INTRODUCTION
Over the past two decades, world output has been expanding and many countries are benefiting from increased cross-border trade and investments. Many others suffer because economic regimes are inefficiently managed, and this weakness reduces their capacity to successfully compete globally (Schneider and Enste, 2002). International mobility of capital, resulting from advances in communications technology and liberalization of financial markets has intensified as the world economy witnesses the unleashing of market forces. Deregulation of domestic markets, their opening to competition, privatization and the retreat of the state from economic management are also features of the current global order. However, this same process encourages enc ourages rising inequality among nations. The liberalization of the world economy, for instance, has proceeded in such a way that the growth prospects of developing countries are being undermined. Thus, while restrictions have been lifted on the freedom of capital and skilled labour to move to areas of high returns, the restrictions on the mobility of unskilled labour remain. Moreover, as developing countries have increased their capacity to produce and export manufactures, the developed countries have become active in promoting tariff peaks and escalations (UNCTAD, 2001a). Such measures can neither solve the South¶s development problems nor allow for a narrowing narr owing of the North± South divide.
CONCEPT OF GLOBALIZATION
The word µglobalization¶ was first employed in 1930, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, to denote a holistic view of human experience in education. An early description of globalization was authored by the American entrepreneur-turned-minister Charles Taze Russell who coined the term µcorporate giants¶ in 1897. This term, however, was not widely used by economists and social scientists until the 1960s. Since its inception, the concept of globalization has inspired numerous competing definitions and interpretations, with antecedent dating back to the great movements of trade and empire across Asia and the Indian Ocean from the 15 th century onwards. Globalization (or globalisation), in Wikipedia, describes a process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through a global network of communication, transportation, and trade. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to economic globalization, that is, the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of
technology. However, globalization is usually recognized as being driven by a combination of economic, technological, socio-cultural, political, and biological factors. Globalization is the term used to describe the growing worldwide integration of the people and countries. According to Paulo (1998) the process of increasing global integration has accelerated dramatically in the technology. Peter (2002) views globalization as a process of integrating economic decision-making such as consumption, investment investment and saving sa ving all across the world. This means that globalization is a process of creating global market place in which increasingly, all nations are forced to participate. Among the features that characterize globalization include interconnection of sovereign countries through trade and capital flow; harmonization of the economic rules that govern the interaction or relationship between these sovereign nations; creating structures to support and facilitate dependence and inter connection; and creation of a global market place (David 1997). The process of globalization is not restricted to the economic sphere only. The advancement in information technology has resulted in the t he opening and exposure of the people of the world worl d to more than ever before, different and alternative views and as a consequence influences almost all aspects of human life. This may influence the stand of Salimono (1999) when he maintains that globalization is a process of harmonization of different culture and beliefs of the world in to one. In the like manner, Garry (1998) views globalization as the harmonization of political system a nd enthronement of the culture of west. It is observed that decisions taken by countries operating under separate, sovereign and autonomous environment has bearing on others. The emergence of global market is increasingly weakening these autonomous units. Globalization is a multi-dimensional concept with political, socio-economic transnational and business undertones. It is simply the integration of national economics leading to near free movement of goods, services, capital, skill among companies which regards everywhere as their ³home´ market and serving customer with ³globalized´ tastes and preferences, using the same or slightly different projects and strategies (Orunmoluyi, 2000). In other words, globalization is a process of increased integration of national economy with the rest of the world to create a more coherent global economy. This can be achieved through the creation of a global market place in which free markets; investment flows, trade and information are integrated. According to Awake (2002) globalization will heighten the level of interconnectedness between and among a mong nations through a systematic integration of autonomous autonomous economies into a global system of production and distribution. It should be noted that globalization seek to
eliminate trade barriers through unfitted integration and interaction of global capital and labour thereby leading to an unhindered exchange of goods and service across border. Globalization is a process pr ocess that affects af fects firms, industries, economies and nations. (Bayo, 2000). 2000). But the mere fact that a firm operates in a global world does not quality it a global company. In order to measure the globaliness of a company, it should have the following attributes as posited by Francis (2000): 1. Possessing a standard product that is marketed uniformly across the world; 2. Sourcing out all assets (not just product) on an optional basis, i.e, from wherever and whoever provided it is competitive; 3. Achieving market access in line with break-even volume of needed infrastructure; 4. The ability to contest the asset as much as products when circumstance requires, i.e. neutralizing the assets and competencies of global competitors; and 5. Providing all functions (or competencies) with global orientation even when they are primarily local in scope. The key elements of globalization involve the inter connection of sovereign nations through trade and capital flows; harmonization of economic rules governing relationship between these nation; creating structures to support and facilities dependence and interconnection; global configuration and co-ordination of business activities with local responsiveness; and creating a global market place (Salimono, 1999).
CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT
Development means different thing to different people. This may be the reason for Idode (1989) to describe development a problematic concept. According to him, development has been used in many different ways including political, economic and social. In other words, development is a construct of many applications In a view expressed by Okobiah (1984), development involves a process of economic, political and social change in a progress direction towards a better social well being for the member of the society. According to Nwana (1998) development involves harnessing of the resources for the realization of their major objectives, solving their major problems. This means that, development from the foregoing consists of activities required in improving the attitudes and potentials of people. Probably, this justifies the view of Boateng (1990), which describes development as the process aimed at improving the living conditions and circumstances of human beings both directly and indirectly. Considering the various views, national development encompasses social, economic, cultural and political development. In
other words, the components of national development include social development, economic development, political development and cultural development. Social development refers to positive social change. According to Adeniyi (1995) social change is the process through which the t he patterned network rules and institutions are modified in the course of time. In other words it refers to the process of transformation of the ways of life and structures of society over-time. The transformation or modification should lead to new behaviour which reflects improvement on the old attitude. The term economic development refers to the improvement in the general standard of living of the people of the society. Falodun, et al (1997) observed that econom ec onomic ic development is the attainment atta inment of ideals of modernization such as the rise in productivity, social and economic equity, improved institution and values. This means that economic development is concerned with the improvement in the quality of life of the people. Political development refers to the process of evolving an acceptable political behaviour that would facilitate the achievement of the national objective such as a free and democratic society. It is also the attainment of a just and egalitarian society. In other words, there is the development of civilized and refined political culture that corresponds with the objective of the country. Culture refers to the total way of life of the people. Cultural development involves a process of improving the culture of the society. Since culture is dynamic, it is expected that the culture of the society should reflect the socioeconomic requirement of the people from time to time. Adeniyi (1995) noted that improvement in culture of the people involves making the culture relevant and in line with the present and future interests, values, aspiration, and needs of the society. DISCUSSION ON TRENDS IN GLOBALIZATION
The world is fast becoming b ecoming a global village, a metaphor that is often ofte n invoked to depict global interdependence and the increasing interaction among and the integration of economic activities of human societies around the world (Ajayi, 2001). In concrete terms, globalization is the intensification of cross-border trade and increased financial and foreign direct investment flows among nations, promoted by rapid advances in and liberalization of communication and information technology (Islam, 1999 and Aninat, 2002). Thus, globalization conjures the picture of a borderless world with gr eater economic integration that enhances the living standards of people across the globe.
Even then, globalization is not a novelty in the development proc ess. On the contrary, the late 19th century was a period of dramatic integration of the world economy as evidenced by the rapid expansion in world trade, the founding of the Latin Monetary Union in 1865 and the emergence of the gold standard in 1878 (Onwuka, 1998 and O¶Rourke and Williamson, 1999). Although the retreat into managed trade by the major trading countries between the first and second world wars dampened the outlook of global economic intercourse, the post± 1945 multilateralism has virtually permeated all corners of the globe. Since 1990, increased economic cooperation has lifted the ratio of t he growth of world export volume to the growth of gross world product to a range of 2.5-3 from an average of below 2 in the 1970s and 1980s (United Nations, 2001). Other Other benefits of globalization, which include exposure to new ideas and products, greater specialization and expanded opportunities for mergers and acquisitions, leading to growth in size a nd power of corporations, their increased competitiveness and efficiency in the utilization of productive resources and major improvements in social development and human welfare are well documented documented in the literature (see, for example, Ayorinde, et. al. 1998; Rodrik, 1999; Sachs, 2000; Crafts, 2000; Masson, 2001; IMF, 2002 and Ocampo, 2003). The transnational corporations (TNC) with their intensive integration of production, distribution and services globally provide the impetus for this process. Between 1990 and 2001, for instance, their stock of outward foreign direct investments (FDI) increased from 1.7 trillion dollars to 6.6 trillion dollars and in 2001 alone their sales of 19 trillion dollars were more than twice as high as world exports that year (UNCTAD, 2002a). No doubt, increased trade and investment flows help countries to develop more quickly as trade generates income and the flows enable them to increase their stock of productive capital without compromising their level of consumption. And when such flows are in the form of FDI, they often improve access to international best practices in terms of managerial, marketing and technical know-how, skill acquisition and institutional deepening. Moreover, the intangible assets of TNC such as knowledge, technology, management know±how and access to market serve not only as essential link between national and enterprise competitiveness but as well as complements to domestic development resources in recipient countries (UNCTAD, 2001b). Technology, policy and competition are the forces driving globalization. This is attested to, for example, by advances in computing technology,, which enable traders to meet demand for financial instruments such a s swaps and technology futures with relative ease, thus allowing them to better manage their risks. In addition, improved transportation such as the advent of containerization in land±and sea±based shipping has reduced both the handling requirements and transit time by more than two
thirds. The second force is policy liberalization. With this, most governments have removed barriers to trade and controls on the movement of capital and services, thereby allowing market forces to play themselves out. The third force, which is heightened competition, compels firms to explore new ways of increasing their efficiency, including shifting some of their activities abroad to reduce costs (UNCTAD, 2002a). However, not every nation is a full member of the global village. The developed countries use their competitive advantage to boost their share of world trade and finance, and so largely benefit from globalization (Khor, 2001 and UNCTAD, 2003a). On the other hand, developing countries are losing out as they experience a worsening worseni ng of existing imbalances and distortions in the global economy (Collier and Dollar, 2001). This view is shared by Zuma (2003) who argues that the unequal distribution of political, economic and military power has meant that whilst globalization created immense opportunities of wealth for some, it has produced two contrasting global villages: one which is indeed prosperous, rich and democratic for a few who live in it, and t he other, in which the majority are poor, alienated and marginalized with hardly any voice to determine their own destiny. The data on tables 1 and 2 clearly show that there are actually two villages in the global economy. Table 1 reveals that developing countries are mainly primary commodity producers and exporters. In 1985, they accounted for 61.2 per cent of primary products traded globally. Although this dropped to 56 per cent in 2000, this drop cannot compensate for the 68.2 per cent of manufactures based on natural resources or 66.8 per cent of manufacturers not based on natural resources that developed countries exported that year. The shares of developing countries in these categories of manufactures that same year were 26.6 per cent and 30.8 per cent respectively. In the case of FDI inflows (Table 2), developed nations increased their share from 64.4 per cent during 1990-1995 to 68.4 per cent in 2001, whereas the share of developing countries fell from 33 per cent to 27.9 per cent during the same period. Moreover, industrial countries protect their markets, particularly in sectors in which developing countries have a recognized comparative advantage like textiles, clothing and footwear. Agriculture is also heavily protected usually in the form of subsidies, driving world prices down and hurting farmers in developing countries the more. The estimate of econom ec onomic ic losses from agricultural protection in developed countries is around 150 billion dollars yearly, about 50 billion dollars of it in lost exports for developing countries (for details, see McGuirk, 2002 and Lankas, 2002).While responsibility for global economic reform is ceded to the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IMF/World Bank), the policies of these agents of globalization, controlled by the highly industrialized countries, have failed to narrow the gap
between the richest 20 per cent of humanity and the poorest 20 per cent, which doubled between 1950 and 2000 (O¶ Rourke, 2002). Free trade and market forces, canvassed by globalization, are not closing this gap. Instead, they have contributed to widening it because after the Tokyo and Uruguay Rounds of trade liberalization in the 1980s and 1990s, the developing countries have ended up with 3 per cent more trade deficits and 2 per cent less economic growth in 2000 in comparison with the 1970s (Erb-Leoncarallo, 2000). The economic internationalization process while not removing national sovereignty subordinates domestic economies to global market conditions (Kwanashie, 1998). The transmission of shocks this entails can alter the prospects of growth particularly in uncompetitive uncompetitive economies economies.. In this respect, the economic fortunes of developing countries are hostage to the forces of globalization. The East Asian financial crisis of 1997/1998 testifies to this assertion as the contagion, which followed affected the growthof many of them (UNCTAD, 1999; Bresciani et al.,2002). As we acknowledge the peculiar economic circumstances of developing countries, we also share shar e the view canvassed ca nvassed by Onimode (2003) that the desirable policies for them even in the context of globalization are those that promote selfreliance. This becomes imperative after the fact that globalization increases their dependence on foreign capital and the attendant exploitation impedes their growth, aggravates their poverty and intensifies their marginalization in the global economy economy.. The message from these concerns is that globalization is more than the free interplay of market forces since economic questions cannot be divorced from social issues. That being the case, the t he foundation of globalization has to be strengthened with broadly shared values and practices that would also reflect the needs of developing regions, so that all countries could benefit from the globalization globalization process. pr ocess.
IMPACT
OF
GLOBALIZATION
ON
THE
ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
OF
NIGERIA: A DEVELOPING COUNTRY.
Bayo (2000) and Salimono (1999) observed that globalization offers developing countries like Nigeria the opportunities to create wealth through the export-led growth, to expand international trade in goods and services and to gain access to new ideas, technologies and institutional designs. This means that globalization affects all aspects of Nigeria development development including her economy. In essence, globalization offers many opportunities to Nigeria and other developing countries as well as other actors in the global economy. Salimono (1999), (1999), opined that globalization has reduced barrier existing in international trade. The reduction in those barriers has opened the door for export led growth. For instance, Phillips (1991) noted that Nigerian economy has been mono-cultural since independence and
has so much depended on the western countries for its survival. Bayo (2000) and Evbuomwan (1996) observed that in the 1960s, Nigeria depended on agriculture for her revenue, which in turn, was used to provide life sustaining goods for the citizen. Then, Nigeria and other less developed economies exported exported raw-materials in form for m of cash crop such as Cocoa, Coffee, palm-produce Groundnut etc. The discovery of petroleum by Nigeria marked the turning point for the t he country and by the turn of 1970, agriculture has been pushed to a distant background. Onwioduokit and Ashinze (1996) observed that it was in the 1970s when Nigeria witnessed oil boom that brought about major shift from agriculture to petroleum. The bulk of the revenue of Nigeria now comes from petroleum. Since then, Nigeria has depended heavily on crude oil and this has cause instability in the economy due to fluctuations in the price of crude oil in the world market. Oputa (1996) and Salimono (1999) stated that since globalization entails trade liberalization, it is therefore imperative that there is free and unrestricted movement of trade, finance and investment across the international border. The advantage here is that globalization allows Nigeria to export and import goods, capital and investment without restriction. It is probably because of this advantage that Salimono (1999) asserted that for small and medium-size economy with limited internal market, the possibilities of economic growth lie, to a large extent, in production oriented towards international market. To buttress his point, he stated that the experience of the last four decades shows that countries like China, Chile, Ivory coast, Botswana that have managed to grow at very rapid rate of 7%, 8% or more per year, have relied on strong export growth, with export expanding at a faster rate than Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Nigeria can and should borrow a leave from these countries experience. Globalization promotes the rapid output growth that will increase national income and as a consequence enhance higher standard of living of developing countries including Nigeria. Globalization, according to Awake (2002) has enriched the world economically, scientifically and culturally. This is due to the fact that globalization opens the economies to a wide variety of consumption of goods, new technology and knowledge. Salimono (1999) opined that globalization offers economies with potentials of eradicating poverty. The reason for this belief may not be unconnected with the dramatic increase in prosperity that globalization has brought in its wake especially in South Korea, India and South Africa. To buttress this reason, Awake (2002) noted that family¶s income has increased three times more than it did 50years ago .However, the situation is different in Nigeria where real r eal income is decreasing.
Through the Internet, globalization allows the access to ideas on new things and best practices in all areas of human endeavour. For instance, new design, production technology, new managerial practice etc are made available to people, thereby enabling them to change their old practices. These may lead to acquisition or imitation of foreign products, technologies and cultural practices, which would have been made impossible without globalization. This means that Nigeria now has a ccess to opportunities to acquire new things, ideas and technologies t echnologies.. Globalization is a process of intensified and broadened interdependence among nations. According to Peter (2002), globalization creates global market place, which, with the development in communication technology, can be accessed by virtually any one from any location. Thus, it opens up a world of opportunities opportunities for business and also link them to market, which was hitherto unknown to them. In this process, there is decrease the possibility of wars among nations. Awake (2002) noted that interaction among people has the potential for improving global solidarity. It maintained that some human right organizations have been able to tap the resources of the people to promote their effectiveness. For instance, in 1997 international treaty banning land mines was achieved through mobilization of the people of the world through Internet. Despite these positive effects many people are still of the opinion that globalization poses tension and dilemma to countries integrated to the economy. The greatest concern about globalization expressed by Awake (2002) is the ever-increasing gap between the haves and the have-nots. It is observed that while the global wealth has increased, it has become concentrated in the hands of the few privileged individuals and few countries. It was also noted in Awake that the net worth of the 200 richest people on earth exceeded the combined income of 40% of the people who live on the planet. It continued further that while wages continued to rise in wealthy countries, 80 impoverished countries have actually seen a decline in average income over the past ten years. Nigeria was among these eighty countries. The distribution of global wealth has never been fair. But economic globalization as widened the gap between the rich and poor nations. However, some developing counties, as observed by Salimono (1999), have benefited from integration into the global economy. For example, India and Asia as a whole have seen improvement. He also noted that, only 15% of the East Asian population lived on US$1 a day compared with 27% ten years earlier. In an interdependent world economy, any adverse global shock affects other countries. For example, the oil glut of 1982 and 1998 according to Salimono (1999) was more rapidly propagated. The propagation mechanism at work could be be a decline in i n the import volume and
change in the real price of commodities (oil). Nigeria depends heavily on crude oil as the main source of income or foreign exchange earnings such that the country¶s revenue is always hit hard by these shocks (Doguwa and Englana, 2002). Furthermore, highly integrated financial financia l market tends to tra nsmit global, regional, national or local shock much more rapidly than in past decades when financial markets were less integrated. It has been observed by CBN (2002) that portfolio shift affect the exchange and interest rates including other economic activities. As a consequence, the volumes of financial intermediation and currency transactions are enormous nowadays. The shocks are greatly amplified in more or less synchronized fashion with destabilizing effects on Nigeria economy. This financial volatility was largely unknown in the 1950s, 1960s early 1970s when multilateral lending aids and foreign direct investment dominated global capital investment (CBN, 2000). The effect of globalization is the fear of uncertainty and volatility on capital formation and productivity growth with its negative consequence on economic growth. CBN (2000) viewed the instability on the economy as tax on growth and prosperity. It should be noted that this problem of uncertainty is not from within but external generated. Nigeria as a developing country has not evolved a mechanism that can absorb the shocks generated by the effects of globalization. The types of domestic policy response put in place by the government have increased the negative impact of these shocks in Nigeria and the people are worse off. The income of the people of Nigeria is low and they are living below poverty line. The social effect of globalization is another fear entertained by Dani (1997), when he states that since globalization is associated with instability of output and employment, the effects among other things job security. Majority of the people in Nigeria derived their income from labour. In Nigeria anything that affects their job is socially disrupted and thus bring tension to the fabric of the society. This may create industrial conflicts. Furthermore, it is observed that the unskilled and the uneducated workers as well as the marginalised agrarian population benefit less than the people with sophisticated skills and high level of education. As noted by David (1997), the highly educated people and people with sophisticated skills are better and more equipped to meet challenges of the competitive world. One other area of globalization is that it tends to transmit the cultural pattern of developed countries to the rest of the world. For instance, Nigeria Youth have been culturally colonized. This is because they now imitate the European¶s consumption patterns, modes of transport, method of communication including their music, without regard for the local culture. Though, it is noticed that this problem does not affect Nigerians only. It is a worldwide
phenomenon. This trend would, eventually, lead to homogenization of economic values, thereby eliminating or reducing Nigerian economy to nothing.
CONCLUSION
The merit of globalization for a developing economy like Nigeria lies in the capacity for wealth creation through export-led growth and the benefit of expanded international trade of goods, goods, services, and a nd access to new products and designed in the global markets. However, it has been observed that globalization, despite the opportunities provided, is associated with serious problem that has to be b e managed in appropriate ways using appropriate fiscal policies. Globalization gives rise to macro-economy instability that had characterized Nigeria government. This problem shows that Nigerian economic development may remain only a dream and difficult to actualise. A highly globalise and integrated financial market spread rapidly across counties financial shocks and loss of confidence that affect exchange rate, interest rate, assets prices with the resultant effect on output and employment and ultimately adverse social effects. It is therefore, suggested by Annan (2000), (2000), that if globalization gl obalization is to succeed, it must improve the life of every inhabitant of global neighbourhood without excluding Nigerians. Furthermore, for globalization to succeed it must also deliver right no less than riches and provides social justice and equity no less than economic prosperity and enhanced communication. This is why Yakubu (1999) observes that much as we are enthused about then technological and economic wonder of globalization, we must not as Nigerians, forget that vast areas of our continent still remain excluded and invisible. In spite of globalization for example, Africa is the only continent, according to Yakubu (1999), in which poverty has increased since the 1970s, and in which government use up 70% of their GNP to service debts. Economic Economic globalization should s hould not be driven dr iven by desire to make money. This is because profit motive rarely takes into account the poor and the disadvantage or the long term need of the planet. The global economy should be regulated and should not be dominated by corporations that recognize money as their only value. It should be noted that unregulated global economy is inherently unstable. Also an unregulated economy dominated by corporation having the desire to make profit will only increase poverty. Finally, collective action is needed to safeguard global ethic that will
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