Introducion:
Theory: Almost every mechanical movement that we see around us is accomplished by an electric motor. Electric machines are a means of converting energy. Motors take electrical energy and produce mechanical energy. Electric motors are used to power hundreds of devices we use in everyday life. Motors come in various sizes. Huge motors that can take loads of 1000’s of Horsepower are typically used in the industry. Some examples of large motor applications include elevators, electric trains, hoists, and heavy metal rolling mills. Examples of small motor applications include motors used in automobiles, robots, hand power tools and food blenders. Micro-machines are electric machines with parts the size of red blood cells, and find many applications in medicine. Electric motors are broadly classified into two different categories: DC (Direct Current) and AC (Alternating Current). Within these categories are numerous types, each offering unique abilities that suit them well for specific applications. In most cases, regardless of type, electric motors consist of a stator (stationary field) and a rotor (the rotating field or armature) and operate through the interaction of magnetic flux and electric current to produce rotational speed and torque. DC motors are distinguished by their ability to operate from direct current. There are different kinds of D.C. motors, but they all work on the same principles. In this chapter, we will study their basic principle of operation and their characteristics. It’s important to understand motor characteristics so we can choose the right one for our application requirement. The learning objectives for this chapter are listed below.
Electromechanical Energy Conversion: An electromechanical energy conversion device is essentially a medium of transfer between an input side and an output side. Three electrical machines (DC, induction and synchronous) are used extensively for electromechanical energy conversion. Electromechanical energy conversion occurs when there is a change in magnetic flux linking a coil, associated with mechanical motion. Electric Motor The input is electrical energy (from the supply source), and the output is mechanical energy (to the load).
Electrical Electromechanical Mechanical energy energy conversion device energy Source Motor Load Figure. 1 Electric Generator
The Input is mechanical energy (from the prime mover), and the output is electrical energy.
Mechanical Electromechanical Electrical energy energy conversion device energy Source Generator Load Figure. 2 4.2 Construction DC motors consist of one set of coils, called armature winding, inside another set of coils or a set of permanent magnets, called the stator. Applying a voltage to the coils produces a torque in the armature, resulting in motion. Stator
magnet pole pieces. , a DC coil (field winding) is wound around a magnetic material that forms part of the stator. Rotor
external circuit through a mechanical commutator. gap. Winding A winding is made up of series or parallel connection of coils. - The winding through which the voltage is applied or induced. - The winding through which a current is passed to produce flux (for the electromagnet)
4.3. DC Motor Basic Principles 4.3.1 Energy Conversion If electrical energy is supplied to a conductor lying perpendicular to a magnetic field, the interaction of current flowing in the conductor and the magnetic field will produce mechanical force (and therefore, mechanical energy). 4.3.2 Value of Mechanical Force There are two conditions which are necessary to produce a force on the conductor. The conductor must be carrying current, and must be within a magnetic field. When these two conditions exist, a force will be applied to the conductor, which will attempt to move the conductor in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic field. This is the basic theory by which all DC motors operate. The force exerted upon the conductor can be expressed as follows. F = B i l Newton (1) where B is the density of the magnetic field, l is the length of conductor, and i the v alue of current flowing in the conductor. The direction of motion can be found using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. Figure 3: Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
The first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field (first - field), which goes from the North pole to the South pole. The second finger points in the direction of the current in the wire (second current). The thumb then points in the direction the wire is thrust or push ed while in the magnetic field (thumb torque or thrust). How much force will be created on a wire that is parallel to the magnetic field? 4 DC Motors 4.3.3 Principle of operation Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux d ensity B (figure 4). When the two ends of the coil are connected across a DC voltage source, current I flows through it. A force is exerted on the coil as a result of the
interaction of magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two sides of the coil is such that the coil starts to move in the direction of force. Figure 4: Torque production in a DC motor In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wound on the rotor, all of which experience force, resulting in rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the greater the magnetic field, the faster the wire moves because of the greater force created. At the same time this torque is being produced, the conductors are moving in a magnetic field. At different positions, the flux linked with it changes, which causes an emf to be induced (e =
figure 5. This voltage is in opposition to the voltage that causes current flow through the conductor and is referred to as a counter-voltage or back emf. Figure 5: Induced voltage in the armature winding of DC motor The value of current flowing through the armature is dependent upon the difference between the applied voltage and this counter-voltage. The current due to this counter-voltage tends to oppose the very cause for its production according to Lenz’s law. It resu lts in the rotor slowing down. Eventually,
the rotor slows just Induced emf Flux DC Motors 5 enough so that the force created by the magnetic field (F = Bil) equals the load force applied on the shaft. Then the system moves at constant velocity. 4.3.4 Torque Developed The equation for torque developed in a DC motor can be derived as follows. The force on one coil of wire F =i l x B Newton Note that l and B are vector quantities
Therefore the torque for a multi turn coil with an armature current of Ia:
current flowing in the armature winding. Note: Torque T is a function of force and the distance, equation (2) lumps all the constant parameters (eg. length, area and distance) in constant K. The mechanical power generated is the product of the machine torque and the mechanical
It is interesting to note that the same DC machine can be used either as a motor or as a generator, by reversing the terminal connections. Figure 6: Reversability of a DC machine 4.3.5 Induced Counter-voltage (Back emf): Due to the rotation of this coil in the magnetic field, the flux linked with it changes at different positions, which causes an emf to be induced (refer to figure 5).
(a) Motor action (b) Generator action Electrical Power input Electrical Power Mechanical output output
Mechanical input T T m m T T6 DC Motors Note that equation (4) gives the emf induced in one coil. As there are several coils wound all around the rotor, each with a different emf depending on the amount of f lux change through it, the total emf can be obtained by summing up the individual emfs. The total emf induced in the motor by several such coils wound on the rotor can be obtained by integrating equation (4), and expressed as:
where K is an armature constant, and is related to the geometry and magnetic properties of
the speed of rotation. The electrical power generated by the machine is given by: Pdev = Eb I 4.3.6 DC Motor Equivalent circuit The schematic diagram for a DC motor is shown below. A D C motor has two distinct circuits: Field circuit and armature circuit. The input is electrical power and the output is mechanical power. In this equivalent circuit, the field winding is supplied from a separate DC voltage source of voltage Vf. Rf and Lf represent the resistance and inductance of the field winding. The current If produced in the winding establishes the magnetic field necessary for motor operation. In the armature (rotor) circuit, VT is the voltage applied across the motor terminals, Ia is the current flowing in the armature circuit, Ra is the resistance of the armature winding, and Eb is the total voltage induced in the armature.
Figure 7: DC Motor representation 4.3.7 Voltage Equation Applying KVL in the armature circuit of Figure 7: VT = Eb + IaRa (7) where VT is voltage applied to the armature terminals of the motor and Ra is the resistance of the armature winding. Note: The induced voltage is typically represented by symbol e (or E) and the terminal voltage by v (or V). At standstill, the motor speed is zero, therefore back emf is also zero. The armature current at starting is thus very large. Applying KVL in the field circuit of Figure 7: Vf = Rf If (8) + Vf _ Lf Rf + VT _ If Ia ωm, T
Ra
+ Eb _ Field circuit Armature (rotor) circuit DC Motors 7 Where Vf is voltage applied to the field winding (to produce the magnetic field), Rf is the resistance of the field winding, and If is the current through the field winding. How would the inductance of the field winding affect the motor operation under steady state? 4.3.8 Power Transfer Equation We have earlier obtained the following relationship for torque developed in the motor (from equation 2):
The developed power is the power converted to mechanical form, and is given by (from equation 3):
This is the power delivered to the induced armature voltage (counter-voltage) and given by: EbIa (electrical
per second) by
N can be written as r/min or rpm, both mean the same thing. Noting that the flux in the machine is proportional to the current flowing in the field winding
compare induced voltages at two different speeds. If the induced voltage at the first operating speed N1, and field winding current If1 is given by: and the induced voltage at the first operating speed N2, and field winding current If2 is given by:
Then the induced voltages at these operating points can be compared as:
This equation is useful in determining the speed of the DC motor at different operating conditions.
2()1 11 NEKKIbff
2()2 22 NEKKIbff
22 11 2 1 IN IN E E f f
b
4.4 DC Machine Classification DC Machines can be classified according to the electrical connections of the armature winding and the field windings. The different ways in which these windings are connected lead to machines operating with different characteristics. The field winding can be either self-excited or separately-excited, that is, the terminals of the winding can be connected across the input voltage terminals or fed from a separate voltage source (as in the previous section). Further, in self-excited motors, the field winding can be connected either in series or in parallel with the armature winding. These differen
Theory 2: There are 2 kinds of motors, AC motors and DC motors. In this course, we are going to focus on DC motors only. So, the following discussions focus mainly on DC motors. There are several kinds of DC motors, examples are stepper motors, servos, brushed/brushless motors. Stepper motors: The inputs of a stepper motor are signal pulses and the shaft of a stepper motor moves between discrete postions proportional to pulses. If the load of the motor is not too great, open-loop control is usually used to control the motor. Stepper motors are used in disk drive head positioning, plotters, and numerous other applications. Servo motors: The input of a servo motor is a voltage value and the output shaft of the servo motor is commanded to a particular angular position according to the input voltage. Servo motors are used in radio control airplanes to control the position of wing flaps and similar devices. DC motors: The input of a DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque (speed). How does a motor work?
Let's consider a permanent magnet brushed motor. The piece connected to the ground is called the stator and the piece connected to the output shaft is called the rotor . The inputs of the motor are connected to 2 wires and by applying a voltage across them, the motor turns.
The torque of a motor is generated by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field. The right hand rule states that if you point your right hand fingers along the direction of current, I, and curl them towards the direction of the magnetic flux, B, the direction of force is along the thumb.
Now, imagine a loop of wire with some resistance is inserted between the two permanent magnets. The following diagrams show how the motor turns:
Diagram showing how the motor works
Relationship between the Torque and the angle the loop made with the magnet.
You might be able to notice that the direction of rotation is changing every half cycle. To keep it rotating in the same direction, we have to switch the current direction. The process of switching current is called commutation. To switch the direction of curent, we have to use brushes and commutators . Commutation can also be done electronically (Brushless
motors) and a brushless motor usually has a longer life. The following diagram shows how brushes and commutators work.
We could also have several commutators and loops. The total torque generated is the sum of all the torques from each of the loops added.
Motor with several commutators and loops
So, the torque is proportional to the current through the windings, T = kI where T is the torque, I is the current, and k is a constant The wire coils have both a resistance, R, and an inductance, L. When the motor is turning, the current is switching, causing a voltage, V = L dI/dt
This voltage is known as the back-emf(electromotive force), e. If the angular velocuty of the motor is w, then e = k w (like a generator) This voltage, e, is working against the voltage we apply across the terminals, and so, (V- kw ) = IR where I = T /R which implies (V-kw ) = (T /k) R The maximum or stall torque is the torque at which w = 0 or T = kV/R, and The stall or starting current, I = V/R The no load speed, w = V/k, is the maximum speed the motor can run. Given a constant voltage, the motor will settle at a constant speed, just like a terminal velocity. If we plot w = V/k - ( T /k^2)R, we can get the speed-torque curve:
Observation: Parameters Mass of weight=m Distance covered=h Voltage applied=V Current flow=I Radius of pulley=r
Observe value
Average Time taken=t Gravitational acceleration=g
Calculation:
Conclusion:
