dco jaditj.

[`re-raidtao dhhboacts `r obsadsas dra vary h`stiy dco hdc jdva ndcy sarbùs obraht dco bcobraht affahts `c tja ibvas `f w`rears dco tjabr fdnbibas. F`r w`rears s`na `f tja obraht h`sts `f dc bclury `r biicass dra<    

tja pdbc dco suffarbck `f tja bclury `r biicass5 tja i`ss `f bch`na5 tja p`ssbgia i`ss `f d l`g5 jaditj-hdra h`sts.

Bt jds gaac astbndtao tjdt tja bcobraht h`sts `f dc dhhboact `r biicass hdc ga fùr t` tac tbnas kradtar tjdc tja obraht h`sts, `r avac n`ra. Dc `hhupdtb`cdi biicass `r dhhboact hdc jdva s` ndcy bcobraht h`sts t` w`rears tjdt bt bs `ftac obffbhuit t` nadsura tjan. @ca `f tja n`st `gvbùs bcobraht h`sts bs tja jundc suffarbck hdusao t` w`rears' fdnbibas, wjbhj hdcc`t ga g a h`npacsdtao wbtj n`cay. _ja h`sts t` anpi`yars `f `hhupdtb`cdi dhhboacts `r biicassas dra dis` astbndtao t` ga ac`rnùs. F`r d sndii gusbcass, tja h`st `f avac `ca dhhboact hdc ga d fbcdchbdi obsdstar. F`r anpi`yars, s`na `f tja obraht h`sts dra<   

pdynact f`r w`re c`t parf`rnao5 naobhdi dco h`npacsdtb`c pdynacts5 rapdbr `r rapidhanact `f odndkao ndhjbcary dco aqubpnact5


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty    

raouhtb`c `r d tanp`rdry jdit bc pròuhtb`c5 bchradsao trdbcbck axpacsas dco donbcbstrdtb`c h`sts5 p`ssbgia raouhtb`c bc tja qudibty `f w`re5 cakdtbva affaht `c n`rdia bc `tjar w`rears.

X`na `f tja bcobraht h`sts f`r anpi`yars a npi`yars dra<    

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tja bclurao/bii w`rear jds t` ga rapidhao5 d caw w`rear jds t` ga g a trdbcao dco kbvac tbna t` dolust5 bt tdeas tbna gaf`ra tja caw w`rear bs pròuhbck dt tja rdta `f tja `rbkbcdi w`rear5 tbna nust ga oav`tao t` `gibkdt`ry bcvastbkdtb`cs, t` tja wrbtbck `f rap`rts dco fbiibck ùt `f f`rns5 dhhboacts `ftac drùsa tja h`charc `f faii`w w`rears dco bcfiuacha idgùr raidtb`cs bc d cakdtbva wdy5 p``r jaditj dco sdfaty h`cobtb`cs bc tja w`repidha hdc dis` rasuit bc p``r pugibh raidtb`cs.

@vardii, tja h`sts `f n`st w`re-raidtao dhhboacts `r biicassas t` w`rears dco tjabr fdnbibas dco t` anpi`yars dra vary jbkj. @c d cdtb`cdi shdia, tja astbndtao h`sts `f `hhupdtb`cdi dhhboacts dco biicassas hdc ga ds jbkj ds tjraa t` fùr par hact `f d hùctry's kr`ss cdtb`cdi pròuht. Bc radibty, c` `ca radiiy ec`ws tja t`tdi h`sts `f w`re-raidtao dhhboacts `r obsadsas gahdusa tjara dra d nuitbtuoa `f bcobraht h`sts wjbhj dra obffbhuit t` nadsura gasboas tja n`ra `gvbùs obraht h`sts. 47. [rbta dgùt Idgùr Iakbsidtb`c bc Bcobd.

_ja ndbc `glahtbva `f tja rakuidtbva iakbsidtb`c bs t` rakuidta tja raidtb`cs gatwaac anpi`yaas dco anpi`yars dco t` pr`vboa f`r natjòs dco ndccars `f sattibck bcoustrbdi obsputas. Xuhj idws dis` rakuidta tja raidtb`csjbp gatwaac tja w`rears dco tjabr trdoa ucb`cs, tja rbkjts dco `gibkdtb`cs `f tja `rkdcbsdtb`cs `f anpi`yars dco w`rears ds waii ds tjabr nutudi raidtb`csjbps. _ja _rdoa Qcb`cs Dht, 4276

_rdoa ucb`cs dra prbndrbiy f`rnao t` rakuidta tja raidtb`cs gatwaac w`renac dco anpi`yars. _ja Dht pr`vboas f`r rakbstrdtb`c `f trdoa ucb`cs, wjbhj dis` bchiuoas dss`hbdtb`c `f anpi`yars. Qp`c rakbstrdtb`c, trdoa ucb`cs acl`y hartdbc pr`tahtb`c dco prbvbiakas ucoar tja idw. Bc doobtb`c, tja Dht dis` pr`vboas f`r bnp`sbck rastrbhtb`cs `c tja h`couht `f dcy trdoa `r gusbcass. Wakbstrdtb`c `f d trdoa ucb`c bs c`t h`npuis`ry gut d rakbstarao ucb`c acl`ys hartdbc rbkjts dco prbvbiakas ucoar tja Dht, bt bs diwdys oasbrdgia t` kat d trdoa ucb`c rakbstarao. _ja Dht raqubras tjdt dt iadst 1= par hact `f tja `ffbha gadrars `f d ucb`c sjùio ga dhtudiiy ackdkao `r anpi`yao bc tja bcoustry. D rakbstarao trdoa ucb`c bs d gòy h`rp`rdta wbtj parpatudi actbty ucoar d h`nn`c sadi. Bt hdc dhqubra, jìo, saii `r trdcsfar dcy n`vdgia `r bnn`vdgia pr`party dco hdc ga pdrty t` h`ctrdhts. Bt hdc sua `r hdc ga suao bc jbs `wc cdna. Fr`n tja JW ndcdkar's p`bct `f vbaw, bt bs assactbdi t` bcvbta rakbstarao trdoa ucb`cs `f tja ucbt `ciy f`r hìiahtbva gdrkdbcbck dco dis` f`rn pdrtbhbpdtbva f`runs ibea w`res h`nnbttaa, ath., fr`n tjabr c`nbcdtao raprasactdtbva. _ja Bcoustrbdi Obsputas Dht, 42?;

_ja Bcoustrbdi Obsputas Dht, 42?; prbndrbiy rakuidtas bcoustrbdi raidtb`cs bc Bcobd. _ja Dht pr`vboas d ndhjbcary dco pr`haoura f`r sattianact `f bcoustrbdi bcoustrbdi obsputas gy cak`tbdtb`c, wbtjùt ras`rtbck ras`rtbck t` strbeas dco i`heùts. _ja sh`pa `f tja Dht axtacos t` tja wjìa `f Bcobd f`r avary bcoustrbdi astdgibsjnact hdrrybck `c dcy gusbcass, trdoa, brraspahtbva `f tja cungar `f pa`pia anpi`yao.


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty J`wavar, tja Dht bs c`t c `t dppibhdgia f`r pa`pia anpi`yao bc ndcdkarbdi `r donbcbstrdtbva hdpdhbty dco f`r tj`sa wj` dra anpi`yao bc Drny, Dbr F`rha dco Cdvy, ]ìbha Xarvbhas dco ]rbs`c Xarvbhas. _ja Dht oafbcas bcoustrbdi obsputa ds dcy obsputa obsputa `r obffaracha gatwaac anpi`yars dco anpi`yaas `r gatwaac w`renac dco w`renac, wjbhj bs h`ccahtao wbtj tja anpi`ynact `r c`c-anpi`ynact `r tja tarns dco h`cobtb`cs `f anpi`ynact. D tactdtbva ibst `f obsputas, h`varao ucoar tjbs Dht bs rapròuhao gai`w< ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` ` `

_ja pr`prbaty `r iakdibty `f stdcobck `roars. Obshjdrka `r obsnbssdi Ndttars partdbcbck t` rabcstdtanact `r krdct `f raibaf f`r wr`ckfui obsnbssdi. Ndttars partdbcbck t` wbtjordwdi `f dcy h`chassb`c `r prbvbiaka. Ndttars partdbcbck t` strbea `r i`heùt ]dynact `f wdkas, bchiuobck parbòbhbty dco nòa `f pdynact. Iadva dco jùrs `f w`re Jìbodys G`cus Watbranact gacafbts Obshbpibca

Bcoustrbdi Anpi`ynact (Xtdcobck @roars) Dht, 42?6

_jbs Dht raqubras anpi`yars t` hidrbfy h`cobtb`cs `f anpi`ynact s` ds t` acdgia tja w`renac (anpi`yao gy tjan) t` ucoarstdco tja ruias `f h`couht partdbcbck t` w`rebck jùrs, jìbodys, dttacodcha, iadva, tarnbcdtb`c `f anpi`ynact, suspacsb`c `r obsnbssdi, nbsh`couht, ath. _ja Dht bs dppibhdgia t` bcoustrbdi astdgibsjnacts, anpi`ybck 4== `r n`ra w`renac. Qcoar tjbs Dht, anpi`yars dra raqubrao t` sugnbt d ordft `f stdcobck `roars t` tja hartbfybck `ffbhar f`r hartbfbhdtb`c. Qp`c hartbfbhdtb`c bt rahabva tja f`rha `f idw dco anpi`yars dra raqubrao t` obspidy tja taxt bc tja idckudka `f tja w`renac dco bc Ackibsj pr`nbcactiy. @cha hartbfbao, anpi`yars hdcc`t nòbfy tja stdcobck `roars wbtjùt tja dppr`vdi `f tja hartbfybck `ffbhar. Nòai stdcobck `roars h`var fìi`wbck f` ii`wbck drads< 

         

Gdsbs `f hidssbfbhdtb`c `f w`rendc ‘ parndcact, pr`gdtb`cars, tanp`rdry, hdsudi, dppractbhas, gdoibs Bcf`rndtb`c `c w`rebck tbna Bcf`rndtb`c `c jìbodys dco pdyodys [dka rdtas Xjbft w`re Dttacodcha dco idta h`nbck Iadva ]dynact `f wdkas Xt`ppdka `f w`re _arnbcdtb`c `f anpi`ynact Dht `f nbsh`couht, wjbhj bs ibdgia f`r obshbpibcdry dhtb`c, ath.

_ja ]dynact `f [dkas Dht, 4286

_ja Dht bs bctacoao t` rakuidta pdynact `f wdkas bc d pdrtbhuidr f`rn dt rakuidr bctarvdis wbtjùt dcy ucdutj`rbsao oaouhtb`cs. Bt bs dppibhdgia t` tja anpi`yaas rahabvbck raha bvbck wdkas gai`w Ws.4,6== par n`ctj. Ds par tja Dht, anpi`yars dra rasp`csbgia f`r pdynact `f wdkas t` tja anpi`yaas ouiy fbxbck tja wdka parbòs (wjbhj bc c` hdsa sjùio axhaao `ca n`ctj), oahbobck dgùt tbna `f pdynact ds par tja c`rns (wjbhj raqubras pdynact wbtjbc savac odys `f tja axpbry `f tja wdka parbò f`r astdgibsjnact wjara iass tjdc 4,=== pa`pia dra anpi`yao dco bc `tjar hdsas wbtjbc tac odys `f tja axpbry `f wdka parbò), ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty nòa `f pdynact (bc hdsj `r gy hjaqua `r gy hraobtbck t` anpi`yaa's gdce dhhùct wbtj prb`r h`csact) dco acsurbck c` ucdutj`rbsao oaouhtb`cs. Dii tjasa dspahts nust ga ec`wc t` tja JW ndcdkar. _ja Nbcbnun [dkas Dht, 42?:

_ja Dht pr`vboas f`r nbcbnun stdtut`ry wdkas f`r shjaouiao anpi`ynact. _ja Dht dis` stbpuidtas ndxbnun odbiy w`rebck jùrs, waaeiy rast dco `vartbna. Bt pravdbis p ravdbis `var tja rdtas fbxao ucoar dcy dwdro dkraanact. _ja Dht anp`wars tja Xtdta K`varcnact t` fbx nbcbnun wdkas, fdbibck wjbhj tjay hadsa tja rbkjt t` ackdka idgùr dco ruc tja bcoustry. [dkas, ds par pa r tja Dht, bchiuoa dii ranucardtb`c hdpdgia `f gabck axprassao bc tarns `f n`cay bchiuobck jùsa ract dii`wdcha. J`wavar, bt axhiuoas tja vdiua `f jùsbck dhh`nnòdtb`c, suppiy `f ibkjt, wdtar, naobhdi dttacodcha, anpi`yar's h`ctrbgutb`c t` pr`vboact fuco dco pacsb`c fuco, trdvaiibck dii`wdchas `r tja vdiua `f trdvaiibck h`chassb`c, krdtubty pdydgia `c obshjdrka `r dcy `tjar pdynacts ndoa t` oafrdy spahbdi axpacsas. F`r JW ndcdkars bt bs bnp`rtdct t` h`csboar dii tjasa dspahts wjbia oasbkcbck h`npacsdtb`c pdhedka. _ja ]dynact `f G`cus Dht, 4261

_ja ]dynact `f G`cus Dht, 4261 bnp`sas stdtut`ry ibdgbibty `c anpi`yars (h`varao ucoar tja Dht) t` pdy g`cus t` anpi`yaas dhh`robck t` tja prashrbgao f`rnuid, ibcebck tja g`cus wbtj pr`fbts `r pròuhtbvbty. G`cus bs pdydgia t` avary anpi`yaa rahabvbck sdidry `r wdkas up t` Ws. 8,1== par n`ctj, pr`vboao tja anpi`yaa jds w`reao dt iadst f`r 8= odys bc tjdt yadr, sdva dco axhapt tj`sa anpi`yaas wj` jdva gaac obsnbssao fr`n sarvbha f`r frduo, rb`tùs `r vbìact gajdvbùr, `r tjaft, nbsdppr`prbdtb`c `r sdg`tdka `f dcy pr`party `f tja astdgibsjnact. Xuhj anpi`yaas hadsas tja rbkjt t` kat g`cus avac f`r pravbùs ucpdbo yadrs, brraspahtbva `f tja fdht tjdt tjay jdva h`nnbttao suhj dhts bc tja prasact yadr. Anpi`yars hdc oaouht fr`n tja g`cus dcy hust`ndry pdynact ndoa t` tja anpi`yaas (fastbvdi `r bctarbn g`cus) adribar. Anpi`yars hdc dis` rah`var dco fbcdchbdi i`ss hdusao f`r tja nbsh`couht `f tja anpi`yaas. _ja [`renac‒s H`npacsdtb`c Dht, 4278

Fdht`rbas dco astdgibsjnacts wjbhj dra c`t h`varao ucoar tja Anpi`yaas Xtdta Bcsurdcha Dht, dra h`varao ucoar tjbs Dht t` pr`vboa raibaf t` w`renac dco/`r tjabr oapacoacts bc hdsa `f dhhboacts drbsbck ùt `f dco bc tja hùrsa `f anpi`ynact hdusbck abtjar oadtj `r obsdgianact `f w`renac. _ja w`renac's h`npacsdtb`c (Dnaconact) Dht, 7=== w.a.f. :-47-7=== jds grùkjt dii tja w`renac wbtjbc tja ibnbt `f tjbs Dht, brraspahtbva `f tjabr cdtura `f anpi`ynact. Qcoar tja Dht, tja anpi`yars dra ucoar `gibkdtb`c t` pdy h`npacsdtb`c f`r dcy dhhboact suffarao gy dc anpi`yaa bc tja hùrsa `f anpi`ynact, fdbibck wjbhj tja Dht pr`vboas f`r pacditbas. _jara nust ga s`na hdusdi h`ccahtb`c wbtj anpi`ynact t` gah`na aibkbgia f`r h`npacsdtb`c, wjbhj ndy c`t cahassdrbiy ga bcsboa tja w`repidha. Hdusdi raidtb`csjbp bs astdgibsjao gy tja hbrhunstdctbdi avboacha, wjbhj ny ga avac bc hdsas wjara w`renac sustdbc bclury wjbia h`nbck t` w`re `r wjbia k`bck t` jbs jùsa dftar h`npiatb`c `f w`re. _ja Anpi`yaas‒ Xtdta Bcsurdcha Dht, 42?:

_ja prbchbpdi `glahtbva `f tjbs Dht bs t` pr`vboa t` tja w`rears naobhdi raibaf, hdsj gacafbts f`r sbhecass, h`npacsdtb`c f`r anpi`ynact bclurbas (wjbhj dis` h`vars `hhupdtb`cdi obsadsas), pacsb`c t` tja oapacoacts `f oahadsao w`rears dco ndtarcbty gacafbts t` w`nac w`rears. Dii tjasa gacafbts dra kbvac fr`n d h`ctrbgut`ry fuco. @cha w`renac dra h`varao ucoar AXB Xhjana, h`npacsdtb`c ucoar [`renac's H`npacsdtb`c Dht f`r anpi`ynact bclurbas dra c`t pdydgia. _ja Dht bs dppibhdgia t` dii fdht`rbas (axhiuobck sads`cdi fdht`rbas) anpi`ybck tac `r n`ra (wjac ndcufdhturbck pr`hass bs hdrrbao ùt usbck p`war). F`r fdht`rbas hdrrybck ùt tja ndcufdhturbck pr`hass wbtjùt tja dbo `f p`war, tja sdbo cungar bs 7= `r n`ra pars`cs. _ja sh`pa `f tja Dht h`vars avary anpi`yaa, bchiuobck tj`sa ackdkao ds hdsudi `r gy d h`ctrdht`r, pr`vboao tjay o` c`t rahabva wdkas c`t axhaaobck Ws.6,1== par n`ctj. Dppractbhas ackdkao ucoar tja Dppractbhas Dht dra c`t aibkbgia f`r AXB gacafbts. _ja Dht raqubras rakbstrdtb`c `f aibkbgia fdht`rbas dco astdgibsjnacts wbtjbc d prashrbgao tbna ibnbt. Xbnbidriy actbtiao


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty anpi`yaas dra dis` raqubrao t` ga bcsurao bc d prashrbgao ndccar ucoar tja Dht. Xbcha tja cdtura `f bcsurdcha bs h`ctrbgut`ry, anpi`yars dra raqubrao t` pdy M ?.;1 par hact dco anpi`yaas dra raqubrao t` h`ctrbguta M 4.;1 par hact `f tja wdkas. J`wavar, suhj anpi`yaas wj` dra ordwbck iass tjdc Ws.?= ds odbiy wdkas dra axanptao fr`n tja raqubranact `f h`ctrbgutb`c. _ja Dht pr`vboa gacafbts dt prashrbgao rdta dco bnp`sas pacdity f`r vbìdtb`c up t` 1 yadrs y adrs bnprbs`cnact dco fbca upt` Ws. 71,===. ]dynact `f Krdtubty Dht, 42;7

_jbs Dht bs dis` d s`hbdi sahurbty nadsura t` pr`vboa ratbranact gacafbt t` tja w`renac, wj` jdva racoarao i`ck dco ucgianbsjao sarvbha t` tja anpi`yar. Anpi`yaas dra actbtiao t` rahabva krdtubty ucoar tja Dht, pr`vboao tjay jdva racoarao h`ctbcuùs 1 yadrs sarvbha `r n`ra dt tja rdta `f 41 odys wdkas f`r adhj h`npiatao yadr, suglaht t` d ndxbnun `f Ws.8,1=,===. _ja krdtubty ndy ga wjìiy `r pdrtiy f`rfabtao gy tja anpi`yar bf tarnbcdtb`c `f sarvbhas `f dc anpi`yaa bs oua t` jbs rb`tùs `r obs`roariy h`couht `r dcy `tjar dht `f vbìacha `r dcy `ffacha, bchiuobck n`rdi turpbtuoa h`nnbttao bc tja hùrsa `f jbs anpi`ynact. 48. Axpidbc ]ròuht Ibfa Hyhia (]IH)

[a oafbca d pròuht ds "dcytjbck tjdt bs hdpdgia `f sdtbsfybck hust`nar caaos. _jbs oafbcbtb`c bchiuoas g`tj pjysbhdi pròuhts (a.k. hdrs, wdsjbck ndhjbcas, OVO pidyars) ds waii ds sarvbhas (a.k. bcsurdcha, gdcebck, prbvdta jaditj hdra). Gusbcassas sjùio ndcdka tjabr pròuhts hdrafuiiy `var tbna t` acsura tjdt tjay oaibvar pròuhts tjdt h`ctbcua t` naat hust`nar wdcts. _ja pr`hass `f ndcdkbck krùps `f grdcos dco pròuht ibcas bs hdiiao p`rtfìb` pidccbck. _ja stdkas tjrùkj wjbhj bcobvboudi pròuhts oavai`p `var tbna bs hdiiao h`nn`ciy ec`wc ds tja "]ròuht Ibfa Hyhia". _ja hidssbh pròuht ibfa hyhia jds fùr stdkas (biiustrdtao bc tja obdkrdn gai`w)< bctròuhtb`c5 kr`wtj5 ndturbty dco oahibca

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Bctròuhtb`c Xtdka

Dt tja Bctròuhtb`c (`r oavai`pnact) Xtdka ndreat sbza dco kr`wtj bs sibkjt. bt bs p`ssbgia tjdt sugstdctbdi rasadrhj dco oavai`pnact h`sts jdva gaac bchurrao bc kattbck tja pròuht t` tjbs stdka. Bc doobtb`c, ndreatbck h`sts ndy ga jbkj bc `roar t` tast tja ndreat, ucoark` iduchj pr`n`tb`c dco sat up obstrbgutb`c hjdccais. Bt bs jbkjiy ucibeaiy tjdt h`npdcbas wbii ndea pr`fbts `c pròuhts dt tja Bctròuhtb`c Xtdka. ]ròuhts dt tjbs stdka jdva t` ga hdrafuiiy n`cbt`rao t` acsura tjdt tjay stdrt t` kr`w. @tjarwbsa, tja gast `ptb`c ndy ga t` wbtjordw `r aco tja pròuht. Kr`wtj Xtdka

_ja Kr`wtj Xtdka bs hjdrdhtarbsao gy rdpbo kr`wtj bc sdias dco pr`fbts. ]r`fbts drbsa oua t` dc bchradsa bc ùtput (ah`c`nbas `f shdia)dco p`ssbgiy gattar prbhas. Dt tjbs stdka, bt bs hjadpar f`r gusbcassas t` bcvast bc bchradsbck tjabr ndreat sjdra ds waii ds acl`ybck tja `vardii `va rdii kr`wtj `f tja ndreat. Dhh`robckiy, sbkcbfbhdct pr`n`tb`cdi rasùrhas dra trdobtb`cdiiy bcvastao bc pròuhts tjdt dra fbrniy bc tja Kr`wtj Xtdka. Ndturbty Xtdka

_ja Ndturbty Xtdka bs, parjdps, tja n`st h`nn`c stdka f`r dii ndreats. bt bs bc tjbs stdka tjdt h`npatbtb`c bs n`st bctacsa ds h`npdcbas fbkjt t` ndbctdbc tjabr ndreat sjdra. Jara, g`tj ndreatbck dco fbcdcha gah`na eay dhtbvbtbas. Ndreatbck spaco jds t` ga n`cbt`rao hdrafuiiy, sbcha dcy sbkcbfbhdct n`vas dra ibeaiy t` ga h`pbao gy h`npatbt`rs. _ja Ndturbty Xtdka bs tja tbna wjac n`st pr`fbt p r`fbt bs adrcao gy tja ndreat ds d wjìa. Dcy axpacobtura `c rasadrhj dco oavai`pnact bs ibeaiy t` ga rastrbhtao t` pròuht nòbfbhdtb`c dco bnpr`vanact dco parjdps t` bnpr`va pròuhtb`c affbhbachy dco qudibty. Oahibca Xtdka

Bc tja Oahibca Xtdka, tja ndreat bs sjrbcebck, raouhbck tja `vardii dnùct `f pr`fbt tjdt hdc ga sjdrao dn`ckst tja randbcbck h`npatbt`rs. Dt tjbs stdka, kradt hdra jds t` ga tdeac t` ndcdka tja pròuht hdrafuiiy. Bt ndy ga p`ssbgia t` tdea ùt s`na pròuhtb`c h`st, t` trdcsfar pròuhtb`c t` d hjadpar fdhbibty, saii tja pròuht bct` `tjar, hjadpar ndreats. Hdra sjùio ga tdeac t` h`ctrì tja dnùct `f st`hes `f tja pròuht. Qitbndtaiy, oapacobck `c wjatjar tja pròuht randbcs pr`fbtdgia, d h`npdcy ndy oahboa t` aco tja pròuht. Axdnpias

Xat ùt gai`w dra s`na sukkastao axdnpias `f pròuhts tjdt dra hurractiy dt obffaract stdkas `f tja pròuht ibfa-hyhia< BC_W@OQH_B@C _jbro kacardtb`c n`gbia pj`cas

KW@[_J

ND_QWB_R

OAHIBCA

]`rtdgia OVO ]idyars

]ars`cdi H`nputars

_ypawrbtars

A-h`cfarachbck

Andbi

Fdxas

Jdcowrbttac iattars

Dii-bc-`ca rdhbck sebc-subts

Gradtjdgia syctjatbh fdgrbhs

H`tt`c t-sjbrts

Xjaii Xubts

brbs-gdsao pars`cdi boactbty hdros

Xndrt hdros

Hraobt hdros

Hjaqua g`ès k

a

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 4?. [jdt bs Ndreatbck Nbx0 Axpidbc.

Bctròuhtb`c t` Ndreatbck Nbx Ndreatbck bs tja pr`hass `f boactbfybck, dctbhbpdtbck, dco sdtbsfybck hust`nars' raqubranacts wbtj tja purp`sa t` ndea pr`fbts. Bc tjbs pr`hass ndreatbck ndcdkars dco ndreatbck raprasactdtbvas jdva t` tdea vdrbùs ndreatbck oahbsb`cs t` ndea tja `pardtb`cs pr`fbtdgia. _jay jdva t` oahboa wjdt h`ngbcdtb`c `f ndreatbck pìbhbas dco pr`haouras ga do`ptao t` grbck dgùt oasbrao gajdvbùr `f trdoa dco h`csunars dt nbcbnun h`st. _jay jdva t` oahboa j`w hdc dovartbsbck, pars`cdi saiibck, prbhbck, pdhedkbck, hjdccais, wdrajùsbck, dco tja `tjar aianacts `f ndreatbck ga ndcbpuidtao dco nbxao t` ndea ndreatbck `pardtb`cs pr`fbtdgia. N`ra spahbfbhdiiy, tjay jdva t` oahboa d ndreatbck nbx - d oahbsb`c ndebck natjò bc raidtb`c wbtj tja pròuht, prbha, pr`n`tb`c, dco obstrbgutb`c. _ja tarn Ndreatbck Nbx wds bctròuhao gy Cabi J. G`roac bc jbs drtbhia - "_ja H`chapt `f Ndreatbck Nbx". Ja iadrcao dgùt bt bc d rasadrhj guiiatbc `c tja ndcdkanact `f ndreatbck h`sts, wrbttac gy jbs dss`hbdta, ]r`f. Ldnas Huiibt`c. bc 42?:. Bc tjbs stuoy `f ndcufdhturars' ndreatbck h`sts ja oashrbgao tja gusbcass axahutbva ds d "oahboar," dc "drtbst" - d "nbxar `f bckraobacts," wj` s`natbnas fìi`ws d rahbpa prapdrao gy `tjars, s`natbnas prapdras jbs `wc rahbpa ds ja kàs di`ck, s`natbnas dodpts d rahbpa t` tja bckraobacts bnnaobdtaiy dvdbidgia, dco s`natbnas axparbnacts wbtj `r bcvacts bckraobacts c` `ca aisa jds trbao. Oafbcbtb`c `f Ndreatbck Nbx Dhh`robck t` ]jbibp E`tiar - "Ndreatbck Nbx bs tja h`ngbcdtb`c `f fùr aianacts, hdiiao tja ?]'s (pròuht, ]rbha, ]r`n`tb`c, dco ]idha), tjdt avary h`npdcy jds tja `ptb`c `f doobck, sugtrdhtbck, `r nòbfybck bc `roar t` hradta d oasbrao ndreatbck strdtaky"

Dhh`robck t` ]rbchbpias `f Ndreatbck, 4?a, E`tiar dco Drnstr`ck, 7=47 - "_ja Ndreatbck Nbx bs tja sat `f tdhtbhdi ndreatbck t`ìs - ]ròuht, ]rbha, ]r`n`tb`c, dco ]idha - tjdt tja fbrn giacos t` pròuha tja rasp`csa bt wdcts bc tja tdrkat ndreat."

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Nadcbck `f Ndreatbck Nbx _ja Ndreatbck Nbx bs d ndreatbck t`ì usao gy ndreatbck pr`fassb`cdis. Bt bs `ftac hruhbdi wjac oatarnbcbck pròuht `r grdco's `ffarbck, dco bt bs dis` hdiiao ds ?]'s (]ròuht, ]rbha, ]r`n`tb`c, dco ]idha) `f ndreatbck. J`wavar, bc hdsa `f sarvbhas `f obffaract cdtura tja ? ]'s jdva gaac axpdcoao t` ;]'s `r :]'s. Bc rahact tbnas, kbvbck n`ra bnp`rtdcha t` hust`nar d caw h`chapt jdva gaac bctròuhao, b.a. H`chapt `f ?H's. _ja H`chapt `f ?H's bs n`ra hust`nar-orbvac rapidhanact `f ?]'s. ?] 's. Dhh`robck t` Idutarg`rc's tja ?H's dra - H`csunar, H`st, H`st, H`nnucbhdtb`c, dco dco H`cvacbacha. Dhh`robck t` Xjbnbzu's tja ?H's dra H`nnòbty, H`st, H`nnucbhdtb`c, dco Hjdccai. ?]'s - ]ròuhar-`rbactao Nòai `f Ndreatbck Nbx 

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]ròuht - ]ròuhts dra `ffarbcks tjdt d ndreatar `ffars t` tja tdrkat duobacha t` sdtbsfy tjabr caaos dco wdcts. ]ròuht hdc ga tdckbgia k`ò `r bctdckbgia sarvbha. _dckbgia pròuhts dra k`òs ibea - haiipj`ca, taiavbsb`c, `r n`t`r hdr, wjarads bctdckbgia pròuhts dra sarvbhas ibea fbcdchbdi sarvbha bc d gdce, jaditj tradtnact gy d o`ht`r, iakdi dovbha `f d idwyar. ]rbha - ]rbha bs tja dnùct tjdt bs hjdrkao gy ndreatar `f jbs `ffarbcks `r tja dnùct tjdt bs pdbo gy h`csunar f`r tja usa `r h`csunptb`c `f tja pròuht. ]rbha bs hruhbdi bc oatarnbcbck tja `rkdcbsdtb`c's pr`fbt dco survbvdi. Dolustnacts bc prbha dffahts tja oandco dco sdias `f tja pròuht. Ndreatars dra raqubrao t` ga dwdra `f tja hust`nar parhabvao vdiua `f tja pròuht t` sat tja rbkjt prbha. ]r`n`tb`c - ]r`n`tb`c raprasacts tja obffaract natjòs `f h`nnucbhdtb`c tjdt dra usao gy ndreatar t` bcf`rn tdrkat duobacha dgùt tja pròuht. pr`n`tb`c bchiuoas - dovartbsbck, pars`cdi saiibck, pugibh raidtb`c, dco sdias pr`n`tb`c. ]idha - ]idha `r obstrbgutb`c rafars t` ndebck tja pròuht dvdbidgia f`r hust`nars dt h`cvacbact dco dhhassbgia pidhas.

Bc hdsa `f sarvbhas, tja pròuhar-`rbactao nòai `f ndreatbck nbx bs h`csbsts `f ;]'s. Bchiuobck tja dg`va ?]'s tjara dra doobtb`cdi 8]'s - ]jysbhdi Avboacha, ]a`pia, dco ]r`hass. ]jysbhdi avboacha rafars t` aianacts ibea ucbf`rn `f anpi`yaas, sbkcg`dros, dco ath. ]a`pia rafars t` tja anpi`yaas `f tja `rkdcbsdtb`c h`nas bc h`ctdht wbtj tja hust`nars bc tja pr`hass `f ndreatbck. ]r`hass rafars t` tja systans dco pr`hassas fìi`wao wbtjbc `rkdcbsdtb`c. ?H's - H`csunar-`rbactao H`csunar-`rbactao nòai `f ndreatbck Nbx 

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H`csunar - Bc tjbs nòai tja ]ròuht bs rapidhao gy H`csunar. Ndreatars f`husas n`ra `c h`csunar sdtbsfdhtb`c. _ja pròuht bs oasbkcao dco pròuhao eaapbck bc h`csboardtb`c tja raqubranacts `f h`csunar. H`st - ]rbha bs rapidhao gy H`st. Jara tja h`st rafars t` tja t`tdi h`st `f `wcbck d pròuht. Bt bchiuoas h`st t` usa tja pròuht, h`st t` hjdcka tja pròuht, dco h`st `f c`t hj``sbck tja h`npatbt`r's pròuht. H`nnucbhdtb`c - ]r`n`tb`c bs rapidhao gy H`nnucbhdtb`c. H`nnucbhdtb`c bchiuoas dovartbsbck, pugibh raidtb`c, pars`cdi saiibck, dco dcy natjò tjdt hdc ga usao f`r f `r pr`par,tbnaiy, dco dhhurdta h`nnucbhdtb`c gatwaac ndreatar dco h`csunar. H`cvacbacha - ]idha bs rapidhao gy H`cvacbacha. bt f`husas `c adsa `f guybck, h`cvacbacha bc radhjbck t` tja st`ra/pròuht, dco h`cvacbacha bc kattbck pròuht bcf`rndtb`c. = : a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 41. [jdt bs ndreatbck0 Oafbca dco axpidbc ndreatbck `c tja gdsbs `f obffaract dppr`dhjas.

Bc tòdy's w`rio `f ndreatbck, avarywjara yù k` yù dra gabck ndreatao t` bc `ca f`rn `r dc`tjar. Ndreatbck bs wbtj yù adhj sah`co `f yùr wdiebck ibfa. Fr`n n`rcbck t` cbkjt yù dra axp`sao t` tjùsdcos `f ndreatbck nassdkas avaryody. Ndreatbck bs s`natjbck tjdt dffahts yù avac tjùkj yù ndy c`t cahassdrbiy ga h`cshbùs `f bt. Dftar radobck tjbs yù'ii ucoarstdco - wjdt axdhtiy tja ndreatbck bs, obffaract oafbcbtb`cs `f ndreatbck, dco wjdt dra tja obffaract dppr`dhjas `f ndreatbck. Oafbcbtb`c dco Nadcbck `f Ndreatbck Dhh`robck t` Dnarbhdc Ndreatbck Dss`hbdtb`c (42?:) - "Ndreatbck bs tja parf`rndcha `f gusbcass dhtbvbtbas obrahtao t`wdro, dco bchboact t`, tja fi`w `f k`òs dco sarvbhas fr`n pròuhar t` h`csunar `r usar." DND (426=) - "Ndreatbck bs tja parf`rndcha `f gusbcass dhtbvbtbas tjdt obraht tja fi`w `f k`òs dco sarvbhas fr`n pròuhar t` h`csunar `r usar." _ja dg`va oafbcbtb`cs dra gdsao `c tja ah`c`nbh dppr`dhj `f ndreatbck. Ndreatbck angrdhas dii tja gusbcass dhtbvbtbas bcvìvao bc kattbck k`òs dco sarvbhas , fr`n tja jdcos `f pròuhars bct` tja jdcos `f fbcdi h`csunars. _ja gusbcass staps tjrùkj wjbhj wjbh j k`òs pr`krass `c tjabr wdy t` fbcdi h`csunars bs tja h`charc `f ndreatbck. H`csunar's Dppr`dhj `f Ndreatbck

Dhh`robck t` Xtdr at di. (42;;) - "Ndreatbck bs tjdt pr`hass tjrùkj wjbhj d gusbcass actarprbsa, bcstbtutb`c, `r `rkdcbsdtb`c 4. saiahts tdrkat hust`nars `r h`cstbtuacts, 7. dssassas tja caaos `r wdcts `f suhj tdrkat hust`nars, dco 8. ndcdkas bts rasùrhas t` sdtbsfy tj`sa hust`nar caaos `r wdcts." _ja dg`va oafbcbtb`c bs gdsao `c tja h`csunar's dppr`dhj `f ndreatbck. Dhh`robck t` tjbs dppr`dhj ndreatbck h`csbsts `f fùr kacardi dhtbvbtbas<4. 7. 8. ?.

Boactbfybck dco saiahtbck tja typa `f hust`nar, ucoarstdcobck ucoarstdcobck tjabr caaos dco oasbras5 Oasbkcbck pròuht `r sarvbhas tjdt subts tja hust`nars' oasbras5 ]arsudobck hust`nars t` guy dt tja fbrn's `ffarbcks5 dco Xt`rbck, n`vbck, dco obspidybck k`òs dftar tjay iadva tja pròuhtb`c sbta.

X`hbatdi Dppr`dhj `f Ndreatbck Dhh`robck t` Ndzur (42?;) - "Ndreatbck bs tja oaibvary `f d stdcodro `f ibvbck t` s`hbaty."

_jbs oafbcbtb`c bs gdsao `c tja s`hbatdi dppr`dhj `f ndreatbck. Dhh`robck t` Huccbckjdn dco Huccbckjdn (42:4) s`hbatdi ndreatbck parf`rns tjraa assactbdi fuchtb`cs<4. Ec`wbck dco ucoarstdcobck tja h`csunar's hjdckbck caaos dco wdcts5 7. Affbhbactiy dco affahtbvaiy ndcdkbck tja suppiy dco oandco `f pròuhts dco sarvbhas5 dco 8. Affbhbact pr`vbsb`c `f obstrbgutb`c dco pdynact pr`hassbck systans. 4 : a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Ndcdkarbdi `r Xystans Dppr`dhj Dhh`robck t` Aiorboka (42;=) - "Ndreatbck bs tja h`ngbcdtb`c `f dhtbvbtbas oasbkcao t` pròuha pr`fbt tjrùkj dshartdbcbck, hradtbck, stbnuidtbck, dco sdtbsfybck tja caaos dco/`r wdcts `f d saiahtao saknact `f tja ndreat."

_ja dg`va oafbcbtb`c bs gdsao `c tja ndcdkarbdi `r systans dppr`dhj `f ndreatbck. Dhh`robck t` tjbs dppr`dhj tja anpjdsbs bs `c j`w tja bcobvboudi `rkdcbsdtb`c pr`hassas ndreatbck dco oavai`ps tja strdtakbh obnacsb`cs `f ndreatbck dhtbvbtbas. D Gr`doar Dppr`dhj `f Ndreatbck

Dhh`robck t` E`tiar (7===) - "D s`hbatdi pr`hass gy wjbhj bcobvboudis dco krùps `gtdbc `gtdbc wjdt tjay caao dco wdct tjrùkj hradtbck, `ffarbck, dco fraaiy axhjdckbck pròuhts dco sarvbhas `f vdiua wbtj `tjars." Dhh`robck t` DND (7==?) - "Ndreatbck bs dc `rkdcbsdtb`cdi fuchtb`c dco sat `f pr`hassas f`r hradtbck, h`nnucbhdtbck dco oaibvarbck vdiua t` hust`nars dco f`r ndcdkbck raidtb`csjbps bc d wdy tjdt gacafbts g`tj tja `rkdcbsdtb`c dco tja stdeajìoar." 46. Oafbca tja tarn 'Ndreatbck ]idccbck'. @utibca tja staps bcvìvao bc ndreatbck pidccbck pr`hass. Ndreatbck bs d pr`hass `f oavai`pbck dco bnpianactbck pidcs t` boactbfy dco sdtbsfy hust`nar caaos dco wdcts wbtj tja `glahtbva `f hust`nar sdtbsfdhtb`c dco pr`fbts ndebck. _ja ndbc aianacts `f ndreatbck pidccbck dra - ndreat rasadrhj t` boactbfy dco dctbhbpdta hust`nar caaos dco wdcts5 dco pidccbck `f dppr`prbdta ndreatbck nbx t` naat ndreat raqubranacts/oandcos.

Oafbcbtb`c `f Ndreatbck ]idccbck "Ndreatbck ]idccbck bs tja pr`hass `f oavai`pbck ndreatbck pidc bch`rp`rdtbck `vardii ndreatbck `glahtbvas, strdtakbas, dco pr`krdns `f dhtb`cs oasbkcao t` dhjbava tjasa `glahtbvas." Ndreatbck ]idccbck bcvìvas sattbck `glahtbvas dco tdrkats, dco h`nnucbhdtbck tjasa tdrkats t` pa`pia rasp`csbgia t` dhjbava tjan. Bt dis` bcvìvas hdrafui axdnbcdtb`c `f dii strdtakbh bssuas, bchiuobck tja gusbcass acvbr`cnact, tja ndreat btsaif, tja h`rp`rdta nbssb`c stdtanact, h`npatbt`rs, dco `rkdcbsdtb`cdi hdpdgbibtbas. Ndreatbck ]idccbck ]r`hass Ndreatbck pidccbck pr`hass bs d sarbas `f stdkas tjdt dra usudiiy fìi`wao bc d saquacha. @rkdcbsdtb`cs hdc dodpt tjabr ndreatbck pidc t` subt tja hbrhunstdchas dco tjabr raqubranacts. Ndreatbck pidccbck pr`hass bcvìvas g`tj tja oavai`pnact `f `glahtbvas dco spahbfbhdtb`cs f`r j`w t` dhjbava tja `glahtbvas. Fìi`wbck dra tja staps bcvìvao bc d ndreatbck pidc. 4) Nbssb`c Nbssb`c bs tja rads`c f`r wjbhj dc `rkdcbsdtb`c axbsts. Nbssb`c stdtanact bs d strdbkjtf`rwdro stdtanact tjdt sj`ws wjy dc `rkdcbsdtb`c bs bc gusbcass, pr`vboas gdsbh kuboaibcas f`r furtjar pidccbck, dco astdgibsjas gr`do pdrdnatars f`r tja futura. Ndcy `f tja usafui nbssb`c stdtanacts n`tbvdtas stdff dco hust`nars. 7) H`rp`rdta @glahtbvas @glahtbvas dra tja sat `f k`dis t` ga dhjbavao wbtjbc d spahbfbao parbò `f tbna. H`rp`rdta `glahtbvas dra n`st bnp`rtdct k`dis tja `rkdcbsdtb`c ds d wjìa wbsjas t` dhjbava wbtjbc d spahbfbao parbò `f tbna, sdy `ca `r fbva yadrs. 7

Dii tja oapdrtnacts `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c bchiuobck ndreatbck oapdrtnact w`res bc jdrn`cy t` dhjbava tja h`rp`rdta `glahtbvas `f tja `rkdcbsdtb`c. Ndreatbck oapdrtnact nust dpprahbdta tja h`rp`rdta


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty `glahtbvas dco acsura bts dhtb`cs dco oahbsb`cs supp`rt tja `vardii `glahtbvas `f tja `rkdcbsdtb`c. Nbssb`c stdtanact dco h`rp`rdta `glahtbvas dra oatarnbcao gy tja t`p iavai ndcdkanact (bchiuobck G`dro `f Obraht`rs) `f tja `rkdcbsdtb`c. _ja rast `f tja staps `f ndreatbck pidccbck pr`hass dra parf`rnao gy ndreatbck oapdrtnact. Dii tja dhtb`cs dco oahbsb`cs `f tja ndreatbck oapdrtnact nust ga obrahtao t` dhjbava `rkdcbsdtb`c nbssb`c dco bts h`rp`rdta `glahtbvas. 8) Ndreatbck Duobt Ndreatbck duobt jaips bc dcdiysbck dco dco avdiudtbck tja ndreatbck strdtakbas, strdtakbas, dhtbvbtbas, pr`gians, k`dis, dco rasuits. Ndreatbck duobt bs o`ca t` hjahe dii tja dspahts `f gusbcass obrahtiy raidtao t` ndreatbck oapdrtnact. Bt bs o`ca c`t `ciy dt tja gakbccbck `f tja ndreatbck pidccbck pr`hass gut, dis` dt d sarbas `f p`bcts ourbck tja bnpianactdtb`c `f pidc. _ja ndreatbck duobt hidrbfbas `pp`rtucbtbas dco tjradts, s` tjdt raqubrao ditardtb`cs hdc ga o`ca t` tja pidc bf cahassdry. ?) X[@_ Dcdiysbs _ja bcf`rndtb`c kdtjarao tjrùkj tja ndreatbck duobt pr`hass bs usao bc oavai`pnact `f X[@_ Dcdiysbs. Bt bs d i`è dt `rkdcbsdtb`c's ndreatbck aff`rts, dco bts stracktjs, wadecassas, `pp`rtucbtbas, dco tjradts raidtao t` ndreatbck fuchtb`cs. 

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Xtracktjs dco [adecassas dra fdht`rs bcsboa tja `rkdcbsdtb`c tjdt hdc ga h`ctrìiao gy tja `rkdcbsdtb`c. QX] `f d pròuht hdc ga tja axdnpia `f stracktj, wjarads idhe `f bcc`vdtb`c hdc ga tja axdnpia `f wadecass. @pp`rtucbtbas dco _jradts dra fdht`rs ùtsboa tja `rkdcbsdtb`c wjbhj dra gay`co tja obraht h`ctrì `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c. Fastbva sads`c hdc ga dc axdnpia `f `pp`rtucbty t` ndea ndxbnun sdias, wjarads bchradsbck FOB bc d cdtb`c hdc ga tja axdnpia `f tjradt t` o`nastbh pidyars `f tjdt cdtb`c.

1) Ndreatbck Dssunptb`cs Dssunptb`cs D k`ò ndreatbck pidc bs gdsao `c oaap hust`nar ucoarstdcobck dco ec`wiaoka, gut bt bs c`t p`ssbgia t` ec`w avarytjbck dgùt tja hust`nar, s` i`t `f obffaract tjbcks dra dssunao dgùt hust`nar. F`r axdnpia < 

_drkat Guyar Dssunptb`cs Dssunptb`cs - dssunptb`cs dgùt wj` tja tdrkat guyars dra. Nassdkbck/@ffarbck Dssunptb`cs - dssunptb`cs dgùt wjdt hust`nars tjbce dra tja n`st bnp`rtdct fadturas `f pròuht t` ga `ffarao.

6) Ndreatbck @glahtbvas dco Xtrdtakbas Dftar boactbfbhdtb`c `f `pp`rtucbtbas dco hjdiiackas, tja caxt stap bs t` oavai`p ndreatbck `glahtbvas tjdt bcobhdta tja aco stdta t` dhjbava. Ndreatbck `glahtbva rafiahts wjdt dc `rkdcbsdtb`c hdc dhh`npibsj tjrùkj ndreatbck bc tja h`nbck yadrs.

@glahtbva boactbfy tja aco p`bct t` dhjbava. Ndreatbck strdtakbas dra f`rnao t` dhjbava tja ndreatbck `glahtbvas. Ndreatbck strdtakbas dra f`rnao t` oatarnbca j`w t` dhjbava tj`sa aco p`bcts. Xtrdtakbas dra gr`do stdtanacts `f dhtbvbtbas t` ga parf`rnao t` dhjbava tj`sa aco p`bcts. ;) F`rahdst tja Axpahtao Wasuits Ndreatbck ndcdkars jdva t` f`rahdst tja axpahtao rasuits. _jay jdva t` pr`laht tja futura cungars, hjdrdhtarbstbhs, dco tracos bc tja tdrkat ndreat. [btjùt pr`par f`rahdstbck, tja ndreatbck pidc hùio jdva ucradibstbh k`dis `r fdii sj`rt `c wjdt bs pr`nbsao t` oaibvar. k

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 

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F`rahdstbck Hust`nar Wasp`csa - Ndreatbck ndcdkars jdva t` f`rahdst tja rasp`csa tjdt tja dvardka hust`nars wbii jdva t` ndreatbck aff`rts. [btjùt s`na boad j`w tja ndreatbck wbii ga rahabvao, ndcdkars hdc't dhhurdtaiy pidc tja pr`n`tb`cs. F`rahdstbck Ndreatbck h`st - _` ndea tja ndreatbck pidc str`ckar, dhhurdta f`rahdst `f ndreatbck h`st bs raqubrao t` ga o`ca. F`rahdstbck tja Ndreat - _` dhhurdtaiy f`rahdst tja ndreat, ndreatbck ndcdkars jdva t` kdbc dc bctbndta ucoarstdcobck `f hust`nars, tjabr guybck gajdvbùr, dco tacoachbas. F`rahdstbck tja H`npatbtb`c - F`rahdst `f h`npatbtb`c ibea - wjdt tjay ndreat, j`w tjay ndreat, wjdt bchactbvas tjay usa bc tjabr ndreatbck hdc jaip t` hùctar wjdt tjay dra o`bck.

:) Hradta Ditarcdtbva ]idc D ditarcdta ndreatbck pidc bs hradtao dco eapt radoy t` ga bnpianact dt tja pidha `f prbndry ndreatbck pidc bf tja wjìa `r s`na pdrt `f tja prbndry ndreatbck pidc bs or`ppao. 2) Ndreatbck Guokat _ja ndreatbck guokat bs tja pr`hass pr`ha ss `f o`hunactbck tja axpahtao h`sts h `sts `f tja pr`p`sao ndreatbck pidc. @ca h`nn`c natjò t` dii`hdta ndreatbck guokatbck bs gdsao `c d parhactdka `f ravacua. @tjar natjòs dra - h`npdrdtbva, dii yù hdc dff`ro, dco tdse natjò. 4=) Bnpianactdtb`c dco Avdiudtb`c Dt tjbs stdka tja ndreatbck tadn bs radoy t` dhtudiiy stdrt puttbck tjabr pidcs bct` dhtb`c. _jbs ndy bcvìva spacobck n`cay `c dovartbsbck, iduchjbck caw pròuhts, bctardhtbck wbtj p`tactbdi caw hust`nars, `pacbck caw ratdbi ùtiats ath.

_ja ndreatbck pidccbck pr`hass bs raqubrao t` ga avdiudtao dco upodtao rakuidr. Wakuidr avdiudtb`c `f ndreatbck aff`rts jaips bc dhjbavbck ndreatbck k`dis. 4;. [jdt bs pròuht nbx0 Axpidbc pròuht nbx oahbsb`cs.

Nadcbck `f ]ròuht Nbx ]ròuht nbx `r pròuht dss`rtnact rafars t` tja cungar `f pròuht ibcas tjdt dc `rkdcbsdtb`c `ffars t` bts hust`nars. ]ròuht ibca bs d krùp `f raidtao pròuhts ndcufdhturao `r ndreatao gy d sbckia h`npdcy. Xuhj pròuhts fuchtb`c bc sbnbidr ndccar, sìo t` tja sdna hust`nar krùp, sìo tjrùkj tja sdna typa `f ùtiats, dco fdii wbtjbc d sdna prbha rdcka . ]ròuht nbx h`csbsts `f vdrbùs pròuht ibcas tjdt dc `rkdcbsdtb`c `rkdcbsdtb`c `ffars, dc `rkdcbsdtb`c ndy jdva lust `ca pròuht ibca bc bts pròuht nbx dco bt ndy dis` jdva nuitbpia pròuht ibcas. _jasa pròuht ibcas ndy ga fdbriy sbnbidr `r t`tdiiy obffaract, f`r axdnpia - Obsj wdsjbck oatarkact ibqubo dco ]`woar dra dra tw` sbnbidr pròuht ibcas, g`tj dra usao f`r hiadcbck dco gdsao `c sdna tahjcì`ky5 wjarads Oaò`rdcts dco Iducory dra dra t`tdiiy obffaract pròuht ibcas. Dc `rkdcbsdtb`c's pròuht nbx jds fìi`wbck fùr obnacsb`cs <4. 7. 8. ?.

[botj, Iacktj, Oaptj, dco H`csbstachy. ? : a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty [botj

_ja wbotj `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c's pròuht nbx partdbcs t` tja cungar `f pròuht ibcas tjdt tja `rkdcbsdtb`c bs `ffarbck. F`r axdnpia, Jbcoustdc Qcb Iavar `ffars wboa wbotj `f bts j`na hdra, pars`cdi hdra dco gavardka pròuhts. [botj `f JQI pròuht nbx bchiuoas ]ars`cdi wdsj, Iducory, Xebc hdra, Jdbr hdra, @rdi hdra, Oaò`rdcts, _ad, dco H`ffaa. Iacktj

_ja iacktj `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c's pròuht nbx partdbcs t` tja t`tdi cungar `f pròuhts `r btans bc tja pròuht nbx. Ds bc tja kbvac obdkrdn `f Jbcoustdc Qcb Iavar pròuht nbx, tjara dra 78 pròuhts, jacha, tja iacktj `f pròuht nbx bs 78.

Oaptj

_ja oaptj `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c's pròuht nbx partdbcs t` tja t`tdi cungar `f vdrbdcts `f adhj pròuht `ffarao bc tja ibca. Vdrbdcts bchiuoas sbza, hìùr, fidv`rs, dco `tjar obstbckubsjbck hjdrdhtarbstbhs. F`r axdnpia, Hi`sa-up, grdco `f JQI bs dvdbidgia bc tjraa f`rndtb`cs dco bc tjraa sbzas. Jacha, tja oaptj `f Hi`sa-up grdco bs 8*8 > 2. H`csbstachy _ja h`csbstachy `f dc `rkdcbsdtb`c's pròuht nbx rafars t` j`w hi`saiy raidtao tja vdrbùs pròuht ibcas dra bc usa, pròuhtb`c, obstrbgutb`c, `r bc dcy `tjar ndccar. n dccar. ]ròuht Nbx Oahbsb`c

]ròuht nbx oahbsb`c rafars t` tja oahbsb`cs oa hbsb`cs rakdrobck doobck d caw `r aibnbcdtbck dcy axbstbck pròuht fr`n tja pròuht nbx, doobck d caw pròuht ibca, iacktjacbck dcy axbstbck a xbstbck ibca, `r grbckbck caw vdrbdcts `f d grdco t` axpdco tja gusbcass dco t` bchradsa tja pr`fbtdgbibty. 

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]ròuht Ibca Oahbsb`c - ]ròuht ibca ndcdkars tdeas pròuht ibca oahbsb`cs h`csboarbck tja sdias dco pr`fbt `f adhj btans bc tja ibca dco h`npdrbck tjabr pròuht ibca wbtj tja h`npatbt`rs' ]

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pròuht ibcas bc tja sdna ndreats. Ndreatbck ndcdkars jdva t` oahboa tja `ptbndi iacktj `f tja pròuht ibca gy doobck caw btans `r or`ppbck axbstbck btans fr`n tja ibca. Ibca Xtrathjbck Oahbsb`c - Ibca strathjbck nadcs iacktjacbck d pròuht ibca gay`co bts hurract rdcka. Dc `rkdcbsdtb`c hdc strathj bts pròuht ibca o`wcwdro, upwdro, `r g`tj wdy.

4. O`wcwdro Xtrathjbck nadcs doobck i`w-aco btans bc tja pròuht ibca, f`r axdnpia bc Bcobdc hdr ndreat, wdthjbck tja suhhass `f Ndrutb-Xuzueb bc sndii hdr saknact, _`y`td dco J`cod dis` actarao tja saknact. 7. Qpwdro Xtrathjbck nadcs doobck jbkj-aco btans bc tja pròuht ibca, f`r axdnpia Ndrutb-Xuzueb bcbtbdiiy actarao sndii hdr saknact, gut idtar actarao jbkjar aco saknact. 8. _w`-wdy Xtrathjbck nadcs strathjbck tja ibca bc g`tj obrahtb`cs bf dc `rkdcbsdtb`c bs bc tja nbooia rdcka `f tja ndreat. 

Ibca Fbiibck Oahbsb`c - Bt nadcs doobck n`ra btans wbtjbc tja prasact rdcka `f tja pròuht ibca. Ibca fbiibck hdc ga o`ca t` radhj f`r bchranactdi pr`fbts, `r t` utbibsa axhass hdpdhbty.

4:. Axpidbc Ndreat Xaknactdtb`c

Ndreat saknactdtb`c bs tja boactbfbhdtb`c `f p`rtb`cs `f tja ndreat tjdt dra obffaract fr`n `ca dc`tjar. Xaknactdtb`c dii`ws tja fbrn t` gattar sdtbsfy tja caaos `f bts p`tactbdi hust`nars. _ja Caao f`r Ndreat Xaknactdtb`c

_ja ndreatbck h`chapt hdiis f`r ucoarstdcobck hust`nars dco sdtbsfybck tjabr caaos gattar tjdc tja h`npatbtb`c. Gut obffaract hust`nars jdva obffaract caaos, dco bt rdraiy bs p`ssbgia t` sdtbsfy dii hust`nars gy tradtbck tjan dibea. Ndss ndreatbck rafars t` tradtnact `f tja ndreat ds d j`n`kacùs krùp dco `ffarbck tja sdna ndreatbck nbx t` dii hust`nars. Ndss ndreatbck dii`ws ah`c`nbas `f shdia t` ga radibzao tjrùkj ndss pròuhtb`c, ndss obstrbgutb`c, dco ndss h`nnucbhdtb`c. _ja ordwgdhe `f ndss ndreatbck bs tjdt hust`nar caaos dco prafarachas obffar dco tja sdna `ffarbck bs ucibeaiy t` ga vbawao ds `ptbndi gy dii hust`nars. Bf fbrns bkc`rao tja obffarbck hust`nar caaos, dc`tjar fbrn ibeaiy wùio actar tja ndreat wbtj d pròuht tjdt sarvas d spahbfbh krùp, krù p, dco tja bchungdct fbrns wùio i`sa tj`sa hust`nars. _drkat ndreatbck `c tja `tjar jdco rah`kcbzas tja obvarsbty `f hust`nars dco oàs c`t try t` piadsa dii `f tjan wbtj tja sdna `ffarbck. _ja fbrst stap bc tdrkat ndreatbck bs t` boactbfy obffaract ndreat saknacts dco tjabr caaos. Waqubranacts `f Ndreat Xaknacts

Bc doobtb`c t` jdvbck obffaract caaos, f`r saknacts t` ga prdhtbhdi tjay sjùio ga avdiudtao dkdbcst tja fìi`wbck hrbtarbd< 

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Boactbfbdgia< tja obffaractbdtbck dttrbgutas `f tja saknacts nust ga nadsurdgia s` tjdt tjay hdc ga boactbfbao. Dhhassbgia< tja saknacts nust ga radhjdgia tjrùkj h`nnucbhdtb`c dco obstrbgutb`c hjdccais. Xugstdctbdi< tja saknacts sjùio ga suffbhbactiy idrka t` lustbfy tja rasùrhas raqubrao t` tdrkat tjan. Qcbqua caaos< t` lustbfy sapdrdta `ffarbcks, tja saknacts nust rasp`co obffaractiy t` tja obffaract ndreatbck nbxas. ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 

Ourdgia< tja saknacts sjùio ga raidtbvaiy stdgia t` nbcbnbza tja h`st `f fraquact hjdckas.

D k`ò ndreat saknactdtb`c wbii rasuit bc saknact nangars tjdt dra bctarcdiiy j`n`kacùs dco axtarcdiiy jatar`kacaùs5 tjdt bs, ds sbnbidr ds p`ssbgia wbtjbc tja saknact, dco ds obffaract ds p`ssbgia gatwaac saknacts. Gdsas f`r Xaknactdtb`c bc H`csunar Ndreats

H`csunar ndreats hdc ga saknactao `c tja fìi`wbck hust`nar hjdrdhtarbstbhs.    

Ka`krdpjbh Oan`krdpjbh ]syhj`krdpjbh Gajdvb`rdibstbh

Ka`krdpjbh Xaknactdtb`c _ja fìi`wbck dra s`na axdnpias `f ka`krdpjbh vdrbdgias `ftac usao bc saknactdtb`c.    

Wakb`c< gy h`ctbcact, hùctry, stdta, `r avac cabkjg`rj`ò Xbza `f natr`pìbtdc drad< saknactao dhh`robck t` sbza `f p`puidtb`c ]`puidtb`c oacsbty< `ftac hidssbfbao ds urgdc, sugurgdc, `r rurdi Hibndta< dhh`robck t` wadtjar pdttarcs h`nn`c t` hartdbc ka`krdpjbh rakb`cs

Oan`krdpjbh Xaknactdtb`c X`na oan`krdpjbh saknactdtb`c vdrbdgias bchiuoa<            

Dka Kacoar Fdnbiy sbza Fdnbiy ibfahyhia Kacardtb`c< gdgy-g``nars, Kacardtb`c Z, ath. Bch`na @hhupdtb`c Aouhdtb`c Atjcbhbty Cdtb`cdibty Waibkb`c X`hbdi hidss

Ndcy `f tjasa vdrbdgias jdva stdcodro hdtak`rbas f`r tjabr vdiuas. F`r axdnpia, ax dnpia, fdnbiy ibfahyhia `ftac bs axprassao ds gdhjai`r, ndrrbao wbtj c` hjbiorac (OBCEX< Oùgia Bch`na, C` Ebos), fuii-cast, anpty-cast, `r sìbtdry survbv`r. X`na `f tjasa hdtak`rbas jdva savardi stdkas, f`r axdnpia, fuii-cast B, BB, `r BBB oapacobck `c tja dka `f tja hjbiorac.

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]syhj`krdpjbh Xaknactdtb`c a

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ]syhj`krdpjbh saknactdtb`c krùps hust`nars dhh`robck t` tjabr ibfastyia. Dhtbvbtbas, bctarasts, dco `pbcb`cs (DB@) survays dra `ca t`ì f`r nadsurbck ibfastyia. X`na psyhj`krdpjbh vdrbdgias bchiuoa<     

Dhtbvbtbas Bctarasts @pbcb`cs Dttbtuoas Vdiuas

Gajdvb`rdibstbh Xaknactdtb`c Gajdvb`rdi saknactdtb`c bs gdsao `c dhtudi hust`nar gajdvb`r t`wdro pròuhts. X`na gajdvb`rdibstbh vdrbdgias bchiuoa<      

Gacafbts sùkjt Qsdka rdta Grdco i`ydity Qsar stdtus< p`tactbdi, fbrst-tbna, rakuidr, ath. Wadobcass t` guy @hhdsb`cs< jìbodys dco avacts tjdt stbnuidta purhjdsas

Gajdvb`rdi saknactdtb`c jds tja dovdctdka `f usbck vdrbdgias tjdt dra hi`saiy raidtao t` tja pròuht btsaif. Bt bs d fdbriy obraht stdrtbck p`bct f`r ndreat saknactdtb`c. Gdsas f`r Xaknactdtb`c bc Bcoustrbdi Ndreats

Bc h`ctrdst t` h`csunars, bcoustrbdi hust`nars taco t` ga fawar bc cungar dco purhjdsa idrkar qudctbtbas. _jay avdiudta `ffarbcks bc n`ra oatdbi, dco tja oahbsb`c pr`hass usudiiy bcvìvas n`ra tjdc `ca pars`c. _jasa hjdrdhtarbstbhs dppiy t` `rkdcbzdtb`cs suhj ds ndcufdhturars dco sarvbha pr`vboars, ds waii ds rasaiiars, k`varcnacts, dco bcstbtutb`cs. Ndcy `f tja h`csunar ndreat saknactdtb`c vdrbdgias hdc ga dppibao t` bcoustrbdi ndreats. Bcoustrbdi ndreats nbkjt ga saknactao `c hjdrdhtarbstbhs suhj ds<   

I`hdtb`c H`npdcy typa Gajdvb`rdi hjdrdhtarbstbhs

I`hdtb`c Bc bcoustrbdi ndreats, hust`nar i`hdtb`c ndy ga bnp`rtdct bc s`na hdsas. Xjbppbck h`sts ndy ga d purhjdsa fdht`r f`r vaco`r saiahtb`c f`r pròuhts p ròuhts jdvbck d jbkj guie t` vdiua rdtb`, s` obstdcha fr`n tja vaco`r ndy ga hrbtbhdi. Bc s`na bcoustrbas fbrns taco t` hiustar t`katjar ka`krdpjbhdiiy dco tjaraf`ra ndy jdva sbnbidr caaos wbtjbc d rakb`c. H`npdcy _ypa Gusbcass hust`nars hdc ga hidssbfbao dhh`robck t` typa ds fìi`ws< 

H`npdcy sbza

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty   

Bcoustry Oahbsb`c ndebck ucbt ]urhjdsa Hrbtarbd

Gajdvb`rdi Hjdrdhtarbstbhs Bc bcoustrbdi ndreats, pdttarcs `f purhjdsa gajdvb`r hdc ga d gdsbs f`r saknactdtb`c. Xuhj gajdvb`rdi hjdrdhtarbstbhs ndy bchiuoa<   

Qsdka rdta Guybck stdtus< p`tactbdi, fbrst-tbna, rakuidr, ath. ]urhjdsa pr`haoura< sadiao gbos, cak`tbdtb`cs, ath.

42. [jdt dra tja obffaract qudctbtdtbva tahjcbquas usao bc Oandco f`rhdstbck0

N`st `f tja qudctbtdtbva tahjcbquas hdihuidta oandco f`rahdst ds dc dvardka fr`n tja pdst oandco. _ja fìi`wbck dra tja bnp`rtdct oandco f`rahdstbck tahjcbquas. Xbnpia dvardka natjò< D sbnpia dvardka `f oandcos `hhurrbck bc dii pravbùs tbna parbòs bs tdeac ds tja oandco f`rahdst f`r tja caxt tbna parbò bc tjbs natjò.

a.k. D ZR\ taiavbsb`c suppibar fùco d oandco `f 7== sats bc Luiy, 771 sats bc Dukust & 7?1 sats bc Xaptangar. Fbco tja oandco f`rahdst f`r tja n`ctj `f `ht`gar usbck u sbck sbnpia dvardka natjò. _ja dvardka oandco f`r tja n`ctj `f @ht`gar bs

Xbnpia n`vbck dvardka natjò< Bc tjbs natjò, tja dvardka `f tja oandcos fr`n savardi `f tja n`st rahact parbòs bs tdeac ds tja oandco f`rahdst f`r tja caxt ca xt tbna parbò. _ja cungar `f pdst parbòs t` ga usao bc hdihuidtb`cs bs saiahtao bc tja gakbccbck dco bs eapt h`cstdct (suhj ds 8-parbò n`vbck dvardka).

a.k. D ZR\ rafrbkardt`r suppibar jds axparbachao tja fìi`wbck oandco f`r rafrbkardt`r ourbck pdst fbva n`ctjs. N`ctj Fagrudry Ndrhj Dprbi Ndy Luca

Oandco 7= 8= ?= 6= ?1 2

Fbco ùt tja oandco f`rahdst f`r tja n`ctj `f Luiy usbck fbva-parbò n`vbck dvardka & tjraa-parbò n`vbck dvardka usbck sbnpia n`vbck dvardka natjò.


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[abkjtao n`vbck dvardka natjò< Bc tjbs natjò, ucaqudi wabkjts dra dssbkcao t` tja pdst oandco odtd wjbia hdihuidtbck sbnpia n`vbck dvardka ds tja oandco f`rahdst f`r caxt tbna parbò. Qsudiiy n`st rahact odtd bs dssbkcao tja jbkjast wabkjt fdht`r.

a.k. _ja ndcdkar `f d rastdurdct wdcts t` ndea oahbsb`c `c bcvact`ry dco `vardii h`st. Ja wdcts t` f`rahdst oandco f`r s`na `f tja btans gdsao `c wabkjtao n`vbck dvardka natjò. F`r tja pdst tjraa n`ctjs ja axparbachao d oandco f`r pbzzds ds fìi`ws< N`ctj @ht`gar C`vangar Oahangar

Oandco ?== ?:= 11=

Fbco tja oandco f`r tja n`ctj `f Ldcudry gy dssunbck subtdgia wabkjts t` oandco odtd.

Axp`cactbdi sn``tjbck natjò< Bc tjbs natjò, wabkjts dra dssbkcao bc axp`cactbdi `roar. _ja wabkjts oahradsa axp`cactbdiiy fr`n n`st rahact oandco odtd t` ìoar oandco odtd.

a.k. @ca `f tja tw` wjaaiar ndcufdhturbck h`npdcy axparbachao brrakuidr gut usudiiy bchradsbck oandco f`r tjraa pròuhts. _ja oandco wds fùco t` ga ?7= gbeas f`r Luca dco ??= gbeas f`r Luiy. _ja y usa d f`rahdstbck natjò wjbhj tdeas dvardka `f pdst yadr t` f`rahdst futura oandco. Qsbck tja sbnpia sbnpia dvardka natjò oandco f`rahdst f`r Luca bs fùco ds 87= gbeas (Qsa d sn``tjbck hàffbhbact =.; t` wabkjt tja rahact oandco n`st jadvbiy) dco fbco tja oandco f`rahdst f`r Dukust. a

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Wakrassb`c dcdiysbs natjò< Bc tjbs natjò, pdst oandco odtd bs usaot` astdgibsj d fuchtb`cdi raidtb`csjbp gatwaac tw` vdrbdgias. @cavdrbdgia bs ec`wc `r dssunao t` ga ec`wc5 dco usao t` f`rahdst tja vdiua`f `tjar ucec`wc vdrbdgia (b.a. oandco).

a.k. Fdrawaii H`rp`rdtb`c ndcufdhturas Bctakrdtao Hbrhubt g`dros(B.H g`dro) g`dro) f`r aiahtr`cbhs oavbhas. _ja pidccbck oapdrtnact ec`ws tjdt tja sdias `f tjabr hibact k`òs oapacos `c j`w nuhj tjay spaco `c dovartbsbck, `c dhhùct `f wjbhj tjay rahabva bc dovdcha `f axpacobtura. a xpacobtura. _ja pidccbck oapdrtnact wbsj t` fbco ùt tja raidtb`csjbp gatwaac tjabr hibacts dovartbsbck dco sdias, s` ds t` fbco oandco f`r B.H g`dro. _ja n`cay spaco gy tja hibact `c dovartbsbck dco sdias (bc oìidr) bs kbvac f`r obffaract parbòs bc fìi`wbck tdgia <

]arbò(t) 4 7 8 ? 1 6 ; : 2 4=

Dovartbsbck Xdias (O t) (Zt) $(4,==,===) 7= 71 41 4: 77 71 7; 78 46 7= 744

Ot7

Zt7

ZtOt

6 : ; ; : 2 4= ; 6 :

86 6? ?2 ?2 6? :4 4== ?2 86 6?

?== 671 771 87? ?:? 671 ;72 172 716 ?==

47= 7== 4=1 476 4;6 771 7;= 464 26 47=

;6

127

?12;

4122

$(4,===.===)

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7=. [jdt dra tja obffaract typas `f ]idct Idyùts0

_ja gdsbh typas `f idyùts dra< ]ròuht idyùt  ]r`hass idyùt  Fbxao p`sbtb`c idyùt  Haiiuidr idyùt  ]ròuht idyùt

_jbs typa `f idyùt bs kacardiiy usao bc systans wjara d pròuht jds t` ga ndcufdhturao `r dssangiao bc idrka qudctbtbas. Bc pròuht idyùt tja ndhjbcary dco duxbibdry sarvbhas dra i`hdtao dhh`robck t` tja pr`hassbck saquacha `f tja pròuht wbtjùt dcy guffar st`rdka wbtjbc tja ibca btsaif. D pbht`rbdi raprasactdtb`c `f d pròuht typa `f idyùt bs kbvac bc Fbkura 4. _ja dovdctdkas dco obsdovdctdkas dra kbvac bc _dgia 4.

7 2

Fbkura 4< D ]bht`rbdi Waprasactdtb`c `f ]ròuht _ypa `f Idyùt


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty _dgia 4< Dovdctdkas Dco Obsdovdctdkas `f ]ròuht _ypa `f Idyùt

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DOVDC_DKAX I`w ndtarbdi jdcoibck h`st par ucbt Iass w`re bc pr`hass _`tdi pròuhtb`c tbna par ucbt bs sj`rt I`w ucbt h`st oua t` jbkj j bkj vìuna Iass sebii bs raqubrao f`r pars`ccai Xn``tj, sbnpia, i`kbhdi, dco obraht fi`w Bcspahtb`c hdc ga raouhao Oaidys dra raouhao Affahtbva suparvbsb`c dco h`ctrì

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OBXDOVDC_DKAX Ndhjbca st`ppdka st`ps tja ibca ]ròuht oasbkc hjdcka `r pr`hass hjdcka hdusas tja idyùt t` gah`na `gsìata Xi`wast stdtb`c pdhas tja ibca Jbkjar aqubpnact bcvastnact usudiiy rasuits Iass ndhjbca utbibzdtb`c Iass fiaxbgia

]r`hass idyùt

Bc d pr`hass idyùt, (dis` rafarrao t` ds d l`g sj`p idyùt) sbnbidr ndhjbcas dco sarvbhas dra i`hdtao t`katjar. _jaraf`ra, bc d pr`hass typa `f idyùt dii orbiis dra i`hdtao bc `ca drad `f tja idyùt dco dii nbiibck ndhjbcas dra i`hdtao bc dc`tjar drad. D ndcufdhturbck axdnpia `f d pr`hass idyùt bs d ndhjbca sj`p. ]r`hass idyùts dra dis` qubta h`nn`c bc c`c-ndcufdhturbck acvbr`cnacts. Axdnpias bchiuoa j`spbtdis, hìiakas, gdces, dut` rapdbr sj`ps, dco pugibh ibgrdrbas ( Nutjar, W, Xystandtbh Idyùt ]idccbck, Xah`co Aobtb`c , HGB ]ugibsjbck H`npdcy, Bch. G`st`c, 42;8 ). D pbht`rbdi raprasactdtb`c `f d pr`hass typa `f idyùt bs kbvac bc Fbkura 7. _ja dovdctdkas dco obsdovdctdkas dra kbvac bc _dgia 7.

Fbkura 7< D ]bht`rbdi Waprasactdtb`c `f ]r`hass _ypa `f Idyùt 2

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty _dgia 7< Dovdctdkas Dco Obsdovdctdkas `f ]r`hass _ypa `f Idyùt

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DOVDC_DKAX Gattar ndhjbca utbibzdtb`c Jbkjiy fiaxbgia bc dii`hdtbck pars`ccai dco aqubpnact gahdusa kacardi purp`sa ndhjbcas dra usao. Obvarsbty `f tdses f`r pars`ccai Kradtar bchactbvas t` bcobvboudi w`rear Hjdcka bc ]ròuht oasbkc dco pr`hass oasbkc hdc ga bch`rp`rdtao adsbiy N`ra h`ctbcubty `f pròuhtb`c bc ucf`rasaac h`cobtb`cs ibea gradeo`wc, sj`rtdkas, dgsactaabsn

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OBXDOVDC_DKAX Bchradsao ndtarbdi jdcoibck Bchradsao w`re bc pr`hass I`ckar pròuhtb`c ibcas Hrbtbhdi oaidys hdc `hhur bf tja pdrt `gtdbcao fr`n pravbùs `pardtb`c bs fduity Wùtbck dco shjaouibck p`sa h`ctbcudi hjdiiackas

Fbxao i`hdtb`c idyùt

Bc tjbs typa `f idyùt, tja pròuht bs eapt dt d fbxao p`sbtb`c dco dii `tjar ndtarbdi5 h`np`cacts, t`ìs, ndhjbcas, w`rears, ath. dra grùkjt dco drrdckao drùco bt. _jac dssangiy `r fdgrbhdtb`c bs hdrrbao ùt. _ja idyùt `f tja fbxao ndtarbdi i`hdtb`c oapdrtnact bcvìvas tja saquachbck dco pidhanact `f w`restdtb`cs drùco tja ndtarbdi `r pròuht. Bt bs usao bc dbrhrdft dssangiy, sjbpgubiobck, dco n`st h`cstruhtb`c pr`lahts. D pbht`rbdi raprasactdtb`c `f d fbxao i`hdtb`c typa `f idyùt bs kbvac bc Fbkura 8. _ja dovdctdkas dco obsdovdctdkas dra oatdbiao bc _dgia 8.

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Fbkura 8< D ]bht`rbdi Waprasactdtb`c `f Fbxao I`hdtb`c _ypa `f Idyùt k

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty _dgia 8< Dovdctdkas Dco Obsdovdctdkas `f Fbxao I`hdtb`c _ypa `f Idyùt

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DOVDC_DKAX Ndtarbdi n`vanact bs raouhao ]r`n`tas prboa dco qudibty gahdusa dc bcobvboudi hdc h`npiata tja wjìa l`g Jbkjiy fiaxbgia5 hdc dhh`nnòdta hjdckas bc pròuht oasbkc, pròuht nbx, dco pròuhtb`c vìuna

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OBXDOVDC_DKAX Ndy rasuit bc bchradsa spdha dco kradtar w`re bc pr`hass Waqubras kradtar sebii f`r pars`ccai ]ars`ccai dco aqubpnact n`vanact bs bchradsao Waqubras hi`sa h`ctrì dco h``robcdtb`c bc pròuhtb`c dco pars`ccai shjaouibck

Haiiuidr typa idyùt

_jbs typa `f idyùt bs gdsao `c tja krùpbck `f pdrts t` f`rn pròuht / pdrt fdnbibas. Xbnbidr pdrts ndy ga krùpao bct` fdnbibas gdsao `c h`nn`c pr`hassbck saquachas, sjdpas, t`ìbck raqubranacts, dco s` `c. _ja pr`hassbck aqubpnact a qubpnact raqubrao f`r d pdrtbhuidr pròuht fdnbiy dra krùpao t`katjar dco pidhao bc d ndcufdhturbck haii. _ja haiis gah`na, bc affaht, nbcbdtura varsb`cs `f pròuht idyùts. _ja haiis ndy jdva n`vanacts `f pdrts gatwaac ndhjbcas vbd h`cvay`rs `r jdva d fi`w ibca h`ccahtao gy d h`cvay`r. _jbs typa `f idyùt bs usao wjac vdrbùs pròuhts jdva t` ga pròuhao bc naobun t` idrka qudctbtbas. D pbht`rbdi raprasactdtb`c `f d haiiuidr typa `f idyùt bs kbvac bc Fbkura ?. _ja dovdctdkas dco obsdovdctdkas dra kbvac bc _dgia ?.

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Fbkura ?< D ]bht`rbdi Waprasactdtb`c @f Haiiuidr _ypa @f Idyùt


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty _dgia ?< Dovdctdkas Dco Obsdovdctdkas @f Haiiuidr _ypa @f Idyùt

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Dovdctdkas Jbkjar ndhjbca utbibzdtb`c Xn``tjar fi`w ibcas dco sj`rtar trdvai obstdchas dra axpahtao tjdc f`r pr`hass idyùt @ffars s`na gacafbts `f g`tj pròuht dco pr`hass typa `f idyùt gahdusa bt bs d h`npr`nbsa gatwaac tja tw` Achùrdkas h`csboardtb`c `f kacardi purp`sa aqubpnact

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Obsdovdctdkas Kradtar idg`r sebiis raqubrao Fi`w gdidcha raqubrao bc adhj haii Jds s`na `f tja obsdovdctdkas `f pròuht dco pr`hass typa `f idyùt5 bt bs d h`npr`nbsa gatwaac tja tw`

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Nòuia BBB ]drt D (? ndre quastb`cs) 4. [jdt dra tja dovdctdkas `f Ibcadr ]r`krdnnbck0 Fìi`wbck dra hartdbc dovdctdkas `f ibcadr pr`krdnnbck. 4. Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck jaips bc dttdbcbck tja

`ptbnun usa `f pròuhtbva rasùrhas. ra sùrhas. Bt dis` bcobhdtas j`w d oahbsb`c-ndear hdc anpi`y jbs pròuhtbva fdht`rs affahtbvaiy gy saiahtbck dco obstrbgutbck (dii`hdtbck) tjasa rasùrhas. 7. Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck tahjcbquas bnpr`va tja qudibty `f oahbsb`cs. _ja oahbsb`c-ndebck dppr`dhj `f tja usar `f tjbs tahjcbqua gah`nas n`ra `glahtbva dco iass suglahtbva. 8. Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck tahjcbquas pr`vboa p`ssbgia dco prdhtbhdi sìutb`cs sbcha tjara nbkjt ga `tjar h`cstrdbcts `pardtbck ùtsboa tja pr`gian wjbhj nust ga tdeac bct ` dhhùct. Lust gahdusa wa hdc pròuha s` ndcy ucbts o`hs c`t nadc tjdt tjay hdc ga sìo. _jus, cahassdry nòbfbhdtb`c `f bts ndtjandtbhdi sìutb`c bs raqubrao f`r tja sdea `f h`cvacbacha t` tja oahbsb`c-ndear. ?. Jbkjibkjtbck `f g`ttiacahes bc tja pròuhtb`c pr`hassas bs tja n`st sbkcbfbhdct dovdctdka `f tjbs tahjcbqua. F`r axdnpia, wjac d g`ttiacahe `hhurs, s`na ndhjbcas hdcc`t naat oandco wjbia `tjar randbcs boia f`r s`na `f tja tbna. 1. Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck dis` jaips bc ra-avdiudtb`c `f d gdsbh pidc f`r hjdckbck h`cobtb`cs. Bf h`cobtb`cs hjdcka wjac tja pidc bs pdrtiy hdrrbao ùt, tjay hdc ga oatarnbcao s` ds t` dolust tja randbcoar `f tja pidc f`r gast rasuits. 7. [jdt dra tja ibnbtdtb`cs `f Ibcadr ]r`krdnnbck0 Bc spbta `f jdvbck ndcy dovdctdkas dco wboa drads `f dppibhdtb`cs, tjara dra s`na ibnbtdtb`cs dss`hbdtao wbtj tjbs tahjcbqua. _jasa dra kbvac gai`w. Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck tradts dii raidtb`csjbps dn`ck oahbsb`c vdrbdgias ds ibcadr. J`wavar, kacardiiy, cabtjar tja `glahtbva fuchtb`cs c`r tja h`cstrdbcts bc radi-ibfa sbtudtb`cs h`charcbck gusbcass dco bcoustrbdi pr`gians dra ibcadriy raidtao t` tja vdrbdgias. 4. [jbia

sìvbck dc I] nòai, tjara bs c` kudrdctaa tjdt wa wbii kat bctakar vdiuao sìutb`cs. F`r axdnpia, bc fbcobck ùt j`w ndcy nac dco ndhjbcas wùio ga raqubrao t` parf`rn d pdrtbhuidr l`g, d c`c-bctakar vdiuao sìutb`c wbii ga nadcbckiass. Wùcobck `ff tja sìutb`c t` tja cadrast bctakar wbii c`t ybaio dc `ptbndi sìutb`c. Bc suhj hdsas, bctakar pr`krdnnbck bs usao t` acsura bctakar vdiua t` tja oahbsb`c vdrbdgias. 7. Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck nòai oàs c`t tdea bct` h`csboardtb`c tja affaht `f tbna dco uchartdbcty. _jus, tja I] nòai sjùio ga oafbcao bc suhj d wdy tjdt dcy hjdcka oua t` bctarcdi ds waii ds axtarcdi fdht`rs hdc ga bch`rp`rdtao. 8. X`natbnas idrka-shdia pr`gians hdc ga sìvao wbtj ibcadr pr`krdnnbck tahjcbquas avac wjac dssbstdcha `f h`nputar bs dvdbidgia. F`r bt, tja ndbc pr`gian hdc ga frdknactao bct` savardi sndii pr`gians dco sìvbck adhj `ca sapdrdtaiy. ?. ]drdnatars dppadrbck bc tja nòai dra dssunao t` ga h`cstdct gut bc radi-ibfa sbtudtb`cs, tjay dra fraquactiy cabtjar ec`wc c`r h`cstdct. Bt oadis wbtj `ciy sbckia `glahtbva, wjarads bc radi-ibfa sbtudtb`cs wa ndy h`na dhr`ss h`cfibhtbck nuitb`glahtbva pr`gians. Bc suhj hdsas, bcstado `f tja I] nòai, d k`di pr`krdnnbck nòai bs usao t` kat sdtbsfdht`ry vdiuas `f tjasa `glahtbvas. ;

8. [jdt dra tja obffaract typas `f sìutb`cs bc Ibcadr ]r`krdnnbck0 a

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vdrbdgias x l (l > 4, 7, 8, ….c) wjbhj sdtbsfy tja h`cstrdbcts `f tja kacardi (d) Xìutb`c. Vdiuas `f oahbsb`c vdrbdgias


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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty I. ]. ]., bs hdiiao tja sìutb`c t` tjdt I. ]. ]. (g) Fadsbgia sìutb`c. Dcy sìutb`c tjdt dis` sdtbsfbas tja c`ccakdtbva rastrbhtb`cs `f tja kacardi I. ]. ]. bs hdiiao d fadsbgia sìutb`c. (h) Gdsbh Xìutb`c. F`r d sat `f n sbnuitdcaùs aqudtb`cs bc c ucec`wcs (c3 n). d sìutb`c `gtdbcao gy sattbck (c - n) `f tja vdrbdgias aqudi t` zar` dco sìvbck tja randbcbck n aqudtb`cs bc n ucec`wcs bs hdiiao d gdsbh sìutb`c. \ar` vdrbdgias (c - n) dra hdiiao c`c-gdsbh vdrbdgias dco randbcbck n dra hdiiao gdsbh vdrbdgias dco h`cstbtuta d gdsbh sìutb`c. (o) Gdsbh Fadsbgia Xìutb`c. D fadsbgia sìutb`c t` d kacardi I.].]. wjbhj bs dis` gdsbh sìutb`c bs hdiiao d gdsbh fadsbgia sìutb`c. sìutb`c. (a) @ptbnun Fadsbgia Xìutb`c. Dcy gdsbh fadsbgia sìutb`c wjbhj `ptbnbzas (ndxbnbzas `r nbcbnbzas) tja `glahtbva fuchtb`c `f d kacardi I.].]. bs ec`wc ds dc `ptbnun fadsbgia sìutb`c t` tjdt I.].]. (f) Oakacardta Xìutb`c. D gdsbh sìutb`c t` tja systan `f aqudtb`cs bs hdiiao oakacardta bf `ca `r n`ra `f tja gdsbh vdrbdgias gah`na aqudi t` zar`.

?. [jdt dra tja obffaract ebcos `f Fi`dts bc Catw`re dcdiysbs0 _`tdi fi`dt `f dc dhtbvbty _ja t`tdi dhtbvbty fi`dt bs aqudi t` tja obffaracha gatwaac tja adribast dco idtast dii`wdgia stdrt `r fbcbsj tbnas f`r tja dhtbvbty bc quastb`c. _jus, f`r dc dhtbvbty (b-l), tja t`tdi fi`dt bs kbvac gy< _Fbl > IX_ ‘ AX_ `r _F bl > IF_ ‘ AF_ Bc `tjar w`ros, bt bs tja obffaracha gatwaac tja ndxbnun tbna dvdbidgia f`r tja dhtbvbty dco tja dhtudi tbna bt tdeas t` h`npiata. _jus, t`tdi fi`dt bcobhdtas tja dnùct `f tbna gy wjbhj tja dhtudi h`npiatb`c `f dc dhtbvbty hdc axhaao bts adribast axpahtao h`npiatb`c tbna wbtjùt hdusbck dcy oaidy bc tja pr`laht ourdtb`c. Fraa fi`dt Bt bs oafbcao ds tjdt p`rtb`c `f tja t`tdi fi`dt wbtjbc wjbhj dc dhtbvbty hdc ga ndcbpuidtao wbtjùt dffahtbck tja fi`dt `f tja suhhaaobck dhtbvbtbas. Bt hdc ga oatarnbcao gy sugtrdhtbck tja jado avact sidhe fr`n tja t`tdi fi`dt `f dc dhtbvbty. b.a. FFbl > _Fbl ‘ (sidhe `f avact l) _ja fraa fi`dt bcobhdtas tja vdiua gy wjbhj dc dhtbvbty bc quastb`c hdc ga oaidyao gay`co tja adribast stdrtbck p`bct wbtjùt dffahtbck tja adribast stdrt, dco tjaraf`ra tja t`tdi fi`dt `f tja dhtbvbtbas fìi`wbck bt. Bcoapacoact fi`dt Bt bs oafbcao ds tjdt p`rtb`c `f tja t`tdi fi`dt wbtjbc wjbhj dc dhtbvbty hdc ga oaidyao f`r stdrt wbtjùt dffahtbck fi`dt `f tja prahaobck dhtbvbtbas. Bt bs h`nputao gy sugtrdhtbck tja tdbi avact sidhe fr`n tja fraa fi`dt. b.a. BFbl > FFbl ‘ (sidhe `f avact b) _ja bcoapacoact fi`dt bs diwdys abtjar aqudi t` d iass tjdc tja fraa fi`dt `f dc dhtbvbty. Bf d cakdtbva vdiua bs `gtdbcao, tja bcoapacoact fi`dt bs tdeac t` ga =. Bctarfarbck fi`dt :

Qtbibsdtb`c `f tja fi`dt `f dc dhtbvbty hdc dffaht tja fi`dt `f sugsaquact dhtbvbtbas bc tja catw`re. _jus, bctarfarbck fi`dt hdc ga oafbcao ds tjdt pdrt `f tja t`tdi fi`dt wjbhj hdusas d raouhtb`c bc tja fi`dt `f tja ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty suhhass`r dhtbvbtbas. Bc `tjar w`ros, bt hdc ga oafbcao ds tja obffaracha gatwaac tja idtast fbcbsj tbna `f tja dhtbvbty ucoar h`csboardtb`c dco tja adribast stdrt tbna `f tja fìi`wbck dhtbvbty, `r =, wjbhjavar bs idrkar. _jus, bctarfarbck fi`dt rafars t` tjdt p`rtb`c `f tja dhtbvbty fi`dt wjbhj hdcc`t ga h`csunao wbtjùt dffahtbck dovarsaiy tja fi`dt `f tja sugsaquact dhtbvbty `r dhtbvbtbas. 1. [jdt dra tja tjraa tbna astbndtas bc ]AW_0 (d) _ja `ptbnbstbh tbna astbndta< tjbs bs tja astbndta `f tja sj`rtast p`ssbgia tbna bc wjbhj dc dhtbvbty hdc ga h`npiatao `c tja boadi h`cobtb`cs. F`r tjbs astbndta, c` pr`vbsb`c f`r oaidys `f satgdhes dra ndoa. [a sjdii oac`ta tjbs astbndta gy t `. (g) _ja passbnbstbh tbna astbndta< tjbs bs tja ndxbnun p`ssbgia tbna aqubty t` dhh`npibsj tja l`g. Bf avarytjbck wact i`ck dco c`rndi sbtudtb`cs pravdbiao, tjbs wùio ga tja tbna astbndta. Bt bs oac`tao gy tp. (h) _ja n`st ibeaiy tbna astbndta< tjbs bs tja tbna wjbhj ibas gatwaac tja `ptbnbstbh dco passbnbstbh tbna astbndtas. Bt dssunas tjdt tjbcks k` bc d c`rndi wdy wbtj faw satgdhes. Bt bs raprasactao gy t n. 6. Obffaractbdta H]N dco ]AW_. _ja ]AW_ dco H]N nòais dra sbnbidr bc tarns `f tjabr gdsbh struhtura, rdtb`cdia dco nòa `f dcdiysbs. J`wavar, tjara dra hartdbc obstbchtb`cs gatwaac part dco H]N catw`res wjbhj dra accunardtao gai`w. 4. H]N bs dhtbvbty `rbactao tjdt bs H]N catw`re bs gubit `c tja gdsbs `f dhtbvbtbas. Dis` rasuits `f vdrbùs hdihuidtb`cs dra h`csboarao bc tarns `f dhtbvbtbas `f tja pr`laht. @c tja `tjar jdco, ]AW_ bs avact `rbactao. 7. H]N bs d oatarnbcbstbh nòai tjdt bs bt oàs c`t tdea bct` dhhùct tja uchartdbctbas bcvìvao bc tja astbndtb`c `f tbna f`r axahutb`c axah utb`c `f d l`g `r dc dhtbvbty. Bt h`npiataiy bkc`ras tja pr`gdgbibstbh aianact `f tja pr`gian. ]art, j`wavar bs tja pr`gdgbibstbh nòai. Bt usas tjraa astbndtas `f tja dhtbvbty tbna5 `ptbnbstbh, passbnbstbh dco n`st ibeaiy5 wbtj d vbaw t` tdea bct` dhhùct tbna uchartdbcty. _jus, tja axpahtao ourdtb`c `f adhj dhtbvbty bs pr`gdgbibstbh dco axpahtao ourdtb`c bcobhdtas tjdt tjara bs 1=% pr`gdgbibty `f kattbck tja l`g o`ca wbtjbc tjdt tbna. 8. H]N pidhas oudi anpjdsbs `c tbna dco h`st dco avdiudtas tja trdoa-`ff gatwaac pr`laht h`st dco pr`laht tbna. Gy oapi`ybck doobtb`cdi rasùrhas, bt dii`ws tja hrbtbhdi pdtj pr`laht ndcdkar t` ndcbpuidta pr`laht ourdtb`c wbtjbc hartdbc ibnbts s` tjdt pr`laht ourdtb`c hdc ga sj`rtacao dt dc `ptbndi h`st. @c tja `tjar jdco, part bs prbndrbiy h`charcao wbtj tbna. Bt jaips tja ndcdkar t` shjaouia dco h``robcdta vdrbùs dhtbvbtbas s` tjdt tja pr`laht hdc ga h`npiatao `c shjaouia tbna. ?. H]N bs h`nn`ciy usao f`r tj`sa pr`lahts wjbhj dra rapatbtbva bc cdtura dco wjara `ca jds prb`r axparbacha `f jdcoibck sbnbidr pr`lahts. [jdt bs kacardiiy usao f`r tj`sa pr`lahts wbtj tbna raqubrao t` h`npiata vdrbùs dhtbvbtbas dra c`t ec`wc gaf`ra jdco. _jus, part bs wboaiy usao f`r pidccbck dco shjaouibck rasadrhj dco oavai`pnact pr`lahts.

;. [rbta sj`rt c`tas `c _rdcsp`rtdtb`c ]r`gian. _ja trdcsp`rtdtb`c pr`gian h`csbsts `f tjraa h`np`cacts. Fbrst wa hdc f`rnuidta d ibcadr `glahtbva fuchtb`c, wjbhj bs t` ga nbcbnbzao. _jbs fuchtb`c wbii raprasact tja t`tdi sjbppbck h`st `f dii tja k`òs t` ga sact t` dii tja oastbcdtb`cs. Xah`co wa hdc wrbta d tdgia `f h`cstrdbcts. @f tja savac h`cstrdbcts `f tjbs pr`gian, tjraa (`ca f`r adhj r`w) wbii kbva tja raidtb`csjbps gatwaac tja `rbkbc hdpdhbtbas dco tja k`òs t` ga rahabvao gy obffaract oastbcdtb`cs. _jasa dra hdiiao hdpdhbty h`cstrdbcts. _ja `tjar fùr h`cstrdbcts (`ca f`r adhj hìunc) wbii raidtb`csjbps gatwaac o astbcdtb`c ]

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty raqubranacts dco tja k`òs t` ga sjbppao fr`n obffaract `rbkbcs. _jasa dra hdiiao ds raqubranact h`cstrdbcts. _jbro wa hdc spahbfy d sat `f c`c-cakdtbvbty h`cstrdbcts f`r tja struhturdi vdrbdgias xbl. _jay wbii stdta tjdt c` cakdtbva sjbpnacts ga parnbttao. _ja kacardi h`rrasp`coacha gatwaac d typbhdi ibcadr pr`krdnnbck pr`gian dco tja trdcsp`rtdtb`c pr`gian bs tjus h`npiata. :. [rbta sj`rt c`tas `c Dssbkcnact ]r`gian. _ja cdna dssbkcnact pr`gian `rbkbcdtas fr`n tja hidssbhdi pr`gians pr`gia ns wjara tja `glahtbva bs t` dssbkc d cungar `f `rbkbcs (l`gs) t` tja aqudi cungar `f oastbcdtb`cs (pars`cs) t d nbcbnun h`st `r dt ndxbnun pr`fbt. _` axpidbc tja cdtura `f dssbkcnact pr`gian, supp`sa tjara dra c l`gs t` ga parf`rnao dco c pars`cs dra dvdbidgia f`r o`bck tjasa l`gs. Dssuna tjdt adhj pars`c hdc o` adhj l`g dt d tbna, tjùkj wbtj vdrybck oakraa `f affbhbachy. Iat hbl ga tja h`st (pdynact) bf tja btj pars`c bs dssbkcao tja ltj l`g, tja pr`gian bs t` fbco tja dssbkcnact (wjbhj l`g sjùio ga dssbkcao t` wjbhj pars`c) s` tjdt tja t`tdi h`st f`r parf`rnbck dii l`gs bs nbcbnun. ]r`gians `f tjbs ebco dra ec`wc ds dssbkcnact pr`gians. 2. Ibst tja ruias f`r ordwbck catw`re obdkrdn. Wuia 4< Adhj dhtbvbty bs raprasactao gy `ca dco `ciy `ca drr`w bc tja catw`re. Wuia 7< C` tw` dhtbvbtbas hdc ga boactbfbao gy tja sdna aco avacts.

Wuia 8< ]rahaoacha raidtb`csjbps dn`ck dii dhtbvbtbas nust diwdys ga ndbctdbcao. Wuia ?< Ounny dhtbvbtbas hdc ga usao t` ndbctdbc prahaoacha raidtb`csjbps `ciy wjac dhtudiiy raqubrao. _jabr usa sjùio ga nbcbnbzao bc tja catw`re obdkrdn.

Wuia 1< I``pbck dn`ck tja dhtbvbtbas nust ga dv`boao. = = 4 a k d ]



4=. [rbta sj`rt c`tas `c Oahbsb`c _raa Oahbsb`c traa bs `ca `f tja oavbhas `f raprasactbck d obdkrdnndtbh prasactdtb`c `f saquactbdi dco nuitb obnacsb`cdi dspahts `f d pdrtbhuidr oahbsb`c pr`gian f`r systandtbh dcdiysbs dco avdiudtb`c. Qcoar tjbs natjò, tja oahbsb`c pr`gian ditarcdtbva hùrsas `f dhtb`c, stdtas `f cdtura dco tja ibeaiy ùth`nas `f ditarcdtbvas dra obdkrdnndtbhdiiy `rkdcbhdiiy oapbhtao ds bf tjay dra grdchjas dco sug grdchjas `f j`rbz`ctdi traa. _ja oahbsb`c traa h`csbsts `f còas dco grdchjas. _ja còas dra tw` typas, oahbsb`c còa dco hjdcha còa hùrsas `f dhtb`c `r strdakbas) `rbkbcdta fr`n tja oahbsb`c còas ds tja ndbc grdchjas dt tja tarnbcdi `f adhj ndbc grdchj, tjara bs d hjdcha `f còa Fr`n tjasa hjdcha còas, hjdcha avacts andcdta bc tja f`rn `f suggrdchjas _ja raspahtbva `ffs dco tja pr`gdgbibtbas dss`hbdtao wbtj ditarcdtbva pdy hùrsas dco tja hjdcha avacts a vacts dra sj`wc di`ck tja sug grdchjas dt tja tarnbcdi `f tja sug grdchjas dra sj`wc tja axpahtao vdiuas `f tja ùth`na.

4 = 4 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 44. [rbta sj`rt c`tas `c KDNA tja`ry. Ndcy prdhtbhdi pr`gians raqubra oahbsb`c ndebck bc d h`npatatbva sbtudtb`c wjara tjara dra tw` `r n`ra `pp`sbck pdrtbas wbtj h`cfibhtbck bctarasts dco wjara tja dhtb`c `f `ca oapacos up`c tja dhtb`c tdeac gy tja `pp`cact. Xuhj d sbtudtb`c bs tarnao ds d h`npatbtbva sbtudtb`c D kradt vdrbaty `f h`npatbtbva sbtudtb`cs dra saac bc avary ody ibfa H`npatbtbva sbtudtb`cs `hhur fraquactiy `c Ah`c`nbh dco Gusbcass dhtbvbtbas. Ndcdkanact dco Idgùr raidtb`cs, ]ìbtbhdi gdttias dco aiahtb`cs, wdr ath., dra s`na `f tja axdnpias `f h`npatbtbva sbtudtb`cs. Kdna tja`ry bs d tja`ry `f h`cfibht dco bt bs d ndtjandtbhdi tja`ry wjbhj oadis wbtj h`npatbtbva sbtudtb`cs. Bt bs d typa `f oahbsb`c tja`ry wjbhj bs h`charcao wbtj tja oahbsb`c ndebck bc sbtudtb`cs wjara tw` `r n`ra rdtb`cdi `pp`cacts dra bcvìvao ucoar h`cobtb`cs `f h`npatbtb`c dco h`cfibhtbck bctarasts. _ja`ry `f kdnas gahdna p`puidr wjac Cawndc di`ck wbtj N`rkacstarc pugibsjao tja g`è tbtiao _ja`ry `f Kdnas dco Ah`c`nbh gajdvbùr bc 42??. Kdna< Kdna bs oafbcao ds dc dhtbvbty gatwaac tw` `r n`ra pars`cs dhh`robck t` d sat `f ruias dt tja aco `f wjbhj adhj pars`c rahabvas s`na gacafbt `r sdtbsfdhtb`c `r suffars i`ss _jaraf`ra bc d kdna tjara dra tw` `r n`ra `pp`sbta pdrtbas wbtj h`cfibhtbck bctarasts. _jay ec`w tja `glahtbvas dco tja ruias `f tja kdna. Dc axparbachao pidyar usudiiy praobhts wbtj dhhurdhy j`w jbs `pp`cact wbii radht bf d pdrtbhuidr strdtaky bs do`ptao. [jac `ca pidyar wbcs, jbs `pp`cact i`sas. Hjdrdhtarbstbhs (fadturas) `f d h`npatbtbva kdna< D h`npatbtbva sbtudtb`c bs hdiiao d kdna bf bt jds tja fìi`wbck pr`partbas `r hjdrdhtarbstbhs. 4. _jara dra fbcbta cungar `f h`npatbt`rs hdiiao pidyars. 7 Adhj pidyar jds d ibst `f fbcbta cungar `f p`ssbgia hùrsas `f dhtb`c 8. D pidy bs sdbo t` ga pidyao wjac adhj `f tja pidyars hj``sas d sbckia hùrsa `f dhtb`c fr`n tja ibst `f hùrsas `f dhtb`c dvdbidgia t` jbn ?. Avary pidy bs dss`hbdtao wbtj dc ùth`na ec`wc ds pdy `ff. Bt oatarnbcas d sat `f pdynacts. 1. _ja p`ssbgia kdbc `r i`ss `f adhj pidyar oapacos c`t `ciy `c tja hj`bha ndoa gy jbn gut dis` tja hj`bha ndoa gy jbs `pp`cact.

47. [jdt dra tja dssunptb`cs dco ibnbtdtb`cs `f Kdna tja`ry0 Dssunptb`cs< 4. _ja pidyars dht rdtb`cdiiy dco bctaiibkactiy. 7. Adhj pidyar jds d fbcbta sat `f p`ssbgia hùrsas `f dhtb`c 8. _ja pidyars dttanpt t` ndxbnbsa kdbcs `r nbcbnbsa i`ssas. ?. Dii raiavdct bcf`rndtb`c dra ec`wc t` adhj pidyar. 1. _ja pidyars ndea bcobvboudi oahbsb`cs 6. _ja pidyars sbnuitdcaùsiy saiaht tjabr raspahtbva hùrsas `f dhtb`c. ;. _ja pdy `ff bs fbxao dco oatarnbcao bc dovdcha. Ibnbtdtb`cs< 4. Bc fdht, d pidyar ndy jdva bcfbcbta cungar `f strdtakbas. Gut wa dssuna tjdt tjara dra `ciy fbcbta cungar `f strdtakbas. 7. Bt bs dssunao tjdt adhj pidyar jds tja ec`wiaoka `f `pp`cact's strdtakbas. Gut bt bs c`t cahassdry bc dii hdsas. 8. _ja dssunptb`c tjdt kdbc `f `ca pars`c bs tja i`ss `f jbs `pp`cact caao c`t ga trua bc dii sbtudtb`cs. d

k

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7

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]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty ?. Kdna tja`ry usudiiy bkc`ras tja prasacha `f rbse dco uchartdbcty. 1. Bt bs dssunao tjdt pdy `ff bs diwdys ec`wc bc dovdcha. Gut s`natbnas bt bs bnp`ssbgia t` ec`w tja pdy `ff dhhurdtaiy. 6. Bt bs dssunao tjdt tja tw` pars`cs bcvìvao bc tja kdna jdva aqudi bctaiibkacha. Gut bt caao c`t ga.

8 = 4 a k d ]



]drt G (4= ndre quastb`cs) 4. [jdt dra tja dppibhdtb`cs `f Ibcadr ]r`krdnnbck0 Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck bs tja n`st wboaiy usao tahjcbqua `f oahbsb`c-ndebck oahbsb`c- ndebck bc gusbcass dco Bcoustry dco bc vdrbùs `tjar fbaios. Bc tjbs sahtb`c, wa wbii obshuss d faw `f tja gr`do dppibhdtb`c drads `f ibcadr pr`krdnnbck. Dkrbhuiturdi Dppibhdtb`cs _jasa dppibhdtb`cs fdii bct` hdtak`rbas `f fdrn ah`c`nbhs dco fdrn ndcdkanact. _ja f`rnar oadis wbtj dkrbhuiturdi ah`c`ny `f d cdtb`c `r rakb`c, wjbia tja idttar bs h`charcao wbtj tja pr`gians `f tja bcobvboudi fdrn. _ja stuoy `f fdrn ah`c`nbhs oadis wbtj bctar-rakb`cdi h`npatbtb`c dco `ptbnun dii`hdtb`c `f hr`p pròuhtb`c. Affbhbact pròuhtb`c pdttarcs hdc ga spahbfbao gy d ibcadr pr`krdnnbck nòai ucoar rakb`cdi rakb`cdi idco rasùrhas dco cdtb`cdi oandco h`cstrdbcts. Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck hdc ga dppibao bc dkrbhuiturdi pidccbck, a.k. dii`hdtb`c `f ibnbtao rasùrhas suhj ds dhradka, idgùr, wdtar suppiy dco w`rebck hdpbtdi, ath. bc d wdy s` ds t` ndxbnbsa cat ravacua. Nbibtdry Dppibhdtb`cs Nbibtdry dppibhdtb`cs bchiuoa tja pr`gian `f saiahtbck dc dbr wadp`c systan dkdbcst acany s` ds t` eaap tjan pbccao o`wc dco dt tja sdna tbna nbcbnbsbck tja dnùct `f dvbdtb`c kdsìbca usao. D vdrbdtb`c `f tja trdcsp`rtdtb`c trdcsp`rtdtb`c pr`gian tjdt ndxbnbsas tja t`tdi t`ccdka `f g`ngs or`ppao `c d sat `f tdrkats dco tja pr`gian `f h`nnucbty oafacha dkdbcst obsdstar, tja sìutb`c `f wjbhj ybaios tja cungar `f oafacha oafacha ucbts tjdt sjùio ga usao bc d kbvac dttdhe bc `roar t` pr`vboa tja raqubrao iavai `f pr`tahtb`c dt tja i`wast p`ssbgia h`st. ]ròuhtb`c Ndcdkanact (b) ]ròuht nbx D h`npdcy hdc pròuha savardi obffaract pròuhts, adhj `f wjbhj raqubras tja usa `f ibnbtao pròuhtb`c rasùrhas. Bc suhj hdsas, bt bs assactbdi t` oatarnbca tja qudctbty `f adhj pròuht t` ga pròuhao ec`wbck bts ndrkbcdi h`ctrbgutb`c dco dnùct `f dvdbidgia rasùrha usao gy bt. _ja `glahtbva bs t` ndxbnbsa tja t`tdi h`ctrbgutb`c, suglaht t` dii h`cstrdbcts. (bb) ]ròuhtb`c pidccbck _jbs oadis wbtj tja oatarnbcdtb`c `f nbcbnun h`st pròuhtb`c pidc `var pidccbck parbò `f dc btan wbtj d fiuhtudtbck oandco, h`csboarbck tja bcbtbdi cungar `f ucbts bc bcvact`ry, pròuhtb`c hdpdhbty, h`cstrdbcts `c pròuhtb`c, ndcp`war dco dii raiavdct h`st fdht`rs. fdht`rs. _ja `glahtbva bs t` nbcbnbsa t`tdi `pardtb`c h`sts. (bbb) Dssangiy-ibca Dssangiy-ibca gdidchbck gdidchbck _jbs pr`gian bs ibeaiy t` drbsa wjac dc btan hdc ga ndoa gy dssangibck obffaract h`np`cacts. _ja pr`hass `f dssangibck raqubras s`na spahbfbao saquhcha(s). _ja `glahtbva bs t` nbcbnbsa tja t`tdi aidpsa tbna. (bv) Giacobck pr`gians _jasa pr`gians drbsa wjac d pròuht hdc ga ndoa fr`n d vdrbaty `f dvdbidgia rdw ndtarbdis, adhj `f wjbhj jds d pdrtbhuidr h`np`sbtb`c dco prbha. _ja `glahtbva jara bs t` oatarnbca tja nbcbnun h`st giaco, gia co, suglaht t` dvdbidgbibty `f tja rdw ndtarbdis, dco nbcbnun dco ndxbnun h`cstrdbcts `c hartdbc pròuht h`cstbtuacts. (v) _rbn i`ss [jac dc btan bs ndoa t` d stdcodro sbza (a.k. kidss, pdpar sjaat), tja pr`gian tjdt drbsas bs t` oatarnbca wjbhj h`ngbcdtb`c `f raqubranacts sjùio ga pròuhao fr`n stdcodro stdcodro ndtarbdis bc `roar t` nbcbnbsa tja trbn i`ss.


]

d

k

a

4

=

?

]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty Fbcdchbdi Ndcdkanact (b) ]`rtfìb` saiahtb`c _jbs oadis wbtj tja saiahtb`c `f spahbfbh bcvastnact dhtbvbty dn`ck savardi `tjar dhtbvbtbas. _ja `glahtbva bs t` fbco tja dii`hdtb`c wjbhj ndxbnbsas tja t`tdi axpahtao raturc `r nbcbnbsas rbse ucoar hartdbc ibnbtdtb`cs. (bb) ]r`fbt pidccbck _jbs oadis wbtj tja ndxbnbsdtb`c `f tja pr`fbt ndrkbc fr`n bcvastnact bc pidct fdhbibtbas dco aqubpnact, hdsj bc jdco dco bcvact`ry. Ndreatbck Ndcdkanact (b) Naobd saiahtb`c Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck tahjcbqua jaips bc oatarnbcbck tja dovartbsbck naobd nbx s` ds t` ndxbnbsa tja affahtbva axp`sura, suglaht t` ibnbtdtb`c `f guokat, spahbfbao axp`sura rdtas t` obffaract ndreat saknacts, spahbfbao nbcbnun dco ndxbnun cungar `f dovartbsanacts bc vdrbùs naobd. (bf) _rdvaiibck sdiasndc pr`gian _ja pr`gian `f sdiasndc bs t` fbco tja sj`rtast rùta fr`n d kbvac hbty, vbsbtbck adhj `f tja spahbfbao hbtbas dco tjac raturcbck t` tja `rbkbcdi p`bct `f oapdrtura, pr`vboao c` hbty sjdii ga vbsbtao twbha ourbck tja tùr. Xuhj typa `f pr`gians hdc ga sìvao wbtj tja jaip `f tja nòbfbao dssbkcnact tahjcbqua. Hn) ]jysbhdi obstrbgutb`c Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck oatarnbcas tja n`st ah`c`nbh dco affbhbact ndccar `f i`hdtbck ndcufdhturbck pidcts dco obstrbgutb`c obstrbgutb`c hactras f`r pjysbhdi obstrbgutb`c. ]ars`ccai Ndcdkanact d) Xtdffbck pr`gian Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck bs usao t` dii`hdta `ptbnun ndcp`war t` d pdrtbhuidr l`g s` ds t` nbcbnbsa tja t`tdi t` tdi `vartbna `var tbna h`st h` st `r t`tdi t `tdi ndcp`war. ndcp `war. g) Oatarnbcdtb`c `f aqubtdgia sdidrbas Ibcadr pr`krdnnbck tahjcbqua jds gaac usao bc oatarnbcbck aqubtdgia sdidrbas dco sdias bchactbvas. h) L`g avdiudtb`c avdiudt b`c dco saiahtb`c saiahtb` c Xaiahtb`c `f subtdgia pars`c f`r d spahbfbao l`g dco avdiudtb`c `f l`g bc b c `rkdcbsdt `rk dcbsdtb`cs b`cs jds j ds gaac ga ac o`ca o` ca wbtj w btj tja tj a jaip ja ip `f ibcadr ibcad r pr`krdnnb pr`k rdnnbck ck tahjcbqu ta hjcbqua. a. @tjar dppibhdtb`cs `f ibcadr pr`krdnnbck iba bc tja drad `f donbcbstrdtb`c, aouhdtb`c, fiaat utbibsdtb`c, utbibsdtb`c, dwdrobck h`ctrdhts, j`spbtdi donbcbstrdtb`c dco hdpbtdi guokatbck, ath. 7. [jdt bs nadc gy ]r`laht Hrdsjbck0 Bc s`na hdsas, tjara dra h`npaiibck rads`cs t` h`npiata d pr`laht adribar tjdc tja `rbkbcdiiy astbndtao tbna ourdtb`c `f tja hrbtbhdi pdtj h`nputao `c tja gdsbs `f c`rndi dhtbvbty tbnas, gy anpi`ybck axtrd rasùrhas. Dc axdnpia wùio ga bctròuhtb`c `f d caw pr`laht. _ja n`tbvas bc jdstacbck tja pr`laht nbkjt ga t` acsura tjdt tja h`npatbt`rs o` c`t stadi d ndrhj. Bchradsa `r oahradsa bc tja t`tdi ourdtb`c `f tja h`npiatb`c tbna f`r pr`laht bs hi`saiy dss`hbdtao wbtj h`st h`csboardtb`cs. Bc suhj hdsas wjac tja t`tdi tbna ourdtb`c bs raouhao, tja pr`laht h`st bchradsas, gut bc s`na axhaptb`cdi hdsas pr`laht h`st bs raouhao ds waii. ]ròuhtb`c h`st `hhurs bc tja hdsas `f tj`sa pr`lahts wjbhj ndea usa `f d hartdbc typa `f rasùrhas f`r axdnpia d ndhjbca dco wj`sa tbna bs n`ra vdiudgia tjdc tja `pardt` r‒s tbna. X`na oafbcbtb`cs< Dhtbvbty h`st< bt bs oafbcao ds tja h`st `f parf`rnbck dco h`npiatbck d pdrtbhuidr dhtbvbty `r tdse. 1

h `st tjdt bs dctbhbpdtao bc h`npiatbck dc dhtbvbty wbtjbc tja hrdsj tbna. Hrdsj h`st, Hh< tjbs bs tja obraht h`st dc dhtbvbty. Hrdsj tbna, Ht< _jbs bs tja nbcbnun tbna raqubrao t` h`npiata dc

4

= d

k

a ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty C`rndi h`st Ch< tjbs bs tja i`wast p`ssbgia obraht h`st raqubrao t` h`npiata dc dhtbvbty. C`rndi tbna Ct< tjbs bs tja nbcbnun tbna raqubrao t` h`npiata h `npiata dc dhtbvbty dt c`rndi h`st. Dhtbvbty h`sts si`pa< tja h`sts si`pa bcobhdtas tja doobtb`cdi h`st bchurrao par ucbt `f tbna sdvao bc

raouhbck tja ourdtb`c `f dc dhtbvbty.

O

A

Hrdsj h`st

H@X_

C`rndi h`st

F H @

G

D

OQWD_B@C F@W _JA L@G

Hrdsj _bna

C`rndi _bna

Iat @D raprasact tja c`rndi ourdtb`c `f h`npiatbck d l`g dco @H tja c`rndi h`st bcvìvao t` h`npiata tja l`g. Dssuna tjdt tja ndcdkanact wbsj t` raouha tja tbna `f h`npiatbck tja l`g t` @G fr`n c`rndi tbna @D. _jaraf`ra ucoar suhj d sbtudtb`c tja h`st `f tja pr`laht bchradsas dco bt kàs upt` sdy @O (Hrdsj H`st). _jbs `ciy dnùcts t` sdvbck tjdt gy raouhbck tja tbna parbò gy GD tja h`st jds bchradsao gy tja dnùct HO. _ja rdta `f bchradsa bc tja h`st `f dhtbvbty par ucbt oahradsa bc tbna bs ec`wc ds h`st si`pa dco bs oashrbgao ds fìi`ws.

Dhtbvbty h`st si`pa >

HO DG



@O



@H

@D



@G

>

Hrdsj h`s h`s t



C`rnditbna C`rnditbna

C`rndiH`st C`rndiH`st 

Hrdsjtbna

@ptbnun ourdtb`c< tja t`tdi pr`laht h`st bs tja sun `f tja obraht dco bcobraht h`sts. Bc hdsa tja obraht

h`st vdrbas wbtj tja pr`laht ourdtb`c tbna, tja t`tdi h`st wùio jdva tja sjdpa ds bcobhdtao bc tja dg`va fbkura. Dt ]`bct D, tja h`st wbii ga nbcbnun. _ja tbna h`rrasp`cobck t` tjbs p`bct ]`bct D bs h diiao tja `ptbnun ourdtb`c dco tja h`st ds `ptbnun h`st f`r tja pr`laht. 4

=

6 a k d ]



_@_DI ]W@LAH_ H@X_

D

H@X_

OBWAH_ H@X_

BCOBWAH_ H@X_

@

@ptbndi

Hrdsj

C`rndi

_BNA

8. Bc tja pr`laht catw`re kbvac bc fbkura gai`w, dhtbvbtbas dco tjabr ourdtb`cs dra spahbfbao dt tja dhtbvbtbas. Fbco tja hrbtbhdi pdtj dco tja pr`laht ourdtb`c.

Dcs< Hdihuidtb`cs bc Catw`re Dcdiysbs _ja fìi`wbck hdihuidtb`cs dra raqubrao bc catw`re dcdiysbs bc `roar t` prapdra d shjaouia `f tja pr`laht. d. g. h. o. a.

_`tdi h`npiatb`c tbna `f tja pr`laht Adribast tbna wjac adhj dhtbvbty hdc stdrt (b.a. adribst a dribst stdrt tbna) Adribast tbna wjac adhj dhtbvbty hdc fbcbsj (b.a. adribst fbcbsjao tbna) Idtast tbna wjac adhj dhtbvbty hdc ga stdrtao wbtjùt oaidybck tja t ja pr`laht (b.a. idtast stdrt tbna) Idtast tbna wjac adhj dhtbvbty hdc ga fbcbsjao wbtjùt oaidybck tja pr`laht (b.a. idtast fbcbsj tbna) k

a

4

=

;

d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty f.

Fi`dt `c adhj dhtbvbty (b.a. tbna gy wjbhj tja h`npiatb`c `f dc dhtbvbty hdc ga oaidyao wbtjùt oaidybck tja pr`laht) k. Hrbtbhdi dhtbvbty dco hrbtbhdi pdtj

_ja syngìs usao bc tja hdihuidtb`cs dra sj`wc bc tdgia gai`w. Xyngì

Oashrbptb`c

Ab

Adribast `hhurdcha tbna `f avact b

I l

(AX_)bl

Idtast dii`wdgia `hhurdcha tbna `f avact l Astbndtao h`npiatb`c tbna `f dhtbvbty (b,l) Adribast stdrtbck tbna `f dhtbvbty (b,l)

(AF_)bl

Adribast fbcbsjbck tbna `f dhtbvbty (b,l)

(IX_)bl

Idtast stdrtbck tbna `f dhtbvbty (b,l)

(IF_)bl

Idtast fbcbsjbck tbna `f dhtbvbty (b,l)

tAb-l

_ja h`nputdtb`cs dra ndoa bc fìi`wbck staps. (d) F`rwdro ]dss H`nputdtb`cs <

(g) Gdhewdro ]dss H`nputdtb`cs < : = 4 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty (h) Hdihuidtb`c `f Xidhe< Avact sidhe bs oafbcao ds tja obffaracha gatwaac tja idtast avact dco adribst avact tbnas. Xidhe f`r jado avact > I l - A l Xidhe f`r tdbi avact > I b - Ab _ja hdihuidtb`cs f`r tja dg`va tdeac axdnpia ax dnpia catw`re dra sunndrbsao gai`w bc tja tdgia. X(b)

]raoahass`r Avact b

Xuhhass`r Avact l

tAb-l

1 1 1 4= 4= 41 7= 7= 71 71 8= 8= 81 ?=

4= 41 7= 7= 71 8= 71 8= 81 ?1 81 ?= ?1 ?1

; 47 4; 41 2 44 1 : 4= 41 4= : 4= ;

(AX_)bl = = = ; ; 47 77 77 7; 7; 8= 8= ?= 8:

(AF_)bl ; 47 4; 77 46 78 7; 8= 8; ?7 ?= 8: 1= ?1

(IX_)bl = ; 1 ; 74 42 71 77 8= 81 8= 81 ?= ?8

(IF_)bl ; 42 77 77 8= 8= 8= 8= ?= 1= ?= ?8 1= 1=

Xidhe = = ; = 8 = = 1

(o) Oatarnbcdtb`c `f Hrbtbhdi ]dtj< _ja saqudcha `f hrbtbhdi dhtbvbtbas bc d catw`re bs hdiiao tja hrbtbhdi pdtj. _ja dhtbvbtbas wbtj zar` sidhe `f jado avact dco zar` sidhe f`r tdbi avact, dra hdiiao ds hrbtbthdi dhtbvbtbas. Bc tja tdeac catw`re, tja fìi`wbck dhtbvbtbas dra hrbtbhdi dhtbvbtbas< 1 - 4=, 4= - 7=, 7= - 8=, 8= - 81, 81 - ?1 . _jus tja hrbtbhdi pdtj bs D - A - K - E - N . Hrbtbhdi pdtj ourdtb`c bs ; bs ; + 41 + : + 4= + 4= > 1= . ?. Bc tja catw`re `f fbkura gai`w, tja ]AW_ tbna astbndtas `f tja dhtbvbtbas dra wrbttac di`ck tja dhtbvbty drr`ws bc tja `roar t`-tn-tp. H`nputa tja axpahtao tbna dco vdrbdcha f`r adhj dhtbvbty. Dis` Di s` h`nputa tja axpahtao ourdtb`c dco stdcodro oavbdtb`c f`r tja fìi`wbck pdtjs `f tja catw`re. (d) 4=-7=-1=-:=-2= (g) 4=-8=-1=-;=-2= (h) 4=-?=-6=-:=-2= 2 = 4 a k d ]



Dcs< _ja h`nputdtb`c `f axpahtao tbnas dco vdrbdchas f`r obffaract dhtbvbtbas dra hdrrbao bc d tdgia kbvac gai`w. Dhtbvbty

_bna Astbndtas

Axpahtao _bna

Vdrbdcha

b

l

t`

tn

tp

tA

ψ7

4= 4= 4= 7= 7= 8= ?= ?= 1= 1= 6= ;= :=

7= 8= ?= 1= ;= 1= 1= 6= ;= := := 2= 2=

6 8 4= ; 8 ? : 1 8 44 ; ? 6

2 1 4? 4= ? 4= 44 4= ? 41 2 : ;

47 2 4: 48 : 47 4? 41 1 4; 47 4= 2

2.== 1.88 4?.== 4=.== ?.1 2.88 44.== 4=.== ?.== 4?.6; 2.4; ;.6; ;.4;

4.== 4.== 4.;: 4.== =.62 4.;: 4.== 7.;: =.44 4.== =.62 4.== =.71

= 4 4 a k d ]



1. O`rbdc ndeas iuxury hdrs dco laaps f`r jbkj-bch`na nac dco w`nac. Bt wbsjas t` dovartbsa wbtj 4 nbcuta sp`ts bc h`naoy sj`ws dco f``tgdii kdnas. Adhj h`naoy sp`t h`sts $1=E dco bs saac gy ;N jbkj-bch`na w`nac dco 7N jbkj-bch`na nac. Adhj f``tgdii sp`t h`sts $4==E dco bs saac gy 7N jbkj-bch`na w`nac dco 47N jbkj-bch`na jbkj-bch`na nac. J`w hdc O`rbdc radhj 7:N jbkj-bch`na w`nac dco 7?N jbkj- bch`na nac dt tja iadst h`st. Dcswar< _ja oahbsb`c vdrbdgias dra x4 > tja cungar `f h`naoy sp`ts x7 > tja cungar `f f``tgdii sp`ts. Kbvbck tja pr`gian nbc z > 1=x4 st

+

4==x7

;x4

+

7x7

≡

7:

7x4

+

47x7

≡

7?

x4,

x7

≡

=

_ja krdpjbhdi sìutb`c bs z > 87= wjac (x 4,x7) > (8.6,4.?). Fr`n tja krdpj, bc tjbs pr`gian rùcobck up t` (x4,x7) > (?,7) kbvas tja gast ga st bctakar sìutb`c. Wap`rt< _ja nbcbnun h`st h`st `f radhjbck tja tdrkat tdrkat duobacha bs $?==E, wbtj ? h`naoy sp`ts sp`ts dco 7 4

f``tgdii si`ts. _ja nòai bs ougbùs ds bt oàs c`t dii`w f`r sdturdtb`c dftar rapadtao vbawbcks. 4

4 a k d ]


]rbchbpias `f Ndcdkanact ‘ X; X; Nahjdcbhdi ‘ 7==: 7==: shjana ‘ Eardid Eardid Qcbvarsbty 6. Ns. Fbodc‒s obat raqubras tjdt dii tja f`ò sja adts h`na fr`n `ca `f tja fùr ’gdsbh f`ò krùps’. Dt prasact, tja fìi`wbck fùr f`òs dra dvdbidgia f`r h`csunptb`c< gr`wcbas, hj`hìdta bha hradn, hìd, dco pbcadppia hjaasahdea. Adhj gr`wcba h`sts =.1$, adhj sh``p `f hj`hìdta bha hradn h`sts =.7$, adhj g`ttia `f hìd h`sts =.8$, dco adhj pbcadppia hjaasahdea h`sts =.:$. Adhj ody, sja nust bckast dt iadst 1== hdi`rbas, 6 `z `f hj`hìdta, 4= `z `f sukdr, dco : `z `f fdt. _ja cutrbtb`cdi h`ctact par ucbt `f adhj f`ò bs sj`wc bc _dgia. F`rnuidta dc I] nòai tjdt hdc ga usao t` sdtbsfy jar odbiy cutrbtb`cdi raqubranacts dt nbcbnun h`st. Hdi`rbas Gr`wcba Hj`h. bha hradn (4 sh``p) Hìd (4 g`ttia) ]bcadppia hjaasahdea (4 pbaha)

Hj`hìdta (ùchas) 8 7 = =

?== 7== 41= 1==

Xukdr (ùchas) 7 7 ? ?

Fdt (ùchas) 7 ? 4 1

Dcswar _ja oahbsb`c vdrbdgias< x4< cungar `f gr`wcbas adtac odbiy x7< cungar `f sh``ps `f hj`hìdta bha hradn adtac odbiy x 8< g`ttias `f hìd oruce odbiy x?< pbahas `f pbcadppia hjaasahdea adtac odbiy _ja `glahtbva fuchtb`c (tja t`tdi h`st `f tja obat bc hacts)< nbc w > 1= x 4 + 7= x7 + 8= x8 + := x? H`cstrdbcts< ?== x4 + 7== x7 + 41= x8 + 1== x? 3 1== 8 x4 +

7 x7

7 x4 +

7 x7 +

7 x4 +

? x7 +

(odbiy hdi`rba bctdea)

3

6

? x8 +

? x? 3

4=

x8 +

1 x? 3

:

xb 3 =, b > 4, 7, 8, ?

(odbiy hj`hìdta bctdea) (odbiy sukdr bctdea) (odbiy fdt bctdea) (Xbkc rastrbhtb`cs!)

Wap`rt< _ja nbcbnun h`st obat bchurs d odbiy h`st `f 2= hacts gy adtbck 8 sh``ps `f hj`hìdta dco orbcebck 4 g`ttia `f hìd (w>2=, x 7>8, x8>4) ;. D ]@ raqubras obffaract cungars `f anpi`yaas `c obffaract odys `f tja waae. Qcb`c ruias stdta adhj anpi`yaa nust w`re 1 h`csahutbva odys dco tjac rahabva tw` odys `ff. Fbco tja nbcbnun cungar `f anpi`yaas caaoao. 7 4

N`c _ua [ao _jur Frb Xdt Xuc Xtdff Caaoao 4;

48


41

42

4? 46 44 ]

d

k

a

4


Dcswar< _ja oahbsb`c vdrbdgias dra xb (# `f anpi`yaas stdrtbck `c ody b) Ndtjandtbhdiiy wa nust nbc z > x4 +x7 +x8 +x? +x1 +x6 +x; x4

+x? +x1 +x6 +x;

+x6 +x;

≡

4; x4 +x7

48 x4 +x7 +x8

x4 +x7 +x8 +x? +x1

≡

+x;

+x6 +x; ≡

+x1 ≡

41

42 x4 +x7 +x8 +x?

4? +x7 +x8 +x? +x1 +x6 ≡

+x8 +x? +x1 +x6 +x;

≡ ≡

46

44

_ja sìutb`c bs (x b) > (?/8,4=/8,7,77/8,=,4=/8,1) kbvbck z > 6;/8. [a hùio rùco tjbs up t` (x b) > (7,?,7,:,=,?,1) kbvbck z > 71. J`wavar rastrbhtbck tja oahbsb`c vdr.s t` ga bctakars dco usbck Ibco` dkdbc kbvas (x b) > (?,?,7,6,=,?,8) kbvbck z > 78

8 4 4 a k d ]


Principles of Management - Question Bank

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