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tool engineering notes for production engineering students of COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, AKOLA

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17827991 Manufacturing

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Suspension System

72404089 Theory of Metal Cutting

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by a great deal of friction & heat generation is governed governed by definite laws. Metal cutting operation involves involves three basic requirements. requirements. (1) There must be a cutting cutting tool that is harder and wear resistant than the work piece material, (2) there must be interference between the tool & the work piece as designated by the feed and depth of cut, and (3) There must be relative motion or cutting velocity between the tool & the work piece with sufficient force and power power to overcome the resistance of work piece piece material. As long as above three conditions exist, the portion of the material being machined that interferes with free passage of the tool will be displaced to create a chip.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days up to vote title The metals are given different different usable forms forms by various various processes. processes. Sign These processes may be classified as under. & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful 1.2 Classification of production process:

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Metal Forming

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In chipless processes the metal is given the desired shape without removing any material from the parent work piece. 1.3 Basic elements of cutting tools: The cutting tool consists of three basic elements (1) cutting element or Principle element – This is the element, which is actually fed into the material of work piece to cut the chips ex. In drilling lips (or cutting cutting edges) are cutting elements. elements. (2) Sizing element – The part, which serves to make up any deficiencies of cutting element Read Free Foron 30this Days after sharpening, is sizing sizing element. It imparts final shape shape to the machined surface and Sign up to vote title also provides guidance guidance in tool operation ex. In drill sizing element; element; (flute portion) Not useful immediately follows the lips ). (3) Mounting element – It serves for securing the tool in Useful Cancel anytime. machine or holding holding it in hand of worker ex. In the twist drill the shank shank is mounting Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. element. The cutting & sizing element taken together is referred as working element of the tool.

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Fig. 1.2 Sketches Showing V, f and d

From this formula it is easy to find rotational speed N = 1000 V / Π D ................... ................... 1.42 From figure 1.1. it is evident that the cutting speed varies along the cutting edge from maximum at point ‘m’ to minimum at point ‘K’ though the rotational speed is same. In drilling a work piece with a drill of diameter ‘D’ mm., rotating rotating at a speed Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign‘N’ up to vote title (rpm) the cutting speed will vary from zero at center to maximum at periphery given by n  Useful  Not useful eq 1.41. Cancel anytime.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times π D N Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. V= , m/min

1000

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To reduce machining cost machining time should be less i.e. the metal removal rate should be high. To achieve this following facts should be considered. considere d. 1) Proper cutting tool material should be selected. 2) Correct tool (angle) geometry should be produced or ground on tool 3) The tool should be rigidly held to avoid vibrations. 4) Depending on the rigidity rigidity of machine – tool system maximum maximum values of speed & feed should be selected. A process, which removes metal at a faster rate, may not be the most economical process, since the power consumed & cost factors must must be taken into account. Due to this, to compare two processes, the amount of metal removed per unit of power Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title consumed in unit time is determined. This is called “ Specific metal removal rate” 3  Useful  Not useful and is expressed as, mm /w/min, if the power is measured in watts. Cancel anytime.


1.5 Basic shape of cutting tools: Wedge. Almost all cutting tools used in metal cutting operations consist of basic form of

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, . smaller the angle of wedge, the greater greater will be the gain in force. In other words, the wedge angle 'β' determines the resisting force of the cutting edge. The cutting edge must be oriented at certain required angles with the work surface depending on nature nature of operation to be performed. performed. Fig.1.5 shows that that the wedge must be set at right angles to the work surface, so that the driving force "P" is in the direction of parting. parting. Fig.1.6 shows during during chipping the the wedge must be set at an angle inclined to work surface so that separation of chip can be done. Thus for the wedge two geometric parameters can be defined i.e. (1) The wedge angle 'β' and (2) the axis of symmetry along which 'P' acts. In addition to above, two Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title more parameters are introduced introduced to confirm conditions of of chipping action. action.Read These parameters are set with respect to velocity Vector, 'V' and are defined as (3) cutting  Useful  Not useful angle 'δ' and (4) clearance angle;, as shown in fig.1.7. The sign convention for Cancel anytime. are set wr.t. left handed cork screw rule with "Z" axis coinciding Special offer for describing students:these Onlyangles $4.99/month. with the direction of the velocity vector, V, and the cutting edge lying along 'Y' axis.


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1.6 Types of metal cutting processes: The metal cutting processes are classified in to two types, on the basis of angular relationship between cutting velocity vector V, & the cutting edge of the tool. (1) Orthogonal cutting process (two dimensional cutting) (2) Oblique cutting process (three dimensional cutting) In orthogonal cutting the cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to cutting speed direction. In oblique cutting, the angle between between the cutting edge & cutting velocity velocity 0 vector is different from 90 . fig 1.9 & fig.1.10 fig.1.10


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, 4) The above relative values are affected by changes in cutting, conditions & in properties of the material to be machined to give chip that range from small lumps to long continuous ribbons. These observations indicates that the process of chip formation is one of deformation or plastic flow of the material with the degree of deformation dictating the type of chip that will be produced. Fig. 1.11 shows progressive formation of a chip using a wedge shaped (single point) tool. tool. At “a” tool tool contacts the work piece material. material. At “b” compression of material takes place place at point of contact. At “c” the cutting force overcomes the the Free Foron 30this Days resistance of penetration penetration of tool is begins to deform by plastic flow. As theRead cutting Sign up to vote title force increase, either a rupture or plastic flow in direction generally perpendicular to  Useful  Not useful face of the tool occurs & the chip is formed as shown at “d”. Cancel anytime.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. tool

tool

tool

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. of slip & the layers are called slip planes. The number of slip planes planes depends upon the the lattice structure structure of parent workplace workplace material. The distortion distortion of layers tends tends to strengthen them (work hardening or strain hardening) & therefore the hardness of chip is much greater than the hardness of the parent material. Thus in simple language the mechanism of chip formation in any machining operation is a rapid series of plastic flow & slip movements ahead of the cutting edge. The degree of plastic flow ahead of the cutting tool determines the type of chip that will be produced. If the w/p material is brittle & has little little capacity for deformation deformation before fracture the chip will separate along the shear plane to form what is known as a discontinuous discontinuous segmental chip. chip. Material that are more more ductile & have capacity Read for Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title plastic flow will deform along along the shear plane without rupture. The planes tend to slip  Useful  Not useful & weld to successive shear planes, & the result is a chip that flows in a continuous Cancel anytime. ribbon along the face tool. This is known as a continuous chip & is usually much Special offer for students: Onlyof$4.99/month. harder than the parent material because of its strain hardened conditions. conditions.


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. 5) Sharp cutting edge. 6) Efficient cutting fluid. 7) Low friction between chip tool interfaces. 3) BUE Chip (or continuous Chip with BUE): These chips are also produced in the form of long coils like continuous chips, but they are not as smooth as continuous chips. These chips are characterized by formation of built up edge on the nose of the tool owing to welding of chip material on to tool face because of high friction between chip tool interfaces. Presence of this welded material material further increases the friction leading leading to building up of the edge, layer by layer. As the built-up edge continuous continuous to grow, Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign the up to vote title chip flow breaks a portion of it into fragments. Some of them are deposited on the work Useful Not useful piece material while the rest are carried away by the chips. chips. The hardness of this BUE isCancel anytime. to threeOnly times time$4.99/month. s higher than the work piece piece material. This is the reason why why the Special offer for two students: cutting edge remains active even when it is covered with with built-up edge. The only point in favor of BUE is that it protects the cutting edge from wear due to moving chips and


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, , c Where t = undeformed chip thickness (i.e. before cutting) and tc = mean thickness of chip ( i.e., after cutting ) Chip reduction coefficient K = 1/r The following methods can be used to determine cutting ratio 1) The cutting ratio "r" can be obtained by direct measurement of "t" & "t c". However since underside of chip is rough the correct value of "t c" is difficult to obtain and hence tc can be calculated by measuring length of chip (1c) and weight of piece of chip "W". tc = W/ (bc .1c. ρ ) Where, bc = length of chip Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 1c = width of chip ρ = Density of material assumed to be unchanged during chip  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. formation. Special offer for 2) students: Only $4.99/month. Alternatively, Alternatively , the length of chip (1c) & length of work (l) can be determined. The length of work can be determined by using a work piece with slot, which will break


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w ere γ = ra e an ang e the derivation of the above equation is as follows. from fig 1.7 a



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Vf

= Vc ,

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sin φ cos (φ − α)

α V =V, Master your semester φ − α with Scribd where α is the rake angle, & The New φYork is the shear Times angle. cos

s

c

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cos (

)


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From the principle of kinematics, the relative velocity of two bodies (tool and Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

chip) is equal to the vector difference between their velocities relative to the reference body (here the work piece). piece). The vectors of these these three velocities - V V and V

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rake angle "γ" by the following equation: =

Sheet Music

∆s ∆x cot φ + ∆x tan(φ − γ ) = ∆x ∆x = Cot φ + tan (φ - γ)

or

=

cos γ sin φ cos(φ − γ )

This relation can be obtained from the pack of inclined cards model suggested by Prof. Pushpanen. In this model the formation of chip and its motion along the tool face can be visualized from an idealized model in which a stack of inclined (playing) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title cards is pushed against the tool (fig.1.16 a). As the tool advances, segments, segments, which had been part of the work place, become part of the chip. chip. From this figure it can be seen  Useful  Not useful that card closest to the tool point slips to a finite distance relative to the uncut material Cancel anytime. asfor toolstudents: point slipsOnly to a $4.99/month. finite distance relative to the uncut material as tool advances. Special offer When the tool point reaches the next card, the previously lipped card moves up along


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sinφ p

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R = (Px + Py + Pz )

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=

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........ 1.14.1

2

This three-dimensional force system can be reduced to a two-dimensional force system if in orthogonal plane π 0 the forces are considered in such a way that the entire force system is contained in the considered state, when R=

2

Pz

+ Px2 y

..... . . . 1.14.2

..... . . . 1.14.3 Master your semester with Scribd This is possible only when P is contained in plane π which is possible only under Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title conditions of free orthogonal cutting. This corresponds to 'orthogonal system of first for whichYork conditions Times are: & Thekind' New  Useful  Not useful Pxy =

Px2

+ Py2

xy

i) 0<φ< 90 Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. λ=0 ii) iii)

The chip flow direction lies on the plane π

0

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However semester out of all the above cases shown inScribd fig 4.10 4.11 and 4.12 the cutting Master your with in the first two cases is "non free" or 'restricted" type where the auxiliary cutting edgeRead is up Free Foron 30this Days Sign to vote title also active in causing deviation of chip flow direction from the orthogonal plane. & The New York ofTimes  Useful  Not useful The contribution auxiliary cutting edge is to deviate P from the orthogonal xy

plane. This deviation small small & neglected if the depth of cut is very large compared to Special offer for students: Onlyis$4.99/month. feed, such process is called "Restricted Orthogonal cutting. However during cutting of a thin pipe with a cutting edge whose length

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1) The chip behaves as a free body in stable equilibrium under the action of two two equal, opposite and collinear resultant forces viz. R & R. 2) The tool edge is sharp. 3) The work material suffers deformation across a thin shear plane. 4) This is no side spread (or the deformation is two-dimensional). two-dimensional). 5) There is uniform distribution distribution of normal & shear forces on the shear plane & 6) The work material is rigid, perfectly plastic (or behaves like ideal plastic) 7) As, (shear plane area). Ts (shear stress) & "B" (Friction angle), are constant & are independent of shear angle ' φ' Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Forces on the chip (Merchant’s Analysis, theory) From the concept of chip formation and measuring force F t and Ff with a cutting inUseful  Not useful tool dynamometer, Merchant was able to build up a picture of forces acting theCancel anytime. of cutting give rise to plastic deformation and sliding of the chip down the Special offer for region students: Onlywhich $4.99/month. tool rake face.


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Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times (a) Graphical Treatment

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Using the conceptOnly explained in fig. 30.16(a) it is now possible to find graphically the Special offer for students: $4.99/month.

magnitude of force F c , Fs, N and F. The vector diagram of forces is constructed as follows [fig 30.16(b)] Draw F


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Fc = AO + OE Fc = Ff . cos φ + Ft. sin φ In ∆ AGB, ∠GBA = 180 – 90 - β = 90 - β Hence ∠ABD = 90 – α - (90 - β) = 90 90 – α - 90 + β = β - α Now t = BD F From

BD (or Ft)

∆ ABD

= cos (β − α)

Master your semester Scribd Thus F = R. cos ( βwith - α) ………… 30.24 F = R. cos ( β - α) ………… 30.25 & The New York = φ+β−α ∆ ABE Times Also from AB (or R) t t

Fs

cos (

R

)

Special offer for Now students: Only(30.24) $4.99/month. from Eqs. and 30.26) Ft

R cos(β − α)


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=

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β -α

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.

Now from equation (30.36) and (30.37)

Sheet Music F1

=

τ s A1 cos (β − α) × sin φ cos (φ + β − α)

(30.38)

Eq. (30.38) may be differentiated w.r.t. shear angle, φ for which F1 is a minimum.

φ and equated to zero to find the value of

 φ φ+β−α − φ + βScribd −α  Master your semester with = −τ β−α  = φ φ φ+β−α   φ φ β α φ β α or cos .cos ( + ) – sin ( + ) = 0 & The New York Times d F1 d

s A1

cos (

).

cos . cos ( sin

2

) sin (

. cos (

or cos ( φ + φ + β - α ) = 0 Special offer for students: φ Only β α $4.99/month. cos (2

+

+

)=0

π

2

)

)

zero (0).


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Similarly specific shear energy (e s) & specific friction energy (e f ) can be defined by the following relations. eS = ES/b.t.v. = FS . VS/b.t.v. = F S . cosν/b.t.cos (φ-ν), Kg/mm and 2 ef = Ef /b.t.v. /b.t.v. = FS . VS/b.t.v. = F/b.t c ,Kg/mm

2

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 1) In an orthogonal cutting operation, following date have been observed : & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful SOLVED PROBLEMS :

Example :

chip thickness, t = 0.125 mm. Special offer for Uncut students: Only $4.99/month. chip thickness, tc = 0.250 mm Width of cut, b = 6,500 mm.

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Thus, shear rate = 103.75/0.026 = 3938.755 (vi) Cutting power E = Fe V/4500 = 70.000/4500 = 1.55 H.P. vii) Specific shear energy E' s viii) Specific cutting energy 'e' = F c x c/b.t.v. 2 (70)/(6x5x0.125) = 86.15 kg/mm 2 ix) Specific friction energy = E - e s = 86.15 - 63.65 = 22.5 kg/mm

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title During machining of a C-30 steel with 0-10-6-7-8-80-0.5 mm (ORS) tungsten carbide tool, the following observations, have been made, depth of cut, & Theshaped New York Times  Useful  Not useful d = 2 mm, feed f = 0.2 mm/rev. mm/rev. speed V = 200 m/min. chip thickness t 0.40 mm. Example 2 :

Special offer for students: Onlywidth $4.99/month. Calculate shear angle of chip Solution :

c

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. reduction coefficient) ? 9. What are the various methods of estimating cutting ratio ? 10.What is shear angle angle ? How it can be measured measured ? 11. Prove that tan φ = r cos ν/(1 - r sin ν) Where, φ = Shear angle. r = Cutting Cutting ratio. ν = Rake angle. 12. Prove that Vc = Vsin φ/cos (φ - ν ) and Vs = Vcosν/cos (φ - ν ) Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Where V, Vc, Vs are cutting, chip & shear velocities respt. "φ" is shear angle & ν is rake angle.  Useful  Not useful 13. Prove that shear strain "∈" in orthogonal cutting is given by ∈= tan (φ - ν ) +Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: $4.99/month. φ is the shear angle and ν is the rake angle. cosφOnly , where 14. How is the thickness & width of undeformed chip estimated in turning operation


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, , velocity, shear strain in chip, cutting power and specific cutting power.

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29. A tool tool making an orthogonal orthogonal cut has a rake angle of - 10 . The feed is 0.10 mm, mm, the width of cut 6.5 mm. the speed 160 mpm, and a dynamometer measures the cutting force to be 180 kg and normal normal thrust force to be 140 kg. kg. A high speed photograph photograph 0 shows a shear angle of 20 . Estimate, (a) Chip thickness (b) coefficient of friction. (c) Shear and normal stress on shear plane (d) shearing strain, (e) H.P. to shear the metal (f) H.P. lost in friction.

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Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times -000Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.


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. Thus, study of tool wear is important from standpoint of satisfactory performance & economics. However it is very difficult to find out out exact cause and nature of tool wear, the phenomenon being very complex & dependent on many aspects, viz, tool work pair, environment, environment, temperature of interfaces etc. 2.2.

Wear Mechanism or Causes:

ceases to cut efficiently efficiently or even fails completely. completely. After a certain degree of wear, wear, the Master your semester with Scribd tool has to be resharpened for further further use. The following following basic causes, which Read Free Foron 30this Days Signcan up to vote title operate singly or in various combinations, combinations, produce tool wear. & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful Tool wear causes the tool tool to lose its original original shape. So that in time the the tool

Attrition Wear (Adhesive Wear) : Special offer for 2.2.1 students: Only $4.99/month.

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At low cutting speeds the flow of material past the cutting edge is irregular or

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. process but it accelerates other other wear processes, which reduce reduce life of the tool. The deformation leads leads to sudden failure failure of the tool by fracture or localized localized heating. The occurrence of plastic deformation is in itself an indication of the overstressing of the tool material. 2.2.5 Fatigue Wear:

In tension

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title In compression & The New York Times In compression  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime.

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. In

sio

Stress distribution around the interlocking asperities

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Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times CraterOnly Wear:$4.99/month. Special offer for 2.3.2 students:

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It occurs on the rake face of the tool in the form of of a pit called as crater. The crater is formed at some distance from the cutting edge. As the cutting speed is

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The time for which a cutting edge or a cutting tool can be usefully employed without regrinding regrinding ( eq HSS) or replacement (eg. Throw Throw away carbides tip) is called called the tool life. It is not economical economical to continue to use use the tool beyond its useful life. This is because increased bluntness of cutting edge causes increase in cutting forces & as a result tool temperature also increases. increases. Consequently Consequently affecting the dimensional accuracy & quality of machined surface, ultimately ultimately leading to rejection. Also, the rate of flank wear-after certain critical value increases rapidly. rapidly. The progress of crater wear is also of similar nature. Continued use of worn out out tool would ultimately ultimately cause catastrophic catastrophic failure or total loss of tool & even damage of the component. If tool is ground or replaced prior to catastrophic failure; the volume of material ground off the tool Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title (therefore the regrinding regrinding cost) would not not be excessive. Hence certain tool failure failure  Useful  Not useful criteria have been devised to specify maximum wear of the tool that can be tolerated Cancel anytime. before regrindingOnly or changing chan ging it. The tool failure criteria (or tool tool life criteria) can be Special offer for students: $4.99/month. classified as direct & indirect.


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. . c per revolution. Also Opitz & weber has suggested suggested the ratio dc/hc value between between 0.2 & 0.4 as tool failure criteria. iii) Limiting extent of chipping & crack formation: Faulty cutting conditions may lead to appearance of fine cracks near the cutting edge shortly after the tool tool is put to operation. operation. This can be detected by by visual examination. The situation may be remedied by correcting correcti ng the cutting conditions such as selection of a tougher tool material, a more rigid machine; a stiffer tool material, proper tool angles, proper machining parameters such as speed, feed & depth of cut etc.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New These York Times  Not useful depends upon the measurement of effects produced by tool  wearUseful and 2.4.2

Indirect criteria:

etc.Only $4.99/month. Special offer for chipping students:

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1) Limiting value of surface roughness : The roughness of a machined piece increases

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The tool life equation is an empirical relationship between the tool life and one or more variables of cutting process, e.g. cutting speed (V), feed (f), and depth of cut (d) etc. The most famous tool life equation is due to F.W. Taylor. On the basis of experimental work, Taylor showed the tool life 'T' and cutting speed 'V' is related to each other as follows. n n V. T = C . . . . . . (eq . 2.5.1) Taylor’s constant. constant.semester Making T = 1 in the above equation, we find that that C = cutting speed Master your with Scribd for 1 min tool life. The constants n & C depends upon the tool and work materials, feed Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title and depth of cut, type of coolant and tool geometry geometry etc. Equation 2.5.1 2.5.1 can be written & TheasNew York Times  Useful  Not useful Where the constant 'n' is called the tool life exponent and the parameter 'C' is known as


LogV + n Log T = log C or log T = (1/n) log C - (1/n) log V

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. . . . . (eqn (eqn 2.5.2)

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The equation 2.5.1 can be generalized or modified to include the effects of feed and depth of cut one such relationship is of the form n n1 n2

VT f d = C1

n

. . .. (Eq .2.5.3)

Where the exponent n, n1, n2 and constant C1 depend upon tool and work materials, tool geometry and type of coolants etc. Following comments can be made from the tool life equation.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title (1) Smaller the values of exponent, n, (as in HSS) the steeper is the slope of & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  Thus line and more is the sensitivity of tool life to changes in cutting speed. log

V - log T

ideal tool material is one, which can be used at any cutting speed without affecting Special offer for the students: Only $4.99/month.

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tool life. i.e. when n=1. From this point of view ceramics ceramics are superior to carbides and HSS.

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. better tool life than HSS. Hence tool life is dependant on type of tool material. material.

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2. Work material:

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The properties of the work material that tend to increase the tool life are as follows, (a) softness (or lack of hardness) to reduce cutting forces, cutting temperature & abrasive wear, (b) absence of abrasive component such as slag inclusions, surface scale & sand, (c) presence of desirable additives like lead to act as boundary lubricants and sulphur to reduce cutting forces & temperatures by acting as stress raiser, and (d) lack of work hardening tendency that tend to reduce cutting forces and temperatures and Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title also abrasive wear and (e) occurrence of favorable microstructure, e.g. presence of  Useful  Not useful spheroidized pearlite instead of lamellar pearlite in high carbon steel improves tool life. Cancel anytime. Similarly in cast irons, structure that contains large amount of free graphite & ferrite Special offer for students: Only a$4.99/month. leads to greater tool life than one, which contains free iron carbide.


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rake

Positive rake

Effective Rake Angle Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title (a)Effective rake angle versus tool life & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  width ii) Large relief angle increases volume of wear required to reach a particular Cancel anytime.

flank wear land$4.99/month. as seen from fig. 2.8 (b) and also reduces the tendency of rubbing Special offer for of students: Only

between flank & work piece piece surface, there by increasing the the tool life. However, on the other hand, larger the relief angle smaller is the mechanical strength of cutting edge &

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, friction at chip tool interface. interface. Therefore the cutting temperatures temperatures are decreased & the use of cutting fluid in the tool materials with low value of hot hardness (e.g.) shows appreciable increase in tool life. life. However in carbides & oxides, oxides, which have high value of hot hardness, the cutting fluid has negligible effect on tool forces or tool life. 6.

Vibration Behavior of Machine tool Work System: -

the tool overhang is excessive, excessive, chatter with may occur Scribd during cutting. cutting. It is known that Master your semester chatter may cause fatigue failure or calas tropic failure of tool due to mechanical shock. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful If the machine is not properly designed, if the work piece is long and thin or if

2.7. Machinability: -


Machinability is the property of material to be machined, which governs the case or the difficulty with which it can be machined machined under a given set of conditions. In

Cancel anytime.

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600-2000

2. Cutting Force Criteria: -

This criterion is important, where it is necessary to limit values of cutting force in keeping with rigidity of machine tool & to avoid vibration in machining. If the cutting force is high consequently the power consumption is also high, a larger machine tool may be required, thus increasing increasing the overhead cost and unit production production cost. The specific cutting energy of a given material, defined as cutting power required for removing a unit volume of material in unit time, is often considered as index Read Free Foron 30this Days Signfor up to vote title machinability machinability of a given work material. material. The larger the specific cutting cutting energy, i.e.  Useful  Not useful higher the cutting forces induced under a set of cutting conditions during the machining Cancel anytime. a material, the lower is its machinability index. Special offer for of students: Only $4.99/month.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 3. Surface Finish Criteria: -

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In spite of availability of several machinability criteria, a wholly satisfactory unit of machinability has still not been found. For example, if different tool materials, different cutting conditions or different operations are used to assess the relative machinability for the same set of work materials, different machinability ratings are obtained. Therefore the tables of machinability machinability ratings are used used only for general guidance during process planning.

Master your semester with Scribd Machinability Machinability is influenced by variables pertaining to machine tool, cutting tool, Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title cutting conditions conditions or work material. These variables are listed as under. & The New York Times  Useful  Not useful 2.7.3. Variables affecting machinability: -

A) Machine Variables: -

1. Capacity of machine: m achine: (Power, torque - accuracy of machine) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. 2. Rigidity of machine & work holding devices. B) Tool Variables: -

Cancel anytime.

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disappears. This reduces the height height of micro irregularities. irregularities. Further increase in cutting cutting speed reduces surface roughness. roughness. The absence of built up edge formation in curve 'B' for machining of high alloy steels, non-famous metals & cast iron shows decrease in surface roughness from beginning (i.e. no rise in roughness as in curve 'A' is observed) dry

H ) S N O R C I M (

0 0 1 ) S N ) O S R M C R I ( H M (

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times A

B

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. v1

v3

refined kerosene emulsion

Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Useful  Not useful kerosene  Cancel anytime. activated

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. 2.8.2. Surface finish Terminology:

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a) Roughness: This includes surface irregularities resulting due to the various manufacturing manufacturing processes. These irregularities combine combine to form surface texture. Other definition Roughness (Primary texture): relatively fined-spaced surface irregularities. On surfaces produced by machining and abrasive operations, the irregularities produced by cutting action of tool edges and abrasive grains and by the feed of the machine tool are roughness. Roughness may be considered as being superposed on a wavy surface. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title b) Roughness Height: It is the height of the irregularities with reference to an average  Useful  Not useful line: The value of roughness height can be expressed expressed in two ways Cancel anytime. i) Arithmetic average (Ra) Special offer for students: Onlyvalue $4.99/month. ii) Root mean Square (rms) value. The arithmetic of average height value is given by


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, of greater spacing than the roughness. roughness. On machined surfaces surfaces such irregularities may may result from machine and work deflections, vibrations, vibrations, etc. h) Flaws: Cracks, scratches & ridges are called flaws. flaws. They are not regularly recurring & are imperfections outside the regular pattern of surface texture. other definition FLAWS: Irregularities, which occur at one place or at relatively infrequent intervals intervals in the surface, e.g., a scratch, ridge, hole, crack, etc.



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Where "h" is the height of the geometry of the surface roughness. Now from geometry: f h = ----------------------------------. . . . . . . Eqn 2.8.4 tan "SCEA" + Cot "ECEA" from Eqn 2.8.4 & 2.8.3. we have Ra = f/4.(tan "SCEA" + Cot "ECEA") or Ra = f/4.(tan "Cs" + Cot "Ce") . . . . . . . Eqn. 2.8.5. For rounded corner tool, the ideal value of surface roughness is

Master your semester with Scribd & Theh New York Times = f /8R and Ra = f /18 R . . . . . . . . . Eqn 2.8.5. CLA

2

2

3


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Where "R"Only is nose radius. Thus, a change in the rate of feed is more more important Special offer for students: $4.99/month. than a change in nose radius and depth out has no effect on the surface geometry.

E


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symbols as shown in the following table. Table: Surface roughness values. Sr. No.

Type of operation

1. 2. 3. 4.

Rough machining Fine machining Grinding Lapping

Representation as per IS 3073 - 1967 Symbol Relative values in microns ∇ 8 - 25 ∇∇ 1.6 - 8 ∇∇∇ 0.025 - 1.6 Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title ∇∇∇∇ < 0.025

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 2.8.5. Cost of surface finish

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Special offer for students: The Only cost of$4.99/month. machining of any component is greatly dependent on the quality of

surface roughness required required on the part. The cost increased, if the specified specified roughness

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ELECTRON BEAM LASER ELECTROCHEMICAL BORING, TURNING ELECTRONIC GRINDING GRINDING HONING ELECTROPOLISH POLISHING LAPPING SUPER FINISHING

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Fig 2.15 surface finish produced by machining operations


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In the figure the$4.99/month. inverse of surface roughness (i.e. surface finish) is plotted Special offer for students: Only

against machining machining cost. The increase in cost with reduction in rough roughness ness is gradual in rough turning turning (up to points). points). But for finish finish turning turning it inc tially. The


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Master your semester with Scribd 2.17 Effects of cutting fluid in metal metal cutting & TheFigNew York Times 2.9.2 Types of Cutting Fluids: Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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The detailed classification classification of cutting fluids is shown in 2.16. They are broadly classified into: (i) Neat oil, (ii) Soluble oil, (iii) Synthetic coolant, & (iv) Gaseous fluid.


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Soluble oil is blend of mineral oil, emulsifying agents & coupling agents. Emulsion is formed by mixing soluble oil with water in the ratio 1:10 to 1:40 for general machining & up to 1:80 for grinding. Conventional Conventiona l emulsions are milky milky in appearance. Translucent emulsions emulsions are made by reducing oil droplet size of emulsion with a high ratio ratio of emulsifier emulsifier to oil. They have higher higher film strength strength & better anticorrosive anticorr osive properties than opaque emulsions. They also provide improved tool lubrication due to fine dispersion dispersion of oil globules. Heavy-duty soluble soluble oils i.e. soluble oils blended with fatty acids & EP additives, can withstand heavy cutting pressure & temperature. Heavy-duty soluble soluble oils are used in rich concentration with ratios ranging ranging from 1:5 to 1:15. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times  Useful They are usually non petroleum products, though sometimes a c) Synthetic Coolants: -


percentage mineral oil is added, many chemical agents blended in water form Special offer for small students: Only of $4.99/month.

synthetic coolants. coolants. Basically they are coolants, coolants, though though some are also also lubricants. lubricants. They are used in grinding than in other operations & they are mixed in the ratio 1:50 to 1:250

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uscep e o r s of skin cancer Little effect with tramp oil

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2.9.3. Selection of cutting fluids: The major factors which govern the selection of cutting fluids are (i) machining process, (ii) the cutting tool materials, materials, & (iii) the work piece materials. Besides these Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title factors, compatibility with the machine, performance requirements, human interaction & economy must also he look into? Specifying a particul ar fluid as most suitable for a Useful Not useful Cancel anytime. specific applicati on is almost impossible. When more than one operation is performed Special offer Only $4.99/month. onfor thestudents: machine this problem becomes more difficult. becomes difficult. Neat oil may be better choice than soluble oil when the cutting fluid is likely to see into the drive or control system. The


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5.

Reaming

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Drilling, Boring, turning and Milling

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7 vote Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to title

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(1) Mild sulphurized fatty oils. (2) Mild sulphc chlorinated oils. (3) Medium sulphurized fatty oils. (4) High sulphur fatty

oils. (5) High chlorinated mild sulphurized fatty oils. (6) Fatty mineral oils. (7) Soluble oil (8) Translucent soluble oil Special offer for chlorinated students: Only $4.99/month. (9) Heavy-duty soluble oil.


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Let m = No. of components produced between consecutive tool changes, V = Cutting speed, (m/min) T = Tool life (min.) f = Feed rate, (mm/rev) L = Length of cut, (mm) D = Work piece diameter (mm) Tm = time to produce one work piece = L/f.N. We express the tool life equation as n n1 VT f = C . . . . . . . . . . (i) Where n, n1 & C are constants. V = π.D.N./1000 . . . . . . . . . (ii) m = T/Tm = ( T.f.N.)/L Therefore, T = (m.L)/f.N. . . . . . . . . (iii) Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Substituting Substituting (ii) & (iii) in (i), we get

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times n

n1

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.

n2

(65/70) x (3/2) = 1 or 2 2 n log [3/2] = log 1.66, Therefore n = 0.38 Putting values of n in (ii) (ii) & (iii) & dividing dividing (iii) by (ii). We get n n1 (100/130) x (70/50) x (0.12/0.10) = 1 n1 log (0.12/0.10) = log (1.18), Therefore n1 = 0.885 n

Putting these values in eq (i) we get C = 72.13. Now at V = 120m/min f=0.20 mm/rev, & d=2mm, we get T = 8.77 min.

Master your semester with Scribd Example 4: The tool life equation for a turning operation is given as 36.5 = Read V. T up ,Free Foron 30this Days Sign to vote title f .60 d A 60 min. tool life was obtained using the following cutting conditions; V = & The New York Times Useful  Not useful  feed, 40 m/min, f = 0.25 mm/rev. mm/r ev. d=2.0 mm. Calculate the effect on on tool life if speed, 0.13

0.60

0.3 .

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depth Only of cut$4.99/month. are together increased by 25% and also if they are increased Special offer for and students: individually individually by 25%

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, . tools or the tool life of HSS tool T1 = (29/38) x T2 or 0.7 x T2 at V = 30m/min.

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Example 6: The cutting speed and tool life relationship for a tool is given by V.T. 0.2 = C. During machining, 18 mm bar on a lathe at a cutting speed of 110 m/min. the tool life is found to be 60 minutes. minutes. Calculate spindle spindle speed to give a tool life of 5 hours. hours. If length of cut per component is 50 mm, what is the cutting time per piece and how many pieces can be produced between tool changes at a feed of 0.15 mm/rev?

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Solution: From tool life relationships. Master your semester with Scribd C = (110) x (60) = 249.47 & TheTherefore Newfor TYork Times = 60 x 5 minutes, we have 0.2

0.2

V = 249.47/(300) = 79.72 m/min. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Hence spindle speed N = 1000 C/ π x D = 1410 rpm.

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. 20. What are the sources of best generation in metal cutting? How is the heat distributed in chip, tool & work piece? 21. What are the basic functions of cutting fluids? 22. What are the effects of cutting fluid in metal cutting? 23. How are the cutting fluids classified? 24. Compare the performance of neat oil, soluble oil and synthetic coolant. 25. What are the various factors influencing selection of cutting fluids? 26. Which coolants would you suggest for turning of following metals with H.S.S. tool? i) Mild steel, 2) Aluminum, Aluminum, 3) Copper, 27. Recommend a cutting fluid for broaching or Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title i) Low Carbon Steel, ii) Stainless steel, iii) Aluminum Aluminum alloy, iv) Copper.  Useful  Not useful 28. State the factors responsible for surface roughness? Cancel anytime. Explain Only the effect of cutting speed, feed and depth of cut on surface finish. Special offer for 29. students: $4.99/month. 30. What is the effect of tool geometry on surface finish? 31. What is surface finish? Describe the elements of surface textu


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CHAPTER-III CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS AND NOMENCLATURE 3.1 Introduction: Before 1990, machining had been carried out with plain carbon steel tools or air hardening alloy steel known known as Mushet steel. The machining speeds speeds were low due to failure of cutting tool to maintain hardness at high temperature generated due to high cutting speeds. A big break-through has been achieved achieved when F.W. Taylor developed a tool material (called high speed steel), which can operate at relatively higher cutting Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title speeds. The cast cobalt cobalt base alloy alloy tools appeared appeared on the the scene in 1915. They have Not useful higher hot hardness; hardness; wear resistance & fewer fewer tendencies to form BUE. In 1926, Useful Cancel anytime. Germans introduced a new material called sintered tungsten carbide tools, manufactured Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. by the powder metallurgical metallurgical technique. They can operate at comparatively very high high cutting speeds than HSS tools. Addition of carbides of titanium, tantalum & niobium to


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d) Other desirable properties.

The following other properties are also desired by tool materials. i) High Thermal conductivity for quick removal of heat from chip tool interface. ii) Low coefficient of friction for reduction of heat generated due to friction at contact surface. iii) Low coefficient of thermal expansion for reduction of effect of thermal stresses & thermal shocks on material. iv) Resistance to distortion after heat treatment. v) Hardenability to achieve hardness at slower cooling rates during hardening. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title vi) Weldability for ease of wedding of tool with shank  Useful  Not useful vii) Grindability for ease of grinding after tool failure. Cancel anytime. viii) stability etc. Special offer forDimensional students: Only $4.99/month.


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AWR

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Sheet Music TERNARY TERNARY PLOT PLOT 3.3. Carbon Tool Steels: These are plain carbon tool steels to which no appreciable amounts of alloying elements are added. The carbon percentage varies from from 0.6 to 1.5% in these steels. steels. Increase in carbon percentage increase toughness and shock resistance whereas decrease in carbon content increases hardness hardness & abrasion resistance. Very small quantities quantit ies up of Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign to vote title Silicon, manganese, chromium or vanadium are added for increasing the hardness and Useful Not useful grain refinement. Cancel anytime. Carbon tool steel is broadly classified into two categories water hardening steel Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. (W type) & oil hardening steel (0 types), depending on the quenching media employed during heat treatment. The W-type should be quenched in water or brine for obtaining


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, , , , , , , , . . carbon with other alloying elements such as W (1.5 to 6%), Mo (3.75-9.6%), Cr (3.75 to 4.25%), V(1.15 to 4%), Co (0 to 1.2%), M-Type HSS is usually cheaper than T-type and have greater toughness toughness at the same level of hardness hardness as compared to T-type. T-type. The only drawback is decarburizatin during hardening in high molybdenum steel, but this can be avoided by using a salt bath or controlled atmosphere-hardening atmosphere-hardening furnace. The functions of the various alloying elements used in HSS are given below.

- If combines with ironwith to form carbide which makes it respond to Master your semester Scribd hardening, thus increasing hardness, strength & wear resistance. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title (Mo) - These are strong carbide formers and & The produces NewfineYork Times  Not useful structure structure adding to both toughness toughness & hardness. But to produce the Useful i) Carbon (C):

ii) Tungsten (W) & molybdenum

desired effect "W"Only is added in larger quantity compared compared to "MO". It also improves hot Special offer for students: $4.99/month. hardness. iii) Chromium (Cr): It improves hardenability & forms various carbides of Chromium,

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, , , , . - Grades M1 is used for Tape. - Grades M2 or M7 is used for gear cutting tools such as hob, gear shaper, shaver etc. - Grade M2 or T2 are used for form tools. 2) Conventional HSS of grades M33, M36, T4, T5, T6, with cobalt are used for heavy duty. They have better hardness & wear resistance but are less tough compared compared to M2. - Grades T4, T5, T6, are used as tool bits for planning & heavy-duty turning. - Grades M33 & M36 is used for interrupted cuts in tough & scaly forging, for drilling & milling hard alloy steels, titanium, stainless steels & heat resistant materials.

Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 3) High vanadium high speed speed selects (represented by grades M3, M4, M4, T15). They have & The New York Useful  Not useful higher hot hardnessTimes but are less tough than M2 grade & are more difficult  to grind. Cancel anytime.

are used for$4.99/month. single point lathe tools, screw machine tools, flat & circular form Special offer for They students: Only

tools broaches drills etc. for machining of conventional alloys super alloys & refractory metals.

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(25 to 35%), tungsten (10-25%) (10-25%) & carbon (1.0-3%). Cobalt acts as a solvent or matrix with chromium (which forms carbide) as a major alloying element. Tungsten contributes overall overall hardness of tool. Carbon increases hardness hardness & wears resistance of the tool. Some times other alloying alloying elements such as Vanadium Vanadium (to further increase hardness & wear resistance by forming vanadium carbide), Molybdenum, tantalum, columbium (which may replace part of chromium and Tungsten) and Nickel (which increases toughness at the expense of hardness) may he added to them for enhancing specific properties. properties. Cast alloys, have a high high wear resistance surface surface with a soft core produced by the casting process. process. The structure exhibits exhibits long needles of chromium chromium carbide oriented perpendicular to the surface at the periphery of the tool & at center it is Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title oriented at random, resulting in soft core. The alloy carbides have properties intermediate between HSS & cemented  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. carbides. They as less tough tough & more resistant resistant than high-speed high-speed steel. They are used at Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. cutting speeds ranging rang ing between that for HSS & carbides. Its important characteristics characteristics 0 are high red hardness (up to 760 C) low cost of friction, excellent resistance to


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. etc. extended their range of applications.

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3.6 Manufacture: The basic manufacturing process of cemented carbides is shown in fig.3.4 and consists of following. i. Refining the ore & reducing in the hydrogen to get powder of W, Ti, Ta, Nb, etc. & Cobalt.

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like free cutting steel) available in various grade P01, P05, P10, P15, P20, P15, P30, P35, P40, P45, P50. ii) 'K' group identified with red colour for machining short chipping materials like cast irons & non-ferrous metals, available in K01, K05, K10, K15, K30, K40, iii) 'M' group identified with Yellow colour for general purpose applications, available in grades M05, M10, M15, M29, M30, M40 Hard ness & wear resistance increases from K40-K30. . . . . .MK40. .MK40. . . . . . M05. . . . . .to P50. . . . P01. . . . . i.e. i.e. from K to P whereas toughness increases increases for P to K.

Master your semester with Scribd 'K' - grade carbides are essentially straight straight tungsten carbide with cobalt as binder. Read 'P' up Free Foron 30this Days Sign to vote title grade carbides are combined carbides, tool materials (Wc, Tic, Tac, Nbc) with Cobalt as & The binder. New York Times  Useful  Not useful Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

3.6.3 Applications & properties: Carbides are used for applications employing higher cutting speeds on machine

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Layer of pure ultra-fine grain TiC (b) COATED

Master your semester with Scribd Like Tic various other coatings are recommended TitaniumRead Nitride Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title multi-coating. multi-coating. (i.e. Titanium nitride over the Tic coatings), Hafnium nitride, & The New York Times Useful  Not useful Aluminum Oxide coating. Due to coating or lamination the life of cutting edge is Cancel anytime.

is increased & about 30-50% higher cutting speeds are Special offer for increased students:wear Onlyresistance $4.99/month. permitted compared with carbides.

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. hard & highly wear resistant tools, it is necessary to control grain size, density & percentage of impurities. impurities. 3.7.2 Machine tool & tool requirements: Due to brittleness of ceramics, a very important consideration in use of ceramic tool is the rigidity of machine tool. Vibration & chatter should be eliminated wherever possible. The tool holder should be rigid & there should be complete complete contact between the ceramic inserts inserts and their seating surfaces. surfaces. Not only high speed speed ranges & horsepower but also rigidity & accurate balancing of machine tool parts & work holding devices are important for proper exploitation of potentialities of ceramic tools. Minimum spindle run out is essential. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title The tool design for ceramic tools is also very important. Use of negative  Useful  Not useful narrow land ground on cutting edge of tool substantially decreases the tendency of tool Cancel anytime. tipfor to fracture. The lands are called K lands & their width varies form 0.2 to 0.3 mm. mm. Special offer students: Only $4.99/month.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times 3.7.3 Applications:

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. . . single point diamond tools for machining of carbides is 15-25 m/min, for ceramic is 30100 r/min for pure aluminum it is 500-600 m/min. 3.8.1 Applications: i) The diamonds of various forms are used in industrial application such as in grinding wheels, dressing tools, dressing dies, hones, lapping compounds, core drills etc. ii) As a cutting tools single crystal diamonds is used for machining non ferrous metals like aluminum, brass, copper & bronze etc. especially where high silicon content is involved. iii) It is also used for non-metallic materials like plastics, epoxy resins, hard Read rubbers, Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title glass & also precious metals like gold silver & platinum. Useful  Not useful iv) Polycrystalline diamond is widely used for machining glass, reinforced plastics, Cancel anytime. & hyper eutectic alloys etc. Special offer for eutectic students: Only–$4.99/month.


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. . aimed to give 3-5 times times more edge life than conventional conventional carbides. It can operate at a cutting speed of 250-500 m/min on steels up to 200 BHN. 3.9.1 Appications: 1) It is recommended for roughing semi finishing & finishing cuts in turning, facing & boring. 2) It is not not generally applied to milling, milling, parting off, or for operations, using form tools, 3) It Is basically steel machining grade & not recommended recommended for machining of Iron, stainless steel & super alloys having nickel, cobalt & titanium base. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title


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, 0 0 and ammonia 900 C. (But it has no reaction with oxygen like diamonds diamonds at 800 c)

3.10. Application: (1) CBN is successfully used as a grinding wheel, on HSS tool providing good surface finish, finish, precision precision high output output also on titanium, nitronic, stainless stainless steel stellities. 2. It is used in grinding of hardened steel in the form of lead screws bores, splines, splines, thereales, ball & roller bearing part .CBN cut cool & grinding affects such as burrs of thermal shocks are net produced. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 3. They are also used for grinding grinding the sideways of cast iron beds beds of housing housing type  Useful  Not useful components. Cancel anytime.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. TOOL MATERIALS

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production cost ( or cost/piece cost/piece ). At very slow slow cutting speeds. The time required for production of one component will be high thereby increasing machining, labor & overhead costs. But at very high cutting speeds, speeds, the wear of tool will be faster, frequent tool changing, regrinding regrinding & setting, leading to higher cost. cost. The effect of cutting speed in unit production cost can be seen from Fig.4.1. The unit cost is obtained by summing up the individual costs.



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time required for cutting per piece. b) Handling (Idle) Cost: This is the cost of labor rate plus overhead rate required for the time lost in loading and unloading of job. c) Tool Changing cost: This is the cost direct labor rate plus overhead rate required for the time lost in changing of tool. In order to estimate this cost on per piece basis this cost is multiplied by the factor tool failure per piece. d) Tool Cost: This is the product of cost of tool lost per job turned with tool failure per piece. The cost of tool per grinding (in case of HSS tools) or cost of tool/per edge (in case of indexible carbide tips) can be estimated as under: Ce = Tool cost No. Of regrinds + 1). For HSS Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title And Useful  Not useful cutting Ce = (Cost of Tool bit/No of cutting edge) + tool holder depreciation per Cancel anytime. Special offer for edge. students: Only $4.99/month. The total unit production cost can be estimated for a simple turning operation by summing the above individual cost components for a simple turning process as under.


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, 1/n-1 1/n 1/n-1 1/n CP = Cu (K/V + Ti + Th + K.V. . Tc/C ) + Ce.K.V. /C dC ∴ p = 0 , Gives dv 2 n-1 1/n-2) 1/n 1/n-2 1/n Cu (-K/V + 0 + (1/ ).V K.Tc/C + (1/n-1) V .K.Ce/C = 0 -2 (1/n-2) 1/n 1/n-2 1/n -V + (1/n-1) V . Tc/C + (1/n-1) V .Ce/Cu.C = 0 1/n-2 1/n -2 (1/n-1).V /C .(Tc + Ce/Cu) = V (1/n-2+2) 1/n V = C /(1/n-1) (Tc +Ce/Cu) 1/n 1/n V = C /(1/n-1) (Tc + Ce/Cu) Or n Vopt =C/[(1/n-1) (Tc + Ce/Cu)] . . . . . . . . . . 4.3

Master your semester with Scribd & ThePutting New York Times value of V = V in Taylor’s tool life equation, we get opt

Special offer for= students: Only Topt (1/n-1) (Tc+C ) e/Cu$4.99/month.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3.

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C'opt>Copt R'opt>Ropt

Copt R'p Rp

production rate

Master yourThesemester with Scribd high efficiency range may be wide or narrow depending on job conditions. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title If tool cost is relatively low for a given job the V may be 5% to 10% higher. Where & The New Useful  Not useful tool costYork is high endTimes points of this range can have 30% to 40% differential. points differential. It  is always Vopt

V'opt

opt

Cancel anytime. operate at a cutting speed greater than Vopt instead of a slightly, smaller Special offer for preferable students:toOnly $4.99/month. ′

value because at least with slightly higher production cost than C p corresponding V , we get higher production production rate. The increase in production production rate and hence increase increase in

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Master your semester with Scribd & The38.4New York Times ECONOMICS OF METAL REMOVAL

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Special offer for students: Only process $4.99/month. When a manufacturing consists of removing metal with a single point tool, the type of tool used or cutting speed chosen can have an effect upon the total cost of the


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, can be obtained. —It can be seen that if cutting speed V is increased, then tool life T will decrease. Hence, metal is removed faster and therefore more cheaply. But tool life is shorter and therefore tools replacement and servicing are more costly. This cost situation is shown in Fig. 38.4. VT = Optimum cutting speed where the total cost of machining a batch of components y is at a minimum. In order to find an expression for V T the tooling cost and metal removal cost (or machining cost) must be added to give the total cost. Then by calculus the turning point of the curve and hence VE can be found. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Let H = machining cost/minute i.e., labour cost/minute + over- heads/minute.  Useful  Not useful Let J = tooling cost i.e., cost of changing tool + cost of regrinding + tool depreciation. Cancel anytime. y1 = costOnly of machining metal/unit metal/unit volume of metal cut. Special offer for Let students: $4.99/month. Let y2 = cost of servicing tools/unit volume of metal cut. Let y = total cost/unit volume of metal cut = y +y


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The number of tool changes in

K V


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minutes =

K TV

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where T is tool life in minutes at

cutting speed V.

∴

=

JK

 C    V 

1/ n

T=

Master your semester with Scribd = =   Times & The∴New York   × y2

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HK JK(V)

n

n


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∴

 1 − n . =  R  n 

∴

 V     C 

1

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1/ n

n

∴

R (1 − n )

 n    R (1 − n) 

V = C

n

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=V at the minimum Master your semester This expression will enable V to with be calculatedScribd so that the optimum cutting speed can Read Free Foron 30this Days up to vote title be found to give minimum cost Y for the batch. It should be noticed thatSign n from Taylor's York equation isTimes important in this equation, hence the need to obtain  its value & The New Useful  Not useful accurately. In this analysis we have not included the costs of handling the tool. T

T

T

Special offer for From students: eq. (1)Only $4.99/month.

Cancel anytime.

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Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Machining cost = CTimes f 0 m

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 ...(a)

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Tool cost

= CT .

tm


…(b)


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, , the next cut. Handling Time (t h ). The handling time is the time in minutes required to load and unload the work piece from the machine. It includes the idle time and time necessary to advance and retract the tool. n Tool Life Factor. Tool life is taken from Taylor's equation, VT = C. The average tool life (T ) in minutes per cutting edge is :

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times C  V 

T=

1/ n

…(8)


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38.6 DETERMINATION OF CUTTING SPEED FOR MINIMUM COST (V min)

Special offer for students: The Only total $4.99/month. cost for an operation is made up of the four individual costs: machining cost, tool costs; tool changing costs, and the handling costs. The interaction

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 

Tmin =  − 1 t c

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The tool life at maximum production rate is a function only of n, the slope of the curve in Taylor's equation, and the tool changing time. Thus for an HSS tool (n = 0.1) with a tool changing time of 1 min, T max =9 min; that is, the tool should last only 9 min. A carbide tool, where n= 0.25 and I min is needed for tool changing, should only last 3 min. 38.10 MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE The unit time required to produce a work piece,

Master your semester with Scribd   +   + & The New York =Times   t p

tm

tc

tm T

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. Where f m is the machining time

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th


…(13)

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Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New York Times × ) where g is production rate per unit time.  Useful  Not useful Profit rate (P ) = Profit per piece ( 38.11 MAXIMUM PROFIT RATE R


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P R Q

Q=

(refer eqs. 38.13 and 38.14)

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 t  + tc m  + th  T  λ πDL = 0

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− K 1

tm

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Nothing Where

tm

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λ0 = n

1000.f .V πDL

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VT = C0 (Taylor’s equation) Where D is diameter of machined part, mm L is length of machining, mm f is feed, mm/revolution V is cutting speed, m/minute C0 is a constant Special offer forequation students: Only(16) $4.99/month. The for profit reduces to



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Download [(1 / n − 1) (T e

+ C e / C u )]n

= 135.6m / min T opt = (G / V opt )1 / n = 24.0 min. ′ = V opt at C e V opt

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[(1 / 0.25 − 1) (5 + 0.25 / 0.8)]

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n

Similarly,

′ = 50 min . = 0 = 152.4m / min and T opt

Problem 2: Mild steel work piece 150 mm long x 100-mm. diameters are to be turned on the lathe using a feed of 0.15 mm/rev. And depth of cut of 2.5 mm., using brazed carbide tipped tool. Find out production production cost per piece, cutting speed & tool tool life for minimum Read Free Foron 30this Days Signand up to vote title cost of production and maximum production rate, minimum cost of production minimum production time. The following relevant data is available. available .  Useful  Not useful

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. 1) Purchase cost of tool = Rs 110/2)

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No. Of regrinds = 10

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1.5 + 50 x Π (48.7) + Π (48.7) (48.7) /150 x (250 (250 + 1000 1000 + 250, 1.5 + 3.22 + 0.0007163 (1500) 5.795, Rs/piece. -

Cutting speed for maximum production rate is given by ′ = C / 1 / n − 1, T c , n = 150 /(3 x 5) .25 = 76.21 m / mm. V opt

′ = (1 / n − 1) T c T opt

= 1.5 min .

Minimum production time = Idle time + Cutting time + tool changing time, Master your Π/76.21 + 5 x (100 Π Vwith = 3 + 100.semester 76.21) /150Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title = 3 + 4.12 + 1.373 = 8.49 min. & TheProblem New York Times  Useful  Not useful 3 : In machining mild steel workpieces stated in earlier problem if the 3

4

Special offer for students: $4.99/month. indexible inserts inserts Only are used the following data is available. available. Compare the unit unit cost of machining attainable from the two types of tool and the minimum production time.

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Derive the relation for cutting speed for maximum production rate & from that find out tool life for maximum production rate, A 600 mm long cut is to be made on a 150 mm diameter AISI – 4140 steel bar in a lathe with a depth of cut of 1.5 mm and feed of 0.25 mm/revolution. The Taylors tool life equation is given by 0.22

VT = 475 For above machining operation, two types of tools may be used : (1) brazed tool and (ii) threaway carbide inserts. The following cost data have been collected. collected.

Master your semester with Scribd a) Machine cost : Machining cost = Times Rs. 1.00/hour. & The New York Machine overhead = 100% of labour. Special offer for students: $4.99/month. Grinding Only cost (labour) = Rs. 1.50/hour.

Grinding machine overhead = 200 % of labour


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, . Classification of cutting tools: Depending upon the number of cutting edges, the cutting tools used in metal cutting are classified as follows. 1. Single point tools - having only one cutting edge and. 2. Multiple Multiple points - having more than one cutting edge e.g. milling, reamers, drills, broaches, grinding grinding wheels etc. The single point tools tools can be classified into various types, depending on various criteria as under. a) According to construction construction - Solid Brazed tip and Throway Tip. b) According to type of operation - Turning, facing. Boring, Knurling, Threading, parting, forming. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title c) According to Shape Shape - Cranked, straight, circular, circular, square, Not useful d) According to usage on machine tools - Lathe tools, Shaper tools, Planner tools, Useful Cancel anytime. boring tools. Only $4.99/month. Special offer for students: e) According to direction direction of cut - Left hand cut tool. tool. Right hand cut tools. tools. Single point tool - various parts :


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re eren erence ce syst system em.. or e n ng var var ous ous ang ang es t ree ree mutu mutuaa y perp perpen en cu ar p anes anes are are used. (Like conventional conventional drawing drawing practice). These planes planes are 1) Machine longitudinal plane – (or tool transverse plane) 2) Machine transverse plane – (or tool longitudinal longitudinal plane) 3) Basal plane perpendicular (1 & 2) (i.e. along the base) In this system as the rake angles are specified in co-ordinate system it is easier to calculated the setting angle for grinding fixture in terms of back and side rake angles. But it has a drawback that the angles are not related to actual position of cutting edge.



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Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title & The New InYork Times Useful  Not useful this system the various angles (rake) clearance etc. are measured in different Orthogonal Rake System (ORS or DIN)

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than Only that used in ASA system. In DIN system, the back rake angle is measured Special offer for planes students: $4.99/month. in a plane which is normal to the base plane but parallel to the trace of side cutting edge in base plane. Like wise the side rake rake angle is defined as the the angle between the rak

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ISO System (NRS) : In this system, the side rake angle is defined as the angle between the base plane


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The British system had the advantage that theScribd specified angles could be set on a Master your semester with grinding vise and the face ground to the specified angle. The difficulty with this system Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title was that the angles specified were quite independent of the position of the cutting edge, & Theand,New Times  Not useful therefore,York complicated expressions or a set of curves had to be used to estimate the Useful direction of chip flow. has been suggested that the system developed from the idea Special offer for students: Only It$4.99/month.

that the chip flows in the direction of maximum slope of the tool face. Since this idea is not even approximately true, the system had no physical significance in relation lo the

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owever t ese re at ons ps em o e n eqn . t roug eqn. . with γx and γx are dependent on the signs of the angles γ and λ. Significance of Various Tool Angles :

Suspension System


 Search document re at ng

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γ0 an λ

1. Rake Angle (back & side) : The rake angles are given for easy removal of metal chips and are different for different materials. materials. The cutting cutting angle (δ) and shear angle are affected by rake angles. Larger the rake angle, smaller the cutting angle (& larger the shear angle) & the lower the cutting force & power. However the strength of tool & heat dissipation capacity reduces when rake angle is increased. increased. Thus the practical values values of rake angles are selected after compromise compromise between larger values for easier. Cutting & small values Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign for up to vote title strength. In general rake angle is small for cutting cutting hard materials & large large for cutting Useful  Not useful soft ductile materials. An exception is brass, which is machined with small rake  angle Cancel anytime. for preventing digging of tool in work. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. When we use positive rake angle, the force on tool is directed towards the cutting edge, tending to break it. Carbide being brittle lack shock resistance resistance & will fail


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the cutting force and heat produced over larger cutting cutting edge. This angle varies from 0 0 to 90 as SCEA is increased effective cutting edge length for same depth of cut increases (increasing (increasing tool life), thickness of of chip, reduces, width of chip increase. increase. On the other hand, the larger is the value of SCEA, the greater is the component of force tending to separate separate work & tool. This tends to promise promise chatter. For general machining machining 0 0 SCEA 15 to 30 is recommended. recommended. The shape shape of work work piece also also decides SCEA. To 0 produce 90 shoulders, zero degree SCEA SCEA is needed. needed. No SCEA IS required for machining castings or forgings with hard scaly skins, because the least amount of tool edge should be exposed to destructive action of the skin. 4) End Cutting edge angle (ECEA) (8 0 – 150): Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title It provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting edge to prevent rubbing or drag between machined surface & trailing end only a small angle is Useful   Not useful Cancel anytime. sufficient for this purpose. purpose. Too large ECEA takes away the material material that supports the 0 Special offer for students: point & conductsOnly away$4.99/month. the heat. An angle of 80 to 15 has been found satisfactory. Some times small flat (1.6 to 8 mm long) is ground in the front portion next to nose


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Brazed carbides Throway carbides HSS Brazed Carbides Throway carbides HSS

Cast iron Chard Aluminum alloys


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5-0 5- 0 5 -10 -5 - 0 -5 15-20 0-5 0 5-10 0- 5 0

6 -5 5 -5 -5 15 15 5 10 8 5

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 Search document 5 5 5 5 5 12 5 5 8 5 5

Master your semester with Scribd Copper Alloys HSS Brazed Carbides carbide & The New YorkThroway Times

5 5 5 5 5 10 5 5 8 5 5

15 15 15 15 15 5 15 15 5 Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign to vote title 15 up 15




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0 0 For Only cemented oxide tools the recommended tool geometry is BR (10 to 25 ), Special offer for students: $4.99/month. 0

0

0

0

0

0

0


0

0

0

SR (10 to 25 ), ERA (5 to 10 ), SRA (5 – 15 ) ECEA (5 – 15 ) & SCEA (20 – 60 ).

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. rotational speed (N) at which which the machining operation operation is to be carried out. It is used to calculate actual cutting speed (Va). The values of the recommended cutting speeds for particular selected tool material, depth of cut & feed can also be selected from standard data available in handbooks or catalogues viz. for rough machining of free machining steels with HSS at a depth of cut of 2.5 mm & feed of 0.4 mm/rev. as can be seen from the table 5.2) & for the same parameters the value of cutting speed for carbide tools is 140 to 170 m/min (table 5.3). These values however however will be be required to be modified according to available speed (rpm) on the machine tool.

Master your semester with Scribd 4) Calculation of shank dimensions from strength and & Therigidity Newconsiderations York Times (Tool Shank Design): The shankOnly of a cutting tool is designed for strength and rigidity. Special offer for students: $4.99/month.


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The shank of a single point tool may be rectangular square or round in cross section.


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To determine the maximum permissible size of the shank cross section on a strength basis, it is necessary to equate the actual, bending moment to the maximum moment permitted by the cross section of the shank i.e. Mb = M’b …(33.1) In turn M b = F2 l kgf. mm …(33.2) and M’ b = σ b Z kgf.mm …(33.3) Where1 = tool overhang (see Fig.33.1) Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title σ b = permissible bending stress of the shank material , kgf per mm 2, for Read 2 Unhardened structural steel with σt = 60 to 70 kgf per mm , σ b = 20 kgf per Useful  Not useful 2  steel, mm , for shanks of carbon steel, but heat-treated by the procedure for high-speed Cancel anytime. permissible bending stress can be approximately approximately doubled. Special offer for the students: Only $4.99/month. 3 Z = section modulus of tool shank, mm .


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b

The calculations given above for the plane bending of tool shanks are simple but not entirely exact. Only the force F z is taken into consideration and only the bending deformation it causes. But three forces – F z or F t or F c – the cutting force, F f cutting force, Ff - the feed force and Fr - the radial force (Fig. 30.10a and b) - act on the tool in cutting and their action leads to additional stresses so that the shank is subject to combined stresses. Combined stresses are higher (in comparison to stresses in plane bending due to force Fz) by about 100 per cent, and they are influenced by the plan approach angle and the construction of the tool point. Table 33.1 lists permissible stresses when calculations Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title are based on plane bending, but the values take combined stresses into account. account.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times TABLE 33.1 Permissible stress stress values

b

for tool shanks of structural carbon

Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. steel subject to plane bending (with combined stresses taken into account.) 2

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, screws) and the distance between these screws. In choosing the tool length, it is desirable to take into account further utilization of the shank after complete wear of the carbide tip in performing the given machining operation.

Design of a parting off tool: The general design procedure followed for single point tool design is also applied for parting tool. Viz. selection of tool material selection of tool geometry, selection of cutting variables & checking the cutting variables & finding tool dimensions & Foron 30this Days overhang. However the geometry geometry of parting tool tool varies slightly & some Read standard standaup rdFree Sign to vote title shapes are suggested for parting tool as shown in fig. Useful Not useful In strength calculations of the critical cross Cancel anytime. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. section of a cut off tool is neck. I.e. the place where the tool body terminates in the tool head is


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and δt permissible = 0.05 mm. 3 4 0.05 = 1056 x 1 / ( 3 x 2 x 10 x 4436 ) 1 = 24 mm ≅ 25 mm. Thus, maximum permissible length of overhang is 25 mm.

Therefore



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Problem: 2 0

A 10 back rake tool is used for machining on a lathe at a speed of 60 m/min. The diameter of work piece is 100 mm. mm. Find the cross section of rectangular rectangular tool shank if maximum permissible deflection at tool point is 0.012 mm & maximum allowable 2 Read Free Foron 30this Days stress in the tool shank is 7.5 kg/mm . Assume a rectangular shank shank with height to width widt h up Sign to vote title ratio 1.6 & tool overhang overhang as 1.3 times the height. height. The recorded value of cutting cutting force  Useful  Not useful under these processing conditions conditions is 250 kg. Assurance the suitable suitable value of young’s Cancel anytime. modulus. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Solution:

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During high speed machining of ductile materials, long chips are continuously produced which must be broken into small piece for easy disposal and to protect the finished surface from coiling chips. chips. Further the long chips, which may get entangled, entangled, can cause machine stoppage stoppage besides being unsafe for the operator. operator. The chip breaker may be added to a cutting tool for this purpose.



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FORM TOOLS FOR TURNING APPLICATIONS

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A form tool is defined, as a cutting tool having one or more cutting edges with a defined profile or contour that will be reproduced as the desired form on the work piece surface. Form tools for turning turning applications are classified classified according to type type of crosssection, such as flat tools or circular tools or end-form tools as shown in Table 20.1. Flat or block tools are further classified according to setting of the tool with respect to work piece like radial-fed or tangential-fed tangential-fed type. Further form tools are also classified classified with respect to orientation of tool axis in relation to work piece axis.



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Classification of Form Tools Form Tools According to cross-section

Flat or block

Circular

Master according yourto semester with Scribd setting according to orientation of cutting edge & The New York Times of tool axis Special offer for students:tangential Only $4.99/month. radial parallel (skiving )

angular

end-form


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o e c eara earanc ncee ace. ace. e amou amoun n o s ess ess an e ac ua ep o orm orm AB produced AB produced on the work piece because of the clearance angle a. From the geometry of Fig.20.6, X = AB .cos a .. Eqn. 20.1



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Therefore,

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= ( R 2 − h 2 ) - r cos y = ( R 2 − r 2 sin 2 y - y cos cos y = + X l 2 cos(Now, a y ) l 2

Sheet Music

Hence, X = { ( R 2

− r 2 sin 2 y ) - r cos y}cos(a + y)

… Eqn Eqn. 20.2 … Eqn. 20.3

Introduction of rake angle to facilitate cutting action modifies the profile on the tool. Consider, as an example, the case of a single point V-notch tool shown in Fig.20.8 Fig.20.8 where ξ is the included included angle to the produced. produced. Let ξ 1 be the included angle ground on Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title the form tool. From the geometry of Fig.20.8,

Master your semester with Scribd & The Newξ York Times S ξ S and tan = tan 1 = Only Special offer for students: 2 2 X $4.99/month. 2 2m ξ  m  ξ  

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e ppe w cemen e car e. Dovetail form tool is called so because it is fitted to its holder through a dovetail joint (d)End form tool End form tool is shown in Fig.33.19d. Fig. 33.19e shows a carbide-tipped circular form tool, where ‘I’ is the body of the cutter, ‘2’ is the contoured tip and ‘3’ is the backing member. (f)A Radially fed form tool shown in Fig.33.19f is fed in the direction of feed during cutting operation, till the final shape is imparted on the work piece. (g)A Tangentially fed form tool (Fig.33.19g) travels at right angle to the axis of the rotating work piece. Free Foron 30this Days Sign to vote title - Fig.33.19h shows clamping of a circular form tool in the holder. The toolRead is up turned in relation to the holder by means of lever ‘I’ having radial serrations on  Useful  Not useful one side which match those on the tool and by adjusting screw ‘2’. Cancel anytime.


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The relief angle (α) depends upon the type of form tool. On circular form tools it is 100 to 120 and on flat form tools it varies from 120 to 150. On form tools intended for relieving form-milling form-milling cutters, the relief angle may reach 250 or 300. Design of a Flat Form Tool (Using Graphical Method) -The profile of a form tool can be determined by (1) Graphical method (2) Analytical method The graphical method is straight and simple, however analytical method is more Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title accurate in determining determining the dimensions. dimensions. The design procedure of flat form tool using graphical method has been  Useful  Not useful Cancel anytime. discussed below: Special offer for students: Only (1) The profile of the $4.99/month. work piece is drawn in two views, that is, the front view and the top view.


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Design of a Flat Form Tool using Analytical Method. - Refer last one fig. of same topic. -It will be sufficient to determine the dimensions denoted by P2 and P3 in this figure. -If the dimensions C2 and C3 are known or they can be calculated by formulating formulating a set of equations, dimensio dimensions ns P2 and P3 can be readily determined since they are sides of the right angled triangles 1A2 and 1B3. -The following equations are used to solve the right angled triangles. ∈1 = α + γ Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title P2 = C2.cos ∈1 P3 = C3.cos ∈1 Useful Not useful Dimensions P2 and P3 should be calculated to an accuracy within 0.001 mm. Cancel anytime.


Design of Circular Form Tool

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o nt , t e nt nters ersect ect on o ne - w t t e arc arc rawn rawn rom rom po nt , s t e cent center er o the circular form tool. (5) Next, draw line aM along the tool tool face. For this purpose, draw a line line from point 1 at an angle γ to line I-I. By connecting points 1, 2 and 3 (points of intersection of the line representing the tool face with the corresponding circles of radii r1, r2 and r3) with center O2 of the form tool, obtain the corresponding radii R1, R2 and R3 of the form tool. (6) Next, to construct the tool profile in a radial cross-section, it is necessary to draw radial line N/N and to lay off dimensions l1 and l 2 to the right on a line perpendicular to to line NN (in the case when the axis of the work piece and circular tool are parallel to Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title each other). The dimensions l1 and l are equal to the corresponding axial dimensions of the work  Useful  Not useful


piece. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. (7) From the end point 1′ of the axial dimensions, lay off dimensions P2 and P3 in a direction parallel to line NN.

Cancel anytime.

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Master your semester with Scribd 1) Draw two concentric circles corresponding to maximum & minimum radius of Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title contour to be turned. & The New York Useful  Not useful 2) Through point ATimes ( on minimum diameter circle ) draw one line inclined at an angle Cancel anytime.

, (which represents trace of plane ground to produce the tool face) below the line. Special offer for γstudents: Only $4.99/month. “OA”

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(Fig.5.20) The tool is turned in relation to holder by means of lever ‘1’ having radial serrations serration s on one side which match those on the tools, by adjusting screw ‘2’. The tool holder has tension shaped projection (4) to locate in the matching T-slot on the tool post. The holder is then fixed on the tool post by means of T-bolt (3). After the cutting Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title edge is set to desired height the central bolt is tightened to restrict the rotation of the  Useful  Not useful circular form tool. Cancel anytime. The form toolOnly have$4.99/month. dovetail form on the back side. side. The holder for flat form tool Special offer forflat students: thus must posses a similar matching dovetail form with the help of screws the position of cutting edge can be adjusted to the desired height after re-sharpening.


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. b) Permissible shear stress of tool material = 40 kg/mm2 c) Young’s modulus for HSS tool material = 20,000 kgf/mm2 d) Permissible deflection of tool = 0.06 mm. Also select the various angles and draw neat sketch of the designed tool.



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The cross sectional area of uncut chip per tooth can be calculated as under. 2

a = S2.b.n, mm … for spleen broach 2 a = S2 . Π . D , mm . . . . For round broach Where, b = splines width, D = diameter of round broach. n = number of spleens (n =1 for keyway broach )

The total cross sectional area of the under formed chip is given as – Master your semester with Scribd A = a.Z, mm & TheWhere New m , Z =York number of Times teeth simultaneously in operation. 2


Chip formation and cutting forces in broaching :


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Useful

The different modes of of cutting in the internal broaches broaches are shown in Fig.6.4. Fig.6.4. In this figure the layers of metal metal removed by different broaches broaches is also shown The

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Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title The following considerations are done in design of internal broaches. & The1.New Times  Useful  Not useful Study ofYork geometry geometry & other features features of work piece for for getting the necessary necessary 6.8. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN BROACHING :

information for broach design. The following information is normally obtained in Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. designing a circular or internal broach a) Tolerance on the hole to assign the tolerance to the broach.

Cancel anytime.

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5.Selection of broach tooth and chip space The cross sectional area of gullet (chip space) Ag is found from the longitudinal longitudinal cross sectional area of chip “Ac” Ag = K Ac The volumetric factor K should be taken between 2 to 5 (smaller values for brittle material when a discontinuous chip is obtained) Ac = L.SZ, where L = length of surface broached, mm corresponding to the value of Ag, the other parameters (like pitch ‘t’ width land ‘b’, tooth depth ‘h’ radius ‘r’ and ‘R’) can be selected for a particular type of profile from table 6.3. The pitch can also be calculated by empirical formulae dependingRead on the Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title broaching length.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New tYork Times = (1.25 + 1.5) L . . . . . . . For plain broach. Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. L t = (1.45 to 1.9)

. . . . . . for progressive cutting broaches.

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roughing broaches of all types (2-4)

9. Determination of dimensions of cutting teeth (or roughing teeth) and semifinishing teeth. The diameter of the first tooth is taken equal to the front pilot diameter Dt = D – A. The diameter diameter of each each subsequent subsequent tooth is incremented incremented by 2 SZ. The cut per tooth for last three finishing teeth preceeding, the sizing or finishing teeth is gradually decreased as suggested in step (2)

The dimensions & tolerance of the sizing teeth (or finishing teeth) Master10.your semester with Scribd The diameter of the sizing teeth DS = DmaxJB , where Dmax is the maximum Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title diameter of the broached hols, δ is the change in the hole diameter after broaching (when the diameter is oversized, take sign as ‘-‘and’ +’ when the diameter is & Theundersized. New York Times  Useful  Not useful

Special offer for students: Only The tolerance on$4.99/month. cutting tooth = ± 1/5 SZ but maximum 0.02 mm, the tolerance on finishing tooth = - 1/3 hole tolerance but maximum IT 7

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Example 1 : Design a circular broach for machining a cylindrical hole, diameter D = 25H7 (+ 0.021) and length 10 = 562 ± 0.95 in a toothed wheel blank of free cutting steel (σ t = 70 kgf/mm2) Solution : 1) The broach material selected for this job is HSS (m2) 2) Broaching allowance ‘A’ and diameter of premachined hole ‘DO A = 0.005 D + 0.12 L = 0.9735 say 1.0 mm

Master yourD0 semester Scribd = D – A = 25 – 1.0 = 24with mm. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title 3) Cut per tooth SZ From standard table (62) S2 is selected as 0.03 mm for steel. Assuming the & The New York Times Useful  Not useful number of semi finishing teeth as B the SZ is distributed as ½ SZ – 0.15 mm,  1/3 SZ = 1/6 S = 0.04 mm. Special offer for 0.01/mm, students:and Only $4.99/month.

4. Selection of broach tooth & chip space dimensions dimensions :

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. . . . 9. Dimensions and tolerance of sizing teeth DS = Dmax ± = 25.021 – 0.005 = 25.016 mm Assuming the diameter will be oversized by 0.005, δ is ‘-‘ Tolerance on cutting teeth = ± 1/5 SZ = ± 0.006 Tolerance on finishing teeth = -1/3 rd tolerance on hole = - .0007 10. Selection of pull end & rear pilot dimensions dimensions – From table 6.7 d1 = 22 mm, d2 = 17 mm. mm. d4 = 22 mm, C = 0.5 mm L1 = 140 mm, L2 = 25 mm, L3 = 25 mm, L4 = 16 mm, r1 = 0.3 and r2 = 1.0 mm

Master your semester with Scribd ∝ = 300 300 for for pull pull end end Dt = 24.0 24.0 -.04 -.073 From table 6.8 & TheDrpNew York Times = minimum diameter of broached hole = 25 –0.021 Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. 1rp = 25 t = 1.5

-0.041


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point. The actual value of the the relief angle during drilling also depends depends on the feed. feed. A higher feed results in reduced working working clearance. This is explained by the the fact that the drill not only rotates but also travels axially during cutting. (Fig.7.2.a)



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ns ns l = hole length or depth, mm ∆ = over travel ( l or 2 mm), mm y = length of travel required before the drill cuts the full diameter, diameter, mm. 7.4. CHIP FORMATION IN DRILLING : A drill is more more complex than a single point tool. The cutting process in drilling also proceeds under more complex conditions due to the reasons explained below. Chip disposal from and cutting fluid delivery to the drill lips present difficulties, there is considerable friction between the chips and the flute surfaces and between drill and Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title machined surface, a sharp drop in cutting speed (from Υ max to zero) occurs along the drill lips so that at various points of the lips the layer being out is deformed and out at  Useful  Not useful different speeds. Non-uniform deformation is also due to the variable angle along the Cancel anytime. lipfor of the twist drill, i.e. $4.99/month. the chip deformation (contraction) (contraction) decreases as the point on the Special offer students: Only lip approaches the drill periphery (owing to increase in V and γ ).


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. , increase in Fz) and torque is reduced. c) Cutting fluid efficiency : Efficient application of cutting, fluid reduces axial thrust & torque. d) Drilling depth depth : Increase in depth deterio-rate cutting cutting conditions conditions & hence adversely adversely affect the thrust & torque. e) Cutting speed: Axial thrust & torque first decreases with an increase in cutting speed. 7.6 REAMING: Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times



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. Reaming is one of the important operation used in the manufacturing of interchangeable parts of mass production and provides the most economical means of achieving precision fits and interchangeability. interchangeability. The maximum diameter of reamer must be equal to the maximum diameter of the hole minus (0.15 x Hole tolerance). tolerance ). The minimum diameter of reamer must be equal to the maximum diameter of the hole minus (0.35 x Hole tolerance). The reamers usually have even number of teeth to facilitate diameter measurement . Use is made of non-uniform angular pitch “W” which helps is improving improving surface finish. The value of “W” for a particular number of teeth can be selected from standard table. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title The reamers may be straight flutes or helical fluted (with helix grooves directed  Useful  Not useful against direction of rotation. Cancel anytime.

Master your semester with Scribd & The New York Times Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. QUESTIONS

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8.4. MILLING PROCESS AND CUTTING VARIABLES: The tooth of plain milling cutter removes chip of varying thickness whose section is confined within two arcs of curate trochaics. The chip formation in milling is accompanied by the same phenomenon as in single point cutter tool, however, there are certain inherent features. 1. The tooth comes in contact with work for relatively short period of time during one revolution, hence during rest of the time it cools down giving favorable effect to tool Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title life. 2. The tooth is subjected to impact loads, shortening the tool life & may lead to Useful   Not useful Cancel anytime. catastrophic failure. Special offer students: Only $4.99/month. 3. for The chip thickness thickness is not constant constant but varies varies along the entire entire length e.g. In conventional or up milling is minimum at start or entrance of tooth & maximum at end


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, amax amax = z s n; The cross sectional area of uncut chip removed by one tooth of a straight flute cutter is (denoted by f) F = a.b = B.Sψ. sin To find total cross sectional area of all uncut chips it is necessary to know the number of teeth that are simultaneously in operation and instantaneous tooth constant angle for each tooth. The number of teeth that are simultaneously in operation on a straight flute cutter is m = δ.Z/(Angle between adjacent teeth) = δ.Z/360. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title or

Master your semester with Scribd & The New Yorkt / DTimes − t / D ) / 360 m=Z. Sin-1( 2 2

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1. Uncut chip thickness Zero at entrance max. at exit Max. at entrance & zero at Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days exit. Sign up to vote title 2. Load Gradually increases Gradually reduces & The3.New York Times  Not useful Machining of work Easy, as cuts from under the Cuts through the scale & Useful POINTS

CONVENTIONAL MILLING

CLIMB MILLING

with Sandy skin$4.99/month. foundry skin, breaking it from hence Special offer piece for students: Only or scale in casting or forging

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under with & the hence cutter reduces. life is good.

the

cutter

life

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Master your semester with Scribd Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title Depending upon the hand of the flute spiral, force ‘Fa’ either tends to slide the & Thecutter New York Times  Useful  Not useful off the arbor or holds it against the shoulder on the spindle nose, the axial force can bestudents: compensated compensated by using interlocking cutters with helical flutes of different hands. Special offer for Only $4.99/month. The power required for milling can be calculated from the tangential force Fz E = Fz .V, Kgm/min.

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ap ng s carr e out n gear s ap ng mac nes w t a mu t p e e ge too ca e a gear shaper cutter. Broaching is done with a special cutting tool and is seldom employed as a gear cutting method. Shaving is a gear-finishing process using a cutting tool in the form of a gear ( or rack in some cases Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title ) with teeth on the flanks of which Useful  Not useful grooves Cancel anytime. narrow Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. separated by narrow lands are


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toget er w t out s pp ng. In addition to the rolling (generating) motion, the cutter reciprocates along with the axis of the the gear blank. This is the primary primary cutting cutting motion. motion. Chips are cut in the down stroke of the cutter. In the return stroke the blank is withdrawn withdrawn slightly slightly from the outer (to prevent the flanks of the cutter teeth from rubbing against the machined surfaces of the gear teeth). At the beginning beginning of the working stroke, stroke, the blank is advanced to the cutter again.(Fig.9-2 & Fig.9.4)



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Gear hobbling process : Hobbling is machining process similar to milling, but in hobbling the work piece is not held stationary but is caused to rotate with a definite ratio to the velocity of the cutter. The cutter is called a hob, the chief feature of which is a thread or lead developed to produced teeth on a cylindrical work piece. piece. Hobs are used for the production of spur spur gears, helical gears, worm gears, spine shafts, etc.



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Master your semester with Scribd & The9.4.New York Thread Cutting Tools Times : 9.4.1. General Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month.

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Screw threads are produced by three methods : 1. Cutting with a cutting tool made of carbon tool steel, high speed steel or cemented


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the tap. This makes the major major and minor diameter of the thread smaller smaller near the shank than those at the chamber by the following amount; 0.05 to 0.10 mm per 100 mm for ground taps and taps in which threads are formed by rolling; 0.08 to 0.12 mm per 100 mm for underground taps. Fig.9.10



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Master your semester with Scribd Most taps have straight flutes. flutes. Certain special taps have helical flutes. Read Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title The direction of chip flow can be changed by changing the hand of the helical & Theflutes New  Useful  Not useful on the York tap. Taps Times with helical flutes flutes of different hands hands are illustrated in Fig. Flutes of the type Only shown$4.99/month. in Fig. Drive the chips forward, ahead of the tap, and can Special offer for students: be used for tapping through holes. holes. Chip flow is forward the shank for a tap with flutes flutes of the opposite hand (Fig.9.11.b.). (Fig.9.11.b.). This is applicable for tapping tapping blind holes.

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In hand tapping, the work is usually distributed between two or three taps (a set of taps is used). Only the finishing finishing (No.3) (No.3) tap has a full thread thread profile. The roughing roughing and middle (Nos. (Nos. 1 and 2) taps have reduced major diameters. diameters. The chamber length differs on three taps. It is longest on the roughing tap (4S) and shortest on the finishing tap (1.5S to 2S). The most commonly applied stock removal distribution has 50 to 60 per cent removed by the roughing tap, 28 to 30 per cent by the middle tap, and 16 to 10Read per cent Free Foron 30this Days Sign up to vote title by the finishing tap.  Useful  Not useful Taps are made of high-speed steel or, more frequently, of carbon tool steel. Cancel anytime. 9.5. Thread-Cutting Dies Special offer for students: Only $4.99/month. A threading die is an internally threaded tool used to cut external screw threads by screwing on the work piece. Threads are usually cut in one pass.


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