Story of Antarctica

THE STORY OF ANTARCTICA

NATIONAL NATI ONAL CENTRE CENTRE FOR ANTARCTIC ANTARCTIC ANTARCTIC AND AND OCEAN OCEAN OCEAN RESEARCH RESEAR RESEARCH CH & GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

T he S to tory ry of of A nnt tarc ta a nta arctic rctica Anju Tiwari , K.P K. P.Krishnan .K rishnan and Rasik Rasik Ravindra Ravi ndra Pages Year

: :

64 2008

ISBN

:

978-81-906526-0-5

c National

Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research

Ministry of Earth Sciences, Goa

Geological Geological Society Society of India Ind ia Bangalore

Designed Designed and Printed by National N ational Institute Instit ute of Science Science Communication And Information Resources, C.S.I.R., Dr. K. S. Krishnan Marg, New Delhi-110 012.

Secretary Ministry of Earth Sciences Government of India, Mahasagar Bhavan, Block-12, C.G.O. Complex, Lodhi Road,

Dr. P.S. Goel

New Delhi - 110 003

FOREWORD

A

ntarctica is the only place on the Earth that is not owned by anyone. It is a

continent of peace, tranquility and science. The Antarctic Treaty System cur-

rently in place, offers an opportunity to the scientific community world over, to search for the answers to many unresolved questions pertaining to our mother earth. Common people, especially the young generation needs to know more about this continent and its role in global perspective. Bringing together historical and scientific aspects of Antarctica in a lucid and interactive manner so that children find it interesting, has been a major objective of this th is vent venture. ure. The trienn t riennium ium 2007-2 2 007-2009 009 is being cele celebrat brated ed as the th e Internat Int ernational ional Year ear of Planet Earth Eart h as also also the th e Internat Int ernational ional Polar Polar Year. ear. It is theref th erefore ore befitting befittin g that inform i nformaation relating to a lesser-understood region of earth - Antarctica, is being brought in the present form. This book is an outcome of determined effort made by many enthusiastic, young researchers and scientists of National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research search who were were encouraged by the t he Ministr M inistry y of Earth Sciences Sciences and and Geological Geological Society Society of India to take up this task. I sincerely hope that this book would enthuse and excite the imagination of our school children and inspire them to know more about the icy continent of Antarctica so that it’s pristine environment is preserved for the generations to come.

(P. S. Goel) iii

PROL OGUE PROLOGUE

A

ntarctica deserves special place in Earth’s geography not only because of its

locati location on but b ut also also due du e to its it s import ance in influencing in fluencing Earth’s Earth’s climat climatee and sea sea level. level.

Unfortunately Unfortun ately it continues continu es to be the least least studied continent contin ent becaus becausee of its remote and inhospitable loca location tion.. Att Attempts empts to understand u nderstand it commenced commenced in earnest earnest during durin g the past 50 year year with the t he launch of Internat Int ernational ional Geophys Geoph ysical ical Year in 1957-58. 1957- 58. India In dia joined the t he selec selectt group of nation n ationss acti active ve in Polar Polar Science Science by launching launchin g its first Antarctic Antarct ic expedit expedition ion in 1981. Since 1981, scientific expeditions to Antarctica are launched every year. The 26th expedit expedition ion in this th is series series coincided with Int I nternati ernational onal Polar Polar Year (2007-2008) (2007-2 008).. Geological Society of India has been actively involved in science popularization via books under “Popularization of Science Series”. Under its aegis two books have already already been published pu blished by GSI, G SI, which are “Story of O ceans ceans”” & “Glaciers: “Glaciers: The Rivers of Ice”. In continuation to this, the society prompted National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) under Ministry of Earth Sciences, which is the premier institute for Antarctic research, to bring out a book on Antarctica for school children so that mysteries surrounding it can be uncovered. I would like to congratulate NCAOR for producing an informative and beautifully illustrated book and I believe that it will go a long way in creating awareness about this icy continent in general public and especially school children’s minds.

(Harsh Gupta)

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Dr. P.S.Goel, Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences is gratefully acknowledged for approving this popular write up. Dr. B.P. Radhakrishna and Dr. Harsh K. Gupta have been the th e driving force in bringing br inging out this th is series. series. Mr. S. S. Mukherjee Mukh erjee,, Mr. Arun Arun Chatu Ch aturvedi, rvedi, Mr. M.J.D M .J.D’’Souza and Mr. M r. M.J.Beg from the t he Ant Antarctica arctica Divis Di vision, ion, Geological Geological Survey Survey of India are earnestly thanked for reviewing the draft of the book and providing their valuable comments. Many websites were scoured to get the right photographs to add visuals to the text. These are all listed in the bibliography and are duly acknowledged. Two postgraduate students of the Pune University (Mr. Ashok Sunwade and Ms.Preeti O swal) wal) have contribut ed some some of the th e pictures incorporated incorporated in the th e book.

vi

CONTENTS

F orewo reword rd …………………………..… …………………………..……….............. ……..................................... ..............................iii .......iii P rolog logue …………………………..… …………………………..……….............. ……..................................... ............................... ........ v I.

T he myste ysterio riouus contine tinent.…………………………..………................1

II.

I t is i s i ce and ice every very where where ..………………………….……...............4 ..………………………….……...............4

III.

L ife in A ntarctica ica ........................................... .................................................................. ..................................9 ...........9

IV. IV.

D isc iscovery of of A ntarc tarctic tica a .............................................. ...................................................................14 .....................14

V.

I s it really really no man’s man’s land land …..……..…….………………................21

VI.

I ndia’ ndia’ss jour journe neyy to A nta ntarctic rctica a ……………………………................24 ……………………………................24

ntarctic tic sc scienc ience e …………...…………………………….................36 VII. A ntarc ian C ontrib tribut utio ionn to A nta ntarctic rctic S cien ience .................................45 VIII. T he I ndian IX. IX.

A maz mazing f acts about A nta ntarctic rctica a ………………………...................52 ………………………...................52

E pi l ogue ogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 B i bli bli ography ogra phy . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

vii

CTICA ARCTICA T he Story of of ANT AR

I

THE MYSTERI OUS CONT NTI NTINENT I NENT

If you’re exploring the planet, Antarctica is the last stop on the train.... —Barry Lopez

A

ntarctica, the white continent, of information about many mysteries of the ten called as the last wilderness of eart earth. h. This Th is froze frozen n continent cont inent holds the key

our planet earth, stands isolated at the

to the story of drifting continents and the

eart earth’ h’s sout southern hern most part p art today tod ay.. This T his huge hu ge

past climate of earth. It also controls the

landmass covered with a thick blanket of key to global climate-pattern of today. ice throws relentless challenges to the adventur adventurous ous instin instinct ct of mankind. mankind . It is wild, wild,

A

plac pla ce of extreme xtremes s place

breathtakingly beautiful and still remains

Antarctica is the highest, coldest and

unexplored fully by man. The pristine

windiest windiest continent cont inent.. With very low amount

environment makes the icy continent a

of snowfall snowfall and practically p ractically no rainfall, rain fall, most

unique uniq ue place to conduct cond uct scient cientific ific resea research. rch.

of the continent cont inent is techn technical ically ly a desert. desert. The T he

Very wisely, the world has designated

Antarctic icecap stores almost 70% of the

Antarctica as the continent for Peace and

world’s freshwater and 90% of ice. The

Science. Today, we have realized that

Southern Ocean surrounding this

Antarctica is a virtual storehouse of continent freezes up to a distance of 1500

An Iceberg

11


km in winter, more than doubling the actual size (13.9 million sq km) of the continent. This is also a place of midnight sun and a continent contin ent where darkness prevails prevails for months together during the Polar winters. The continent is as large as India and China Chin a put together with with no n o permanent permanent habitation. There are no forests, no perennial rivers and no industrial or military milit ary acti activity vity.. There T here are also also no markets

explosions are frozen in the ice. Equally

or super bazaars. Explorers from different

important is the evidence for ozone

nations mingle with one-another and call

depletion in the t he upper atmosphere. Stu Studies dies

themselves Polar men.

on the ice sheet and its contribution to world sea level rise are vital to our

Antarctica is not a merely scientific

understanding of the global change.

curiosity but a key key part of the th e fabric fabric of the

Southern lights or Aurora Australis, seen

Earth system. The processes taking place

during dur ing the t he dark periods period s in Ant Antarctic arctic sky, is

in the Antarctic system affect the world’s

another

unique

and

climate and its oceans, linking the continent inextricably to what we experience thousands of kilometers away.

Aur ora A ustralis urora Australis

In understanding global climate change, Antarctica nt arctica has a crucial rrole ole to play. play. Locked up in its more than 4 km t hick ice ice shee sheet, t, is a record record of past climate for the last last 5,00,0 5, 00,000 00 years years or even even more. Trapped bubbles bu bbles held in the ice act as an archive of atmospheric gases gases.. Evidence Evidence for levels levels of global pollut pollution ion by industry, agriculture and atomic 2

fascinating


Penguins moving into the sea

Snow covered covered mountains mo untains in Antarctica ntarctica

phenomenon pheno menon viewe viewed d in Ant Antarctica arctica by the th e

thes th esee storm stormss and and prediction of their th eir possible possible

charged part par t icles received received from solar flares. flares.

damage can save electronic equipment.

These lights are like dancing ballerina wearing multicolored bright dresses.

The wild life on the peripheral regions of

Snowstor nowstorms, ms, blizzards blizzards and magnetic storms stor ms

the continent, comprising birds such as

are rather a common sight. Infact, their

petrels petr els,, skuas, skuas, penguins p enguins and larger larger animals ani mals

frequency is so great that one starts missing

like seals and whales make the place really

these if a spell of good weather continues

lively and interesting as it brings to our

for a long period. Some of the magnetic

knowledge the art of surviving, breeding

storms can seriously damage satellites and

and community living in the most hostile

even power systems. Early detection of environment. ---3


II

I T I S I CE AND IC I CE EV EVE RYWHER WHERE EVE ERY WHERE

ntarctica surrounds the geographic

A

north nor thwa ward rd and reaching very very close close to South Sout h

South out h Pole of the eart earth h and is the fifth

America. Ice is the typical, defining

largest among the seven continents of the

property associated with Antarctica. The

eart earth. h. Ninety N inety eight eight percent percent of the Ant Antarctic arctic

various forms and shapes in which ice

continent is under ice cover. Antarctica

exis exists ts in this continent contin ent are as astounding toun ding and

totals 13.9 million sq km with an average

constitute characteristic features of

elev elevation ation of about 2300 m (about 7500 ft)

Antarctica. So, let’s first acquaint ourselves

and its it s shape shape is almost almost circular with with an arm

with the diverse forms of ice in this polar

- the Antarctic Peninsula - protruding

mass of land and surrounding ocean.

Indian Antarctic Expedition Vessel enters the Polar Circle

4


U nder T he S heet O f I ce The ice that covers the land of Antarctica is called ice sheet. This sheet is formed because layers of snow continuously got deposited deposited over over this th is contin continent ent for hundreds hund reds of thousands of years. The ice sheet is continuously in motion and its physical parameters are changing. It forms as snow

Icebergs

crystals fall and pile on top of each other,

the th e land, land, flowing flowing from the th e high high int erior of

creatin creating g a huge weig weight ht that th at compres comp resse sess the

Antarctica to the coast. Near the edge of

earlier snow and converts it into ice. This

the th e cont continent inent,, ice is channeled, channeled, which form

weight weight places places pressure pressure on the th e ice, ice, which in

great rivers of moving ice called glaciers.

turn is forced to move down and across

Pushing through to the coast, glaciers can Ice also flow out over the ocean creating Ice Shelf. T he ice shelf shelf is anchored to t o the th e land land

but floats upon the ocean. With the push of the ice sheet from behind and the pounding ocean down below, parts of the floating floatin g ice shelves shelves eve event ntually ually break off and an d become icebergs. Some of these are grounded near the coast becoming spectacular guardians to the continent, while others float float with the th e current current s to great great distances. They can vary in size and shape. Some icebergs are as big as a small small count cou ntry ry.. Some could take a city on their back on a cruise and can take t ake years years to melt as they th ey float in the ocean surrounding Antarctica – the Glaciers

Southern Ocean. 5


C onttin innenttal ta al I ce tiine The ice that envelops the continent of Antarctica is called continental ice. This is also known as ice cap, ice sheet or polar ice. This ice sheet is not just a flat, solid mass. It is dynamic and continuously changing. Some of its varied characteristics are described and illustrated below. 1. Hexagonal Ice Crystals appear in a variety

of places! 2. Ice Cliffs The margins of the ice sheet are exposed at times as great cliffs. 3. A Crevasse, as here, shows typical Antarctic blue ice. It can become covered by falling snow. This is dangerous as the gap beneath cannot be seen and accidents can take place. 4. Blue ice- Antarctic lakes start freezing as thee temperature drops with th with t he advent advent of the th e Antarctic winter. Blue Ice is the frozen surface of a lake or continental ice that is very hard and shines like a glass surface.

1

6


I cebergs rgs Icebergs are not sea ice. They are actually

pieces of fres freshwater hwater ice that t hat break off the th e glaglaciers or ice shelve shelves. s. They are found in various shapes and sizes and are one of the most en-

3

chanting features of Antarctica. The different siz sizes es and shapes of icebergs tell a story stor y of the kind of hostile and harsh weather they have endured endur ed with succe success ss.. Icebergs look striking during durin g sunr sunris isee and sunset. 1 & 2 – Weathered ice berg, 3 & 4 – Flat topped ice bergs, 5 – Pinnacle ice berg, 6 – Tilted ice berg.

4

1

5

2

6

7


T he S ea I ce

Polynya

Pancake ice

Fast ice

Pack ice

The ice that forms on the sea is very

These pancake floes join together to form

different from that which forms on the

Pack ice. During winters, large tracks of

continent. As the ocean surrounding

Southern Ocean are covered by this Pack

Antarctica nt arctica lives lives through th rough its it s annual cycle cycle of Ice. In between areas of fast/shelf Ice and freezing and melting, it depicts different

the Pack ice, there are areas of open water

forms of ice. Close to the continent there

called Polynya. These are formed due to

are areas of Fast ice and Polynya. Fast ice

(i) cold winds from the continent or ocean

is sea sea ice ice attached att ached to the th e shelf shelf ice and and melts

currents that instantly drive away the freshly

away during Antarctic summer.

formed ice in continent’s close proximity,

The initiation of freezing gives rise to a

(ii) warm water upwelling (influx of deep

greasy surface on the t he sea, sea, which on furth fur ther er

seawater to the sea surface), which reduces

ancake ice ice floes. freezing forms form s like small small Pancake

and altogether stops ice formation formation..

---8


III

LI FE I N ANTARC LIF ARCT TI CA

L

et's now meet the inhabitants of this wonderful wonderful continent . The abnormally harsh climatic conditions in Antarctica make the survival of any form of life a struggle. When one thinks of life forms in Antarctica, nt arctica, the th e first first one to cross our mind m indss is the penguin. The T he obvious obvious question question that th at follows is how do penguins survive in the coldest and windiest continent? The answer swer is that penguins p enguins (and also other forms of life in Antarctica like seals and whales) are protected protected from the th e cold cold and wind by a thick layer of insulating fat under their skins. Small forms of lives such as algae, lichens and mosses can be found beneath insulating insulatin g layers layers of rocks or any an y other oth er form of shelter from cold. As the winter passes by and spring leads to Antarctic summer,

9


the ice starts melting and the Sun shines over over the continent. contin ent. This T his breath breathes es life in the t he icy continent cont inent and one on e can can see see the birds like skua, snow petrels, albatross etc. making their nests where they tend to rear their chicks. Except for the Emperor, it is the breeding season for all other types of penguins. Once the chicks arrive, penguins Emperor penguins (Scientific name: Aptenodytes Aptenodyt es forsteri forsteri ) have the upright, regal posture to express their dignity. They are the largest of penguin species with an average weight of around 30-40kg and a height of more than a meter (~3.8ft.) Macaroni penguins (Scientific name: Eudyptes chrysolophus) chrysolophus) can be easily recognized with their bright yellow crest feathers. They nest on Antarctic islands like South Georgia and Heard Island. They are about 4.2 kg in weight and some 70 cm tall. name: Pygoscelis Adelie penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelis adeliae) outnumber any other penguin species in Antarctica. Antarcti ca. T hey weigh weigh 5-8 kg and are about 70 cm in height. Their distribution is circumpolar circumpolar,, all around th thee Ant Antarc arctic tic coastline. Gentoo penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelis papua ) are the largest of the Pygoscelis penguins, though not by much, they average about 5.5 kg and 71 cm tall for the southern gentoo; while about 0.7 kg heavier and 10cm taller for the northern gentoo. Chinstrap penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelis antarctica) antarctica) are so called because of their characteristic band of dark feathers under the chin that appears to be keeping their dark hats on.

know how to care for them! Penguins are known for their responsible parental care. In a penguin rookery (plea (p lease se see see inner cover cover page for a view of Adelie penguin rookery), one parent wait waitss with the t he baby to keep keep it warm, while the oth other er parent goes to the ocean and gets back with the meal of the day. Some-

Adelie Penguins Emperor Penguins

Macaroni Macaroni Penguins Gentoo Penguin

Chinstrap Penguins

10


times it takes longer for him to get back but the family waits for him. It is amazing how they remember their way back to the family! Antarctica and the adjoining regions

11

abound in the seal population, especially after the ban on its killing was implemented. Seals are mammals that had to adapt to t o sea sea life for survival. survival. T here were were nineteen species of seals in the seas but two of these have become extinct. Mainly five species of seals are encountered in Antarctica which can be found basking on the pack ice that surrounds Antarctica.


A nt ar ct i c P l aannt L i f e There are no trees or shrubs, and only two species of flowering plants, Antarctic hair grass grass (Des (D eschampsia champsia antarctica) ant arctica) and Antarcnt arctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis) are found, occurring on the t he South South O rkney IsIslands, the th e Sout South h Shetlan Shetland d Islands and and along the th e western western Antarctic Antarct ic Penin Peninsula sula.. There T here are, in total, around 100 species of mosses, 25 species of liverworts, 300 to 400 species of lichens and 20-odd species of macro-fungi. The greatest diversity of species is found along the th e wes western tern side of t he Ant Antarctic arctic Peninsula where the climate is generally warmer and wetter than elsewhere in the Antarctic continent.

SEALS 1. Crabeaters (Scientific name: Lobodon carcinophagus)) are large seals, weighing carcinophagus about 220kg. They are frequently scarred, sometimes quite badly by predatory leopard seals or killer whales. 2. Antarctic fur Seals (Scientific name: Arctocephalus gazella) are more accurately called “Southern fur seals”. The males can reach 200kg and can be up to 4 times larger than the females. They are restricted mainly to the sub-Antarctic islands, with 95% of the world’s population being found on the island off South Georgia. 3. Leopard Seal (Sc (Scient ientific ific name: Hydrurga name: Hydrurga leptonyx)) is one of the largest predators in leptonyx Antarctica, smaller only than the killer whale. They are named for the spotting on its unders un derside. ide. Female Femaless are larger larger than t han males and averag averagee about 10ft long and are around 350kg in weight. 4. Weddell Seals (Scientific name: Leptonychotes Leptonych otes weddellii weddelli i) are animals of the ice. The pups of these seals stop drinking milk and begin eating normal seal food, i.e. fish fis h from around 7 we weeks eks.. When Wh en adult, they weigh about 400kg and can be up to 10ft long.

Antarctic pearlwort

5. Elephant Seals’ Males can grow to15ft long and weigh up to 4 tonnes. They are called elephant seals partly because of their size.

Antarctic hair grass

12


A nt ar ct i c M ar i nne e L if e

Star fish

It is a strange paradox that marine life remarkably outnum outn umbers bers the th e terrestr terrestrial ial life life in Antarctica! Most life in the Antarctic begins in t he ocean. ocean. Plankton is the foundation of the marine food chain. In the nutrient-rich waters south of the Antarctic Convergence, phytoplankton and zooplankton (microscopic plants and animals) like Krill occur in profusion in the summer season. During the remainder of the year because of the lack of light and heavy cloud cover, as well as the extensive packice, ice, the t he productivity prod uctivity of the t he oceans oceans gets gets limited. it ed. The Th e krill swarm swarmss are are also seas season onal al and much of the food chain is dependent on them. So much so, that if they fail to appear other species such as penguins and whales experien experience ce drastic breedin b reeding g failures. The ocean bottom flora is rich in diversity with several species of sea anemones, star fish etc.

Sea Anemone

Krill

Minke Whale

---13


IV

N

DI SCOVERY OF AN DIS ANTARC ARCT TI CA

ow that we know Antarctica is an

cause no one could cross the ice barrier,

icy continental continent al mass mass situat situated ed at the t he

surrounding the continent. In one of the

southern most part of the globe, don’t you

earliest maps of the world, this southern

wonder how this land was discovered? Who

landmass is shown as Terra Australis In-

was the first person to stand on this pris-

cognita i.e. the Unknow Unkn own n Southern Land. Land.

tine, tin e, beautiful beautiful white cont continent inent located in the middle of the ocean? Let us t ake a journ jou rney ey back in time and find out the fascinating story behind the discovery of this ‘last wilderness’

Ancient Greeks had postulated p ostulated that th at a large large,, sout southern hern continent cont inent must exist to balance the Arctic in the northern n orthern hemisphere hemisphere.. It is releva relevant nt to remember; rememb er; here that Arctic (around the North Pole) was discovered

E ar l y V oy ag ages

much before the discovery of the South

Imagine the condition of those initial ex-

Pole or Antarctica. The imaginary south-

plorers who ventured into the task of dis-

ern mass of land was referred to as Anti-

covering covering the th e Ant Antarctic arctic continent contin ent in wooden

Arctic or opposite to Arctic and hence the

ships! But man m an is known for his invincible

name Antarctic. However, Antarctica re-

nature, natur e, and the th e fire fire to find Antarc nt arctica tica had

mained an imaginary, imaginary, mysterious land be-

been ignited.

14


Captain James Cook , the th e famous naviganaviga-

man greed into consideration. Ironically,

tor and explorer of the th e Pacific Pacific and and Antarcnt arc- it was was Cook’s own own penchant penchan t for thoro t horoughughtic, became the first human being to cross

ness that th at fueled the th e burst of activity because because

the Antarctic Circle reaching 67°15’S,

he had noted in his log (records) that large

when when the t he pack ice ice forced forced him t o turn t urn back back numbers of seals and whales were present his ship ‘Resolu ‘Resolutt ion’, a mere 80 miles m iles from

in the high latitudes.

his destination! Cook had not taken hu-

The motivation for reaching Antarctica now was search for new locations where seals and whales could be found.

T he E arly E xplo xplore rers rs The seal hunters were actually the early explorers who located areas of abundance of seals seals and rais r aised ed the th e hopes that new and unun discovered lands might be lying further south. Ships of many countries started encircling the Southern Ocean. The Russian government sent Captain Thaddeus von Bellingshausen, with a team of two hun-

Antarctic Circle

dred sailors to get the t he accurate accurate information inform ation about Antarctica. On 27 th January 1820 for the first time human eyes saw some distant mountains towards the southern end of earth. Bellingshausen had actually

become the first person in the human history to see Captain James Cook

Captain Captain Bellingshausen

15

Antarctic continent!


Another remarkable “sealer-scientist,” was

France sent Jules

James Weddell, captain of a British ship.

Sebastian Dumont

Weddell Weddell had taken part in exploration exploration durdur -

d’Urville as the

ing 1820-21 and 1821-22 18 21-22 and had h ad gained gained

Captain of its ship,

a lot of experience. On February 20, 1823

USA’s Leader of the t he

at longitude 34°16’45"W, and latitude

expedition

74°15’S,Weddell became the first man to

Captain Charles

arthes ar thestt south that t hat anyone had ever gone gone go f

Wilkes and the

before! It would be over 80 years before

Leader Leader of the t he Great

anyone could get that far south again in

Britain’s expedition was Captain James

the Weddell Sea.

Clark Ross. Ross. Thes Th esee three th ree explorers explorers not only o nly

Inspired by Weddell’s deep foray into the

discovered different parts of the Antarctic

was

James Ross

Weddell Weddell Sea Sea and by the th e tantalizing tantalizing glimpses landmass but also deciphered that each of land reported

piece of newly discovered land in Antarc-

by the th e seal sealers, ers, the th e

tica was connected with other parts and

French, British,

hence it was not an archipelago of islands,

and

but actually actually a huge huge cont continent! inent!

United

States govern-

S earc h f or the t he S outh uth M agne gn etic gnetic ne exploratory mis- P ole ol e

ments launched Captain Weddell

sions in 1840s.

James Clark Ross was specifically assigned the job of finding the elusive South Magnetic net ic Pole Pole as as he had already found foun d the t he nort nor t h magnetic magnet ic pole in 1831. 183 1. Ross’ Ross’s advent to t o the th e South South Magneti Magneticc Pole was, was, howev however, er, st stopped opp ed by an Ice Shelf (which Ross called the Victoria Barrier but was renamed after him). He, did establish that the South Magnetic Pole lay inland, inaccessible by the sea.

16


R ace T o T he S outh P ole ol e

of preparation, preparation, in 1908 190 8 he was again again in t he

D iscove iscovery ry of the t he South Sout h Pole posed a greater

Ross Sea with NIMROD, a more mecha-

challenge challenge to the th e Ant Antarctic arctic Explorers. Each Each

nized ship than Terra Nova. In January

one of them wanted to set his feet first at

1909, when Shackleton and his four col-

the Pole and become immortal in the hu-

leagues were only 180 km away from the

man history hi story.. The first person to accept accept this th is South Pole, they found that they were sufchallenge was a British, Captain Robert

fering from immense frostbites and their

Falcon Scott, who started his expedition

bodies were were not supporting upport ing them. th em. They had

in 1902 19 02 in a ship named n amed “Terra “Terra Nova”. Nova”. Un-

to return back completely shattered, both

fortunately his expedition had to be

physically and mentally.

abruptly abrup tly ended when he was was still about 800 8 00 km away from the South Pole because all

S cott vs A munds mund munds mun dsen

his dogs and

Robert Scott planned his expedition to

many of the

Antarctica nt arctica immediately imm ediately after after the t he unsucc un succes esss-

team mem-

ful return of Shackleton. Scott started his

bers started

expedition in November 1910, unaware

suffering

that

from Scurvy

Amundsen was already on his way to the

(Vitamin-C

South Pole!

deficiency).

Amundsen and his team worked remark-

Three main

ably well and as a result they reached the

Norwegian

members of this

team,

explorer

Roald

South Pole on Captain R.F. Scott

14 th Decem-

Shackleton hackleton,, Wilson and Scott Scott himself were were

ber 1911. 1911 . BeBe-

on the th e verge of death. Shackleton, who

fore returning

was was an an exception exceptionally ally bright member of the t he

home to a he-

Scot Scott’ t’ss team in Terra Nov N ova, a, started start ed preparpr epar-

roic welcome, welcome,

ing for his own expedition immediately

they raised

after returnin retur ning g back back home. After four years years

17

Roald Amundsen

the Norwe-


blizzard started which continued for five days. The last lines of Scott’s diary on 29 th March, state: “There “T here has been been nothing to t o eat for the t he past past thre t hreee days. days. Now Now,, I am not even even able to writ w rite. e. End is not far. For God’s sake, take care of our families”.

gian flag and kept the records of reaching the South Pole in a safe box. On the other hand, Scott and his team faced lot of difficulties in reaching the Pole. On 17 th January 1912, they fond the Norwegian flag hoisted there on t he South South Pole! Pole! “This told us the whole story. The Norwe gians have forestalled us and are first at the

T he last last major m ajor expedit expedition ion of the t he heroic era

Pole. It is a terrible disappointment and I was marked by Ernest Shackleton’s voyage am very very sorry sorry for my loyal companions companions.. Many

in Endurance Endu rance on on August August 8, 1914, 191 4, planned

thoughts come and much discussion we have

to cross Antarctica by approaching it

had. To-morrow we must march on the Pole,

th rough the Weddell Weddell Sea. Sea. H oweve owever, r,

and then hasten home with all the speed we

Shackleton was trapped in the pack ice of

can compass. All the day-dreams must go; it

the Weddell Sea and drifted through the

will be a wearisome return”. -January winter. Ultimately, Endurance was crushed 17th1912 1912,, quot quotes es from Scott Scott’’s Diary iary..

by the ice and and sank on November November 21, 1915.

They were already facing shortage of food

Shackleton Shackleton and his h is men drag dr agge ged d and rowed rowed

and by 21st March they were not left with

their lifeboats over the pack ice and open

anything to eat. Suddenly a formidable

waters waters until unt il they th ey made it to t o Elephant Elephant Island. Island. 18


The Story of “Endurance” in pictures

explorers were were not completely isolated isolated from T heM echaniz ha nizeed A geof E xplo xplora ratio tion n explorers T he advent advent of more powerful engines engin es,, steel the rest of the world. One of the first to hulled ships, airplanes, and radios consid-

use the new aeronautical technology was

erably enhanced man’s ability to reach dif-

Sir H ubert Wilkins (Standin (Standing g on right side side

ficult and inaccessible area of Antarctica,

of the cockpit cockpit in the th e picture ; page page 20). In

aiding to success of several exploration

an expedition supported by Randolph

programmes. The radio was particularly

Hearst (a well known publisher) and the

important as for the first time; Antarctic American Geographical Society, Wilkins 19


Sir Hubert Wilkins (right side)

made the first Ant Antarc arctic tic flight flight on 16 1 6th No-

Antarctic nt arctic explorer explorer to t o discover discover new land by by

vember 1928. On December 20, he flew

air. After that, Antarctic explorers have

over Graham Land and became the first

never looked back.

----

20


V

I S I T REALL Y NO MAN’ MAN’S ALLY MAN’S S LAND?

P

rior to 19t h Century Cent ury when when new lands lands the th e U.S. Congres Con gresss to establish the th e U.S. Ant Ant--

were being discovered, the explorers

arctic Service in 1939 to take control of

would raise the flag of their countries and

American Antarctic exploration. Other

claim the territory in the name of their

countries soon followed suit.

kings or rulers ru lers.. The Th e first first such formal claim claim

T he world, how h owev ever er,, soon realized realized that t hat one

over Antarctic territory was made by Brit-

could get more from this pristine, un-

ain in 1908. In 1923 Britain handed over

touched reserve of snow and ice, in terms

part of their t heir claim claim on the Ross D ependenependen-

of science rather than the worldly riches.

cies to New Zealand. In 1924, France laid

This Th is realiz realization ation gave gave birth birt h to t o a drive to gain

claim to Terre Adelie. Australia claimed a

scientific knowledge and enrich humanity

large chunk of territory in 1933. In Janu-

by the th e unique opportunit opport unity y provided provided by this

ary 1939, Norway formalized its claim to

natural laboratory.

Dronning Maud Land. While most of the claims took different slices of the th e cont continent, inent, there th ere were were many areas where different parties

United Kingdom Norway

Argentina

made overlapping claims. For

Australia

example, in 1940, Chile became the third country to claim overlapping-sovereignty

Chile

over the Antarctic Peninsula (after Britain and Argentina). Although the United States pursued no claims of its own,

Unclaimed New Zealand

t he flurry flurr y of claims claims encouraged 21 21

France Australia


T he I nterna nternatio tiona nall G eopphys hysic hys ica aal l other time in history. In 1957-58 there ph ysic ical were 44 continent cont inent al bases bases,, 21 island island bases bases,, Y ear : P aving the R oad to the were and 5,362 people involved in the largest A nt ar ct i c T reaty reaty By D ecember ecember of 1955, prepara p reparation tionss for for the t he

multinational scientific research effort in

Inter In ternat nation ional al Geophys Geoph ysical ical Year (IGY (IG Y) were were

the th e history histor y. The T he IGY I GY was was originally schedsched-

well underway. The year saw thirteen ships

uled to last from June 1957 through De-

proceeding to Antarctica with personnel

cember 1958. However, it was so success-

for seven separate expeditions. As winter

ful, that all participating nations soon

of 1956 closed in, there were twenty-nine

formed permanent research programs to

separate parties in Antarctica from seven

continue their presence and activities in

countries: British, British, C hilean, hilean, and Argent rgentine ine

Antarctica. The International Council of

outposts on the Peninsula, and French,

Scientific Scientific Unions (ICSU), (IC SU), which had prop ro-

American, Australian, Soviet, and British

posed posed the t he IGY IG Y, formed form ed the th e Scie Scient ntific ific Com-

stations on the continent contin ent proper pr oper.. In all, 508

mittee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) to

people stationed in Antarctica, were ready

coordinate the continued scientific coop-

to stay there through out the long winter.

eration among nations. The success of the

Preparations continued during the 1956-

effort, and the need to defuse competing

57 austral austral summer seaso eason. n. T hirtee hirt een n more

territorial claims also led to the signing of

stations were established, bringing the to-

the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. In essence,

tal on the th e cont continent inent to t o 42, repres representing entin g 12

this treaty (ratified by all parties in 1961) set

countries (Belgium, Norway, New

the continent of Antarctica aside for peace-

Zealand, Japan, and South Africa had joined the t he effort). effort). An additional addit ional 21 stations ti ons were were established established on Antarctic Ant arctic and sub-Antarctic islands. By this time the IGY was well underway. During the summer of 1956-57, 1956- 57, 42 4 2 bases bases and and supporting ships accommodated 6,167 people in in Antarctica, more than at any 22


ful and scientific scientific purpose purposes; s; and and placed all ter-

research in Antarctica. Another 16 nations

ritorial ritorial claims in abeyance abeyance till the th e Treaty Treaty lasts. lasts.

have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Austria, Canada, C anada, Colombia, Cuba, Cz C zech ech Re-

A nt ar ct i ca ca A f t er er tthhe T reaty reaty

public, Democratic Peoples Republic of

The original signatories signatori es i.e. Argent Argentina, ina, Aus- Korea, Denmark, Greece, Guatemala, tralia, Belgium, Chile, the French Repub-

Hungary, Papua New Guinea, Romania,

lic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the

Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, and

Union of South Africa, The Union of So-

Venezuela. These nations agree to abide by

viet viet Socialist ocialist Republics, Republics, The T he Unit ed King-

the Treaty and may attend consultative

dom of Great Britain and Northern Ire-

meetings meetin gs as as observers. observers. At At present present scient scientists ists

land, and the United States of America,

and ot her profes p rofessionals sionals live live and work more mo re

signed the Antarctic Treaty on 1 st Decem-

or less effortlessly at Antarctic stations es-

ber 1959 at Washington, D.C. These 12

tablished by these nations. These stations

signatories became the original consulta-

help each other in the hour of need and

tive nations. nation s. As As of today tod ay, 16 addit add itional ional na-

evolve evolve togeth together er as one commun comm unity ity..

tions (Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Ecuador, Finland,

Ger-

many man y, India, In dia, It aly, aly, Netherlands, Poland, Peru, Republic of Korea, Sweden, Spain, and

Uruguay)

have

achieved

ANTARCTIC PENNINSULA

Neumayer (Germany)

King sejong (Korea) Palmer (U.S.) RONNE ICE SHELF Rothera (U.K.)

consultative status by acce acceding ding to t o the t he Treaty and by conducting substantial scientific

ROSS ICE SHELF

---23

Maitri (India)


VI

I

INDIA ANT TARCT INDIA’’S JOURNEY JOURN URNEY EY TO AN ARCTI CA

n Dec D ecembe emberr 1981, the th e first first Indian Ant

search. In 1983,

arctic Expedition was launched from

under und er the leaderleader-

Goa under the leadership of the eminent

ship

scientist scientist Dr. S.Z. Qasim. T his pioneer

Harsh Gupta, a

team, that t hat included renowned glaciolog glaciologist, ist,

well

D r C.P C .P.Vohra .Vohra and O ceanograph ceanographer er like Dr

earth scientist,

H .N.S .N .Siddiqui, iddiqui, created created history by reaching reaching

the th e third expediexpedi-

the Antarctic continent on 9 th of January

tion team estab-

1982 and laid the foundation of India’s

lished India’s first

Antarctic nt arctic Programme. T he First expediexpedi-

permanent station in Ant Antarctica arctica and appro-

tion ti on was was immediately immediat ely follow followed ed by the t he SecSec-

priately named it “Dakshin “Dakshin Gangotri” in a

ond

(un der th e leadership leadership of Shri

record time tim e of one Ant Antarctic arctic summer. T his

V.K.Raina). The success of these endeav-

station was home to the t he Indian t eam eam mem-

ors and the recognition by international

bers for five long years, sheltering them

community encouraged India to establish

from harsh and ruth ru thles lesss conditions condit ions of Antnt -

her permanent research base at the Ant-

arctica as also also prov pr ovidin iding g them th em all the th e facilifacili-

arctic continent contin ent for pursuit pu rsuit of scientific scientific re-

ties to conduct scientific research work.

Dr. Harsh Gupta

of

Dr.

known

Dr. S.Z. Qasim

Dakshin Gangotri under construction

24


Since Daks D akshin hin Gangotri (it is affe affectionately ctionately out side activit activity y is highly restr restricted icted betwe bet ween en called called DG by the Ant Antarcticans arcticans from from India) In dia)

the th e months month s of April April to t o October). O ctober). By By 1988-

was situated on an ice shelf, it gradually

89, the t he station construction constru ction was was nearly nearly over over,,

sank sank into int o snow snow.. By 1988, India Ind ia had to pre-

paving paving the t he way for for dec d ecommiss ommissionin ioning g of the t he

pare its second second station stat ion in Antarctica nt arctica because because old station station during durin g 1989-90 and shiftin shifting g the th e Dakshin Gangotri was no longer safe for

major scient scientific ific laborat laboratories ories to the th e new stasta-

living.

tion named “Maitri”.

DG in 1985

DG in the summer of 1989

An ice-free area on a small hill range

called

‘Schir Schirmacher macher OaO asis’ sis’ was selected in 1987-88 and the station was built in two summer seasons seasons (there (th ere being no sun sun during du ring the th e wint winter er period,

Maitri

25


Maitri became operational same year (IX

spirituality. In yet

Expedition) with commencement of the full-

another incident a

fledged fledged wintering wintering under under the the leaders leadership hip of Rasik Rasik team lost all its Ravindra, a Geologist from Geological Survey

cooking oil in a fire

of India. The inmates of Maitri Maitri bring bring out a Hous House

accide accident nt and had to to

Bulletin - Himvat - that contains interesting

survive on boiled

accoun accountt of personal experiences experiences of members in

food through out

hand written or typed pages. To cite some

the winter period.

interesting articles, in Himvat of 1989-91 a

You can write write mails

member recount recountshis trauma trauma when a heavy heavy snow snow

to the wintering

vehicle ran over him and he still survived with

members or to the Leader of the Maitri Station

only minor bruises on his body but strong

at for any

impressions on his mind turning him towards

information on the Station or Antarctica.

Shri Rasik Ravindra

Photograph of some of the leaders of the past expeditions [ Standing from L to R, numbers in the parentheses indicate expedition number: AK Hanjura (x), M Sudhakar (LS Hill Expd.), Rasik Ravindra (IX), Robin Sengupta (VII), VK Raina (II & Weddell Sea Expd.), CP Vohra (Dy. Leader, I), SZ Qasim (I), V.K. Dhargalkar (XII), R. Asthana (XXIV), S. Jayaram (XIII) Sudhakar Rao (XIII), AK Hanchinal (XXII), S Mukerji (XI), Arun Chaturvedi (XV, XIX and XXVII); Sitting : A Dhar (XVIII), N Khare (NCAOR), SM Bhandari (Solar Eclipse Expd), RPLal (XXI).

26


visited isited Maitri Maitr i in 2005 200 5 along with with Dr. H arsh arsh Gupta (then secretary to Department of Ocean Development), while Dr.P.S.Goel (Secretary) (Secretary) and Shri Prakash Prakash Kumar (Joint (Joint Secretary) in the Ministry of Earth Sciences visited the facilities at the Indian station in 2007. India is all set to establish a new Antarctic Shri Kapil Sibal (Honorable Minister of Science and

base at Larsemann Hills, in the eastern

Technology) along with Dr. Harsh Gupta (then secre-

Antarctica- a part of the continent that,

tary to Department of Ocean Development) and Shri

about 120 million years ago, was contigu-

th

Rajesh Asthana (Leader, 24 Expedition) at Maitri

ous with India’s east coast. The proposed

Introduction of special flights to Antarc-

station that is to be built on an unnamed,

tica tica and facilities facilit ies of an an ice ice runway run way very very close ice free, coastal area (promontory) fringto Maitri station has paved the way for

ing the Prydz Bay will be located close to

short visits of policy makers and senior sci-

Russian and Chinese stations- Progress and

Zh ongshan respectively respectively. The T he proposa prop osall was entists to Maitri. Honorable Minister of Zhongshan Science and Technology, Shri Kapil Sibal

recently cleared by the international body

Dr. P.S. Goel (Secretary, MoES), Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Secretary, MoES) with other Antarctic expeditioners at the ice runway very close to Maitri station

27


cess cess from the t he sea, sea, as the th e area is free of shelf ice. This region, including proposed site

the islands and promontories will offer excelle cellent nt opportunit opport unity y for for ext ext ensive ensive studies stu dies on geology,

tectonics,

paleoclimatic, geophysoverseeing the environmental aspects of ics, meteorology, oceanography, marine Antarctica (Committee on Environment

and fresh water biology.

Protection). India is committed to come

The Th e induction of women women expeditioners expeditioners to

up with an environmental friendly, struc-

the icy continent of Antarctica began way

ture that will preserve the pristine nature

back back in 1983 when D rs. Sudipt Sudiptaa Seng Sengupt uptaa

of the place.

and Aditi Aditi Pant spent their t heir summer summer in 1983-

The new station will be about 2000 km

84 (III). Since then, women participation

away from Maitri. It will have an easy ac-

in Antarctic expeditions has been over-

Artist’ Artist’ss impr i mpression ession of station at Larsem Larsemann ann Hills H ills

28


whelming. The other lady members who

Phartiyal (BSIP) and Ms. Preeti Oswal

took part of earlier expeditions are Ms.

(NBRI, XXV).

Gouri Indres In dresan an (IIT Mumbai, V), Ms. Ms. Rita Kohli (Delhi University, IX), Smt.

Another milestone was achieved by Dr.

Meenakshi Chatterjee (Calcutta Univer-

Kanwal Vilku of the Central Government

sity) and Dr. Usha Sachdeva (AIIMS,X),

Health Services in the year 2000 (XIX) and

D r. P.A. Loka Loka Bharat Bharathi hi (N IO ) and Ms. M s. M.

by Dr. D evya evyani ni Borole (XX (XXV) who spent a

Naidu (AIIMS, XIII), Dr. Manju Mehta,

wintering each each (16 months) mont hs) in Antarctica. Antarctica.

D r. Kapila Kapila Kusum Kusum (AIIMS) and D r. Girija How did it feel to stay alone in a men only Rajaram (IIG, XXVIII), Ms. Stella (IMD,

company? “all the th e expedit expedition ion members

XX), Dr. D r. Medha Medha Dixit D ixit (VJT (VJT I, XXII), II) , Prof. treated us respectfully and it was a memoLaxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV), Dr. Binita rable stay’’ has been the answer.

LADY EXPEDITIONERS IN INDIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS (Within brackets: Institution and Expedition number)

Dr. Sudipta Sengupta (Jadavpur University, III and IX)

Dr. Aditi Pant (NIO, III)

29


Dr. Rita Kohli (Delhi University, IX)

Ms. Gouri Indreasan (IIT, V)

Dr. P. A. Loka Bharathi (NIO, XIII)

Dr. Meenakshi Chatterji (Univ.of Calcutta, X)

Dr. Girija Rajaram (IIG, XVIII)

Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS, XVIII)

30


Dr. Manju Mehta (AIIMS, XVIII)

Dr. Kanwal Vilku (CGHS, XIX)

Ms. Stella (IMD, XX) XX)

Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII)

Prof. Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV)

D r. Binita Phartiyal Phartiyal (NBRI, (N BRI, XXV) XXV)

Ms. Preeti Oswal (NBRI, XXV)

Smt. Devyani Borole (NCAOR, XXV)

31


L aunching of of the E xped xpediti ons itio it ions

the th e logistic logistic and an d scientific aspects aspects of the t he ex-

How are the Indian expeditions to Ant-

peditions. Since the Southern Ocean is an

arctica launched? laun ched? H ow are are the th e members sese-

integral part of Antarctic eco system, its

lected? Who arranges the voyage and who

study stud y was was also also entru ent rusted sted to t o this t his newly con-

pays for the expenses? The aspirants, who

stituted Centre. The institute, named as

wish wish to t o explore Ant Antarctica, arctica, often ask ask these t hese National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean questions. Initially the expeditions were

Research (NCAOR) moved into its own

managed managed and launched by the Department D epartment

campus on 5th April 2000 with Dr. P.C.

of Ocean Development Development (DoD ), a scie scient ntific ific

Pandey as as its first Director. D irector. Today, the t he CenCen -

Department under the Prime Minister of tre has modern laboratories for conductour country count ry (DoD has now been been upgraded

ing research in the fields of microbiology,

to a full-fledged ministry ministr y named as MinisMin is- oceanography, sedimentology, paleotry of Earth Sciences). Subsequently, the

climatic and glaciology etc. The sophisti-

Government established an autonomous

cated clean ice core laboratory laborator y established established

institution with headquarters at Goa and

here is the only such facility of its type

gave it the mandate to launch and manage

existing in India.

Dr. P.C. Pandey

National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research

32


The sele selection ction of Indian In dian Antarctic Antarctic Expedit Expedition ion

members are then sent to a Himalayan gla-

Team Team is done throu through gh a rigorous process. process. This

cier for training and acclimatization under

process starts in the month of March, when

the guidance of expert mountaineers.

N CAOR places advert advertise isement ment in the th e lead- The team is now ready for the expedition. It ing national newspapers inviting proposals assembles at the NCAOR Campus, where from interested interested scient scientists ists to conduct conduct research research

last minute instructions are passed on, for-

in Antarctica. After scrutiny, projects are se-

eign eign exchange exchange is arranged, official documents document s

lected and team members are short-listed.

are handed over and Expedition is wished

The team, which is generally a reflection of ‘Bon Voyage’. Initially, the members used to the th e wide wide spectru spectrum m of the th e Indian Society wit with h

board the t he expediti expedition on vesse vessell at Goa G oa and it took

the members drawn from different regions almost 20 days to reach reach Antarctica. Antarctica. Later, arand with different work experience, repre-

rangements were made to fly the members

sents universities, research

to Cape Town, South Af-

organizations, defense

rica, from where the char-

laboratories etc. Defense

tered ship takes them to

personnel too join the

Antarctica in approximately

team for maintenance maint enance and and

eight days. This saves a lot

operation of the Research

of voyage time. From the

Station at Maitri. The

coast of Antarctica, where

members undergo undergo a detaile det ailed d medical exex-

the

ship

is

amination at All India Institute Institu te of Medi-

berthed, mem-

cal Sciences, New Delhi. The selected

bers are flown to Maitri by the helicopters helicopters that t hat are chartered and brought to Antarctica on the expedition vessel itself. 33


Once the ship reaches Antarctic coast, the

that takes about eight hours from Cape

cargo is off loaded on t he shelf. T his is then th en

Town!

loaded on to the trailers and toed to sta-

The expedition members not only attend

tion by a number of snow vehicles that

to their scientific tasks, carry out the ex-

move together in i n the th e form of a convoy. As

periments perimen ts or collect collect data data by taking trave t raverses rses

the journey of over a hundred kilometer

to interior areas, they are also required to

covering a treacherous icy terrain, full of attend to the house keeping, perform duhidden crevasses, the Leader of the convoy

ties by turn in t he kitchen, assis assistt in watch watch

has a great great responsibility responsibilit y to guide the t he drivdri v-

over the power generating systems and at-

ers safely to destination. The convoys of-

tend to waste disposal. Antarctica being

ten get trapped in snow storms. One can

governed by a strict protocol on environ-

also get stranded because of vehicles get-

mental protection, the waste has to be dis-

ting trapped in melt water channels.

posed as per a pre defined scientific pro-

With improvements in logistics, now it is

cess cess or removed removed from the th e Ant Antarctica arctica – and

even even possible to transpor t ransportt key scient scientists ists and

mind you this also includes the night soil!

some members directly to Maitri by flight

In retrospect, the t he members who have spent spent

34


about sixteen months in the station at a

members of the two stations often visit each

stretch have little little comp complaint laints. s. If you have other during the long winters. During the been once to Antarctica, you can’t help fall-

peak of winters, in June, when we in India

ing in love wit with h the t he pristine pristine beauty beauty, great wil- have the longest day (21st June), our sciendernes dernesss and awesome awesome ruggedness ruggednessof this this lonelone-

tists tists at at Maitr M aitrii face face the the peak peak of the th e wint winters. ers. All All

some, unspoilt, white desert. So strong is the

over Antarctica, this day is celebrated as “Mid

urge and fascination of this charm, that one

Winter Day” when members of adjoining

gets swaye swayed. d. There here are members who who have

stations come together to share their experi-

repeatedly opted for wintering more than

ence and and forget the the isolation. The T he seve severe re win-

once (wintering in Antarctica means staying

ter month mon thss also also mark the the dark dark period, as there th ere

back there till the next expedition comes to

is no sunlight, forcing most of the members

relieve the old one, which is only after more

indoors. Many members utilize this period

than a year).

to sharpen their hidden talents (see above for

The Indian station is located very close to

the portrait of an Indian Expedition Leader

the Russian Station (Novolazervaskaya) and

been drawn by a Russian member). 35


VII VI I

ANTARC ARCT TI C SCI ENCE

S

·

o far we have learned that Antarctica

is a remot remote, e, isolated isolated and a frozen con-

East Antarctica (mostly east of

Greenwich), consisting of a single

tinent which is arguably the most un-

great continental plateau

·

touched region region on the th e planet. planet. That T hat make m akess

West Antarctica (west of Green-

it one of the most important laboratories

wich), consisting of a group of

of the world. Humans didn’t even catch a

small plateaux, which constitute a

glimpse of Ant Antarctica arctica until un til ~185 years years ago

sort of archipelago covered by ice.

and only in the last 50 years have people begun to explore this vast polar desert in earnest. earnest. Today, scientists come to the South Pole and the conti-

WEDDEL SEA

nent enclosing it, from around the world to study

EAST ANTARCTICA POLE OF RELATIVE NECESSIBILITY

RONNE ICE SHELF

geology, climate, astro-

SOUTH POLE

physics, marine biology, WEST ANTARCTICA

ecology, and more! Elevation (Metres)

W hat hat is i s the physic phys physic ical physi i cal geo geograp graphy of of A ntarc ntarc- - tica? Geographically, Antarctic

ROSS ICE SHELF

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 0

ROSS SEA

WEST ICE CAP

TRANS ANTARCTIC MOUNTAINS ROSS ICE SHELF

continent comprises two distinct constituents: 36

EAST ICE CAP


East East Antarcti Ant arctica ca is formed by b y magmat magmatic ic and

Antarctica, overlooking Ronne Ice Shelf.

metamorphic rocks of Proterozoic (2500 to 542.0 542.0 ± 1.0 million years years ago), ago), and partly p artly

G eol ogy

Archaean age (4000 to 2500 million years Antarctica was at one time a part of an anago). Conversely, Western Antarctica con- cient, considerably larger larger landmass land mass,, referred referred sists of more recent rocks, of Mesozoic age

to by geologists as “Gondwanaland”. The

(251 to 65.5 million years ago) and Ceno-

supercontinent began breaking up ~150

zoic age age (65.5 million years years ago ago to pres p resent ent), ),

million years ago and its several segments

alternating with volcanic ashes and lava

gradually gradually drifted apart to form the t he present present

rocks. The east Antarctic ice cap is much

land masses of South America, Africa, In-

thicke th ickerr than t han the t he west west Ant Antarc arctic tic ice cap. cap. The Th e dia, Australia (with New Zealand), and topograph to pography y in east east Antarctica Ant arctica is also also higher Antarctica ( for a simulation of Gondwana than that in the t he wes westt Antarctic nt arctica. a. The high-

breakup with time scale, refer the link in

est peak, Vinson Massif (4892m) is situ-

www.ncaor.gov.in).

ated in the Ellsworth Mountains of western

50 Million Years Ago



Present Day

37


alwayss a cold and inhospitable inh ospitable place. Coal H ow do geo geol ogis gi gists sts f i nd oout ut the pas pa st alway past deposits found today in sandstone beds less dis di spos posi ti on of conti nt i nent nentss? than 500 kilometers from the South Pole

T he present present out lines of these continent cont inents— s— along with the similarity of their geology and fossil fossil finds—indicate that th at they t hey had fit-

show that these materials were laid down during late Paleozoic time (240-300 million years ago) under marshy conditions

ted together and that Antarctica was not

in a cool, moist climate.

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

38


A re there there volc volcan oes in A ntarc ntarctic tica aa? ? ucts of eruptions—from the Pliocene lcaano anoe no tica? Volcanic activity in Antarctica is limited

through the present—of basaltic lavas from

to only a few places, the most notable be-

central cones and fissures at various loca-

ing Mount Erebus on Ross Island. The is-

tions. Mount Erebus is the largest and by

land is entirely of volcanic origin, as are

far the most active of the few volcanoes on

White Whi te and an d Black Black Islands, Brown Brown Penin Peninsula sula the continent, almost continuously spewand Mina Min a Bluff, Bluff, and the t he massifs massifs of Mounts Moun ts ing out steam and gases from its summit crater.

Discovery and Morning. These are prod-

Smoke emanating from an active volcano

39


A re the there roc roc ks lying beneath ice?

to know that Antarctica is made up of one

Geologists Geologists have dug deep into in to the th e Ant Antarcarc-

of the world’s oldest rocks which could be

tic ice to see what what lies beneath! beneath ! A small small part par t

around aroun d 3 billion years years old! O ne promiprom i-

of Ant Antarctica arctica (~ 2 %) remains ice-free ice-free and

nent topographic feature of the Antarctic

is extensively studied by the Earth Scien-

continent is the Trans Transantarctic antarctic Mountains Mount ains..

tists to discover the geological history and

These ranges form a divide between East

evolution of Antarctica in the past many

(greater) and West (lesser) Antarctica and

million mil lionss of years. years. You would wou ld be b e surprised surpr ised

cover more than 2,200 kilometers.

Ocean floor around Antarctica

40


C l i ma ma t e

ern Ocean, in which flows one of the

We have read that Antarctica is the cold-

world’s world’s larges largestt and stronges str ongestt current that th at is

est, est, windiest, driest continent on the t he Planet

known as Antarctic Circumpolar Current

Eart Earth. h. The T he weather, weather, stron strong g winds winds and bru-

(ACC). It is a cold oceanic current driven

tal storms have been synonymous with

by strong winds generated due to the Ant-

Antarctica nt arctica since since its discovery discovery and cont inue inu e arctic Circumpolar Circum polar Trough, Trough, which is a zone zone to be b e a major challenge challenge for modern explorexplor-

(between 60°S and 65°S) of low pressure

ers.

that exhibits variable winds moving from west to east. ACC is the only current en-

W hy is A nta ntarctic rcticaa’s wea weathe ther so so circling the th e whole whole globe as it is unhind unh indered ered brutal? by landmasses. landmasses. It isolates the Antarctic Antarct ic conAntarctica’s climate is so inhospitable due tinent from the effect of warm surface to several factors. The main cause is that

ocean ocean currents curren ts and thus t hus helps in the t he gradual

Antarctica has a perpetual ice sheet cover-

build-up of ice.

ing the major part of the continent. Ice is highly reflective and doesn’t absorb warmth. Attenuation of solar radiation energy is greatest at high latitudes where the path through the atmosphere is longest. Also, solar energy reaching the surface at high latitude is spread over a larger area because the surface is at a greater angle to the incoming radiation. Therefore, the earth’s surface at the poles is a heat sink when compared with that at the tropics. The poles simply lose more energy than they receive – they have a negative radiation balance. Another important factor is that th at it is i s surround surrou nded ed by a vas vastt ocean, Sout Southh-

Antarctic ocean current system

41


Global relevance of Antarctic Science

T he O zo z one H ol e

Ozone hole in Antarctica?

What is ozone?

In 1974 the American scientists Mario

Ozone is a form of oxygen in which each

Molina and Sherwood Rowland proved

molecule contains three atoms of oxygen

that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) possibly

as compared to the normal two. It is a blu-

played an active role in the depletion of

ish gas and and is chemically very very active. When Wh en

the ozone layer. CFC are stable industry

inhaled it is toxic and particularly harmful

gases containing mainly chlorine, fluorine

to asthmatics and others with respiratory

and bromine, bromin e, used in refrigeration refrigeration systems systems,,

problems. Ozone also absorbs ultraviolet

air conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in

radiation (UV), a property of considerable considerable

Zone of ozone depletion

significance significance to life on Earth. Eart h. O zone occurs occurs naturally in our atmosphere, which is dominated by nitrogen (78% of the total) and oxygen (21%).

42


the production of some types of packag-

ginning of spring (September - October)

ing. The hole in the ozone layer over Ant-

it goes from bad to worse. Each year a cold

arctica was discovered discovered in 1985. 19 85. When W hen BritBrit -

wedge of ice clouds moves in over Antarc-

ish scientists at the Halley Bay station in

tica. At about the same time of year the

Antarctica saw the results of their measure-

Sun returns retu rns to the th e cont continent inent after the th e winwin-

ments, they t hey thought that th at there t here was was some-

ter dark months, and the combination of

thing wrong with their instruments. At

sunlight, sunlight , ice clouds clouds and CFCs C FCs form a mix-

once they were replaced, but the results

ture that destroys the ozone.

stayed as alarming as before. When their conclusions were published in the scien-

What effects does ozone depletion have?

tific magazine Nature, the world recog-

T he ozone laye layerr plays an import imp ortant ant role in

nized that something had to be done and

the atmosphere. It protects us from the

quickly. quickly. A question that t hat is often asked asked is harmful effects of certain wavelengths of “Why the hole in the ozone layer occurs

UV radiation, particularly UV-B radiation

only over Antarctica?” During the polar

(radiation between the wavelengths 280-

night the temperature in the stratosphere

320 nanometers). Overall, ozone destruc-

drops to sometim sometimes es -100 o Celsius. At lower

tion process over Antarctica reduces the

temperatures temperat ures the th e demolition proce pr ocess ss of the

total amount of stratospheric ozone on a

ozone molecules is str strength engthened. ened. At the th e be-

global scale.

43


Why Arctic doesn’t have an “Ozone Hole”?

perature does not fall as low as it does in

Unlike Ant Antarctica, arctica, which which is a continent cont inent sur-

the Antarctic. Stratospheric clouds are

rounded by oceans, the Arctic is an ocean

therefore, less common, which prevents the

surrounded by mountainous continents.

formation of a deep ozone hole over the

This Th is means means that th at the t he stratospheric circula circula--

Arctic.

tion is much more irregular, and the tem-

Arctic View

Arctic Circle 660 300 North

----

44

North Pole

Greenwich Meridian


VIII

I

THE IINDI NDIAN AN CO CONT NTR NTRI R RIBU I BU BUT TI ON TO ANTARC ARCT TI C SCI ENCES

beginning for conducting cond ucting atndian Antarctic Research Programme is peditions since beginning one of the the finest examp examples les of a coordi coordinat nated ed

mospheric mospheric stud studies ies.. O ther Institutions Institut ions include

long-term research effort of key national re-

National Physical Laboratory, National In-

search institutions. It is also an important

stitute of Tropical Meteorology, National In-

stitu te of Oce Oceanography anography,, National National Geophysicomponent of international scientific stitute community’ commun ity’s effort effort to t o unders und erstand tand this th is remot remotee cal Research Institute, Indian Institute of icy continent. Antarctica plays a key role in

Technology echnology (Delhi) etc. C Cont ontinuous inuous record-

the global climate. India has been pursuing

ing of surface weather parameters at Maitri

research in the fields of earth atmospheric,

has provided necessa necessary ry input input for und understanderstand-

biological, human physiology, communica-

ing the th e variations variations in the t he Ant Antarc arctic tic atmos atmospheric pheric

tion, space space and weather science sciencess et etc. Ant Antarcarc-

circulation patterns. Surface characteristics

tica provides a unique envi-

and insulation features over

ronment to study the inter-

Antarctica also influence the

actions of glaciation and cli-

energy budget of the globe,

mate without human inter-

which which in turn tur n control contr ol the clicli-

ferences.

mate. The Th e scientific scientific community has recognized that

A tmo tmospheric he heric S cie ciences ces

ozone depletion could in-

Antarctica has attracted the

crease the levels of UV rays

attention of scientific com-

on the earth. Indian Scien-

munity all over the world since it is one of tists are monitoring monitor ing the the ozone hole abov abovee the the most important climate regions with a Maitri station and have found that the hole potential to influence long-term global cli-

depth is fluctuating from year-to-year. The

mate change. change. India Meteorologica Meteorologicall Depart-

observations at Maitri also showed an event

ment (IMD (IM D ) is part participa icipatin ting g in Ant Antarc arctic tic exex- of major str stratospheric atospheric warmin warming g during dur ing 2002. 45 45


B i ol ol og ogi ca cal S cie ci ences ces

velop better technologies for the easy sur-

Biological studies stu dies on the t he ice shelf shelf and fresh

vival and living habits of mankind in the

water water lakes lakes have have been been carried out since the

Antarctic. Indian scientists are making an

first expedition. Researchers have studied

attempt to highlig h ighlight ht the bacterial divers diversity ity

the composition, spatial distribution and

of Antarctica, the biotechnological poten-

influence of different physical and chemi-

tial of the cold-loving bacteria and also to

cal factors on eco-biology of fresh water

understand their survival strategies. Stud-

environment environment.. The Th e invert invertebrate ebrate fauna, fauna, birds bird s

ies on the bacterial diversity of Antarctica have have led led to t o the t he identification identification of a number numb er of new n ew species species of bacteria from fr om Antarctica nt arctica such as Sphingobacterium antarcticum, Pseudomonas antarctica, Planococcus antarcticus, Pseudonocardia antarctica, Planococcus maitriensis, Arthrobacter gangotriensis etc. As of now, now, only on ly about 120

new species of bacteria have been identified from the frozen continent. India has like Penguin and South Polar Skua of added 20 new species to this list. Schir Schirmacher macher O asis asis have have also also been studied. stud ied. Genetic information of Antarctic Algae, Mosses & Lichens is an exciting field of study tu dy proposed proposed to be mounted mount ed by NCAOR in Antarctica. The microbiologists working at NCA N CAO O R in collaboration collaboration with CenC entre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Hyderabad aims at unraveling the molecular basis of the survival of microbes under extreme climatic conditions. Findings of this research can help to de-

Sampling for Biological Studies

46


Studies on the human biology and behav-

vey vey of India (GSI) (G SI) and Nation N ational al GeophysiGeophysi-

ior of expedition members are being done

cal cal Rese Researc arch h Institut In stitutee (NGRI). (NG RI). In the th e light light

for regular monitoring and to examine

of continental drift theory (see section on

their responses in extreme conditions. For

Geology of Ant Antarctica), arctica), Antarctica Ant arctica formed

example a research program has been

a major part of the super continent

initiated initiat ed to study the distu disturbance rbancess in slee sleep, p,

Gondwanala Gon dwanaland, nd, from which India, Ind ia, AustraAustra-

saliv salivary ary melaton melatonin in hormon h ormonee concentr concentration ation

lia, Africa, Sout South h America, Madaga Mad agasca scarr hav h avee

and their t heir daily rhythm. rhyth m. Init In itial ial results results show show drifted apart. From the point of view of that there was no phase shift in the

earth sciences, therefore, Antarctica pro-

acrophase in the melatonin level was ob-

vides a vital link in the reconstruction of

served during the period of observation at

Gondwanaland. The proximity of Eastern

Antarctica except in April and August.

Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) of India to a large part of East Antarctica in recon-

E arth rth S cie ci ences ces

structed tr ucted models of the supercont supercontinent inent and

Indian Ind ian efforts effort s in earth science science stu studies dies over over

the fact that mineral enriched zones of

Antarctica nt arctica were were initiat ini tiated ed by Geolog G eological ical SurSur-

Gondwanaland reconstruction c.400million years ago

47


Gondwanala Gon dwanaland nd continent cont inentss were were in cont contac actt

of metamorphism, deformation, and time

with Antarctica in the geological past; un-

of formation of the rocks. To work out an

derline the importance of studying Ant-

evolutionary model and finally compare

arctica geologically. India has been carry-

thes th esee results results with t he Indian Ind ian counterparts, count erparts,

ing out integrated geophysical, geological

the above studies have been carried out in

and geochemical inves-

the Schirmacher Oasis,

tigations in Antarctica.

and parts of Wohlthat

The objective of these

ranges.

studies is a reconstruc-

India Ind ia has also also been suc-

tion

cessful in retrieving ice

of

Greater

Gondwanaland

by

cores

to

decipher

finding out the past

palaeoclimatic history

geological events, their

of polar continental ice.

field field configuration, configuration, the th e

An ice core is a sample

pressure and tempera-

of the ice that might

ture conditions of the

have been burried over

melt that gave rise to

hundreds hun dreds or or even even thouth ou-

the th e rocks rocks and the th e nature

Ice Core Drilling

sands of years. This ice

Ice Core Processing

Ice Core Archival Facility

48


preserves preserves the th e trapped trapp ed air bubbles bubb les represent represent--

1982-83. The initial observations recorded

ing gases from geological past. The com-

fluctuations of polar continental contin ental ice margin, margin,

position of these ice cores, especially the

ablation ablation and accumulation accumulation pattern patt ern of the ice

presence of hydrogen and oxygen oxygen isotopes isotop es,,

shelf, details of stratigraphic zonation within

provides a picture of the th e climate as well well as the th e shelf shelf ice, ice, melting melting rates rat es on shelf ice during dur ing the time of the deposition of snow. Because

the polar day etc. The net average accumula-

water molecules containing heavier isotopes

tion of snow over the ice shelf near the In-

exhibit exhibit a lower lower vapor vapor pressure, pressure, when the th e tem-

dian research base is estimated to be more

peratur peraturee falls, falls, the t he heavier heavier water molecules m oleculeswill than 50 cm. Studies also indicate that the condense faster than the normal water mol-

growth patterns have a strong temporal bias,

ecules. The relative concentrations of the

encompassing different segment of the year.

heavier isotopes in the condensate indicate

Surface drift is the major source of both ac-

the th e temperatu temperature re of condensation condensation at the th e time,

cumulation and ablation.

allowing for ice cores to be used in global

Scientists are conducting different geomag-

temperature reconstruction. In addition to

netic netic measurements measurements in Ant Antarctica arctica to compre-

the isotope concentration, the air bubbles

hend the response of the experimental setup

trapped in the th e ice ice cores cores provide an opportu oppor tu--

to various atmospheric, electrical and meteo-

nity to measure the atmospheric concentra-

rological conditions condit ions and asse assess ss the role of so-

tions of trace gases, including greenhouse

lar wind-magnetosphere-ionosphere interac-

gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and ni-

tions in modulating the Global Electric Cir-

trous oxide. The air bubbles may also con-

cuit etc.

tain trace tr acess of aerosols aerosols,, which are produ produced ced in

The studies on seismo tectonics and

great concentrations during volcanic erup-

geodynamical processes between Antarctica

tions. Shallow cores, or the upper parts of and Southern Indian Peninsula by GPS-GeGPS-Gecores in high-accumulation areas, can be

odesy and seismology were initiated in 1997

dated exactly by counting individual layers,

by the National Geophysical Research Insti-

each representing a year.

tute (NGRI). The primary objective of ob-

The Th e Indian contribut cont ributions ions towards towards glac glaciologiiologi- taining the signatures of geodynamical and cal studies in Antarctica were initiated in

crustal deformation processes have already 49


been achieved and more detailed studies are

and some long-term investigations have

being currently done.

been initiated.

India’s research activities in the polar remote sensing field concentrates on cryosphere re-

E nvironme nvironmental ntal S cie ci ences ces

mote sensing which aims at the extraction

A compr comprehensiv ehensivee stu study dy of the t he different en-

of sea ice ice surface characteristics characteristics from the th e

vironmental components viz., air water,

The 2003 Antarctic Total Solar Eclipse at Antarctica

observed observed elect elect romagnetic romagnetic signatures signatu res sensed sensed

land, noise is being carried out at the

by the space borne sensors. The threshold

Indian Polar research station Maitri, in

technique of quasi co polarized ratio and

compliance with the statutory require-

quasi co polarized difference during win-

ments of the Antarctic Treaty. India has

ter and summer have been used to distin-

establis established hed an Environment Environmental al Monitoring Monit oring

guish water and ice pixels for delineating

Laborat Laboratory ory at Maitri. T he objectives are

the sea ice in the background of open sea.

to assess the impacts of various scientific

Some of thes th esee studies have been been fine fin e tuned tu ned

programmes and their logistic support 50


facilities on the fragile system of Antarc-

there is a scope for concern looking into

tica, identify the major sources of pollu-

the critical aspects of Antarctic environ-

tion and quantification of pollution load.

ment and the carrying capacity of the

Previous studies reported that the level of environment surrounding the Maitri pollution at Maitri are not alarming but

station.

Shri Arun Chaturvedi Participant of X, XII (Wintering), XV (Wintering & Leader), XIX (Wintering & Leader), XXII, XXV, XXVII (Wintering & Leader) Expedition.

Shri Ajay Dhar Participant of V, VI (Wintering), XV, XVIII (Wintering & Leader), XXII, XXIII, XXVI (Leader Larsemann Team), XXVII (Leader Larsemann Team) Expedition.

----

51


IX

AMAZI NG FACTS A AMAZI AB ABO BOUT AN ANT TARC ARCT TI CA

A r ea

I ce-f re reee ar are area ea

1.39 times bigger than the USA 13,829,430 km2

(2% of total) 280,000 km2

L ar ggeest I ce S helf

M oun t ai ns ns

Ross ice shelf: (about the size of France) 510,680 km2

Transantarctic Mountain chain: 3,300 km Highest mounta mountain: in: Mt. Vinson Vinson - 4,8 4,892 92 m

T empe mperature mperature

W i nd

Lowest recorded - 89.2°C

Maximum recorded gust:248.4 km/ h

I ce ce

P opulation

Anta ntarc rctic ticaa ha hass 70% of of all all the worl orlds ds fr freeshw hwate aterr Frozen as ice and 90% of all worlds ice Mean thickness is 1,829 m

Abou boutt 4,000 on scientific bases in the short summer 1,000 total in winter around 25,000 summer tourists are no permanent residents and no native population.

G ove vernan rnanc ce vernance rnance

D is isccove very ry and E xplo xplora xplorat ratio tion ion n xp lora

Governed by the Antarctic Treaty System

1st time anyone set foot was in 1821 1st overwintering in 1898 South Pole was first reached in 1911

“If Ant Antarc arcti tica ca’s ice shee heets ts melted, melted, the the worlds oceans would rise by 60 to to 65 metre metress (2 (200 00 - 210 210ft ft)) - everywhere.” “T he larges largest land anim animal al in in Ant Antarc arcti tica ca is an an in inssec ect, t, a wingle winglesss midge, midge, Belg Belgica ica antarctica, less less than 1.3 1 .3cm cm (0.5i (0. 5in) n) long long.. Ther T heree are are no flying flying insects insects (t (they hey’d get get blown away), just shiny black springtails that hop like like fleas and tend to live among penguin colonies”. “When the Antarctic sea-ice begins to expand at the beginning of winter, it advances by around 40,000 square miles (100,000 square kilometres) per day, and eventually doubles the size of Antarctica, adding up to an extra 20 million square kilometres of ice around the land mass”. “One of the biggest icebergs ever (possibly the biggest iceberg ever) broke free from the Ross ice shelf in Antarctica in 2000”.

---52


EPI LOGUE

Dear Reader, Antarctica nt arctica has remained as an an area of immense imm ense curiosity and awe awe due to to its inaccessibility and inhospitable climate. Though the scene is changing fast with the opening of ice runways and ships carrying tourists, yet this continent continues to be the last wilderness because of no permanent habitation. We have attempted to bring together information scattered at various locations for students interested in knowing different aspects pertaining to Antarctica. The account varies from the discovery of the continent to stories of heroism, gradual shifting of scene from the days of huskies to automobile/ motorized ships/ aircrafts, the unique flora and fauna capable of sur surviv viving ing in the t he extr extreme eme cold cold and finally the Indian Ind ian init in itiative iative in this land. We sincerely hope that the book will stimulate our young minds, which is the main objective of this ‘popular series’.

(Rasik Ravindra)

Director NCAOR

53 53


BI BLIO BIBLI OGRAPHY Many articles, books and websites were consulted in search of material for this book. While all known and unknown sources are thanked, the main ones are listed below. Arun (2005): Rochak aur Romanchak Antarctica, Prabhat Prakashan, Prakashan, New D elhi. Australian Antarctic Division: www.aad.gov.au www.antarctic a.ac.uk antarctica.ac.uk British rit ish Antarctic Ant arctic Surve ur vey: y: www.

Global Warming: http://www.climatehotmap.org/index.html Gateway to Antarctica: http://www.anta.canterbury.ac.nz Indian Scientific Scientific Expedition Expedition to Antarc nt arctica: tica: Third and Ninth Nin th Scientific Scientific Report Reportss. Internati Int ernational onal Polar Polar Year: ear: www.ipy.org Kids Design Antarctic Experiments: http://web-japan.org/kidsweb/news/05-02/ antarctica.html New Zeal Z ealand and Antarctic nt arctic Survey: Survey: www.antarcticanz.govt.nz National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research: www.ncaor.gov.in National Science Foundation: http://www.nsf.gov/ Nova warnings from the ice: ht http:/ tp:/// ww www w.pbs.org .pbs.org// wg wgbh/ bh/nova nova/warnings /warnings/ / ) Polar meteorology web module: http://www.weather.nps.navy.mil/~psguest/polarmet Polar regions: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~leung/intl/pola/webpage.html Portals of the world: http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html Scott Polar Research Institute: http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research: www.scar.org The Commission for the conservation of the Antarctic marine life: www.ccamlr.org The secretariat of the Antarctic and southern ocean coalition (ASOC): www.asoc.org The South Pole: www.south-pole.com The explorer web: (http://www.thepoles.com/ (http://www.thepoles.com/ ) Teachers experiencing Antarctica and Arctic: http://tea.armadaproject.org

---54


R esearc h T eam Manish Ti Tiwari

Nat National Centre for Antarctic and Oc Oceean Research

C.M. Laluraj Lalit Kumar umar Ahirwa hirwarr

Nat National Centre for Antarctic and Oc Oceean Research Nationa Nationall Cent Centrre for Antar ntarctic and Ocea Ocean Res Resea earrch

A dvi so sor s S. Mukherjee

Geological Survey of India

Arun Chaturvedi K. R. Gupta N . Khare Ajai Saxena

Geological Survey of India Geological Society of India N ational Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research Ministry of Earth Sciences

55


56

Story of Antarctica

Recommend Documents