Visual Arts Gr11 Learner's Guide

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VISUAL ARTS 11 GRADE

SAMPLE COPY VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

© Future Managers 2012 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright owner. To copy any part of this publication, you may contact DALRO for information and copyright clearance. Any unauthorised copying could lead to civil liability and/or criminal sanctions.

Telephone: 086 12 DALRO (from within South Africa); +27 (0)11 712-8000 Telefax: +27 (0)11 403-9094 Postal Address: P O Box 31627, Braamfontein, 2017, South Africa www.dalro.co.za ISBN 978-1920364793 First published 2012

Please note that this is a sample draft copy and may still undergo minor changes.

FutureManagers Published by Future Managers (Pty) Ltd PO Box 13194, Mowbray, 7705 Tel (021) 462 3572 Fax (021) 462 3681 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.futuremanagers.net

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CONTENTS CHAPTER 1

Overview of the 19th century p 15

CHAPTER 2

The birth of Modernism

CHAPTER 3

Early 20th century p 87

CHAPTER 4

Architecture p 129

CHAPTER 5

Between the World Wars p 169

CHAPTER 6

Survey of post 1946 art p 207

CHAPTER 7

New Media p 257

CHAPTER 8

The Art World p 303

p 47

VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Introduction to Visual Arts Grade 11


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Introduction to Visual Arts Grade 11

VISUAL ARTS covers a broad field of creative practice that involves the hand, the eye, the intellect and the imagination in conceptualising and creating two-dimensional and three-dimensional artworks, objects and environments which reflect the aesthetic, conceptual and expressive concerns of individuals or groups. The subject Visual Arts is about self-expression and offers one a way to engage meaningfully with, and respond to, the world. It provides opportunities to stimulate and develop your intellect, engaging your creative imagination through visual and tactile experiences and the innovative use of materials and technology in realising your ideas. It also encourages you to develop an individual visual language and literacy, which is informed and shaped by the study of visual culture, past and present.


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Topics in Visual Arts

IN YOUR GRADE 11 VISUAL ARTS STUDIES YOU WILL: 1. CONCEPTUALISE THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT AND REALISATION OF CREATIVE IDEAS IN YOUR SOURCE BOOK. 2. MAKE CREATIVE ARTWORKS AND PRESENT THEM. EACH CHAPTER INCLUDES A PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT TASK THAT IS IN SOME WAY RELATED TO THE CHAPTER. THERE ARE SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS FOR SOURCE BOOK WORK AND OPTIONS FOR THE MAKING OF ARTWORKS. YOUR TEACHER WILL GUIDE THESE ACTIVITIES. 3. STUDY ARTWORKS TO EXPLAIN THE HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND/ OR ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF CIVILISATIONS/STYLES/MOVEMENTS AND INDIVIDUAL ARTISTS IN VISUAL CULTURE STUDIES.

very book is a l e c r u o s our visua The art of y p t n a t a r impo bines se. It com ary, creative arts cour di k, visual c. YOUR sketchboo olio, et f t r o p , journal IS NOT A

BOOK , BUT SOURCE OTEBOOK N T A E N ERSONAL FORMAL, SSIVE, P E R P X D E IS AN IDEAS AN F O ” K O O ECT “SCRAPB ICH REFL H W I STS L U STIM , INTERE E L Y T S N YOUR OW NALITY. It should ul SO R d a usef AND PE iting an , exc s for be full and image s a e d i source of gnments. ical assi t c a r p the

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You are going to receive specific assignments for this book, but you may also include more drawings, sketches, notes, newspaper articles and cuttings, exploration of concepts and ideas.

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Activities for the source book will be indicated as:

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2. MAKE CREATIVE ARTWORKS AND PRESENT THEM

Drawing is a compulsory part of all practical options in Visual Arts. Specialised options include drawing, painting, sculpture, printmaking, multi-media work, photography, ceramic sculpture, installations, new media work, photo montage etc. You will receive a written brief and will be informed of the following facts before commencing the work: •

The exact aim or end product expected of the task regarding medium, size etc.

• Sources available for reference/research/investigations/ experimentation. •

Assessment procedure followed/criteria to be used.

•

Exact, non-negotiable dates for handing in work; checkpoints along the way.

• Any possible limitations and/or guidelines for the assignment.

• Appropriate media, techniques and/or approaches for the assignment.

3. STUDY ARTWORKS TO EXPLAIN THE HISTORICAL, POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND/OR ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF CIVILISATIONS/STYLES/ MOVEMENTS AND INDIVIDUAL ARTISTS IN VISUAL CULTURE STUDIES.

Activities for the Visual Culture Studies workbook will be indicated as:

You need a workbook (A4 hard or soft cover exercise book) for Visual Culture studies in which to do your assignments. Complete in your V.C.S. workbook.


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A lot of –isms!

At the end of grade 11 you will understand a lot of the –isms of the art world. From Neo-Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, Impressionism to Cubism, Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism to name but a few. The following are some of the lyrics from the 1984 song, Is it an Ism, or is it Art, written and performed by the award winning South African illustrator, Niki Daly. A work by some of the mentioned artists are included.

RENÉ MAGRITTE, MR RENÉ MAGRITTE I LOVE YOUR ISM, BUT IS IT ART? I’LL EAT YOUR BLACK BOWLER HAT IF THAT IS ART IS IT AN ISM OR IS IT AN ART? OSKAR KOKOSCHKA, OH OSKAR KOKOSCHKA I LOVE YOUR ISM, BUT IS IT ART? I’M CHILLED BY THE COLD BLUE BLACK OF YOUR NIGHTS BUT IS IT ART? SALVADOR DALÍ, I ADORE DALÍ I LOVE HIS ISM, BUT IS IT ART? IT’S METAPHYSICALLY SUPERB BUT IS IT ART ROMANTICISM, MINIMALISM, DISILLUSIONISM OH OH, OH OH IS IT ART SUPREME-TISM, EXOTICISM, SIMULTANOUSISM OH OH, IS IT ART? KEEP LOOKING FOR A SIGN FOR OUR OWN TIME THERE REALLY ISN’T ANY ISM THAT I CAN CALL MINE I KNOW WHAT I LIKE BUT I DON’T KNOW IF IT’S ART I REALLY DON’T KNOW MY ISM FROM MY ART


6 Grade 11 Visual Culture Studies broadly covers the time period from 1750 up to today. The focus is mainly on so-called Western Art as the main stylistic innovations in this period occurred firstly in European countries and later in America. It is important to understand these styles and movements as they had a profound influence on art all over the world, including South Africa. In Grade 12 you are going to study South African art in greater depth and it is important to see influences from international styles in our art. It is also interesting to note that today the top artists in the world come from all over the world, including South Africa, and contemporary art is not bound by the borders of certain countries as it was for instance in the 19th century. The emphasis is on art works and visual literacy. It is strongly advised that you refer to Chapter 1 in the Grade 10 book for basic information regarding the formal elements, composition, styles, subject matter, etc. It is important to have the tools to be able to discuss artworks. In Grade 10 a guide (“recipe”) was given on how one can discusses an artwork.

THE MAIN INGREDIENTS ARE: 1. LABEL INFORMATION 2. DESCRIPTION 3. DISCUSSION (ANALYSIS) 4. INTERPRETATION, MEANING AND MESSAGE

HONORE DAUMIER, CRITICS

THE FOLLOWING IS AN INDICATION OF HOW ONE CAN DISCUSS AN ARTWORK IN MORE DEPTH:

1. LABEL INFORMATION • Artist, title of work, medium, date, size. • When you discuss so-called ‘unseen’ works this information is given and acts as a clue to the style/period.. • In works that you have studied, you must provide the surname of the artist and titles of artworks. Also provide the medium – you may say in general it is a painting or drawing, but if it is a new/different medium be more specific.

2. DESCRIPTION • Identify things that you can see. Name and describe them. Ensure that your description is not evaluating, opinionated or interpretive by writing down only what you see. • Describe the main objects in the painting and their position in relation to each other e.g. the cow is below the tree. Only mention what you can see with your eyes as if describing the work to a blind person. • Subject: Is it a still-life, landscape, portrait study, etc.? • History: Does the work belong to a specific art movement? VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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3. DISCUSSION Technique • This is not the medium, but how it was created in the specific medium. Is the brushwork for instance smooth (like a photo), impasto, stippled or linear. Style • Style refers to naturalism, figurative, expressionism, abstraction, decorative works, stylization, etc. • Beware of the incorrect use of abstract. If there are no references to reality then something is abstract. A work can be abstracted with a tendency to abstract shapes, but they are still figurative if there is reference to images.

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Formal art elements

The formal aspects are things that exist in an artwork.

LINE When discussing line in an art work consider the following: • Type (curved, straight, etc.) • Direction (horizontal, vertical, diagonal) , • Function (Contour lines, decorative lines, lines formed by objects in a painting, etc.)

SAUL STEINBERG

SHAPE When discussing shape one can speak about: • Positive shapes- the actual positive image on which the eye initially focuses. • Negative shapes- these are the spaces or shapes inbetween the positive shapes • Organic shapes- these are natural and curvilinear. They look relaxed. • Geometric shapes- these are man-made and rectilinear. They look formal. • A sculpture has form, is three-dimensional and has mass. The surrounding space is the negative form. Look at the shape of the work. Does it penetrate space or is it a closed form?

ESCHER VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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TEXTURE When discussing texture one can speak about: • Tactile texture is texture that can actually be felt, like the impasto paint used by van Gogh or the real texture in a sculpture. • Implied texture looks as if it has texture e.g. the dog in Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini Wedding seems hairy, but is in reality very smoothly painted. Many paintings use this technique to convince us of reality. The ultimate point in portraying visual texture is called trompe l’oeil, - the French term meaning ‘to fool the eye’, e.g. a mural that seems to be landscape.)

ALBRECHT DÜRER

SPACE When discussing space one can speak about: • Actual space that exists around forms and is real. Artists use actual space in the design and creation of three-dimensional art works. • Real space is used in three-dimensional works such as sculpture and installations. e.g. the space between different parts of a sculpture/installation forms a part of the work. • Two-dimensional works are created on a flat surface ie Illusionistic space. To portray 3D objects on a 2D surface artists use illusionism. This is done by using the correct perspective (line and/or aerial) so that an object seems to exist ‘in’ the picture. In modern artworks the flatness of the canvas is often emphasised and space is flattened e.g. Pollock’s works.

ALBERTO GIACOMETTI, MAN POINTING, 1947. BRONZE.


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TONE

When discussing tone one can speak about: • Tonal value which indicates the light and dark areas of the content. • When artists use variations of tone and sharp contrasts to indicate a light source in images, it’s called chiaroscuro e.g. Rembrandt. . • When artists create an atmosphere e.g. dramatic, with strong contrasts or soft, when predominantly light tones are used. • Tone helps to create atmosphere and feeling in an artwork. • Tone creates focal areas through contrasts. • In painting tones of colour play an important role.

LEONARDO DA VINCI

COLOUR

(See that you understand basic colour theory) When discussing colour one can speak about: • Looking for the dominant colour in a painting. Use the correct terminology e.g. it is mainly painted in monochromatic blues creating a cool feeling. • Use of primary and secondary colours. • Use of complimentary colours (red and green. Blue and orange, yellow and purple) to create brightness. • Use of tints, shades, colour intensity, etc. • Psychological effects of colour such as warm and cool colours. Also how colour creates space e.g. blue retreating in a painting. • How colour helps to convey meaning e.g. the dark colours in Goya’s Third of May, 1808 help to express the meaning. • Colour can thus carry emotion, have symbolic meaning e.g. black for grief or convey an atmosphere or emphasize certain areas.

PATTERN

When discussing pattern one can speak about: • The repetition of elements which create pattern e.g. the tin roofs in Sekoto’s work. • The function of pattern e.g. decoration, creating an atmosphere.


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Design principles

COMPOSITION • The artwork can be planned on a horizontal, vertical or square format? • Where is the focal point (main area of attraction) and why is it the focal point? e.g. all the lines in the work lead to it; it’s the brightest or dullest part of the picture, etc. • Pick out the main geometric groupings as found in the work. Often the objects create a triangular composition. The composition could also be circular or square – this is seen through the main lines and grouping in the work. • Is the picture balanced (it normally is), if so, is it symmetrical or asymmetrical? • Discuss how various objects balance each other e.g. the big tree on the left is balanced by the two small cows on the right.

EMPHASIS, CONTRAST AND FOCAL POINTS • Emphasis is created by contrast and isolation. • Contrast is brought about through the contrast between design elements for e.g. a contrast in tone, or colour or shape. • Are there contrasts in colour such as dull - bright, cool - warm, dark – light? • Are there contrasts of shape, texture, movement, size, complexity – simplicity? • The focal point is where your eye finally comes to rest. Explain why a certain element is the focal point e.g. use of perspective lines, etc.

SCALE AND PROPORTION • Both scale and proportion refer to size. • A work can be on a large scale e.g. installations, earth art, or be very small such as Vermeer’s Lace maker. • In an artwork the scale of objects can sometimes be inconsistent because the artist did not want to create a logical space. • Proportion refers to the relative size of objects, e.g. the parts of the human body. Artists distort proportions deliberately to create emotional statements. • Proportion can ruin a painting if it seems that the proportions are faulty due to the inaptitude of the artist. On the other hand proportion can add qualities of shock, surprise and humour when used with skill. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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BALANCE • Balance is the equal distribution of motifs or design elements. The work must be visually balanced. • What creates the balance in the composition? • Is the balance symmetric? When something looks exactly the same on one side of a vertical axis, as it does on the other side? Symmetric balance is used more often in architecture and sculpture than in painting. • Is the balance asymmetric? Balance is achieved with dissimilar objects that have equal visual weight, or equal visual attraction? • Imbalance can be used by artists for effect creating a sense of unease and even movement.

RHYTHM • This concept refers to the movement of the viewer’s eye, across the surface of an image, picking up the recurrent motifs, providing the repetition inherent in the idea of rhythm. • Rhythm is created by repetition, and creates a sense of movement.

ATMOSPHERE What feeling does the work create e.g. is it warm and crowded or empty and depressive? Atmosphere is conveyed by how the elements such as colour and tone are used. (Remember to concentrate on the main elements and principles in an artwork.)


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Interpretation / Meaning / Content

• In discussing all of the above points, the viewer will come to a closer understanding of an art work. However, the viewer is not the artist and we may never know the full intention of the artist, but we form our own informed opinion provided that the opinion is substantiated. • Content has to do with the deeper meaning of the artwork or the message of the work. • Contextual factors; the context of the work plays a big role in determining meaning. The biography of the artist, political and social situations, historical factors and/or physical place e.g. a work created during Apartheid South Africa, can play a role. • Use the information gathered from your DESCRIPTION and DISCUSSION (ANALYSIS) to help you identify the CONTENT of works (what the artwork tells of the human experience). This has to do with the MESSAGE of the work. • Defend your hypothesis with evidence from other sources such as art history and past experiences that the work reminds you of, or presumed purpose e.g. to praise, criticize, predict, record an event, make a political or social statement, ridicule, and so on. • Look at the symbolic meanings where possible e.g. a dove meaning peace.

It is hoped that you will get plenty of opportunity to practice your skill in analysing artworks be it your own, those of your class mates, ones you see in exhibitions and those that you study. In Chapter 7 you will study conceptual artworks and these works do not always fit the above model, for example Joseph Beuys’ How to explain Pictures to a Dead hare, 1964. A guide for discussing these works are : •

DESCRIBE the work in detail. It is necessary to convey all the main elements of the work.

• Clearly refer to the MEDIA, for instance that it was a performance documented by video, etc. • The MEANING of these works play an important role and you must expand on the artist’s intentions with the work.


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An artist is usually discussed by referring to: • Biographical information: It is always interesting to know the ‘story’ about any artist. Use it sparingly in research projects. In tests and examinations refer to it ONLY if it influences the work directly as with Van Gogh. • Sources, inspirations and influences by other artists’ work and contextual factors such as politics. • Stylistic characteristics refer to the themes, subject matter, formal elements, style, technique, etc. Also the meaning given to the work by the artist himself or how other people interpreted the work by considering contextual factors and the work itself. • Specific examples that display the above. With art movements the same format can be used, but biographical information will be replaced by the origin and aim of a movement.

Tests and examinations in Visual Culture Studies Questions usually consist of two parts: 1. ‘Unseen’ artworks where you must apply your visual literacy skills. 2. Art, artworks and art movements that you have studied. Tips on answering unseen works: • Study the captions. It provides the name of the artist, title of the work, date and medium. These are all clues that you can use. • The medium is important. Is it a sculpture, painting or drawing? You are not going to discuss the background of a sculpture. If it is a painting you can write about the style, brush strokes, etc. • Carefully consider what you must discuss and see that you write on each of the required factors. It is of no use only discussing colour and ignoring composition (depending on what is asked). Usually what you must discuss in a work are important aspects of the work. • Do not be obscure. A small vertical line in the background does not portray strength and power. Stick to the main elements. • Meaning/interpretation – beware of unjustified stories without any relation to the artwork. The theme of the question is there to help you e.g. if it is for example on Impressionism, you apply your knowledge of this style to the unseen work. Beware of ‘sermons’ on social issues or religion that are not related to the work.


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CHAPTER

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Overview of the 19th Century CONTENTS 1. Neo-Classicism • David • Ingres 2.

Introduction to the 19th century • Six famous 19th century figures • French art system in the 19th century • Academic art

3. Romanticism • Goya • Delacroix • Gericault • Constable • Turner 4. Pre-Raphaelites 5. Realism • Courbet • Millet • Daumier 6. Symbolism 7. Relating to South African Art • Durant Sihlali • Dumile Feni 8. Practical Assessment Task • Theme: ‘Scars in society’


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TIMELINE of the Nineteenth century It is often very difficult to give exact dates for movements. The following timelines give a broad indication of the duration of movements.

1750

1800

1825

1850

1875-1900

Neo-Classicism Romanticism Realism Impressionism

PostImpressionism

Symbolism

Pre-Raphaelites


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Neo-Classicism

“The only way to become great is by imitation of the ancients. Art should aim at noble simplicity and calm grandeur” - Johann Winckelmann 1750 – 1815- France Background The political and social structures in France were in a critical condition after 1750. The state was nearly bankrupt and the large middle class was tired of being oppressed by the aristocracy. They wanted the vote and to pay less taxes. During the extreme political and economic crisis in France in 1789 the French Revolution started. The original goals, to create a constitutional monarchy and reform the financial and political structure of the nation, soon developed into a move to overthrow the king and establish a republic. In the course of the revolution the immense land holdings of the Roman Catholic Church, as well as of the feudal lords were taken over by the government and sold to the bourgeoisie (middle class) and peasants. In 1792 a republic was declared. The revolutionary movement culminated in the Reign of Terror in which thousands of aristocrats lost their lives.

The executor of king Louise XVI shows his head to the crowd after he was guillotined.

The middle class took power, but then unexpectedly the revolution, which was supposed to bring freedom for all, became victim to its own most successful military leader. Under the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte a colossal military force was unleashed upon Europe. It ended in 1815 with his defeat at Waterloo. European monarchies had been exposed as vulnerable and revolutions were to erupt at intervals throughout the nineteenth century. Ideas of freedom and equality were spread throughout Europe.

Jacques-Louis David, Napoleon at Saint Bernard Pass, 1801.


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Characteristics of Neo-Classicism • Neo-Classicism was linked to political events. At first they sought to replace what they viewed as the playfulness of the Rococo style with a style that was logical, serious in tone and moralising in character. When the French revolution established a republic in France, the new government adopted Neo-Classicism as their official style. As Napoleon rose to power, the style was modified to serve his propaganda needs. • Neo-Classicism was a renewed interest in the Classical civilisation. This was fired by the excavation in Italy of the ruins of the Roman cities of Herculaneum in 1738 and Pompeii in 1748. Extolling the ‘noble simplicity and calm grandeur’ of Greek-Roman art, the German art historian, Johann Winckelmann urged artists to study and ‘imitate’ its timeless, ideal forms. Incorrectly, the classical past was viewed as a golden age with republican Rome as a model of order, justice and morality. Neo-Classicism was seen as an art to educate the people. • Subject matter: Usually consisted of only a few figures in calm, static poses mainly derived from classical sculpture. Before the French revolution art was seen as a way to educate the people. It became the official style of the French Revolution and Napoleon. • Composition: Balanced and ordered compositions were often based on geometrical shapes such as rectangles and triangles. • Shapes: Line and drawing were the most important characteristics of this style. Hard and precise outlines with crearly defined shapes were used. Forms seen to be ‘carved’. • Application: These was a smooth application of paint with no visible brushstrokes. • Colour: They were strong contrasts between colours and between dark and light areas. • Neo-Classicism is a serious, objective art, intellectual, rather than emotional.

The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were destroyed and completely buried during an eruption of the volcano, Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The eruption buried Pompeii under 4 to 6 meters of ash and pumice and was accidently discovered in 1749. The excavation and restoration has provided a detailed insight into the life of a Roman city. the mural is from the Villa of Mysteries giving an idea of Roman painting and life.

Glossary

Objective is free of any bias or prejudice caused by personal feelings. It is based on facts rather than thoughts or opinions. Propaganda in art is when art propagates a political doctrine and follows a certain party/state/

political thought to promote an ideology, idea or cause. Often deceptive or distorted information is spread.


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WHO WAS DAVID? Jacques-Louis David (30 August 1748 – 29 December 1825) was considered to be the finest painter of his era. David later became an active supporter of the French revolution and was effectively a dictator of the arts under the French Republic. Imprisoned after Robespierre’s fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release, that of Napoleon. David had a huge number of pupils making him the strongest influence in French art of the early 19th century, especially academic salon painting.

Jacques-Louis David, The oath of the Horatii, 1784 - 85. Oil on canvas

Jacques-Louis David, The oath of the Horatii The subject matter for this political painting comes from a historical story of ancient Rome. The moral of the story is that patriotism (or love for one’s country) should be held in higher esteem than the love of one’s family. The three Horatii brothers in profile are swearing on their father’s sword that they will sacrifice their lives for their country. To settle a political dispute these three had volunteered to fight three brothers from their neigbouring state, the Curatii of Alba. The sisters and mother of the Horatii brothers weep for the impending battle, particularly tragic as one of the sisters was engaged to be married to one of the

Alba brothers. The Horatii brothers are praised for their patriotism and lack of emotion in the face of danger and pain. Masculine courage and resolve is contrasted with feminine weakness and emotion. According to David art should be taught by a set of rules. The architecture in the background forms a series of geometric shapes, and the figures in the foreground form a series of triangles superimposed onto the architectural structure. The space is fairly shallow. The contours are clear and there are strong contrasts between light and dark so that the figures seem to be sculptures. Everything was carefully planned and clearly depicted.


20 Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Marat David was very involved in the French Revolution. One of his most moving works is this work of the dead Marat who was a politician and one of the leaders of the Revolution during the Reign of Terror. Marat was assassinated in his bath by an opposition member, Charlotte Corday. David was commissioned to paint his portrait to ensure the momentum of the revolution. The real Marat had a hideous appearance and was obliged to take frequent baths because of a severe skin infection. David had to portray Marat in the most appealing way and not as an old, sick man with a terrible skin disease. Jacques-Louis David, The Death of Marat, 1793. Oil on canvas

David idealized him as a martyr struck down amid his labours for the common good of the people. Literal truth was unimportant in this deliberate act of propaganda. In this work, Marat is portrayed as a man who sacrificed his life for the people of his country. David could have indeed chosen to paint a glorious portrait of Marat, instead we see Marat in a bathtub, surrounded by poverty, inglorious and defenseless. David shows a young healthy man in a bathtub used as a desk. The simple composition is completed by an old wooden crate. The large background is plain and


dark to place the focus on the figure. Marat is slumped in the bath with his hand outstretched. It creates an atmosphere of tranquility and peace, and except for a bit of blood, does not relate to his violent death. The outstretched, hanging arm is similar to that of Christ in Michelangelo’s Pieta. David is suggesting that Marat sacrificed himself for the people just as Christ did. The turban around his head forms a type of halo and a light shines in a heavenly way on his face. The colours are muted in this moving work.

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WHO WAS INGRES? Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (29 August 1780 – 14 January 1867) was the successor of David’s style in the nineteenth century. He was profoundly respectful of the past and a guardian of academic convention against the rising Romanticism represented by his arch-rival, Delacroix.

Drawing includes three and a half quarters of the content of painting... Drawing contains everything, except the hue. - Ingres

Jean Auguste Ingres, The Grand Odalisque, 1814. Oil on canvas

During the 19th century Ingres was the successor of David’s style with his precise, cold works.The Grand Odalisque depicts a woman of a Turkish harem surrounded by luxurious accessories. While Ingres never travelled beyond France and Italy, his invented orientalism was shaped by widespread travel writing, international expositions, and the Napoleonic campaigns into Egypt and Syria. The

nude odalisque gazes over her shoulder directly at the viewer. Many of her lavish trappings such as turbans and peacock fans were regarded as high fashion in European courts. Although the exotic subject matter would also be favoured by the Romanticists, his handling of smooth surfaces, clearly defined shapes and emphasis on precise drawing places him in Neo-classicism.

In the 1970s, the Grand Odalisque got singled out in a famous poster by the activist feminist group, the Guerilla Girls who stuck a gorilla head on her to protest the Metropolitan Museum hanging too many female nudes and not enough female artists.

Glossary An odalisque was an enslaved woman or concubine in a Turkish harem (the separate private living areas for women, both wives and concubines.)

Orientalism is a term used for the imitation and depiction of Eastern cultures in the West. Exotic is something that is strikingly different and foreign. Often it suggests distant countries and unfamiliar cultures. It is different and unusual. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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1.1

Complete in your V.C.S. workbook.

Jacques-Louis David, Madame de Recamier, 1800. Oil on canvas

In a paragraph discuss why this is a typical Neo-Classicist work. Use the following characteristics of Neo-Classicism to guide your discussion: • Objective • Classical influences • Calm, static pose • Balanced composition • Smooth application of paint • Hard, precise outlines and shapes See if you can find out who the sitter was.


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Introduction to the nineteenth century (1801 – 1900)

The 19th century was a century of invention and discovery in many fields and laid the groundwork for the technological advances of the 20th century. • The nineteenth century saw the rise of the British Empire, the German Empire, the United States and the Empire of Japan which led to many military conflicts, but also to advances in science and exploration. • The British Empire became the world’s leading power during the 19th century and controlled a quarter of the worlds’ population. • In the 19th century approximately 70 million people left Europe to settle mainly in the America’s, Australia and Africa. • Slavery was abolished. • The industrial revolution began in Europe which would lead to the replacement of manual labour by machine-based manufacturing. • The introduction of railroads and trains changed transportation and the way people lived and obtained goods for ever. • The Industrial Revolution led to urbanization with people leaving rural farming communities to work in the factories. This created enormous social problems with the establishment of slum areas. • European powers colonized large parts of the world, like Africa, in their search for raw materials and markets. • Many scientific and medical discoveries were made in the 19th century such as the first vaccine against rabies, the first periodical table for elements, etc. The term scientist was coined in 1833. • Many sports developed and were codified such as football and rugby. The British Empire facilitated the rapid spread of sports such as cricket to many different parts of the world.

Joseph Mallord William Turner, Rain, Steam and Speed – The Great Western Railway, 1844. Oil on canvas. Turner felt exhilarated by the new sensation of speed, which the railways provided. During a storm, he stuck his head out of a carriage window to experience the full power of the elements.


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Six famous personalities of the 19th century Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was a French general who became emperor of France. He was a brilliant military strategist whose military and political might gripped Continental Europe but failed to encompass Great Britain. He was ultimately defeated at Waterloo (1815) and exiled for life to the island of St. Helena. His codification of laws, the Napoleonic Code, still forms the basis of French civil law.

Karl Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) developed the socio-political theory of Marxism. He wrote the Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital with his friend, Friederich Engels. His ideas and the ideology of Marxism began to exert a major influence on socialist movements shortly after his death.

Charles Darwin (12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) who in 1859 published the book, The Origin of Species, which introduced the idea of evolution by natural selection.

Florence Nightingale (12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) laid the foundation of professional nursing. She was dubbed “The Lady with the Lamp” after her habit of making rounds at night during her pioneering work in nursing during the Crimean War. Thomas Edison (February 11, 1847 – October 18, 1931) was an American inventor, scientist, and businessman who developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion camera and the light bulb.

Queen Victoria (24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) Her reign of 67 years in Britain was known as the ‘Victorian era’, a period of industrial, cultural, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire.


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THE FRENCH ART SYSTEM IN THE 19TH CENTURY The French Academy of Art was founded in 1648 by Cardinal Richelieu and dominated the production of French art until the end of the 19th century. The Salon was the bi-annual official exhibition of artworks in the Louvre. It was open to all artists whose work the jury, consisting of members of the Academy, approved. There were no other public exhibitions. During the 19th century the Salon exhibitions became extensive and important shows in which thousands of works were hung and thousands were rejected. The Salon opened during the first week in May. Admission was one franc, well within the means of working people. As a result, the appreciation for Salon artwork cut across all social classes, as movies do today. Most of the leading French artists of the 19th century participated in the Salon. Success at the salon could secure an artist’s reputation and led to profitable state commissions. (The Salon of 1855 devoted a room each to Delacroix and Ingres, each receiving grand medals of honour.)

Daumier, A satirical cartoon showing a rush of people at the Salon, 1852.

The most prestigious form of academic art was ‘history painting’, which included classical, religious, mythological, literary, and allegorical subjects. Genre painting, portraiture, still-life and landscape were subjects that followed in popularity. The Ecole des beaux-Arts (School of Fine Arts) in Paris was the most influential art school during 19th century French art. Studios, models and classes were available to students, but the teaching became increasingly boring and uninspiring. The style was modeled on the classical civilizations where students had to copy plaster casts from the classical period. All students were required to prove their skills with basic drawing tasks before advancing to figure drawing and painting. It became like a factory, producing art for public taste with historical scenes, pretty nude studies, sentimental narrative and heroic works. Many of the famous French artists such as Delacroix, Ingres and Gericault were however trained there.

Honoré Daumier, Critics


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ACADEMIC ART During the late 19th century, the conservative Academy, became the centre of opposition to all new ideas in art, so that the term ‘academic’ in art has became synonymous with dullness, conventionality and prejudice. Academic artists favoured a detailed finish which appeared naturalistic even from close-up, as opposed to the experiments of Romanticism, Realism and Impressionism.

Thomas Couture, The Romans of the Decadence, 1844 – 47. Oil on canvas. This huge painting caused a sensation at the Salon. Jean-Léon GérÔme, A Roman Slave Market, 1884. Oil on canvas.


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Romanticism

“Romanticism is precisely situated neither in choice of subject nor in exact truth, but in a way of feeling.” - Charles Baudelaire, 1846 Background Romanticism was a many-sided movement that took many forms and manifested in most branches of art. Romanticism, first defined as an aesthetic in literary criticism around 1800, gained momentum as an artistic movement in France, Britain and other European countries in the early decades of the nineteenth century and flourished until the mid-19th century. With its emphasis on the imagination and emotion, Romanticism emerged as a response to the disillusionment with reason and order in the aftermath of the French Revolution of 1789. Romanticism was a movement celebrating individualism, the power of the imagination and the emotions. Important figures associated with Romanticism are Goethe, Beethoven, Wagner (Germany) Keats and Byron (England). CHARACTERISTICS Romanticism covers a wide range of subjects and a diversity of styles that resist a simple classification. It was an anti-establishment movement characterized by ambiguity, complexity, and uncertainty. Romantic artists honoured individualism over convention. They experimented with new subject matter, compositions, and techniques in order to discover visual means that effectively communicated their personal ideas and experiences. Romanticism was a shift away from reason towards feeling and imagination. It was a highly imaginative and subjective approach filled with emotional intensity and a dream-like or visionary quality. The Romantics asserted the importance of the individual, the unique and even the eccentric.

Casper, David Friedrich, Wanderer above the Sea of Fog, 1822. Oil on canvas

According to Romantic theory, art was valuable not so much as a mirror of the external world, but as a source of illumination of the world within. Emphasis on the activity of the imagination was accompanied by greater emphasis on the importance of intuition, instincts, and feelings. Romantics generally called for greater attention to the emotions as a necessary supplement to purely logical reason. Romanticism is usually seen as the opposite of Neo-Classicism. Neo-Classicism favoured restraint with ideals of clarity and order. Romanticism preferred boldness and free experimentation with the idea of the artist as an ‘inspired’ creator, rather than just a technical maker.


28 SUBJECT MATTER Romanticism includes a wide range of subject matter that includes the following: • The expression of the EMOTIONAL DRAMA of a moment. • ‘EXOTIC’ themes from other countries that are filled with action, e.g. Orientalism. • An affinity with nature and its wild, unpredictable and mysterious aspects. • PORTRAITS became vehicles for showing psychological and emotional states. Portraits were traditionally records of individuals. Portraits now became vehicles for expressing a range of psychological and emotional states in the hands of Romantic painters. Gericault probed the extremes of mental illness in his portraits of psychiatric patients. He also probed the darker side of childhood in his unconventional portrayals of children.

Eugène Delacroix, Death of Sardanapalus, 1826. Oil on canvas

• LITERATURE, such as the novels of Sir Walter Scott, the poetry of Lord Byron, and the drama of Shakespeare, transported art to other worlds and eras. • In their subject matter INDIVIDUAL CREATIVITY was important as it showed passion and inner struggles and the imagination to evoke awe or passion. • COMPOSITION: Compositions were often based on dramatic diagonal lines filled with drama and movement i.e. dramatic compositions. • SHAPES: Open shapes with the emphasis on colour and brushstrokes were used in reaction to the strong outlines of NeoClassicism. • APPLICATION: The artist is emotionally involved with his work. A very painterly style developed which was filled with brushstrokes and free shapes in reaction to the formalism of Neo-Classicism. • COLOUR: Rich colours were used. Romanticism can be described as an emotional and dramatic style with the emphasis on the individual, imagination, self-expression, spontaneity and feelings.


Theodore Gericault, Woman suffering from obsessive envy, 1822. Oil on canvas

Glossary

Subjective is not objective, but based on

one’s opinions or feelings, rather than facts or evidence. It represents a personal view.

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In Western art there is always an interaction between Formalism and Expressionism, the mind and the heart - order versus chaos and/or intellect versus emotion. Often both these tendencies are represented in an artwork. FORMALISM

EXPRESSIONISM

Intellectual art, the arrangement of the formal elements (colour, shape, line, etc.) is important.

The expression of emotions and ideas by the distortion of colour and line.

Cool, objective style

Emotional and personal

Calm, symmetric, simple

Theatrical and complex

Clear shapes

Shapes flow into each other suggesting movement

Neat and precise painting style

Painterly style

NEO-CLASSICISM

ROMANTICISM

Spanish Romanticism WHO WAS GOYA? Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (30 March 1746 – 16 April 1828) was one of the great individualistic painters of the 18th and 19th century and painted in different styles, although some of his most important works are considered to be great examples of Romanticism. Goya was a court painter to the Spanish Crown, and through his works was both a commentator on and chronicler of his era. His career spanned a period of 60 years and he continuously re-invented himself. In 1792 Goya contracted a serious illness that left him totally deaf and it marked a turning point in his career. A mood of pessimism entered his work. Goya made a great etching series Los Caprichos full of satirical humor that mocked the social conditions of his time. His passionate humanity speaks uncensored through these works. In maybe the most famous plate from Los Caprichos, The sleep of Francisco de Goya, The sleep of reason produces monsters, shows a self-portrait of the artist with reason produces monsters, 1799. Etching and aquatint his head on a table. It seems as if the surrounding owls (symbols of madness) and bats (symbols of ignorance) are attacking him. It can be interpreted as what emerges when reason is suppressed, but could also represent the unleashing of imagination, emotion and even nightmares. The sleeping artist is beset by nightmarish visions. (Owls are usually seen as symbols of wisdom, but here they are birds of ill-omen, death and the night.) VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

30 In 1808 Napoleon’s troops invaded Spain and deposed the Spanish king. For five years the Spanish people struggled for their freedom. In secret, Goya started to work on a series of prints, Disasters of war that represented the brutality and horror of war more savagely than ever before. In these works Goya showed the inhumanity of man during war. In the series war turns men into beasts. There are no heroes or glory, just pain, suffering and death. These works are a timeless symbol of the contradiction between good and evil, light and dark, life and death. In these works the victims were always common people. He did not create traditional depictions of battles, but showed shootings, rape, piles of corpses, hangings, people fleeing in horror, starving and wounded. The perpetrators became the victims and the victims became the perpetrators. Goya’s depiction of torture and complex psychological states transformed the unspeakable into subjects fit for art. These prints were only printed after Goya’s death. In these prints light and shade provide his means for showing the truth. The line not only defines shapes, but rather scratches them into existence. The unflinching depictions of war in this series have often led the series to be compared to modern war photography. (See also Goya’s The Third of May, 1808, 1818, in the Grade 10 Visual Arts Textbook.)

Francisco de Goya, And they were beasts, Disasters of War no.5, 1812 – 1814. Etching and aquatint In this work women with children in their arms throw themselves upon their opponents.

Francisco de Goya, And no help came, Disasters of War no.15, 1812 – 1814. Etching and aquatint French soldiers frequently executed rebellious peasants. Goya adapted a similar composition in the Third of May, 1808.

Jake and Dino Chapman, Great deeds against the dead, 1994. Mixed media This work is a sculptural interpretation of Goya’s etching. A life-size hanging tree is hung with dismembered mannequins. An early piece by these British brothers consisted of eightythree scenes of torture and disfigurement similar to those recorded by Goya’s The Disasters of War, rendered into small three-dimensional plastic models. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Francisco de Goya, Great deeds! With corpses!, Disasters of War no.39, 1812 – 1814. Etching and aquatint Hideously mauled, the corpses of three men have been left on the barren plain. We do not know if these men are French or Spanish. The suffering of these men is meaningless.

31 In later life Goya bought a house, called Quinta del Sordo (“Deaf Man’s House”), and painted many unusual paintings on canvas known as his ‘black paintings’. These works were originally painted in fresco on the walls of his home and are now transferred to canvas. Painted predominantly in blacks, browns and grays, they attest to his progressively darkening mood due to his deafness. Saturn devouring one of his sons (1820 – 22) was created in brushstrokes of a hitherto unimagined ferocity. This work depicts the Greek myth of Saturn who, fearing that he would be overthrown by his children, ate each one upon their birth. Goya depicts Saturn feasting upon one of his sons. His child’s head and part of the left arm have already been consumed. As he looms from the darkness, Saturn is on the point of taking another bite from the left arm; his mouth gapes and his eyes bulge white with the appearance of madness - a man driven mad by the act of killing his own son. The only other brightness in the picture comes from the white flesh, the red blood of the corpse, and the white knuckles of Saturn as he digs his fingers into the back of the body. His piercing eyes, are wide with madness. Various interpretations of the meaning of the picture have been offered: the conflict between youth and old age, time as the devourer of all things, the wrath of God and an allegory of the situation in Spain, where the fatherland consumed its own children in wars and revolution. Goya never intended the picture for public exhibition. He probably had little interest in explaining its significance. It has been said that the painting is “essential to our understanding of the human condition in modern times”. As a macabre joke, Goya painted it on his dining room wall.

Francisco de Goya, Saturn Devouring his children, 1820 – 23. Oil on plaster, transferred to CANVAS.

The Colossal (c. 1815), is another example of his series created showing the freedom of selfexpression. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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The South African artist, Diane Victor’s Disasters of Peace (2001 - ) is an ongoing series of etchings. Her initial idea and inspiration for these images came from the print series “The Disasters of War” by Goya. It portrays the suffering, submission and domination endured by the citizens of the ‘new’ South Africa and addresses various socio-political issues. According to Victor: “The images I am working with are taken from our daily media coverage of recent and almost commonplace happenings in newspapers, on TV and on radio of social and criminal acts of violence and ongoing unnecessary deaths occurrences so frequent that they no longer raise an outcry from our public, yet they still constitute disaster in peacetime.” The work below is also known under the title, Glue Boys. Write a paragraph on this work by: • Describing the scene. Where does it take place? Who are the figures in this work? • Discussing the composition and style of the work. • Giving your opinion on the inclusion of the little figures running on the left of the print. Of what do they remind you? • Explaining why this is a ‘disaster of peace’ by discussing possible interpretations and meanings the work.

Diane Victor, Glue Boys, From the Disasters of Peace series, 2006 – 8. Etching


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French Romanticism WHO WAS GERICAULT? Jean-Louis André Théodore Géricault (26 September 1791 – 26 January 1824) became one of the pioneers of French Romanticism. He died at a young age.

“With the brush we merely tint, while the imagination alone produces colour” Theodore Gericault

This painting was enormously important as a symbol of Romanticism in art. The raft carried survivors from a French naval ship, which sank on route to West Africa in 1816. The captain and senior officers took to the lifeboats and left a makeshift raft for the 150 passengers and crew. During 13 days adrift in the Atlantic, all but 13 died. In this work it is death in the most terrible conditions that is the theme. Long drawn out anguish and torture, are experienced without nobility or privacy. The drama is all in the physical details. Colour is avoided as too trivial and too joyous for such a scene. There is no space for the viewer in which to escape the impact of that rough triangle of the raft. It is a tragic confrontation between man and nature. The composition results in a pyramidal surge of agonized figures, rising higher than the threatening sea and it culminates in two men waving garments against the clouds. Theodore Gericault, The Raft of Medusa, 1818 – 19.Oil on canvas

WHO WAS DELACROIX?

“Delacroix was passionately in love with passion, but coldly determined to express passion as clearly as possible.” – Charles Baudelaire Eugène Delacroix (26 April 1798 – 13 August 1863) was a leader of French Romanticism. He is known for his expressive brushstrokes and his study of the optical effects of colour that shaped the work of the Impressionists. He used dramatic themes and travelled to North Africa in search of the exotic. Delacroix was the prime example of a Romantic painter – solitary, moody, inexhaustibly imaginative and profoundly emotional. In his painting style he was influenced by Constable’s Haywain. During the July Revolution of 1830 in France, Delacroix decided ‘to paint for my country’. Liberty is portrayed as a majestic woman with the flag and gun, leading the people against the king’s soldiers. The heroic people of Paris like the street boy with his pistols, the worker with his sword and the intellectual with his top hat, surround her. The Notre Dame is visible in the background. The dead figures in the front form the basis of the triangular composition. With Delacroix the French Romanticism came into its own – his accent was on violent movement, intense emotion, free brush strokes and use of colour. Delacroix had a profound influence on the Impressionists with his use of the enriching quality of complimentary colours and by banishing black from his palette while using violets and greens for shadows.

Delacroix was a true Romantic artist with his exotic subjects, vibrant colors, and display of emotion. His bright and beautiful colours inspired artists around him. He illustrates swirling emotional subjects in his works such as death, agony, love, life or battle.

Eugene Delacroix, Liberty leading the people, 1830. Oil on canvas


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The context of this work is the slaughter by the Turks of the Greek islanders from Chios during the Greek War of Independence. Explain how Delacroix interpreted this event to create a Romantic masterpiece. Use the following characteristics of Romanticism to guide your discussion: • Emotional drama • Exotic themes • Dramatic composition • Emphasis on colour and brushstrokes • Painterly style Eugéne Deacroix, The Massacre at Chios, 1824. Oil on canvas

English Romanticism The landscape suffused with Romantic feeling became the chief expression of the English Romanticism. The landscape was for the first time seen as a suitable subject and not only as a background.

WHO WAS CONSTABLE? John Constable (11 June 1776 – 31 March 1837) was an English romantic painter known principally for his landscape paintings of Dedham vale, the area around his home.

“The sound of water escaping from mill dams etc., willows, old rotten planks, slimy posts, and brickwork, I love such things. These scenes made me a painter.” John Constable

John Constable, The Haywain, 1821. Oil on canvas VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

35 Constable was the first major artist to work in the open air seeing all the different atmospheric effects in colour. When asked which green to use for grass, he replied ‘all the greens’. He used small touches of pure white to give a spark of freshness to his work. (Constable’s snow) He painted this painting in his London studio, using his diary sketches and oil studies as reference material. This work shows the quiet charm of rural England in an informal and unconventional composition. It is more them just a painting of a cottage, wagon and animals. Constable was more concerned with the intangible qualities – sky, light and atmosphere. The sky to him was the key note. The clouds sweep by full of light and colour, and their shadows and the sunlight dapple the field with green and gold. As the stream ripples, it mirrors now the trees, now the sky, breaking blues and greens into many separate hues. Constable’s subjective, highly personal view of nature accords with the individuality that is a central tenet of Romanticism.

WHO WAS TURNER?

“Turner has outdone himself; he seems to paint with tinted steam, so

evanescent and so airy.”– John Constable on Turner

Joseph Mallord William Turner (23 April 1775–19 December 1851) was an English Romantic painter. Turner was considered a controversial figure in his day, but is now regarded as the artist who elevated landscape paintings to an eminence. Although renowned for his oil paintings, Turner is also one of the greatest masters of British watercolour landscape painting. He is commonly known as “the painter of light”. Turner was one of the most exceptional painters of his time. He loved the most extreme effects of storms, avalanches, fires and sunsets as they were melodramatic and catastrophic. Man is small and insignificant in his battle with the titanic forces of natures. Turner was occupied with turning the atmospheric effects of light and colour into a vortex in which all distinct objects are dissolved. Turner watched the warship, the Temaraire, which had fought heroically in the battle of Trafalgar, being towed by a streamer in the midst of a great blazing sunset. She was on her way to the wrecker’s yard to be broken up for scrap. The silver white of the doomed Temaraire endows the ship with a ghostly majesty. But the black tug, belching flame and soot, appears evil. The choice of colour contrasts the declining days of sail with a new era of steam. The glorious colours of this painting are carefully contrived to heighten the emotional impact. The blazing sunset is symbolic, not just of an era coming to its end, but of bloodshed. The right hand corner is also darker, to symbolize the future of the Temeraire.

William Turner, The fighting Temeraire, 1839. Oil on canvas

In his lifetime Turner was often mocked by critics for his “unintelligible chaos of colour,” “yellow fever” and seas that looked “... like soap and chalk.” Some critics accused him of painting with a mop!


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During Romanticism the landscape was for the first time seen as a suitable subject matter and not only as a background to figures.

Casper David Friederich, Abbey in an Oak Forest, 1809 – 1810. Oil on canvas

By referring to the visual sources, write a short essay (about one page) on the landscape in Romanticism by discussing the following: • Reasons why you think these artists turned to the landscape as subject. • The different aspects of the landscape each of them focused on. • Similarities and/or differences in their styles and techniques. • The role of the human figure in their works. • Possible interpretations of these works. • Which one do you prefer? Give reasons for your choice. John Constable, White horse, 1821. Oil on canvas

Turner, The Slave Ship, 1840. Oil on canvas


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Pre-Raphaelites c1848 – c1910

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was founded in 1849 by a group of English painters including William Hunt, John Everett Millais and D.G. Rossetti. Their intentions were to create art that was appropriate for their modern age and to re-capture the honest simplicity of early Italian painters who had flourished before Raphael, hence ‘PreRaphaelite’. They took a lot of themes from the middle ages, literature and often focused on a moral lesson in their works.

Willam Holman Hunt, The Light of the World, 1854. Oil on canvas

Dante Gabriel Rosetti, Proserphine, 1874. Oil on canvas

John Millais, Ophelia, 1851 – 2. Oil on canvas VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Realism c1850 - 1900

BACKGROUND Realism was a reaction to the highly subjective approach of Romanticism which they felt was out of touch with everyday reality. The Realist strived towards truth and accuracy. This tendency to depict everyday reality also found expression in theater, literature and opera of the time. The emphasis was on the depiction of everyday subjects in social criticism of the plight of the poor. CHARACTERISTICS • Realism was in pursuit of truth in art and a total rejection of idealization. It should not be confused with naturalism –whereby art should closely resemble the natural world. Realists believed that art should be true to appearances without any idealisation or stylisation. This meant that the Realists often portrayed the ugly, the dark side and the suffering of humans.

• Subject matter: The Realists wanted to depict the life, conditions and hardships of the contemporary citizens, more notably the poor of society, the working class and peasants, who suffered in poverty. It was a description of simple life and a critical view of the social structures. Many paintings which sprung up during the time of realism depicted people at work, usually doing ‘unglamorous’ jobs. • Composition: Often like a scene from an ongoing scene. • Shapes: Shapes are clearly defined. • Application: Brushstrokes are often visible. • Colour: Preference for somber, earth colours that suited their themes. • Realism is the portrayal of the ugly, dark side of life and the suffering of people. The general theme is of the working class and labourers.

WHO WAS COURBET?

“Show me an angel, “and I will paint one.” – Courbet Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet (10 June 1819 – 31 December 1877) was a French painter who led the Realist movement in 19th-century French painting. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th century French painting as an innovator and as an artist willing to display bold social commentary in his work.

Courbet, The Stone breakers, 1849. Oil on canvas


The paintings of Courbet often provoked a storm of protest at the Salon. Scenes of rural life were expected to be small and picturesque. His peasant pictures were large in scale and focused on the hardship of working conditions. In this work two men are engaged in stone breaking as a means to survive. Courbet stated that this painting was inspired by an old man and young boy working on the roads. He felt their poverty. He placed the two figures in the foreground and the viewer feels their backbreaking hard work. His palette is somber with a dominance of browns. Lights and darks converge abruptly along the edges of simplified planes and he creates a surface richness from the way he uses his pigments. Many

39 of his contemporaries thought his work to be crude. He does not try to seduce the viewer with any tricks or idealization, but captures a ‘real’ event in simple, direct painting. He often used a palette knife to place large daubs of paint which give his surface a rough surface. This painting also addresses the social injustices of the time and Courbet was influenced by socialist ideas concerning the plight of the peasants. Through his honest depiction of the lives of peasants, he shocked and enraged critics. He exposed their poverty in a real way and did not try to soften it by giving it a moralistic message. Courbet’s The Stonebreakers shows two unidentifiable men who are not ancient heroes but are laboured under the weight of the stones, worn-out, as if on the brink of collapsing to the ground. Courbet’s The Stonebreakers can also be seen as defiance of the status quo of art and its desire to revolutionise nineteenth century art. Courbet was politically and socially a radical artist leading the nineteenth century society towards a new social order.

WHO WAS MILLET? Jean-François Millet (October 4, 1814 – January 20, 1875) was a French painter and one of the founders of the Barbizon School in rural France. Millet is noted for his scenes of peasant farmers. Millet was associated with a group of landscape and figure painters known as the ‘Barbizon School’ who worked in the forest of Fontainebleau, near the town of Barbizon. In this work Millet depicted three peasant women performing the back-breaking task of gleaning the last wheat scraps. One of the women Jean-FranÇois Millet, The Gleaners, 1857. Oil on canvas is walking with her body bent forward from the hips and her face intent on the ground, searching for an ear. Another woman holds a handful of wheat behind her back and is doubled forward over the ground reaching down. The third, stooping still lower and resting her hand full of wheat on one knee is in the act of grasping. These women were members of the lowest level of peasant society. Millet placed his monumental figures in the foreground, against the flat, dull landscape and sky. He gave a dignity, strength and beauty to these simple peasant women. Millet’s work is distinguished by an absolute truthfulness to Nature which was the guiding principle of his life. He saw the peasant bent at his work in the fields, and he pictured him in all his gaunt poverty and weariness, while he invested him, by his inspired vision, with the symbolic dignity of labour. Thus, in painting life, Millet reveals the inspirational in the commonplace, the promise hidden in the pain, and the mercy that hovers over sorrow.

WHO WAS DAUMIER? Honoré Daumier (February 26, 1808 – February 10, 1879) was a French painter, caricaturist and printmaker, whose many works offer commentary on the social and political life in France in the 19th century. Daumier was one of the greatest satirical drawers in history known for his cartoons and caricatures. This was due to the HonorÉ Daumier, The Third Class Carriage, 1862 – 63. invention of lithography in the 19de century. He mercilessly lampooned the misbehaviour of people in power and even spent six months in jail. He was also an impressive painter. In this unfinished work he used light and dark to create a dramatic portrayal of an everyday scene. It is a striking documentation of his time and the new reality of public transport and the urban poor. Daumier gave us one of the first glimpses into modern society and its social realities. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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This work caused a scandal at the French Salon, because it portrayed in life-size a burial of ordinary people in Courbet’s village. What were the aims of Realism in art? Did Courbet succeed in achieving these aims in this work? Give reasons for your answer by referring to the stilistic characteristics of this work.

Gustave Courbet, A Burial at Ornans, 1849. Oil on canvas

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Symbolism c1885 - 1910

Symbolism emerged as a reaction to Realism and Impressionism, because the Symbolists felt they ignored the imagination and emotions. They wanted to paint pictures that evoke certain moods and feelings. Symbolism was also a strong trend in literature. The symbolist painters used mythological and dream imagery for a visual language of the soul. They painted scenes from nature, human activities, and other real world phenomena in a highly metaphorical and suggestive manner. They provided particular images and objects with esoteric attractions.

Gustave Moreau, The Apparition, c 1876. Oil on canvas


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Arnold Böcklin, The Island Of the Dead, 1886. Oil on canvas

Puvis de Cahavannes, Young Girls on the Edge of the Sea, 1878. Oil on canvas

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Relating to South African art

The South African artists chosen in relation to Neo-Classicism, Romanticism and Realism do not always reflect all the characteristics of the movements. There are aspects that relate in terms of subject matter and in some instances, characteristics of style.

DURANT SIHLALI Sihlali started drawing during his childhood. He attended classes at Polly Street, received guidance from a variety of established artists and went on two study tours to Europe. The experience of township life was his main source of subject matter. In the watercolour painting Race Against Time Sihlali shows the viewer an event that he and the residents of that area experienced on a specific day in Soweto in 1973. This watercolour documents the Durant Sihlali. Race Agaist Time. 1973. Watercolour on Paper. degrading effects of the decisions of the Apartheid government. The socio-political circumstances that resulted from forced removals are an important aspect of the scenes recorded by Sihlali during his life time. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

42 As in Race Against Time, Sihlali’s other watercolour paintings show that he developed a personal style. The expressive calligraphic brushmarks and soft colours may be associated with a romanitcised view of life. The emphasis of the beauty of the flowing watercolours and blurred shapes are aspects characteristic of Romanticism. Sihlali’s direct approach to the subject matter that surrounded him presents us as viewers with the truth of daily reality, normally associated with Realism. In this watercolour the dusty explosions caused by the bright yellow bulldozer wrecking the fragile home, and chaotic debris of planks and bricks dominate the foreground of the scene. Shilali recounts the day of his interaction with the township manager in Pimville. He gave Sihalali the impression that he wanted to show off how quickly he could destroy the home. For Sihlali the creation of this record of the destructive event was “a race against time”. He completed the painting by the time the house was demolished.The process of painting, in this case, can be compared to taking a photograph, but then Sihlali’s signature of broken brushstrokes, fragmented surfaces and crumbling edges enhances the documentary aspect of the work. Through his eyes we can see the fragility of the modern urban environment in apartheid South Africa.

Durant Sihlali, Dawn in Soweto, 1978.

Other artworks by Sihlali include the following: Durant Sihlali, Burning old clothes, 1964.

Durant Sihlali, Fog in Soweto – old Pimville, 1972.

DUMILE FENI Born in Worcester in the Western Cape this artist’s talent was recognised during his early twenties when he was recovering in a Johannesburg hospital after contracting tuberculosis. He was encouraged and helped by artists such as Cecil Skotnes and Bill Anislie. Dubbed “the Goya of the Townships” his work shows his sensitivity and emotional response to the circumstances of the community in which he lived. In many of his works the havoc caused by the system of political oppression is the dominating theme. His subconscious and emotional reaction is reflected in his depictions of the human condition under these circumstances. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Dumile (Feni) Mhlaba. African Guernica. No date. Charcoal on paper.

43 In the work African Guernica the relation to Picasso’s anti-war statement is in the portrayal of the scattered and bewildered humans and animals subjected to circumstances enforced by man. Feni’s work focusses on evoking compassion and pity for the ongoing degrading social circumstances of people in black townships in South Africa while Picasso exposed the cruelty of war by drawing attention to the invasion of a small defenceless town in Spain. As in Picasso’s Guernica, Feni’s figures in the charcoal drawing show some form of emotion through their facial expressions, postures and gestures. Feni’s distinctive style of distortion emphasises the state of agitation experienced by the people. The disjointed and layered placement of the figures within the composition contributes to the chaotic view of circumstances relayed according to Dumile Feni’s thoughts and feelings. The composition lacks perspective and depth as the figures are not portrayed within a realistic setting. The figures are floating in the dark space of the square format without regard to size according to realistic three-dimensionality. Some of the figures are more dominant than others and can be interpreted as being in front as they are lighter than the more obscured figures in the background. There are a variety of groups of figures and single figures that are separate from each other, further emphasising the lack of unity in this artwork as well as the symbolic circumstances of the community. The two dominant figures on the cows display cartoonlike exaggerated despair and can be seen as symptomatic of the madness caused by living under these conditions. By giving one of the figures standing on the cows three legs, he distorts him into a dehumanized monster screaming in agony. To the left of the bottom of the composition a white collared preacher gesticulates with nobody listening. Next to him a cow tramples a small baby who is still trying to drink milk from the cow. This image can be interpreted in more than one way. The abandoned baby is a symbol of all the urbanized black children left alone by their working mothers. It can also be seen as an image of longing back to the days of pastoral existance where cows were an important part of daily and spiritual life. The inclusion of the cows, fowls and birds refers to African ritual animals. The inferior state of being that the people are submitted to through urbanisation and the accompanying apartheid system is implied in the way the humans and animals relate to each other in this drawing. This state of degradation is further emphasised by the two figures huddling together at the top. They seem to be smoking to forget their immediate reality. A jazz musician without an audience blows his trumpet right next to the preacher. In the dark background a reference to a loss of moral values is seen in the figure of a woman lifting up her dress. In this work Feni refers to immediate visual realties using his expressive style of portraying figures. By combining it in this scattered manner he evokes a feeling of chaos and disintegration that is also a prediction of more violence to come due to the circumstances. Other artworks by Dumile Feni include the following:

Dumile Feni, Fear

Dumile Feni, Figures with child, 1967 – 8.

Dumile Feni, the Ogre, 1965. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

44

PAUL EMSLEY When one looks at Paul Emsley’s triptych (three piece art work) one can immediately recognise the drama and emotion of Romanticism.

Paul Emsley. The visit: Arrival, The Life and The Time, Departure. 1987. Conte and chalk on paper.

Paul Emsley displays a moody, dramatic sky very reminiscent of Romanticist art. Before the subject matter is even investigated the viewer is aware of a dark disturbing atmosphere. He has used conte chalk in this triptych and this medium successfully creates an evocative interplay of dark areas and light focus points. The technique also endorses the feeling of something that is transitory which Emsley employed to interpret his subject matter. The title, The Visit, refers to the white man’s sojourn in southern Africa as well as to the religious term “visitation”. In the first panel the awkwardness of the figure suggests the apprehension of the white man entering Africa. In the middle panel Emsley uses Velasquez’s dwarf to symbolize the darker side of reality. A crucifixion further develops this idea of suffering in a land where all is not well. A caspir, a burning township, a lonely bride and a sleeping dog that takes no note of the circumstances around him, all appear to the viewer through dark smoke and cloud. As in Romanticism, symbolism plays an important role. The third panel seems to represent death under an explosive sky. There is a hovering helicopter symbolising evacuation. Figures crowd around a body on a stretcher and a naked foot stretches lifelessly into the dark. There are many themes and sub-themes, incidents and cross references to be investigated in this work.


45

8

Practical Assessment task

In this collage with painting about the concentration camps during World war II, the following is asked:

Walking away from Changing someone’s life… Saving someone’s life… Would you be able to do it? Art might not change the world in an obvious way, but artists have always used their artworks to reveal and to visually communicate the scars in their respective societies. Art makes us aware of things that are wrong and this ‘voice’ can lead to a change for the better.

Page from a learner’s source book

In this chapter you have seen the powerful voice of sociallycommitted art such as Goya’s. The Third of May, 1808. Although illustrating a specific event in Spanish history, it has become a universal symbol of man’s inhumanity and intolerance to his fellow man. We have also seen how Diane Victor in her Disasters of Peace-series addresses issues such as poverty, abuse, etc.

Francisco de Goya, Third of May, 1808 (Detail), 1815. Oil on canvas

The challenge for the socially committed artist is to not only express his/her opinion, but to do it in an aesthetic way and not to fall into mere propaganda.


46

Theme: SCARS IN SOCIETY

CT I VI T

K

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1.6

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What would you see as the ‘scars’ in our society today? You may think of South Africa or consider more international scars. Would it be HIV AIDS, poverty, child abuse, crime, famine, the situation in the Middle East, or any other issue?

CE BO

- Your teacher will guide this activity.

Start with your SOURCE BOOK

The following are a few options to investigate in your source book: • Look through a newspaper and cut out all headings or words in headings that speak of scars in our society. Notice especially how social and political circumstances have created “scars”. Paste these words into your sourcebook. • Write next to these the issues what they refer to e.g. poverty, child abuse, violence, crime, etc. • Research the work of three artists that express strong social issues in their work. • Decide on the scar/issue you want to address. Do some research on this issue, for instance look for statistics relating to this issue. Rework this research into your own words. • Make a mind map of your chosen ‘scar’. Think of ideas relating to this issue, as well as images, materials and techniques. • Start to make thumb nail sketches to investigate different ways to express your ideas. Remember to be creative and not to fall into cliché expressions. Develop your own images and symbols. • Do a final drawing to finalise your composition. • Document your thought processes in writing and/or visually for your final art work by considering choice of medium, style, composition, meaning, etc. You may consider using a variety of two-dimensional and/or three-dimensional media, newspaper cuttings, barbed wire, small objects, etc. Remember this is an artwork and the art elements, technique, style, etc. are as important as the message. • After you have finished this artwork, you must reflect in writing on this whole process.

THE BRIEF Your brief is to make a final artwork on the theme of a scar

in society.

Your art teacher will guide you in this process and may give you further instructions regarding the media, size, technique, etc. Complete your artwork under the guidance of your art teacher.


47 The following two learners both comment on poverty in South Africa, but make use of different images and techniques to comment on this issue.


48


49

CHAPTER

2

The birth of Modernism CONTENTS 1. Impressionism • Impressionism • Eduord Manet • Claude Monet • Edgar Degas • Women artists 2. Neo-Impressionism 3. August Rodin 4. Henri Toulouse-Lautrec 5. Post-Impressionism • Paul Cezanne • Vincent van Gogh • Paul Gauguin 6. Relating to South African art • Hugo Naude • George Pemba 7. Practical Assessment Task • Theme: ‘Viewfinder’


50

TIMELINE of the Nineteenth century It is often very difficult to give exact dates for movements. The following timelines give a broad indication of the duration of movements.

1750

1800

1825

1850

1875-1900

Neo-Classicism Romanticism Realism Impressionism

PostImpressionism

Symbolism

Pre-Raphaelites


51

1

Impressionism

France Approximately from the 1860’s to 1900’s

“The wonder of light” SALON DES REFUSES In 1863 only 2 800 of the 5 000 works presented to the Salon, were accepted. The scandal and protest over the number of works refused were so great that the Emperor, Napoleon III ordered a special exhibition of them, known as the Salon des Refuses – the Salon of the rejected. This was an important date in the history of painting as it started the break between academic and independent art. The power of the academy was broken and the avant-garde was born. In shock the public ridiculed the works at the Salon des Refuses. From then on the artists such as the Impressionists organised independent exhibitions. BACKGROUND The Salon des Refuses did not become a regular feature and in 1874 some of the rejected artists organized an alternative exhibition in the studio of the photographer, Nadar. The journalist and critic, Louis Leroy, wrote a biting review in which, making wordplay with the title of Claude Monet’s Impression, Sunrise, he gave the artists the name by which they would become known. Leroy declared that Monet’s painting was at most, a sketch, and could hardly be termed a finished work. The ‘Impressionists’ quickly gained favour with the public. The title was also accepted by the artists themselves because even though they were a diverse group in style and temperament they were unified by their spirit of independence and rebellion. They exhibited together—albeit with shifting membership—eight times between 1874 and 1886.

A contemporary cartoon warning of the dangers of viewing Impressionist paintings.

“Impression—I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it ... and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more finished than that seascape”. - Louis Leroy Claude Monet, Impression Sunrise, 1874. Oil on canvas


52 Impressionist artists include Eduard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas, Camille Pisarro, Alfred Sisley, Mary Cassatt and Berthe Morisot. THE CHANGING POSITION OF THE ARTIST During previous periods the artist was an integral part of society e.g. in the service of the nobility or the church. A change of patronage took place in the 19th century with the Industrial revolution. Money was now in the hands of the big capitalists. Often the typical capitalist was not keen to buy innovative art, but would rather buy safe imitations of old styles. The artist became increasingly alienated from society and had to struggle for economic survival. This led to the myth of the artist as an outsider, struggling for survival and only appreciated after his death, like Vincent van Gogh. By the mid-19th century the camera was developed – a cheaper and faster method of imitation. While to a certain extent it replaced certain functions of art, for instance documenting leaders and events, it also served as liberation for art. The artist was free to choose his own style of expression. This led increasingly to art-for-art’s-sake with the artist creating artworks for aesthetic reasons and to please himself/herself. Modern artists have the freedom to give expression to his/her ideas.

Glossary

AVANT-GARDE refers to artists who pioneer new approaches, styles or techniques in defiance of the establishment. The term derives from ‘vanguard’, meaning the leading unit in an army.

Influences on Impressionism The landscape Before Impressionism, landscape paintings were usually viewed by the Salon as of lesser importance. According to the traditionalists nature was not noble or permanent enough, unless it was reorganized to form an idealized landscape. Landscapes were usually combined with figures. • Constable was one of the first to break away from tradition and painted landscapes in pure colours with love and respect. • Romanticism influenced Impressionism with Claude Monet, Wild Poppies, 1873. Oil on canvas their avoidance of overworked paintings. They insisted that the artist is an individual and that • The dramatic and unpleasant industrialisation strengthened the appreciation of nature. he should search for new expression, even if it is • The time of the Impressionists was more against the accepted opinions. informal and everybody except the really • The Barbizon group had painted outside poor, spent more time outside. Sunday in the (en plein air) since 1827 and made precise countryside, open-air dances and cafés were a studies of changing light. This together with part of their daily lives. their use of small brushstrokes influenced the Impressionists.


53 Science and colour The Impressionists did not work according to scientific rules, but they must have known about some of the scientific discoveries from popular brochures. Chevreul, a French pharmacist, mainly influenced them. Colours in close proximity influence and change each other. A colour on its own seems to be surrounded by a vague halo of its complementary colour. From a distance two different colour threads show as one colour. The role of the camera By 1850 the camera was in common use. These early glass plate photos influenced the Impressionists by their blurred effect when moving objects were photographed. The Impressionists sometimes used photos as a base for their paintings. Often Impressionist paintings represent a simple spontaneous scene from everyday life (snapshot) and people and objects move out of the frame. In other words, the frame crops the scene. This is an important element in their work and heightens the spontaneity of the paintings. In earlier styles a planned, composed scene was painted. Like the camera, the Impressionists wanted to capture a moment in time. Photography inspired the Impressionists to represent momentary action, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but in the day-today lives of people. Auguste Renoir, Le Loge, 1974. Oil on canvas

Japanese prints By the 1860’s Japanese prints, which had come into France originally as wrapping paper for imported goods, reached the West and had a profound influence on artists. The art of these prints contributed significantly to the “snapshot” angles and unconventional compositions which would become characteristic of the style. These characteristics include the asymmetric composition (Degas), decorative colour areas (Toulouse-Lautrec) and the informal scenes of everyday life.

Example of a japanese print


54

Characteristics of Impressionism Themes The Impressionists painted everyday scenes. The approach of the Impressionists influenced their choice of subjects – sunlit streets and landscapes (often with water), flower gardens and open-air cafes with a few interior scenes. Characteristic of their work is “a joie-de-vivre” or joy of life. Colour and light The Impressionists worked outside, directly from nature. They learned new facts about light, colour and atmosphere. They tried to get pigment as close as possible to colour in sunlight. • They mixed colours as little as possible on their palettes, because mixed colours lose their brilliance. • They put blobs of colour next to each other so that an optical mixing takes place at a distance. (Colour mixes in the brain of the viewer, e.g. the optical mixing of violet and yellow results in a bright glowing pearl grey.) • They obtain brightness by putting complementary colours next to each other. This helped to portray the reflection of sunlight and created a sparkling brightness to their work. • There is no pure black in nature. In pure Impressionism the use of black paint is avoided. • The Impressionist palette mainly consisted of light colours; the only dark colours were indigo, dark green and violet. Grays and dark tones were produced by mixing complementary colours. Shadows are also portrayed in colour; usually the complimentary colour of yellow light, namely purple or a bluish violet • Light and shade were created by colour and not by black and white as in previous artworks. The fleeting moment The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and fleeting effects of sunlight by painting ‘en plein air’ (painting outside). This was partially due to the introduction of paint in tubes which, for the first time, enabled artists to carry all their studio equipment around in a case. They also found it necessary to paint outdoors because they were committed to observing the effects of light on colour in nature. The main goal of the


Auguste Renoir, Two Sisters, 1881. Oil on canvas

Impressionists was to create an immediate and faithful representation of a fleeting moment. Artists realized that reality does not lie in objective nature (trees, mountains etc.), but in the eyes of the viewer. Nothing is static – mornings, afternoons and evenings differ, and thus there are different realities. The Impressionists wanted to portray this reality (as the eye sees) of the ever changing moment. This influenced their way of working, outside, spontaneously and at speed. They showed the world, as we perceive it, as ever changing. The Impressionists sought to capture the atmosphere of a particular time of day or the effects of different weather conditions on the landscape. In order to capture these fleeting effects they had to work quickly. The boundary between subject and background became blurred. The effect of an Impressionist painting often resembles a snapshot as a part of a larger reality.

55 Brushwork Their theories of colour use and the artist’s rapid painting techniques resulted in: • Short, visible, broken brushstrokes (divisionism), where every brushstroke is visible. This often resulted in much of the outline and detail being sacrificed. • Every colour is distinguishable but is mixed optically by the viewer. Colours are applied side-by-side with as little mixing as possible, creating a vibrant surface. • Paint is often applied impasto. Impressionism represents ordinary, everyday subject matter with emphasis placed on the accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities. This Detail, Renoir, Two sisters, 1881. Oil on canvas often accentuated the effects of the passage of time. The Impressionists painted the way one sees, a fleeting moment full of the reflections of light on surfaces. They have visible brush strokes resulting in optical mixing. They present open compositions which are often unusual. They represent a climax in the naturalistic tradition of portraying reality. However their paintings display loose shapes, a play of colour and brushstrokes which all introduced Modernism.

Impressionist painters WHO WAS MANET? Édouard Manet (1832–1883) was a French painter. He was one of the first 19th-century artists to approach modern-life subjects. He was a central figure in the transition from Realism to Impressionism. His early masterpieces such as Luncheon on the Grass and Olympia, caused great controversy and served as rallying points for the young painters who would create Impressionism. Today, these are considered watershed paintings that mark the birth of Modernism.

“There is only one true thing: instantly paint what you see. When you’ve got it, you’ve got it. When you haven’t, you begin again. All the rest is humbug. - Edouard Manet


56 Luncheon on the Grass: This painting by Manet is one of the most famous images from the nineteenth century. It was bitterly attacked by critics and the public during the Salon des Refuses. It portrays a woodland picnic that included a seated nude attended by fully dressed young men. The men seem to be engaged in conversation, ignoring the woman. In front of them, the woman’s clothes, a basket of fruit, and a round loaf of bread are displayed, as if in a still life. In the background a lightly clad woman bathes in a stream. She seems too large in comparison with the figures in the foreground and seems to float above them. The work shocked respectable people at the time, because it showed a contemporary nude lunching with two fully dressed men. The figures were familiar and included Manet’s favourite model as the nude as well as his brother. The depicting of nudity in a contemporary setting was considered immoral. Nudity in art was acceptable only if it was suitably distanced from real life, by being placed in a mythological context. A nude figure portrayed as Venus was accepted, but not a woman of the time. The roughly painted background lacks depth – giving the viewer the impression that the scene is not taking place outdoors, but in a studio. The style of the painting breaks with the academic traditions of the time. He did not try to hide the brush strokes and the painting looks unfinished in some parts of the scene. Manet, despite often being seen as a leader to the Impressionists and socialising with Monet, Renoir, Sisley and Pisarro, never abandoned his liberal use of black as a colour, and never participated in the Impressionist exhibitions. Although Manet shares many characteristics with Realism, he influenced the rest of the Impressionists with his radical use of strong, flat colour, broken brushwork, harsh natural lighting and the fresh appearance of his paintings. This is a visual manifestation of the right and freedom of the artist to choose whatever he wants for aesthetic effect. (The beginning of an art-for-art’s sake.) A bar at the Folies-Bergère: After 1870 Manet adopted the Impressionist palette and technique. His paintings became lighter, freer and more colourful. This is his final masterpiece in full Impressionistic style – a work unsurpassed in the 19th century for sheer richness and beauty of technique. A scene from contemporary life is shown as a fleeting moment. The Folies-Bergère was a Parisian nightclub with music, circus acts and other entertainment. The central figure, a barmaid, stands alone in the crowded room. The look on VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Eduard Manet, Luncheon on the grass (Le Dejèuner sur l’Herbe), 1862. Oil on canvas

How could the subject have been changed to make it acceptable?

57 her face is detached and she seems distracted from her job of serving at the bar in the vast crowded room which is reflected in the mirror behind her. This it is an ordinary barmaid busy working in a nightclub and not a goddess in an idealized landscape. The work is extremely interesting because of the giant mirror parallel to the surface that reflects the scene. This is a painting about light- direct and indirect. The only solid realities are the marble bar top and the bottles, a bowl of oranges and two flowers delicately placed in a vase. Everyone else in the painting is seen in the big bar mirror as the rapidly painted, harshly reflected faces and bodies. The mirror reflects a balcony with many people, a chandelier, lights and bottles. The girl looks into the eyes of the viewer, who by elimination is the man with the top hat reflected in the mirror. There is no attempt to make the image logical and there is an inconsistency in the relationship between the reflections in the mirror and the real things. This work is also interesting as one of the first artworks reflecting ‘modern life’ and in showing a woman in a ‘modern’ job with all its dullness and exploitation.

Can you find the witty inclusion of the feet of a trapeze artist? How many of the general characteristics of Impressionism can you apply to this work?

2 .1

Eduard Manet , A Bar at the Folies-Bergère, 1882. Oil on canvas


Manet’s Olympia was accepted at the 1865 Salon. It caused an outcry and was seen as an immoral painting completed in a sloppy and lazy manner. Manet wrote that “insults are pouring on me thick as hail”. The hit of the 1865 Salon was Cabanel’s Birth of Venus which was even bought by the Emperor of France. Alexandre Cabanel, Birth of Venus, 1863. Oil on canvas

Discuss why Olympia was such a shock to the public when compared to Cabanel’s Birth of Venus that was praised? You can consider the following in Olympia: • Subject matter • Technique • The relationship between the viewer and the nude (the gaze of Olympia) VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

58

WHO WAS MONET?

“For me, a landscape does not exist in its own right, since its appearance changes at any moment.” – Claude Monet Claude Monet (14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926) was a founder of French Impressionist painting, and the most consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement’s philosophy of expressing one’s perceptions of nature, especially as applied in plein-air landscape painting. The term Impressionism was derived from the title of his painting Impression, Sunrise.

CLAUDE MONET, ROUEN CATHEDRAL SERIES, 1892 -5. OIL ON CANVAS The Rouen Cathedral paintings are a series of more than thirty paintings made in 1892 and 1893, and then reworked in Monet’s studio in 1894. Monet rented spaces across the street from the cathedral, where he set up temporary studios for the purpose of painting this subject. When Monet painted the Rouen Cathedral series, he had long since been impressed with the way light imparts a distinctly different character to a subject at different times of the day and the year as atmospheric conditions change. He realized that light and intensity change nearly every second of the day. He painted the same scene over and over at different times of the day to show the changing atmospheric conditions. Every work is thus an impression of light and air according to a specific time of day. He shows the misty blue and gold touches of early morning and the purple-orange of the setting sun. Shape and line disappear and detail is ignored. To achieve the right atmosphere, he painted with speed and introduced a new dimension to art, namely time. Paint is applied in definite dots and small strokes. For these paintings, he used thick

Rouen Cathedral, Facade 1, 1892 - 4


Rouen Cathedral, the West Portal, Dull Weather, 1892

layers of richly textured paint, expressive of the intricate nature of the subject. Monet believed that a colour did not belong to any object, but to the instance of visual experience. “When you go out to paint, try to forget what objects you have in front of you, a tree, a field … Merely think, here is a little square of blue, here an oblong of pink, here a streak of yellow, and paint it just as it looks to you, the exact colour and shape.” Monet is often seen as the typical Impressionist and he was always true to the expression of the fleeting moment. Paul Cézanne said of Monet that “he was only an eye, but what an eye!” In Impressionism the eye rules the brain.

Photo of the Rouen cathedral

Rouen Cathedral, West Façade, Sunlight, 1892

Rouen Cathedral, West Facade, Sunlight, 1894

59 Monet’s Garden at Giverny Monet lived in Giverny from 1883 until his death in 1926. Monet was inspired by tranquil scenes in Japanese prints when he started to renovate his garden. He diverted a river to form a pond and planted willows and bamboo on the shores. He filled the pond with water lilies, and then crossed it with a wooden footbridge. He wrote daily instructions to his gardener, with precise designs and layouts for plantings. He added invoices for his floral purchases and his collection of botany books. As Monet’s wealth grew, his garden evolved. He remained its architect, even after he hired seven gardeners.

Photo of Monet on the Japanese bridge

Photo of the Japanese bridge

One of Monet’s paintings of the Japanese bridge

Installation view of the water lilies at the Orangerie in Paris.

Photo of the water garden

In 1899 Monet started to paint a series of water landscapes that became virtually his only “model” for the last twenty years of his life. He absorbed himself in a world of changing colour. Monet painted about 250 paintings of water lilies based on his garden at Giverny. In the last half of his life Monet began to go blind with cataracts. He used larger canvases and painted fewer details. Gradu-

ally he eliminated all elements of the landscape to concentrate only on the surface of the water. The true subject of these works is not really the famous water lilies, but the changing reflections on the pond’s surface and the blue sky, white clouds, and green trees that line the shore. These works show the beauty of paint and the viewer feels immersed in a wonder world of colour and brush strokes. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

60 It is also interesting that Monet created his own subject matter. A cycle of Monet’s eight enormous water-lily paintings, known as the Nymphéas, was arranged on the ground floor of the Orangerie in 1927. They are displayed under direct diffused

light as was originally intended by Monet. The eight paintings are displayed along the walls in two oval rooms. These over-all compositions had a major influence on later abstract painters such as Jackson Pollock.

Claude Monet, Water lilies, 1920-1926. Oil on canvas

Photo of water lilies

Monet, Waterlilies, 1916


Monet, Water lilies morning (detail), c. 1925

Monet, Waterlilies (Green reflections),1916 – 24

61

WHO WAS EDGAR DEGAS? Edgar Degas (1834–1917), born Hilaire-Germain-Edgar De Gas, was a French Impressionist artist famous for his work in painting, sculpture and drawing. A superb draughtsman, he is especially identified with the subject of the dance, and over half of his works depict dancers. These display his mastery in the depiction of movement, as do his racecourse subjects and female nudes. The ballet was a favourite theme for Degas, because of his interest in movement. He made countless drawings of the dancers at their daily practice and from these studies he would developed his paintings of the ballet. He was more interested in the preparations for the ballet than in the actual performance. The dancers stretch, yawn, scratch and throw their bodies into various attitudes as they wait their turn to perform. Degas does not disguise the relative plainness of their features which, during the final performance, will transform as the dancers become endowed with beauty and grace. The subject of the work is a dance class conducted by a ballet master. The scene is a careful arrangement of what seems to be a random collection of postures and poses. One ballerina, who is the central focus of the composition, dances while the others mill about around her, presumably waiting their turn. Some adjust their costumes, while others just sit or stand in various postures. Like most of the dancers in Degas’s works, these ballerinas are not performing. Degas has caught them in the unglamorous environs of the practice hall. Typical of Degas is the asymmetric composition with a large open space on the right bottom corner that invites the viewer into the work. This is emphasized by the linear perspective of the floor boards. The dancers form a semi-circle around the left. There are elements that draw us outside the picture’s frame: part of a dancer’s shoe and tutu on the right and the cropped ceiling and mouldings. The colour red appears in the flower in the foreground dancer’s hair, in the dance master’s shirt, and in the wrap of one of the mothers. The vertical lines of the mirror link to the vertical line of the dance master’s cane.

“They call me the painter of dancers. They don’t understand that the dancer has been for me a pretext for painting pretty fabrics and for rendering movement”. - Edgar Degas

Edgar Degas, The Dancing class, c. 1874 – 5.


62 The tub: Degas was an excellent draughtsman as can be seen in this pastel drawing. The nude has usually been represented in poses, which presuppose an audience, but this woman is unaware of the viewer. She is in a very natural position. She is crouching down in the tub washing herself. She is shown in the privacy of her home. As Degas said, “my women are simple, honest creatures who are concerned with nothing beyond their physical occupations… it is as if you were looking through a keyhole.” All attention is focused upon the fall of light as it illuminates the model’s back revealing her soft sensual skin. The work has an unusual viewpoint as the viewer is looking down on the figure, with jugs on a shelf. Degas has employed a range of techniques such as the floor areas which are treated in parallel strokes of blues and oranges. The pastel is laid down in a series of cross hatchings and scribbles, allowing the various layers of colours to remain visible. Edgar Degas, The Tub, 1881. Pastel on paper

Little Dancer: The sculpture was originally made in wax before it was cast in bronze in 1922. It was dressed in a cotton tutu with a hair ribbon which was an unusual choice of material for a sculpture of this time. It stood on a wooden base. To construct the statue, Degas used a skeleton made out of paintbrushes. For a finishing touch he used a wig of real hair on the model. He then covered it with wax. The only part of the original sculpture not covered with wax was a ribbon given to him from the model, Marie van Goethem, and a real tutu. Degas’ heirs made the decision to have it cast in bronze, so there are copies of this figure in many museums around the world. Each museum that shows this figure gives it a different tutu. The original wax model is in the US National Gallery of Art. In this work, Degas had taken realism to its extreme, especially by dressing her in a real tutu and ribbon. When it was shown in Paris at the Sixth Impressionist Exhibition of 1881, it received mixed reviews. The majority of critics were shocked by the piece. They thought it was ugly, that it looked like a medical specimen, in part because Degas exhibited it inside a glass case. Some considered the head and face grotesque and primitive. The incorporation of found objects (the real clothes) would be explored by artists after him.


Edgar Degas, Little Dancer, 1881. Bronze with tutu and ribbon

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2 .2

Complete in your V.C.S. workbook. Discuss why this work is a good example of Impressionism. Use the following as a guideline: • Influence of the camera • Subject matter • Use of colour and light • The fleeting moment • Brushwork

Pierre-August Renoir, The boating party, 1881. Oil on canvas

“Why shouldn’t art be pretty? There are enough unpleasant things in the world”. - Auguste Renoir. Do youy think Renoir succeeded in creating a ‘pretty‘ work?

William Kentridge, The boating party, 1985. Pastel on paper

In his The Boating Party Kentridge used a free interpretation of the Renoir painting, but the charm of Impressionistic Paris had now gone mad. The work was created in 1985 in response to the ongoing struggle against apartheid when South Africa was in the grip of a state of emergency. Discuss the following: • Reasons why you think Kentridge chose this specific Renoir painting as inspiration. • The images that Kentridge borrowed from the Renoir. • The specific South African images in Kentridge’s work. • How Kentridge’s drawings relate to the specific political situation in South Africa during the struggle years. Possible interpretation that can be given to this work. • The difference in mood between the two works. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Women artists in Impressionism While amateur talents in drawing and watercolor were encouraged as part of a good bourgeois education, professional careers for women who did not need to work were considered detrimental as they were thought to divert women from their prescribed roles as wives and mothers. With its emphasis on contemporary life, Impressionism was accessible to artists of all artistic backgrounds and Berthe Morisot and Mary Cassatt became two of the movement’s core members. Though their upper-class status prevented them from frequenting the Parisian café-concerts and dance halls so often celebrated by their male colleagues, they did

have access to everyday subjects of middle-class leisure and domesticity. Both these artist took part in the Impressionist exhibitions.

Berthe Morisot, The cradle, 1872. Oil on canvas

The importance of Impressionism Impressionism can be seen as the most important style of the 19th century. It is both a beginning and an end in the history of Western painting.

Mary Cassat, The bath, 1891 – 92.

The main objective of Impressionism was to CREATE A GREATER NATURALISM BY THE EXACT ANALYSIS OF COLOUR TO PORTRAY THE PLAY OF LIGHT ON SURFACES. This is a logical ending to the Western tradition of naturalism and perception. On the other hand, their insistence on the portrayal of visual sensations led to the dissolving of shapes, and the birth of Modernism.

Glossary

MODERNISM or MODERN ART is the loose term given to the succession of styles and

movements in art and architecture which dominated Western culture from 19th Century up until the 1960/1970’s. Movements associated with Modern art include Impressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Surrealism, Futurism, Abstract Expressionism, etc. Modernism rejects the past as a model for the art of the present and is characterised by constant innovation and experimentation. From the 1970’s artists and movements began to react against Modernism and Post-Modernism developed.


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Neo-Impressionism

The term, Neo-impressionism was coined by the French art critic Félix Fénéon in 1886 to describe an art movement founded by Georges Seurat and Paul Signac. Followers of Neo-Impressionism, in particular, were drawn to modern urban scenes as well as landscapes and seashores. Neo-Impressionism was the logical conclusion to the Impressionist technique. It is an intellectual approach to Impressionism. In contrast to the Impressionists’ fleeting colour designs and accidental compositions, the work was meticulously planned and worked out in detail. One of the key notions was the idea of optical mixing. Instead of mixing colours on the palette before placing them on the canvas, which caused them to lose their brilliance, colour was placed in separate dabs unmixed on the canvas to be mixed in the eyes of the viewer. They preferred the term divisionism for their technique of placing colours in small strokes next to each other for optical mixing. (The Impressionists had used this in a spontaneous way.)

Georges Seurat, Young Woman powdering Herself, 1889 – 90. Oil on canvas

The term pointillism is also used for their technique of systemising brushstroke into dots. This style can be seen as the first “scientific” style in that they tried to show a theory in their work. They planned their work by thinking about the direction of lines, corners that are formed and colour harmony that creates a particular mood e.g. vertical lines, cool colours and dark tones represent sadness. The fleeting world of the Impressionists changed into something more solid and scientific.

WHO WAS SEURAT?

“They see poetry in what I have done. No. I apply my methods, and that is all there is to it.” – Georges Seurat Georges-Pierre Seurat (2 December 1859 – 29 March 1891) was noted for his innovative use of drawing media and for devising a technique of painting known as pointillism as he initiated Neo-Impressionism. Seurat spent over two years painting the immense La Grand Jatte. He reworked the original as well as completing numerous preliminary drawings and oil sketches. He would go and sit in the park and make numerous sketches of the various figures in order to perfect their form. Motivated by the study of optical and colour theory, Seurat contrasted miniature dots of colours that, through optical unification, form a single hue in the viewer’s eye.

Georges Seurat, La Grand Jatte (Sunday afternoon on the island of La Grand Jatte), 1884 –6. Oil on canvas. 205 x 308 cm.


66 He believed that this form of painting, now known as pointillism, would make the colours more brilliant and powerful than traditional colour. In creating the picture, Seurat employed the then-new pigment zinc yellow, for yellow highlights on the lawn in the painting, but also in mixtures with orange and blue pigments. Since then the zinc yellow has darkened to brown, a colour degeneration that was already showing in the painting in Seurat’s lifetime. This is a contemporary Parisian scene of people spending a lazy afternoon on the banks of the Seine, but Seurat transforms this typical Impressionist scene into one of Egyptian stiffness. Seurat planned this work with mathematical precision, basing the whole composition on a series of horizontal and vertical lines. The diagonal line of the river bank forms a contrast with these straight lines. The whole picture centres on the umbrellacarrying woman and her child in the centre. He paid great attention to the clothes of his figures. Clothes help to define class and status, e.g. the cap of the reclining man from the workers class and the top hat of the middle class male. There is also more concentration on details such as hats,

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canes, umbrellas and fans, than on faces. Many of the figures seem vague. There are inconsistencies in the scale of the figures. Seurat changed the fleeting world of Impressionism into something more solid and scientific. One of the many delightful details in the work.

One of the many preparatory sketches for this work. The fashionable bustle which was a type of framework used to expand the fullness of the back of a woman’s dress is an interesting detail.

August Rodin

August Rodin ( 1840 - 1917) was the greatest sculptor of his age. His great skill was to convey complex ideas through minute details “If the artist only reproof the human form. He also increasingly explored surface texture, duces superficial features expression and light. This created an afinity with the Impressionists.

as photography does, if he copies the lineaments of a face exactly, without reference to character, he deserves no admiration. The resemblance which he ought to obtain is that of the soul” - August Rodin

The Kiss, 1901 – 4. Marble Entwined, the lovers are indistinguishable. Rodin is interested in the expressive power of the whole, rather than showing fine detail. The rock ties the two figures together, giving the piece solidity and permanence.


67 The Gates of Hell, 1880 – 90

This piece was commissioned for the entrance of a new museum, but was never completed. The design represented Dante’s Inferno

The Thinker, 1880 – 1. Bronze

Rodin enlarged this figure from the Gates of hell and turned it into a timeless embodiment of thought and concentration. The Burghers of Calais: Rodin won a competition to portray these Medieval heroes, who offered up their lives to save their fellow citizens. Rodin concentrated on the raw emotion in the expressions of the subjects as they knew they were facing execution. Despair, fear, sadness, and anger are realistically portrayed on the faces and in the eyes of the subjects. Rodin removed a pedestal from the base of the statue. This allowed the viewer to see eye to eye with the subjects. The Burghers of Calais, 1884 – 89. Bronze


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Henri Toulouse-Lautrec

HENRI TOULOUSE-LAUTREC

(1864 – 1892)

“I paint things as they are. I don’t comment. I record.” – Toulouse-Lautrec He was the son of an aristocrat who as a child broke his legs several times which stunted his growth. The dwarf-like Toulouse-Lautrec, in spite of his aristocratic background, spent his life in nightclubs, dance halls and brothels. ToulouseLautrec chronicled the bohemian lifestyle with his depictions of brothels and night clubs. He shows us the harsh reality of the underbelly of his time. He died young due to his excessive lifestyle. Although some critics team him with the Impressionists, many others classify him as a Post-Impressionist because of his style and the darker, more satirical content in his work. The Moulin Rouge (Red Mill) is a night-club built in 1889 in Paris marked by its red windmill on the roof (bottom left). The can-can was the dance that became famous through the Moulin Rouge. Towards the end of the 19th century, the poster became important as a means of advertising. Toulouse-Lautrec is known for his innovation in simplifying the poster. In this poster (Bottom middle) for the Moulin Rouge, he merged the audience into a single silhouette and emphasises the two entertainers in the foreground.

Henri Toulouse-Lautrec, At the Moulin Rouge, 1892

In the painting At the Moulin Rouge, as in all his work there is a strong autobiographical element. He shows his friends with his small figure next to his tall cousin. The composition is reminiscent of Japanese prints with the strong diagonal railing helping to tilt the scene to the viewer. The colours are earthly – rusty browns, golden colours and black in contrast to the green in the mirrors and the face of the woman. His work is characterized by simplicity of line, dramatic colour and flat shapes.


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Post-Impressionism

Post-Impressionism is a catch-all term for the many disparate reactions against naturalism as well as the issues of light and colour, which had inspired the Impressionists. Emerging around 1886, at the time of the Impressionist’s eighth and last exhibition Post-Impressionism embraces various trends, including the Neo-Impressionism of Seurat. It was never a cohesive movement so the label embraces a number of very different groups who all attempted to replace Impressionism as the leading avant-garde movement of the late nineteenth century. The term ‘Post-Impressionism’ was devised by the English critic Roger Fry, in 1910. In this section we will concentrate on the work and contribution of three pivotal artists, namely:

Paul Cézanne

Vincent Van Gogh

Paul Gauguin

They were all united by their desire to overturn the superficiality of Impressionism. They felt that the Impressionists had allowed their preoccupation with technique, and the effects of natural light, to overshadow the importance of their work. Their impulses led them to solve this problem in different ways. Cézanne, sought greater pictorial structure, while Van Gogh focused on his emotional response to a scene. Gauguin sought a deeper engagement with expressive and symbolic content.

Look at these portraits by the South African artist Irma Stern and identify characteristics that show that she felt the same as the European artists about “technique should not overshadow the importance of the art work it self ”. Pictorial structure, emotional response and expressive symbolic content all played a role in her work. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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PAUL CÉZANNE

(1839 – 1906)

“The father of modern art” Cézanne was born in Aix-en-Provence, the son of a wealthy banker. In 1861 he was send to Paris to study Law. Within a short time he persuaded his father to allow him to study art. He was a retiring student who, working on his own, developed along more original lines than the majority of students. His early paintings were dark in tone, and often violent or sinister in subject matter – a murder, a dwarfed painter friend – or the erotic and the macabre. The Salon des Refuses exhibition in 1863 was a revelation to Cézanne. Under the influence of the Impressionists he began to use a wider range of Influences • Cézanne was influenced by artists such as Delacroix and Courbet because of the structure in their work. Cézanne also made an intensive study of the Old Masters in the Louvre. • Impressionism: The bright palette of the Impressionists influenced him, but he felt that they neglected structure and shape in their emphasis on colour and brush marks. “I want to make Impressionism something solid and everlasting, like the art of the museums.” • Mont Sainte-Victoire. The SainteVictoire mountain near Cézanne’s home in Aix-en-Provence was one of his favorite subjects and he is known to have painted it more than 60 times. He was fascinated by the rugged architectural forms in this mountain and painted the same scene from many different angles.

Mont Sainte-Victoire, 1887. Oil on canvas VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

colours. Pisarro introduced Cézanne to landscape painting. Cézanne also made an intensive study of the Old Masters in the Louvre. He became aware of the weakness of Impressionism and said that he wanted to make of Impressionism something strong and durable as seen in the work of the Old Masters. In 1883 he left Paris and returned to Aix and after the death of his father he was financially secure so he could develop his own style. He was a fierce and solitary person who worked in dedicated seclusion. In 1895 he had his first large exhibition and from 1900 he was hailed as a genius.

Photo of Mont Sainte-Victoire

Mont Sainte-Victoire, 1902 - 4. Oil on canvas

Cézanne

71 Characteristics of Cézanne’s work: Subject matter • Cézanne used a limited number of subjects such as still lifes, landscapes, bathers and portraits. • Cézanne revived the tradition of the still life, because it gave him the opportunity to arrange his own objects for concentrated study. He scolded his human models with: “Apples don’t move!”

Still life with dresser, 1883 – 87. Oil on canvas

Space/depth • Cézanne rejected the one point perspective of the Renaissance whereby all lines go to a single vanishing point to create a deep space. He used a variety of viewpoints, to enable one to look around the object. He thus created a shallow depth by a succession of different colour planes. He also created depth by overlapping areas of paint. • Cézanne was always conscious of the flatness of the painted canvas and created a so-called “flat space”. He never denied the two-dimensionality of the canvas. • He did not want to copy nature, but made constructions according to nature by only representing the essential. • His perspective was often incorrect. A table, for example, has a tendency to disappear under the tablecloth at one level and emerge from it at another, and the two sides of a bottle can be sharply different.

Still life with Plaster figure, 1895. Oil on canvas

Colour • Cézanne made use of the same bright colours as the Impressionists, but in a more structured way. He talked about modulation whereby one colour area should be related to the next. • A flat colour area is broken into separate colour facets (like in a mosaic). • Shapes are often outlined with a dark contour line. • Shadows are also shapes with solidity. Brushwork • Every brushstroke by Cézanne is like a building block, placed with firmness and with thought. • He used rectangular brushstrokes which do not express emotion but form a rhythmic pattern.

Boy with red waistcoat, 1890 – 5. Oil on canvas VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

72 Composition • Cézanne placed the emphasis on the underlying structure beneath appearances. In his famous quote he said that everything in nature is based on the cylinder, the sphere and the cone. He never went as far as to reduce natural objects to geometrical shapes, but he gave only the essential and left out detail and accidental effects. Approach • Cézanne can be classified as a Formalist, because he worked intellectually and the arrangement of line, colour and shape were of the utmost importance to him. Card players, 1890 – 2, Oil on canvas • He was interested in the underlying, never changing structure. • He never worked according to a formula, as every painting was a new challenge. • Although there is no “school” of Cézanne, few 20th century artists were not influenced by his work and so he is given the honoury title of ‘father of modern art’. His influence is seen in Cubism.

Examples of Cézanne’s work: “With an apple I will conquer Paris”, he said. The still-life suited Cézanne’s artistic personality very well, allowing him to arrange the elements before him at his leisure to suit his sense of colour and form. A still life painting took Cézanne one hundred working sessions and he often took hours to put down a single stroke. Although at first glance the composition seems to be accidental, everything was deliberately placed like the basket with apples lifted by a block, the carefully arranged cakes on a plate and placed on a book, the bottle leaning to the one side and the crumpled tablecloth with apples placed on it. As always Cézanne is involved with the two-dimensionality of the canvas and the table disappears under the tablecloth at one level and emerges from it at another. The bottle is not in a vertical position and the perspective of the plate is distorted to create an interesting composition. The appearance of reality is neglected in favour of creating a new pictorial reality. We are however aware of the spheroid or cylindrical mass beneath the apples and bottles. Still-life with basket of apples, 1890 – 4. Oil on canvas


73 Cézanne’s search for reduction to an absolute essence is well illustrated in his series of works on bathers. He ignored the laws of anatomy and gave the human figure the same solid and concrete quality as his objects in his still-lifes. He wanted to show the bone structure under the skin and to integrate the nude figure with the surrounding landscape. The figures are devoid of sensual beauty. Their limbs are elongated and their heaviness overemphasized. The tree trunks form a strong arch shape over the figures in the foreground, which is inverted in the shape of the arms of the two figures in the centre. The groups on the left and right form pyramidal compositions. He distorted his figures so that they better fit the surroundings. The figures in this painting are just objects or building blocks in his structure. Cézanne saw himself as a creator, not a reporter of what he saw. He felt free to build up his paintings as he saw fit. All his works share a monumentality which reflects his wish to grasp the structure beneath the appearances.

VINCENT VAN GOGH

The Large Bathers, 1898 – 1906. Oil on canvas

“I have a terrible lucidity at moments when nature is so beautiful. I am not conscious of myself any more, and the pictures come to me as if in a dream.” - Vincent van Gogh

(1853 – 1890)

Van Gogh was born in Groot-Zundert, Holland, and the son of a preacher. At the age of 16 he went to work for an art dealer in The Hague. He spent seven years working in various branches of the business in Brussels, London and Paris. In London he experienced a disappointment in love which shook him deeply. He decided to study theology, but failed the exam. He then took a temporary post as a missionary to the mine workers in the Borignage, a coal-mining district in Belgium. He was not successful in this role either, despite sincere attempts to become identified with the community. He was so affected by the suffering endured by these poverty-stricken people that he felt the desire to embody their suffering and his compassion on canvas. Van Gogh began painting in 1880 at the age of 27. He returned to Holland and stayed in The Hague and later in Nuenen. His early works employ somber colours and portray the drudgery and colourlessness of the lives of the mineworkers and farm labourers among whom he lived, e.g. The Potato Eaters. Characteristic of this period is the dark, somber impasto technique. The potato eaters, 1885. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

74 In 1886 he went to Paris to stay with his brother, Theo, an art dealer. The Impressionists and the Japanese print influenced him. He began to use lighter colours and his brushstrokes became freer e.g. Père Tanguy. After 200 paintings in two years he was no longer happy in Paris and in 1888 he left for Arles in the south of France, seeking the sun. The early part of his stay there was very happy. He was so enthused with the warmth and brilliant colours that his canvases became rich and glowing. His interpretations of the countryside were intensely personal. Van Gogh was imbued with the desire to found an artists’ colony in Arles. With this end in view he invited Gauguin to stay with him in the Yellow House. Gauguin arrived in October 1888. However, the artists’ temperaments were incompatible and within two months Van Gogh experienced a nervous breakdown and tried to take Gauguin’s life. Père Tanguy,1887. Oil on canvas.

On December 23, 1888, frustrated and ill, van Gogh confronted Gauguin with a razor blade, but then panicked, left and fled to a local brothel. While there, he cut off his left ear, though it is often claimed that it was “only” the lower part of his left earlobe. He wrapped the severed ear in newspaper and handed it to a prostitute named Rachel, asking her to “keep this object carefully.” He staggered home, where he was later found by Gauguin lying unconscious with his head covered in blood. Van Gogh was taken to a hospital and remained in a critical state for several days. Van Gogh recovered after Gauguin had left, but he suffered frequent violent relapses. He was sent to the St Remy Institution in May 1889. Examples from the Arles period include The Night Café and His Bedroom. Self-Portrait, 1889. Oil on canvas.

At St Remy he continued to paint. His painting surfaces were covered with swirling patterns and curves. Every brushstroke showed his inner conflicts, e.g. Starry Night, Self-Portrait 1889 (above). He sold only one painting during his life, Red Vines, in March 1890. A favourable article covering his work appeared in a newspaper. In the last two and a half months of his life, he lived in Auvers, near Paris, where Dr. Gatchet looked after him. In despair over his own increasing ill-health and distressed because of his continued financial dependence on his brother Theo, Van Gogh took his own life in 1890.


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CRows in a wheatfield, 1890. Oil on canvas.

His last work, Crows in a Wheatfield, 1890, was a reflection of his disturbed mind. The roads lead nowhere and the crows in the sky fly towards the viewer. In a career of 11 years Van Gogh created 800 paintings. He worked day and night and sometimes even put candles on his hat to work outside during the night.

Influences • The social commentary and empathy with the poor that he saw in the work of Daumier and Millet. • Delacroix’s use of complimentary colours next to one another. • The simplicity, bright colours and clear outlines of Japanese prints. • The bright colours and informal technique of Impressionism. • His own personality in its humanity and need to express himself.

Vincent van Gogh’s letters Vincent van Gogh’s thoughts and ideas about painting are known mainly through the letters he wrote to his younger brother, the art dealer, Theo. Theo provided his brother with both financial and emotional support. Their lifelong friendship is recorded in the hundreds of letters they exchanged between 1872 and 1890: more than 600 from Vincent to Theo and 40 from Theo to Vincent. Some excerpts from his letter include the following:

The most beautiful pictures are those one dreams about when smoking pipes in bed, but which one never will paint. Quick work does not mean less serious work, it depends on one’s self-confidence and experience. I cannot help it that my paintings do not sell. The time will come when people will see that they are worth more than the price of paint.


76 Characteristics of Van Gogh’s work: Subject matter • Landscapes, portraits, still-lifes, and interiors. • Van Gogh always worked from reality, but he portrayed his emotional reaction to the subject. Space/depth • There is always a feeling of depth in his work. • He often placed large masses in the middle of the canvas. • Van Gogh usually used line perspective and often the horizon is three-quarters up the canvas. Colour • Van Gogh is known for his emotional use of colour. • Initially his colours were somber as in the Potato Eaters and then they became lighter under the influence of the Impressionists. • In his later works colour is over-emphasized to portray his emotions. His palette is characterised by strong pure colours and often yellows are placed against blues and violets.

Cornfields and Cypresses, 1889. Oil on canvas.

Brushwork • Brushstrokes are the physical indication of his emotional state and they create rhythmic movements. • There is a strong linear character to his application of paint with strong outlines. • Paint was applied with brush, palette knife or even straight from the tube. Composition • Van Gogh always worked from reality, giving only the essence of the subject to which he reacted emotionally. • He simplified and distorted shapes. • No unnecessary detail is given, only the essence of a scene.

SUNFLOWERS, 1888. Oil on canvas.


Approach to his work • Van Gogh was an expressionist and his life and art form a unity. • No painter before him gave such a portrayal of his inner feelings. • His art is therefore personal and subjective. • The quick execution, distortion of shapes and emphasizing of colour contrasts are typical. • He is regarded as the “father” of 20th century expressionism as he influenced Munch and the German Expressionists.

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Glossary

Expressionism is art with a strong expression of personal feelings and emotions through distortion, emotional choice of colour and expressive brushstrokes.

Examples of van Gogh’s work The Night Café was painted during Van Gogh’s stay in Arles and in his own words ‘one of the ugliest I have ever done’. It depicts the interior of a pool café in the town. Upon first glance, the viewer almost tends to glance away, as if burned. Fully two-thirds of the painting is the floor of the café, executed in sulphuric yellow with exaggerated lines of perspective that pull the eye into the painting. Next follows a green billiard table, outlined in heavy black. Beside the table stands a figure in a light-coloured coat, staring out at us without expression. The white coat of the owner becomes a lemon yellow. Lower yellow walls give on to blood-red walls that lead to an obtrusive green ceiling. Lining the walls are the locals at the bar tables, hunched over in late-night stupor. Lamps hang from the ceiling, surrounded by Vincent’s wheels of curving yellow strokes. In this work the power of colour comes to the fore. The brilliant yellow area of the floor with its exaggerated perspective drives with incredible force, into the red background, which in turn, resists with equal force. This together with the bold impasto brushstrokes creates a new pictorial language. Van Gogh describes The Night Café in a letter as: “I have tried to express the terrible passions of mankind by means of red and green. The room is red and dark yellow with a green billiard table in the middle; there are four yellow lamps with a glow in orange and green. I have tried to express the idea that the café is a place where one can ruin oneself, run mad or commit a crime. So I have tried to express as it were the powers of darkness in a low drink shop.” This is a powerful work telling us with sincerity about the human condition and emotions.

Vincent van Gogh, The Night Café, 1888. Oil on canvas.


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Vincent van Gogh, Starry night, 1889. Oil on canvas

Van Gogh painted Starry Night while in the asylum at Saint-Remy in 1889. The focus of this work is the night sky filled with swirling clouds, stars a blaze with their own luminescence, and a bright crescent moon. Below the rolling hills of the horizon the little village rests peacefully under the protection of the church spire. The center point of the town is the tall steeple of the church, reigning over the smaller buildings. To the left of the painting there is a massive cypress tree whose curving lines mirror that of the sky and create the sensation of depth in the painting. This sky keeps the viewer’s eyes moving about the painting, following the curves and

creating connections between the different paths. Van Gogh used thick impasto paint that forms strong lines. These winding lines were transformed into whirling and exploding stars in the dark sky, energetic strokes at the ends of the cypress, curved surfaces that create mountain crests, and geometric forms that reflect the architecture of the village. The contours were important for Van Gogh. The colours are predominantly cold dark blues that are contrasted with the fiery warm yellows of the stars and the light shining through the windows. To paint at night, Van Gogh hung candles around the brim of his hat, and around the picture canvas, so that he could see what he was painting. He is the first artist to paint such nocturnal scenes at night directly onto his canvas. The important point here is his passion for the dark night. In times when street lighting was at a minimum (just gas light) and most of the light would come from the houses in the village, the night was really dark. The question is what was going on inside the tormented soul of the artist to make him want to escape into the endless black night? Starry Night reflects the suffering of the artist through the energetic strokes, the vibrant colours of the stars and the contrast of the dark blues and blacks of the night. Starry Night becomes his scream for hope, light and love.

Van Gogh, the popular artist   Now I understand what you tried to say to me, How you suffered for your sanity, How you tried to set them free. They would not listen, they did not know how. Perhaps they'll listen now. For they could not love you, But still your love was true. And when no hope was left in sight On that starry, starry night, You took your life, as lovers often do. But I could have told you, Vincent, This world was never meant for one As beautiful as you.

 

Kirk Douglas playing Vincent van Gogh in the 1950’s movie, Lust For Life, based on a popular novel on van Gogh’s life by Irving Stone.


After his death van Gogh’s status grew and by the mid-20th century he was seen as one of the greatest and most recognizable painters in history. Van Gogh’s life became a legend, the story of the artist as a tortured genius who became mad and committed suicide. The tragic circumstances of his life became the subject of many books and films.

One can even find a Vincent action figure Right and below: a variety of merchandise based on van Gogh’s work. Debate your opinion about using his work in this way.

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PAUL GAUGUIN

(1848 – 1903)

Paul Gauguin was born in Paris. After an adventurous early life, including a four-year stay in Peru with his family and a stint in the French merchant marine, he became a successful Parisian stockbroker, settling into a comfortable bourgeois existence with his wife, Mette, and five children. After meeting Pisarro and viewing the Impressionists, he became an art collector and Sunday-painter. After an eleven year long successful business career, he gave it all up to devote himself to painting. His wife returned to her family and Gauguin lived alone in Paris, in poverty, ill and frequently unhappy. In 1886 Gauguin went to Port-Aven in Brittany, where under the influence of Emile Bernard, he turned away from Impressionism and adopted the style he called Synthetism. He later decided to visit the Martinique Islands but owing to a lack of money got only as far as Panama. He worked on the Panama Canal as a labourer to earn money to continue his journey. In 1888 he returned to Paris and later joined Van Gogh in Arles. In 1891, ruined and in debt, Gauguin sailed for the Polynesian Islands to escape European civilization and “everything that is artificial and conventional.” Gauguin felt that civilized society was sick and dying. He hoped to find artistic rejuvenation by living among people of a ‘primitive’ culture. Except for one visit to France, he remained on the South Seas Islands for the rest of his life, first in Tahiti and later the Marquesas Islands. The ‘paradise’ Gauguin was searching for on the Polynesian Islands did not go well with the colonial authorities and he had many conflicts with them. In Polynesia, he sided with the native peoples, often clashing with the colonial authorities and with the Catholic Church. The reality of colonial life in Tahiti was undoubtedly a disappointment to Gauguin. Gauguin was looking for primitive idyll. He spent his last years in sickness and poverty, and died in 1903. Influences • Gauguin was influenced by Impressionism in his early work. • Gauguin was always on the lookout for exotic places. He preferred the lifestyle and art of Non-Western societies, because these ‘primitive’ island cultures according to him were not polluted by western ideas and values.

“It is better to paint from memory, for thus your work will be your own: your sensation, your intelligence, and your soul will triumph over the eye of an amateur. - Paul Gauguin

Two Tahitian Women, 1899. Oil on canvas.

Glossary

“Primitivism” is a Western art term that refers to the ‘borrowing’ of visual forms from non-Western

or prehistoric peoples, e.g. Gauguin’s use of Tahitian motifs. When European artists “discovered” the art of Africa, Polynesian Islands, etc. for the first time during the late 19th century and early 20th century, they were inspired by the freshness, expression and the stark power embodied in these artworks. Today we would rather use the term, Non-Western, as ‘primitive’ is derogatory towards the sophistication and development of these civilizations and the term reflects the then Western colonial ideas of their superiority over Non-Western societies. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

80 Characteristics of Gauguin’s work: Subject matter • Gauguin believed the artist should work from memory to create imaginative works. • He often used religious and spiritual themes. • The portrayal of man was important in his work. His later work is filled with idealised figures from the South Sea Islands. Space/depth • Gauguin made use of a flat space created by different horizontal bands of colour. • He used flat, decorative spaces where the background is as bright as the foreground. • With Gauguin painting became a flat surface filled with colours with no attempt to create a naturalistic portrayal. Colour • Gauguin believed that colour was symbolic and imaginative. No modeling was represented. • He made use of flat, decorative shapes of bright colours. • His backgrounds are as bright as the foregrounds. • He used cloisonism where bright colour areas are separated by dark contour lines, similar to stained glass windows. Brushwork • Gauguin avoided modeling in his flat areas with dark contour lines. • He used broad parallel brushstrokes in his decorative and simplified application Composition • Gauguin placed equal importance on positive and negative shapes. • He often divided his composition with rhythmic decorative lines to create strong two-dimensional shapes. • He did not copy nature, but worked from his imagination. • Monumental simplified figures were created.


Spirit of the Dead watching, 1892. Oil on canvas.

By the Sea, 1892. Oil on canvas.

Approach to his work • Gauguin called his style Synthetism. This is a type of symbolism where the artist uses his imagination. The artist must work from his imagination, because the memory only remembers that which is meaningful or symbolic. The final work is thus a synthesis’ of the original idea.”I must shut my eyes in order to see”, according to Gauguin. The painting is thus a simplification of reality characterized by flat colour areas, no shadows, cloisonism and the freedom to interpret shapes and to simplify them. Gauguin explored his subjective world. • He was strongly opposed to naturalism. • Gauguin’s works are mysterious and exotic. • Gauguin had a direct influence on Fauvism.

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Where do we come from? What are we? Where are we going to? 1897. Oil on canvas.

Vision after the sermon: Gauguin wrote to Van Gogh in October 1888: “I think I have achieved in the figures a great simplicity, rustic and superstitious. The whole thing is very severe. The cow rearing up under the tree is very small in comparison with reality. For me in this picture the landscape and the struggle exist only in the imagination of the people praying in reaction to the sermon, which is why there is contrast between the life-size people and the struggle in its nonnatural, disproportionately small landscape.” This early work was painted during his stay in Port Aven, Paul Gauguin, Vision after the Service, 1888. Oil on canvas. Brittany and was based on a work by his friend, Emile Bernard. The scene depicts how after a moving church service the religious Breton women see a vision of Jacob wrestling with the angel. The wrestling figures were based on a Japanese woodprint by Hokusia. The wrestling figures are shown on a red, rather than a green field to show their supernatural state. The intense red of the background is an example of Gauguin’s imaginative symbolic use of colour. Colour for him was the first element to be freed from reality and to show emotional expression. The clearly outlined figures and shapes show the influence of NonWestern art and his use of cloisonism. The contrast between the row of large heads in the foreground with the smaller figures in the background shows a bit of perspective. An apple tree cuts across the canvas and separates the earthly from the spiritual. In this work there is a clear break with naturalism in his use of flat areas, strong outlined shapes and the mixture of real and imagined figures. This is a good example of Synthetism as it gave Gauguin the opportunity of expressing clearly outlined figures against a flat background. In this work he shows the idea of art as symbolic and simplified. In religious terms, the individual interpretation of this work offered freedom to other artists to interpret biblical scenes and spiritual phenomena.


82 The day of the god: This picture derives its theme from Gauguin’s imaginative interpretation of his study of Polynesian mythology. An exotic unreal scene dominated by a statue of the god with his strange feather headdress. His name is Taaroa and in Maori religion he was the creator of the world and chief of the gods. Two women in white are taking gifts to him and on the right two girls are performing a religious dance. On the left a musician is playing on a flute-like instrument and on the right is a universal mother and child portrayal. In this work Gauguin refers to many sources, such as the influence of Egyptian art in the repetitive profiles of the white-clad girls. The three naked figures in the foreground seem to suggest creation, especially with the embryo curl of the figure on the right. The curves of their figures and of the god’s feather headdress are echoed in the foreground. The water is filled with curious amoeba-like shapes, which are perhaps rocks, shadows or just decorative reflections designed to give the composition its mood and rhythm. The latter is picked up again in the arbitrary cloud shapes in the background. The work is reduced to decorative flat areas with strong non-naturalistic colours. Gauguin created a work from his imagination focusing on man’s fascination with religion. This symbolically shows the inner and emotional man. The bond with naturalism was finally broken.


Paul Gauguin, The Day of the God, 1894. OIL ON CANVAS

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Each of the three Post-impressionists developed a new pictorial language that would have a huge impact on artists after them. It is therefore important to understand their styles and to be able to compare them. Make a four column table in your workbook and fill in the stylistic factors concerning each of the artists in the columns on the right. CÉZANNE VAN GOGH GAUGUIN Influences Themes Space/depth Colour Brushwork Composition Approach to work Use this information and apply it to the following artworks in an essay where you compare their portrayals of people.

SUMMARY

Paul Cézanne, Woman with Coffee Pot, 1890 – 92.

Vincent van Gogh, The Sower, 1888.

WESTERN ART FROM THE RENAISSANCE TO IMPRESSIONISM ACTED AS A ‘WINDOW ON THE WORLD’ AND WAS BASED ON NATURALISM

Paul Gauguin, The Yellow Christ, 1889.

IMPRESSIONISM BOTH AN END AND BEGINNING. THE MAIN AIM WAS TO CREATE A GREATER NATURALISM BY THE ANALYSIS OF COLOUR TO PORTRAY THE PLAY OF LIGHT ON SURFACES. THIS IS A LOGICAL CONCLUSION TO THE WESTERN TRADITION OF NATURALISM AND PERCEPTION. ON THE OTHER HAND, THEIR INSISTENCE ON THE PORTRAYAL OF VISUAL SENSATIONS LED TO DISSOLVING OF SHAPES, AND THE BIRTH OF MODERNISM.

POST-IMPRESSIONISM

CUBISM

FORM AND STRUCTURE CÉZANNE

EXPRESSIONISM

EXPRESSIONISM VAN GOGH

FAUVISM

SYMBOLISM GAUGUIN


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HUGO NAUDÉ Hugo Naudé was born in Worcester and he painted the South African environment. He is primarily known for his landscape paintings. After studying art at the Slade School in London he painted in Barbizon, France before returning to South Africa. Equipped with a good academic background he went on many expeditions by caravan capturing the vast landscapes of the Western Cape. His works were plein-air paintings – in other words, the artist sat outside within the landscape while painting. To us it seems unimpressive, but in those days it was revolutionary. The intensive analysis of the environment and the effects of light and shade within the constantly changing circumstances of a landscape were central to the development of the Impressionists in Europe. Influenced by their approach Naudé captured the changing colours and the vast expanse of the South African landscape. In this painting Springtime, Namaqualand he worked on an unusually large canvas to capture the vastness of the landscape. He normally worked on smaller portable canvasses. The turbulent light effect of the clouds highlighted with bright sunlight is in contrast with the colourful flowers, bushes, rocks and road in the foreground. The strongly defined brushstrokes used in the foreground convey texture and depth. It also shows that Naudé was aware of the simplifying effects of the bright sunlight on the landscape. This can be seen in the omission of finer detail and the fact that he even painted certain parts of the foreground as

Hugo Naudé. Springtime, Namaqualand. No Date. Oil on canvas.

silhouetted shapes with the detail blocked out by the brightness of the sun. In the middle and far distance sheets of flowers, rocks and hills recede into flat surfaces of colour. The flat areas of the distant landscape are painted in horizontal brushstrokes that eventually dissolve into the blue ridges of hills and mountains on the horizon. The variety of directions of brushstrokes contributes to the creation of three-dimensional depth. His work clearly shows the influence of the Impressionists, but also tells us about his awareness of the unique qualities of the South African landscape which he interpreted in a spontaneous naturalistic style. Other artworks by Hugo Naudé include the following:

Namaqualand, No date. Oil on canvas.

Springtime – West Coast, No date. Oil on board. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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GEORGE PEMBA George Pemba was a South African artist who like the Impressionists, painted the places and people in his immediate environment. He was a Xhosa artist from the Eastern Cape who received some tuition in watercolours, but was mainly self-taught. His family encouraged him to do art as a child and therefore his foundation as an artist was established early in life. He has been entitled ‘the painter of the people’ and this is clear from his many paintings of people in their daily circumstances in rural and urban settings. His naturalistic watercolour paintings show influences of Impressionism in his emphasis of light effects, loose sketchy style and portrayal of everyday life scenes. He developed his own recognisable style veering towards expressionism, in terms of colour use, tonal values and simplification of shapes. In the watercolour painting No Work he portrayed an urban scene that is seemingly unimportant. The focus is a young man that is centrally placed in the composition. His gaze is directed upwards, towards an area outside the frame of the painting. He is surrounded by the multi-storied buildings, street lamps and a street. The street is not very busy. There are two pedestrians in the street, a few pedestrians vaguely visible further back on the sidewalks and there is a car, included in the composition. The placement of the young man creates the feeling that we as viewers are walking past him. Without the title he would be another passerby whom we would easily ignore. Pemba adds a story by giving the image the title No Work. This immediately changes the viewer’s response to the work. The young man’s facial expression and position within the painting is now loaded with meaning and emotion. He seems to be looking around with inhibited desperation. Although he is young, strong and still walking upright he seems to be trapped in his situation within this urban jungle. This descriptive work becomes a narrative highlighting the social problems experienced by black people in the city. The naturalistic watercolour has muted colours and clearly visible loose brushstrokes. Areas of the composition such as the receding buildings

George Pemba. No Work. 1948. Watercolour on paper.

and street, as well as the pedestrians and the car were painted as generalised shapes with very little detail. The emphasis is on the portrait of the unemployed young man. Everything that surrounds him becomes out of focus as it recedes towards the background. Pemba’s works reveals his compassionate nature and his interest in conveying more than superficial observations of daily life around him.

Purple dancing Lady, 1974. Oil on canvas.

New Brighton, 1977. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Composition plays a very important role in any two dimensional artwork. It has to do with how one arranges the elements of art to create a specific viewpoint. As we have seen with the Impressionists the camera played a role in creating a snapshot view of life, where people and objects extend beyond the frame. Observe how Degas draws the viewer into his work by leaving the middle area at the bottom open. He places his figures on the right with one figure cropped in half by the frame. The viewer is aware that the scene moves on beyond the frame which represents a frozen moment in time, like a photo would do.

Theme: MY WORLD THROUGH A VIEWFINDER

Edgar Degas, Dancers in Butterfly Costumes, 1880. Oil on canvas.

One of the ‘tools’ artists use to create interesting compositions is by making a simple cardboard viewfinder. Take a stiff piece of cardboard and cut out a rectangle of about 5 x 8 cm. Put the viewfinder in front of your eye and look through it. Now ‘zoom in’ by moving it away from your eye. Pay no attention to what is outside the frame. Taking inspiration from the Impressionists and Post-Impressionists, decide on which physical part of your specific environment you want to focus on. It could be your room, the art room, your family at the dinner table, or your friends during break at school.


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Start with your SOURCE BOOK The following are a few options to investigate in your source book: • Take your viewfinder and play with zooming in and out to look for interesting and unusual compositions. Make thumbnail line drawings of at least five different compositions. • You could also use your camera or cell phone to select at least five different photos of the scene. Print them and/or make thumbnail drawings from them. • You can scan your drawings into a computer program and/or use your digital photos and ‘play’ with tools such as crop, layer, copy, etc. See that you document all your experiments either in drawing and/or printing the results. Make notes to explain your processes. • Select the composition which gives a fresh and an unusual view of your world. Write notes on why you selected that specific composition and what it tells of your world. • Do a tonal drawing to familiarise yourself with the scene. • With your teacher’s guidance you are going to decide on the most suitable media for example oil pastels, paint, linocut, etc. Place evidence of your media experiments with explanatory notes in your source book. • Paste at least three examples of artworks that have inspired you in your book and write how they inspired you. • After you have completed your final artwork, you must reflect in writing on this whole process.

A painting by a grade 11 learner On the left are two works by learners showing their world.

THE BRIEF Your brief is to make a final artwork on the theme of “my world” inspired by a viewfinder. Your art teacher will guide you in this process and may give you further instructions regarding the media, size, technique, etc. Complete your artwork under the guidance of your art teacher.


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CHAPTER

3

Early 20th century CONTENTS 1. Background 20th century • Art in a changing society • Six famous early 20th century figures 2. Fauvism • Henri Matisse 3. Expressionism • Die Brücke – Ernst Ludwig Kirchner • Der Blaue Reiter – Franz Marc and Wassily Kandinsky • The Expressionistic Figure 4. Cubism • Cézanne Phase – George Braque • Analytical Phase– George Braque • Synthetic Phase – Pablo Picasso • Influence of Cubism 5. Futurism • Characteristics 6. Relating to South African Art • Maggie Laubser • J.H. Pierneef 7. Practical assessment task • Theme: Portrait


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TIMELINE of 1900 - 1940 It is often very difficult to give exact dates for movements. The following timelines give a broad indication of the duration of movements.

1900

1905

1910

1915

1920

1925

1930

1935

FAUVISM

Expressionism

Cubism

Futurism FIRST WORLD WAR (1914 – 1918)

DADA

Surrealism


1940

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BACKGROUND The Twentieth Century

“One is completely modern only when he has come to the very edge of the world, leaving behind him all that has been discarded and outgrown, and acknowledging that he stands before a void out of which all things may grow” – Carl Gustav Jung “The modern age is the first TO GLORIFY CHANGES for its own sake” – Octavia Paz The 20th century was a period of great change. Change has been so rapid in the 20th century that Winston S. Churchill rode on a horse into battle, and saw a space rocket launch into space. A time of unique change, exploration, discovery and invention

Speed transformed life with the motorcar, air travel, etc. The source of energy from electricity to atomic power led to many inventions that made life easier.

Political systems included democracy, communism and dictatorships. Exploration of land, sea and space. Science was very important with the split of the atom, discovery of DNA, organ transplants, antibiotics, etc. The mass-media became important with newspapers, radio, movies, etc. Urbanization occurred in most countries leading to a change in social structures.


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ds are cultural nee ’s le p o e p t mos is about rt a ia. The artist ry d tu e n e -m c s s a th m 0 2 y Much satisfied b ot a n ed d n a ) e k a s nd an inform ’s a rt lf a e s r fo im h rt r art (a works fo viewer ame e h T . d rl o w art often bec s e u th h f T o . ip re h tu rs pic viewe t ge about d le w nd the artis o a n k y it e v v ti a c h a must an elitist to e rk o w e th d ated from th in n h e e li b a s a ry o d e e the th was view sists n nd o c m is rn e od To understa M . . n it o d rs n e p ta rs e ry und ordina les or must ty s f o n century one ssio e c th c e u ti s n e a tw f o art in d creation e th d n a pen mind an o e g n n a a h h it C w . ” it “ISMS approach are le g in s s re p x e dge as possib of le s w y o a n w k h c w e u of n get as m tween e xt in b n o ti ra a p nd its conte a he se T le t. ty n s a e rt o th p im about e very m a c e b ty ie oc ty. artist and s me and socie ti – ry tu cen ng the 20th evident duri

Title of TV


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Six Famous early 20th century figures Henry Ford (1863 – 1947) was the American founder of the Ford Motor company who introduced the Model T automobile in 1908 which revolutionized motorcar transport. His assembly line-production style made the motorcar affordable and accessible to the average person.

Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955) was a German born physicist who developed the theory of relativity and changed the way physicists view the world. He has become synonymous with intellect and originality.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870 – 1924) was the Russian Marxist revolutionary who led the October revolution in 1917 which established the communist regime in Russia based on a socialist economic system.

Adolf Hitler (1889 – 1945) was the leader of the Nazi Party in Germany from 1933 – 1945 with its ideas of a superior German race. His dictatorship gave rise to fascism in Europe. He was directly responsible for the outbreak of the Second World War and the holocaust during the war.

Coco Chanel (1883 – 1971) was a pioneering French fashion designer who had a major impact on the way ‘modern’ women dress. She freed women of their restrictive corsets and introduced loose fitting sportswear, the little black dress and popularised pants for women.

Charlie Chaplin (1889 – 1977) was an English comic actor, film director and composer best known for his mime, slapstick and visual comedy routines during the silent film era. He was the most famous film star before the end of World War I.


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Fauvism

1905 –1907 France

“When I paint green, it doesn’t mean grass; when I paint blue, it doesn’t mean sky” - Henri Matisse The first revolutionary movement of the Twentieth Century Background Three young French artists, Matisse, Derain and Vlaminck, spent the summer of 1905 together at the coastal town of Collioure. On their return to Paris in the autumn they exhibited the paintings they had worked on during the summer at the Salon d’Autumn (Autumn Salon) of 1905. The viewers were shocked with the extremely strong colours of the works. According to the anecdote the critic Louis Vauxcelles, observing a conventional sculpture in the midst of the wildly colouristic paintings exclaimed: “Donatello au milieu des fauves!”(Look, Donatello amongst the wild beasts!”) The French word for wild beasts is fauves. As with Impressionism, the Fauves received their name because of negative criticism. Fauvism was not a particularly coherent group with specific rules and regulations, but a short-lived coming together of painters with the same approach to painting. They wanted to avoid naturalism. The liberation of colour was their biggest contribution to Modernism.

Henri Matisse, Open Window, Collioure, 1905. Oil on canvas.

Fauivist artists included Henri Matisse, Maurice Vlaminck and Andrè Derain

Henri Matisse, Derain, 1905.


Andre Derain, Matisse, 1905.

Maurice Vlaminck, Derain, 1905.

95 Influences on Fauvism • Vincent van Gogh for his nondescriptive and emotive colour, his method of working and the importance of feeling in the creation process. • Paul Gauguin for the belief that certain sensations and feelings can be conveyed by colour. The Fauvists were influenced by the idea that the painter can use colour independent of natural appearances, to express emotion. Gauguin was the inspiration for their large flat colour areas, heavy outlines (cloisonism) and the ‘primitive’ character of shapes.

Henri Rousseau, The dream, 1910. Oil on canvas.

• Georges Seurat’s divisionism whereby pure colours applied in small brushstrokes or dots mix optically in the viewer’s eye was an influence on the broken brushstrokes of the Fauves at the beginning. They later on revolted against these broken areas of colour. • Henri Rousseau for his naïve art and bright colours. • Non-Western cultures from Africa and Polynesia influenced the Fauvists with their non-representative and decorative qualities. Brilliantly coloured textiles seen in Morocco in North Africa particularly impressed Matisse. The colours and shapes of this type of art suggested to young French artists that there were ways of making art other than those of the western tradition with which they were familiar.

Fang mask, Gabon (late 19th century) This specific mask was in the collection of both Derain and Vlaminck

• Synthetic colours were developed through new technology and helped the Fauvists to achieve their unusually bright colours.

Glossary

Naïve Art is a term used for artists with no formal training e.g. Henri Rousseau. Their work usually consists of bright colours and although their approach is naturalistic with a lot of attention to detail, they pay little attention to perspective.


96 Characteristics of Fauvism The Fauvists steered clear of naturalistic portrayals because of their belief that a painting has its own reality and is not only a version of the visual world. Subject matter • They did not portray wild or “beast-like” themes, but everyday scenes such as landscapes, figures, interiors and portraits. The Fauves worked from reality, but believed that the artist should portray his emotional reaction to the subject. • Pure colours portray this emotion. • Although they still painted the world around them, their colour is arbitrary (free choice). Matisse, Woman with a Hat, 1905. Oil on canvas.

Colour • Colour is the chief characteristic of their work and the liberation of colour is their biggest contribution to Modernism. Their colour is stronger than the colour of previous movements and in the work of artists such as Van Gogh and Gauguin. • Colour is arbitrary (free choice) not naturalistic, even though they worked from nature. Colour is often used to express emotion. • Colour is often pure, not mixed. • Vibrant and intense colour, is often used in large flat areas of one colour. • Bright, clashing colours in foregrounds and backgrounds which are equally bright. Pure colours portray emotion.

Maurice Vlaminck, Red Trees, 1906. Oil on canvas.

Form/shape • Form is subordinant to colour. Colour was used to express shape, light and depth. • Forms are distorted and combined with often incorrect perspectives. • Deliberate clumsiness used in emotional portrayals. Drawing is simplified and has a childlike quality. • Shapes are often outlined. • Very decorative. Application of paint • Energetic, quick brush strokes. • Every brushstroke carries emotion. • Paint was often unmixed and used directly from the tube. Technique changes between broken divisionism and pure flat areas.


André Derain, Woman with chemise, 1906. Oil on canvas.

André Derain, Pool of London, 1906. Oil on canvas.

97 Look at the two examples of paintings by the South African artist Walter Battiss who was influenced by Rock Art but also by the work of Fauvists he saw in Europe. Identify the Fauvistic characteristics in these two artworks.

 

  SEA SWALLOWS, WALTER BATISS.

WALTER BASITSS, CHILD PLAYING,

“What I dream of is an art of balance or purity and serenity devoid of troubling or depressing subject matter, an art which might be something like a good armchair in which to rest from mental or physical fatigue”, - Henri Matisse WHO WAS MATISSE? Henri Matisse (1869 – 1954) was the most important Fauve artist and one of the masters of modern art. Matisse began adult life as a lawyer, then he studied art under the teacher Moreau who encouraged him to follow his own direction and to simplify his work. As a young man he was influenced by the colour theories of Seurat’s technique of divisionism as can be seen in Lux, Calme et Volupte (1904). Matisse soon found this way of working too rigid, and under the influence of Gauguin’s large flat areas of intense colour he began to paint those works, which are now, called Fauvist. Although Matisse’s paintings seem spontaneous, he actually worked very slowly and laboriously. He used a long process of continual small adjustments of colour and shape until he achieved exactly the harmonious balance he wanted. His subject matter is still life, interiors of rooms (often with a view outside seen through the window) and the female form. His work came increasingly simplified as he got older. For much of his life he lived in an apartment overlooking the sea in the French coastal town of Nice. His art reflects his life, the view inside his apartment and the view outside his window. Although he lived through both world wars in this century this experience is not reflected in his art. As an old man, confined to a wheelchair after abdominal surgery, he invented a new form of art – the paper cut-out. Using brilliant coloured paper he cut and glued large shapes to create vibrant semiabstract works, e.g. The Snail (1953)

Henri Matisse, Luxe, Calme, et Volupté, 1904. Oil on canvas.

Henri Matisse, Joy of Life, 1906. Oil on canvas.

Henri Matisse, the snail, 1953. Collage. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

98 Examples of Henri Matisse’s work This is a portrait of Mrs Matisse shown in an unconventional way. This work caused a shock at the Autumn Salon of 1905 with its crass, bright and intense colour. Bright turquoise, pink and red are placed next to each other in flat areas without tonal modeling. The most “shocking” element is the green stripe in the middle of the face. Not even Gauguin would have dared to distort so deliberately. Colour is freely applied without any reference to reality. Matisse, however, was a thoughtful painter as can be seen in the orange area in the background moving forward, while the green recedes creating an ambiguous space. This is not a traditional portrait, but a new way of creating, focusing on a twodimensional portrayal. This work was criticized as being “an insult to women”. Matisse is said to have replied to this criticism that he did not paint women, but pictures.

Henri Matisse, The Green Stripe, 1905. Oil on canvas.

Henri Matisse, Harmony in Red, 1908. Oil on canvas.


Hormony in Red: A maid with a white apron is busy arranging fruit on a stand. Through the window is a view of plants, trees and a small house. The subject is not radical, but the treatment of it is. Everything is simplified and colour is used to show shape, space and line. A single unmodulated area of red defines the space of the interior with an overall blue pattern on it. Matisse flattens space by painting the house in the distance the same bright pink as inside. Although abandoning formal perspective, Matisse used a few minor perspective touches such as the frame of the window, the chair in the left foreground and the way in which the arabesques forms on the table curve around its edges. He created a new world of pictorial space through colour and line. It is not a naturalistic painting, but an arrangement of shape, line and colour. It is not an emotional discharge of emotion, but a highly intellectual work with thought having been applied to every area.

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There is a long tradition of reclining nude paintings in Western art. One of the most famous is the Rokeby Venus by Velazquez. Although Matisse used the traditional subject matter of a reclining nude, his handling of the subject was revolutionary. Discuss why Matisse’s handling was revolutionary by referring to the following: • Influences of Non-Western art • Use of formal elements such as line and shape. • Composition • Style • Technique • Possible meaning/interpretation

Diego Velazquez, Rokeby Venus, 1647 -51. Oil on canvas.

Henri Matisse, Blue Nude Figure, 1907. Oil on canvas.


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Expressionism

Germany: 1905 – 1914

“The Germans really are a strange lot. They make life unnecessarily difficult for themselves by looking for deep thoughts and putting them into everything”. - Goethe

The concept, expressionism, is a permanent tendency in art. The artist portrays his own emotional reaction in a highly individual style where a free distortion of shape and colour take place. Expressionism often occurred in times of tension when the individual wants to show his own feelings. Expressionism with a capitol letter is the specific German art of the early twentieth century. Influences on Expressionism • Van Gogh, as the typical expressionistic artist that worked according to his subjective feelings, had a strong influence on German Expressionism. His passionate distortion of nature, strong use of colour, linear brushwork and compassion for his fellow man, influenced the Expressionists. • Non-western cultures were also influential as the Expressionists viewed these arts as excluding the superficiality of art in Western society. African masks were an important influence, because it was felt that they were created in a more pure society. • They were also influenced by the art of children and the mentally ill who offer direct expression of emotions. • The Germanic character: Expressionistic art throughout the ages is strongly evident in the Germanic countries, because of an inherent character for searching behind appearances. (French art, on the other hand, was more involved with appearances and the pure solution of formal elements as in Impressionism and Cubism. There was for instance no real impressionistic tradition in Germany.) Past artists such as Dürer and Grünewaldt are examples of emotional expressionists and the German Expressionists carried on in this tradition. German history in the twentieth century is one of tension and division. The unstable political, social and economic climate before the First World War was thus an excellent breeding ground for expressionism. • Edvard Munch was also an important influence because of his violent distortions of colour and shape to give form to emotional states. German Expressionism can be divided into two groups: • Die Brücke • Der Blaue Reiter


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Die Brücke, 1905 – 1913. Dresden The purest form of German Expressionism Background In 1905 three young architectural students, Kirchner, Schmidt-Rottluff en Heckel, formed the association known as Die Brücke in Dresden. They chose the name “the bridge” to link all revolutionary elements, as well as Paris and Dresden. They rented an old butcher shop where they worked together and printed several publications on their ideas. They shared the same view on art and life, rather than specific aims. Every member was free to work according to his initiative. In 1911 they moved to Berlin and dissolved their group on the eve of the First World War. Artists included Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, Emil Nolde, Erich Heckel, Max Pechstein and Otto Mueller. Characteristics of Die Brücke Themes • Die Brücke criticized their social conditions. The content (message) of the work was important, rather than the formal elements. • Their art was a very personal art portraying strong individual feelings • It is an angst-ridden art with underlying themes such as hate, jealousy, love etc. Colour • Initially they used strong primary and secondary colours, but their colours became increasingly more somber and dark. • Their strong colour contrast portrayed conflicts in life. Harsh and strong colours such as yellow, red, green and black were used non-naturalistically.

Erich Heckle, Glassy day, 1913. Oil on canvas.


102 Shape • The emphasis on emotion led to their simplified and distorted shapes. The works seem to be unfinished because of the distortion. Figures are unnaturally distorted, often thin and elongated. • Shapes are often outlined with a strong dark colour. • A Gothic angularity with jagged shapes developed to express emotion • Often many figures are crowded claustrophobically into the picture space. Space is unrealistic, and diagonal lines often stretch from the foreground to the background. Brushwork • Broad, free brushstrokes are created by emotion. • Spontaneous works create a new “barbaric” beauty. • Very linear; brushstrokes are the evidence of the artist’s emotion. • Paint is applied freely and roughly, as if in haste, and often very thickly. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Girl before a Mirror, 1913. Oil on canvas.

The emphasis on the expression of personal emotion make their best works very powerful and lively, while poorer works may seem to be unfinished and without shape. The members of Die Brücke were interested in the Gothic period of art history and they deliberately tried to reproduce the atmosphere of the mediaeval craftsman guild in their association. They made many woodcuts, and when it came to painting, they used the same harsh angular lines produced in woodcuts.

Erich Heckel, Portrait of a Man, 1919. Coloured woodprint. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Emil Nolde, Prophet, 1912. Woodprint.

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WHO WAS Kirchner? Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880 – 1938) was a German expressionist painter and printmaker and one of the founder members of Die Brücke. He was drafted into the army in 1915. His brief experience of fighting in the First World War led to a nervous breakdown, and he spent the next few years in sanatoriums and clinics. In 1918 Kirchner moved to Switzerland where he continued to paint and at the same time battle extreme depression. Like many other expressionist artists of the time Kirchner’s art was tragically included in the Nazi Exhibition of degenerate art in 1937 and over 500 of his priceless works were destroyed. This caused Kirchner even further depression and in 1938 he committed suicide.

The German artist creates his form out of the imagination, inner vision, and the forms of visible nature are to him only symbols… he sees behind things - Ernst Ludwig Kirchner When Kirchner moved to Berlin in 1911 he started with a series of street scenes that are some of the best examples of die Brücke. In these works Kirchner satirizes the rich who, as Germany totters on the brink of war, think only of parading their finery in the streets. These years were a time of emotional conflict for him that can be seen in his expressionistic works often characterized by jagged angular structures.

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Street scene in Berlin, 1913.Oil on canvas.

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Women in the street, 1913. Oil on canvas.


104 Five women in the street: Kirchner shows his fascination with the dark side of the city in this work. The theme is five women, probably prostitutes, in a street. There is no interaction between these figures, as each is alone in its space. The colours are somber, black, acid-yellow and acid-green. The women seem to be like birds of paradise in an artificial light. The shape is strongly expressionistic and the angularity was influenced by Cubism, as well as Gothic art. In this vertical composition, the women confront the viewer and there is no escape into empty areas. Foreground and background become one through shape and colour. The content is important – Kirchner shows us five women without any interaction between them, they seem to be like ghosts drifting in the modern world. All that is left for them is their grotesque parading in their best finery. It is an extremely personal work with a strong social message of modern man caught up in an inhuman city environment.

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Five women in the Street, 1913.Oil on canvas.

Self-portrait as a soldier: Kirchner’s brief experience of fighting in the First World War led to a nervous breakdown, and he spent the next few years in sanatoriums and clinics. In this work he expresses his attitude towards the war showing his identity crisis and sense of despair. He depicts himself with an amputated hand which is significantly his right – painting – hand. He is holding up the gangrene stump of one hand and the strange hook of the other. It shows his psychological suffering and his struggle to continue his work as an artist under those conditions. The severed hand becomes a symbol of his dead creativity and psychological state. It shows his vulnerability and injured soul, obviously having viewed the horrors of war and his anticipation of his self destruction. Kirchner is shown in his military uniform.


Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Self-portrait as a soldier, 1915.Oil on canvas.

105 Self-portrait with model: He has turned away from the nude in the background and is looking towards us. However, he cannot establish any eye contact, because his eyes are empty, hollow and dead. Strange forms and shapes loom up behind him and his eyes look into the future with opaque despair. He stretches forth the bloody stump of his right arm, while at the same time trying to keep his balance by clutching at the back of a chair. The painting is dominated by glowing red colours, and the aggressive impact is further enhanced by the contrast with the black uniform. The female nude is a typical motif in Kirchner’s work, but he is turning away from the figure as his world has become fragmented and threatening. He is unable to paint her. Compare this work with his earlier Self-portrait with model (1905) where he is shown with his painting tools and there is an almost sexual tension between the painter and the model.

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Self-portrait with model, 1905. Oil on canvas.

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Emil Nolde, despite being older than the rest, was invited to join Die Brücke in 1906. He was only a member for one year, because of his introspective personality. Write a visual analysis on Nolde’s The Last supper by discussing the following: • His interpretation of the subject and possible meanings/ interpretations. • Use of formal elements such as colour and form. • Composition • Technique • Why this is a good example of expressionism in art? Emil Nolde, The Last supper, 1909. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Der Blaue Reiter, 1911 – 1914. Munich “Expressing the spiritual in art” Background Der Blaue Reiter was an association of artists founded in Munich in 1911 by Kandinsky and Marc. They published an almanac of essays and illustrations to explain their art theories. They invented the name because they both liked blue, Marc liked horses and Kandinsky liked riders. On the cover of this publication was a semi-abstract drawing of a rider in black and blue. Their aim was the expression of inner spirituality through a variety of shapes. The group ended with the death of Marc and Macke during the First World War. Where Die Brücke was the purest form of German Expressionism, Der Blaue Reiter was more international and the most important manifestation of modernism in Germany before 1914. Artists included Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc and August Macke. Characteristics of Der Blaue Reiter • They believed in an art that expresses the inner and spiritual life. • They believed in experimenting.

• Der Blaue Reiter was more international e.g. Marc was influenced by Cubism. • Although emphasis was also placed on emotion, their work was more planned than Die Brücke. Themes • Lyrical, romantic, spiritual and sometimes abstract. • They wanted to express what Kandinsky called the “inner necessity”. • There was no real social commentary. Colour • They experimented with the emotional use of colour and excluded somber colours. Shape • They experimented with shapes and distorted shapes to express emotion. Brushwork • A variety of brushstrokes were used with an emphasis on the process of painting. • Lines created by brushstrokes were important as an expression of the artist’s personality.

Franz MarC, Blue Horse, 1911. Oil on canvas.


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WHO WAS MARC? Franz Marc (1880 –1916) was one of the founding members of Der Blaue Reiter. He died during the battle of Verdun in the First World War.

Today we are searching for things in nature that are hidden behind the veil of appearance... We look for and paint this inner, spiritual side of nature - Franz Marc

Franz Marc, Blue Horses, 1911. Oil on canvas.

Marc was the most romantic of the German Expressionist painters. Marc wished in his paintings to contrast the sordid reality of man’s life with the natural beauty of the animal world. He looked to nature for the harmony he was seeking. He was a pantheist so the animal was seen as a symbol of innocence and goodness. The animal is thus a symbol of the utopia that man has lost. The three brilliant blue horses are modeled sculpturally contrasting with the equally vivid reds, greens and yellows of the landscape. Marc has used an extremely close-up view,

with the bodies of the horses filling most of the canvas. Marc saw colour as symbolic: blue was masculine, spiritual and symbolic of hope, yellow was feminine, gentle, serene and sensual, and red was brutal and represented the earth, brutal and heaviness. The horizon line is high; the curves of the red hills repeat the lines of the horses’ curving flanks. Although the modeling of the horses gives them the effect of sculptural relief, there is no real spatial differentiation between the animals and the environment.

WHO WAS KANDINSKY? Wassily Kandinsky (1866 – 1944) was born in Russia and studied law in Moscow. He went to Munich to become a painter at the age of 30. He was one of the founders of Der Blaue Reiter. He later taught at the Bauhaus School from 1922 until the Nazi’s closed it in 1933. He then moved to France where he lived the rest of his life. He is credited with creating the first abstract art work.

“Of all the arts, abstract painting is the most difficult. It demands that you know how to draw well, that you have a heightened sensitivity of composition and for colour, and that you be a true poet. This last is essential”, - Wassily Kandinsky


108 In 1910 Kandinsky created the first abstract watercolour. One of his influences was an exhibition of Monet’s Haystack-series he saw in Moscow. This made him realised that a subject was unnecessary and that only colour, shapes and lines can create a painting. Kandinsky said abstract art is like music and that by using only the art elements in a non-naturalistic way, emotions can be evoked in the viewer.

Kandinsky, First Abstract Painting, 1910, Watercolour.

Wassily Kandinsky, Composition V, 1911. Oil on canvas.

“Colour is the keyboard, the eyes the hammers; the soul is the piano with many strings.” His titles were taken from music as in Improvisations where he approached the canvas with no preconceived theme, but allowed the colours to come as they would, prompted by unconscious feelings.


In these works the brilliant colour flow across the canvas with as little conscious control or order on the artist’s part as possible. With Kandinsky art was completely liberated from the need to describe the real world for the first time.

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• Explain why this painting is abstract. • Why do you think Kandinsky named it Improvisation? Briefly explain his method of creating the work? • How does one discuss an abstract painting? Discuss the use of line, form and colour, in this work. • What feelings and/or atmosphere does this work convey? • Do you like it or not? Explain your answer.

Wassily Kandinsky, Improvisation on Klamm, 1914. Oil on canvas.

The Expressionistic figure Munch (1863 – 1944), was a Norwegian artist who was an important forerunner of expressionist art with his neurotic emotional subjects. According to him “death and insanity were the angels at my cradle”. His work portrayed themes of love, fear, death and his own spiritual angst through violent distortions of colour and shape.

Egon Schiele, Selfportrait, 1910. Watercolours and ink.

Schiele (1890 – 1918) was an Austrian artist who lived a short and tragic life, dying in the flu epidemic of 1918. His drawings and paintings are characterized by their intensity, twisted body shapes and the use of expressive lines. Edvard Munch, The Scream, 1899. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

110 Kokoschka (1886 - 1980) was an Austrian artist whose psychological portraits show his passionate search for the inner sensibility. This painting speaks of the emotional storms and insecurities in a relationship with the twisting brush strokes and ribbons of colour.

Oskar Kokoschka, Bride of the Wind, 1914. Oil on canvas.

Kollwitz (1867 –1945) was a German artist, whose work portrays an expressive and intense account of the human condition, especially of the poor and figures in war.

Käthe Kollwitz, Mother with Dead Child, 1945. Etching.

PENNY SIOPIS, SHAME SERIES.

Siopis is a South African artist who has become interested in biography, race and gender in expressions of the “Human Tableau.” Her Shame series challenges abuse in society.


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4

Cubism

France: 1907 – 1914 Background Cubism was developed by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque between 1907 and 1914. Up until about 1925 many artists were working in variations of Cubism. Cubism was an important and radical art revolution in the 20th century. Since the Renaissance artists worked perceptually, where the eye rules and the artwork is naturalistic, a window upon the world with depth created by perspective. As you have seen, this idea was challenged in different ways by artists since Impressionism, for example by creating emotional responses (van Gogh, German Expressionists). Kandinsky created abstract paintings unrelated to the natural world, by expressing his spiritual side. Fauvism liberated colour from its descriptive use. Cubism, however, presented a real change by working conceptually. The brain rules and the Cubist artist is concerned with what he knows. For instance he knows the table has four legs, so he shows all of them. The flatness of the painting is emphasized with no traditional depth as if the shapes are presented on a tray. It is not a ‘new’ way of making art, because many non-western cultures have worked with ideas, rather than portraying visual appearances such as in African Art. Artists: Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque developed Cubism. They were later joined by Juan Gris. INFLUENCES • African art Both Picasso and Braque collected African masks. The African sculptor approaches his subject in a conceptual way; ideas about his subject are more important to him than a naturalistic depiction of it, so he is led to forms that are more stylized and simplified. Picasso and Braque took over this idea of working conceptually. Four rectangular shapes in a triangle represent a face. It does not describe the differences between people, but is rather a universal representation of man. Look at other examples of carved African masks and figures to establish support for this statement. Cubism used a similar approach to the African artist – what you KNOW about a subject is more important than what you see. • Cézanne was one of the major influences on Cubism with his ideas of numerous viewpoints and the underlying structure (cone, cylinder and sphere) of things. His ideas about the flatness of painting and the emphasis on the two-dimensional were also influential.

Mask in BaPende Style, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Wood, pigment and vegetable fiber.


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Pablo Picasso, Les demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907. Oil on canvas

This is arguably the most important painting of the twentieth century, because of the influence this work had. The influence of African Art is transformed into a new “art language” in this painting. Five yellow and pink nudes are shown in a flat space. The figure on the left is in profile and is painted in an Egyptian style. The two figures in the middle show an influence of ancient Iberian sculpture with their faces frontal, but their noses in profile. It is however the two figures on the right that show the influence of African Art. The most important figure is the one on the right where Picasso used simultaneous viewpoints (it is seen simultaneously from the back, front and side

positions.) It is as if he walked around the figure and synthesized all the images in one. This represents the break with traditional perspective and will lead to the Cubist use of simultaneous vision. There is no illusion of deep space. The figures remain flat and accentuate the flatness of the painting surface. The figures and the background are integrated and create an ambiguous flat space. This was the first step to create Cubism, but it is not a Cubist painting. Both the subject matter and the technique, with its often savage, expressionistic use of paint, were to prove alien to the Cubist aesthetics. What is important is that this is conceptual, rather than perceptual.

The development of Cubism Cubism can be divided into three phases, namely: • Cézanne phase • Analytical Phase • Synthetic Phase Cézanne phase, 1907 - 1909 In this phase Picasso and Braque worked individually. In this Cézanne’s influence was taken further to a conceptual recreating of different viewpoints and a break-up of forms into sharp, angular shapes. Georges Braque, Houses at L’Estague, 1908. Oil on canvas VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

113 In 1908 Braque made a pilgrimage to L’Estaque, a favourite haunt of Cézanne’s. The influence of Cézanne is strong but is taken further to produce a more conceptual, disciplined and geometric kind of painting. Forms have been drastically simplified, and in this painting a whole series of devices has been adopted to negate the sense of recession that is almost necessarily implicit in the subject. Buildings, rocks and trees are piled on top of each other rather than arranged behind each other. They generally reach the top of the canvas so that the eye is left no escape into a limitless space beyond. Atmospheric and tonal recession are deliberately canceled, and objects

supposedly furthest from the eye are given exactly the same value as those in the foreground; there is no single light source, and lights and darks are arbitrarily juxtaposed. The colours used are monochromatic so that they do not interfere with his other investigations. This is a cool intellectual work where every part is planned. There is a feeling of solidity, as if one can pick up the houses and trees. There is still a link with naturalism, but in an extremely simplified manner so that the houses are transformed into basic rectangular shapes. See also Picasso’s The Factory, Horta de Ebro, 1909

Analytical Cubism, 1910 - 1911 (Analytical means to break up) Braque and Picasso realized that they were moving in the same direction and decided to work together. Each subordinated his individuality and it is often difficult to distinguish between their works from this period. Picasso’s concern with shape is linked with Braque’s more painterly approach and his interest in space. • Themes were still-lifes and portraits. • Simultaneity was used. The subject was examined and painted from a multiplicity of viewpoints. (“I know the table has four sides, so I show them all at the same time.”) Because they show different viewpoints, it feels as if one has “walked” around the subject and the concept of time is introduced. • Space was flattened. The distinction between background and foreground virtually disappears. • They were involved in the process of visual investigation – the canvas is flat and they emphasized this. • The subjects painted and the space around them were broken up (therefore analytic) into small geometrically shaped areas or facets. • Because of these investigations, they did not want to be seduced by colour and used a restricted palette of ochres, browns and greens. • To enrich the surface, they used broken brushstrokes which also distinguished between facets. • These paintings are difficult to “read”. They started to give “clues” to the subject e.g. a lock of hair, a row of buttons etc. • At the end of Analytic Cubism the facets become smaller and smaller and the painting becomes a complex grid or scaffolding of vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines from which the facets were hung. • There is an integration of foreground with background. • They started to also use oval shaped canvasses.

Photo of Khanweiler.

Pablo Picasso, Portrait of Khanweiler, 1910. Oil on canvas.

ANALYTICAL CUBISM WAS ALWAYS BASED ON REALITY. Later on the subject became difficult to recognize. Picasso and Braque did not want to work abstractly, therefore the clues and later, the stenciled letters, gave clues to the subject, as well as enriching the surface. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

114 The Portuguese: The work is presumably based on a guitar player Braque saw in a bar in Marseilles. The two important corner stones of Cubism can be clearly seen in this work – the formal analyses of form through multiple viewpoints and the integration of the figure with space. There is no deep space so foreground and background are equally important. The presence of the figure is visible through the concentration of geometric facets in the middle. There is no focal point and the facets are manipulated over the whole surface of the canvas so that the figure playing the guitar becomes a pattern of tilted and interlocked planes. Clues are the sound-hole and the strings of the instrument. Brushstrokes are small-modeled strokes to distinguish between the different facets. Colour is restricted to dull greens, grays, browns and ochres. The letters BAL are stenciled onto the painting. The following three analytical Cubist works by Picasso show the development of the Analytical phase.

Georges Braque, The Portuguese, 1911. Oil on canvas.

Pablo Picasso, Girl with a Mandolin, 1910. Oil on canvas.


Pablo Picasso, Ambroise Vollard, 1910. Oil on canvas.

Pablo Picasso, Ma Jolie, 1911 – 1912, Oil on canvas.

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Synthetic cubism, 1912 – 1914 and later Picasso and Braque were joined by Juan Gris. • The discovery of collage and paper collé was important. Collage was first used when Picasso glued a piece of paper onto his canvas in 1908. • Analytical Cubism worked from reality, but their art was increasingly becoming abstract and difficult to read. They wanted a link with reality. It has to be considered whether the painted part creates an illusion while the collaged newspaper and menu refer to reality. • The first Cubist collage was Picasso’s Still life with Chair Caning, 1912. Picasso glued a piece of oilcloth to the work. It has a printed pattern of woven seat caning, which indicates the whole chair. The work is framed with real rope. • Their method of working was now different to the Analytical phase. They first glued the pieces of paper to the canvas creating a free composition. Then reality was introduced. Contours were not the same. For instance when a bottle was drawn onto a piece of green paper, we know the bottle to be green even if its shape differs from the green paper. • Their method was synthetic – a synthesis or combination of different elements. Meaning was introduced later e.g. a piece of brown paper became a guitar through the lines on it. • The picture plane became less complex. • Areas of colour evolved in contrast to the extreme faceting of the Analytical phase. • Colour is re-introduced. • A very flat space is presented. • A variety of textures e.g. collage, wood graining etc., is introduced. • Different media e.g. collage, plaster of paris etc., enriched surface the surface. • No illusionist space was created. • Subject matter is virtually exclusively stilllifes.

Georges Braque, Violin and Newspaper Musical forms, 1912. Charcoal and oil.

Pablo Picasso, Violin with fruit, 1913. Collage


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Pablo Picasso, Still life with Chair Caning, 1912. Collage.

Still life with chair caning: The discovery of collage was important in this phase. In this work Picasso glued a piece of oilcloth to the work, on which is printed a pattern of woven seat caning, which represents the whole chair. On it he painted an analytical still-life. The work is framed with real rope. This work offers different ways of representing reality – a real rope, a piece of printed chair caning that looks real, the still-life which combines different viewpoints and the word ‘jou’ referring to a journal (newspaper). The work is a synthesis or combination of different elements. The picture plane became less complex. It has an extremely flat space.

Summary of Cubism: Cubism drew attention to the contradictions involved in depicting a threedimensional scene on a two-dimensional surface. Analytical Cubism broke down real objects into different parts. Synthetic Cubism built up recognizable images from abstract parts using ready-made materials such as newspaper. Cubism always kept a link with reality and was never totally abstract.

3.4


Do you understand Cubism? Divide your page into three columns and discuss how these three works illustrate each phase. Use the following headings: • Subject matter • Colour • Form • Space • Technique

Cézanne phase

Analytical phase

Synthetic phase

Georges Braque, Houses at L’Estaque, 1908. Oil on canvas. Georges Braque, The Portuguese, 1911. Oil on canvas.


Georges Braque, Violin and Newspaper Musical forms, 1912. Charcoal and oil.

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The influence of Cubism Cubism had a major influence on art in the twentieth century. Many styles such as Orphism, Purism, Russian Constructivism, Futurism, etc. were variations influenced by Cubism. Cubism had a major influence on the development of 20th century art in architecture, sculpture, painting (formalism and abstraction), as well as in the applied arts such as typography, furniture design etc.

Robert Delauney, Eiffel Tower, 1914. Oil on canvas. Fernand Leger, Soldier with pipe, 1916. Oil on canvas.

3.5


We have seen how Pablo Picasso developed Cubism with Georges Braque, but as you will see in the next piece he was much more than a Cubist. For a great part of the 20th century he was maybe the most famous artist in the world. Although many loved his work, he was also ridiculed as his work was not always understood. Choose ten works from his vast oeuvre and design a PowerPoint presentation for your class with notes on each work. See that you cover a range of works from different periods and media. If you do not have access to PowerPoint present the slideshow in your book (photocopies with written commentary). You may decide to work in groups.


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WHO WAS PICASSO?

“Every child is an artist. The problem is how to remain an artist once he grows up.”

Pablo Picasso (1881 – 1973) was a Spanish born painter who spend most of his life in France. He was one of the greatest artists of the 20th century who co-developed Cubism, but also worked in a wide variety of styles that had a profound influence on other artists. He is known not only for his paintings, but also for his drawings, prints, sculptures, - Pablo Picasso ceramics and stage designs. Picasso became a legend in his time known for the enormous output of works. He was above all an innovator who moved between styles.

Self-portrait, 1972

Weeping Woman, 1937.


Blue Guitar Player, 1903.

Guernica, 1937.

Harlequin Family with Ape, 1905.

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5

Futurism

1909 - 1914. Milan, Italy Background In 1909 the poet and publisher Fillippo Tommaso Marinetti wrote the First Futurist Manifesto and had it published in Le Figaro newspaper in France. Marinetti felt that the vast burden of Italy’s past was too inhibiting and that Italy was not in touch with modern life. His aim with the manifest was to bring Italy in line with modern life and to create a plan for cultural development. The name Futurism was chosen to express positive feelings about modern technology. Futurism was the first of the modern movements where the IDEA behind the STYLE was important. In the First Futurist Manifesto Marinetti proclaimed statements such as: • “We will glorify war – the only true hygiene of the world!” • “When called a mad man, bear the title with pride and dignity”. • “We will sing the great masses agitated by work, pleasure and revolt”. • “the splendour of the world has been enriched by a new kind of beauty, the beauty of speed. A racing car adorned with great pipes like serpents with explosive breath… is more beautiful than the Nike of Samothrace”.

Nike of Samothrace, Greek Hellenism

A racing car from the period VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Russolo, Carra, Marinetti, Boccioni and Severini in 1912

Marinetti gathered a few artists to express his ideas. They included Umberto Boccioni, Giacoma Balla, Gino Severini, Carlo Carra and Luigo Russolo. Boccioni wrote the Manifesto for Futuristic Painters which declared among other things: “All links with the past must be broken; museums, libraries etc. are like cemeteries and must be destroyed. All forms of imitation must be held in contempt and all forms of originality should be glorified. That we should rebel against the tyranny of the words harmony and good taste. That a clean-sweep should be made of all stale and threadbare subjectmatter in order to express the vortex of modern life– a life of steel, fever, pride and headlong speed.” A new art for a new age.” Futurism was the first cultural movement of the twentieth century. They wanted to influence the masses and make them conscious of the modern technological age with its telephones, trains, cars, airships and planes; and its influence on the human mind. Everything changes constantly and one should be conscious of this change. They held Futuristic Evenings with noise music and plays (“Happenings”), explaining their theories to the audience. People flocked to these events and violence often occurred between the audience and the Futurists. Once when tomatoes were thrown at them, they yelled, “rather throw an idea!” Characteristics of Futurism Futurism was an anti-movement and was against conventionality, feminism, romanticism, softness, passivity and old art. They were for violence and maleness. They were aggressive, strong, rough and active. Their themes were violence, speed, technology but mainly movement. Machinery and technology inspire a lot of imagery. Most of the subject matter is of city-life and street life. Futurism was an IDEA BEFORE IT WAS A STYLE. The movement started with ideas which they wanted to express. The problem was how to express them.


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Umberto Boccioni, The city rises, 1910 – 12. Oil on canvas.

The Futurists wanted everything in their paintings to move, therefore “a galloping horse has not got four legs, it has twenty”. Initially they used a divisionistic technique well known in Italy coming from Impressionism and Neo-Impressionism. In The City Rises, the disintegration of form was a logical way to show movement. By disintegrating light, colour and form energy is be shown which also enlivens the painted surface. Foreground and background are integrated in this enormous painting that shows the construction of an industrial city. The energy and force is symbolized by large horses straining in harness, controlled by heroic labourers whose figures dominate the foreground. There are no empty spaces in this work. The flickering images let the colours blur into each other. Shapes are indistinct where light and movement dissolve the solidity of objects.

Using the Impressionistic techniques of divisionism was not very new or futuristic. They therefore turned for inspiration to the portrayal of sequential movement seen in the work of photographers such as the 19th century photographer, Edward Muybridge. Dynanism of a dog on a leash: In this work Balla shows movement by the blurring of legs in the portrayal of the fashionable lady walking her dachshund (the sports car of the dog world). It was however still the subject matter rather than the style of their work which was new. Severini, who had for some time been working in Paris, insisted that it was essential for the group to familiarize themselves with recent developments, such as Cubism. So they went to Paris to get a firsthand view. Back in Milan they worked feverishly, bravely re-orientating their efforts in accord with what they had learned from Cubism. They did not copy Cubism, but applied it to their ideas and used it in combination with divisionism. Whereas one finds a centralized image in Cubism, the Futurists disperse forms all over the canvas to portray movement. They took the fragmentation of forms, linear framework and use of letters and numbers from Cubism, but they used it for a different aim, (speed, movement and the portraying of modern life) and threrfore it differs from Cubism.

Giacomo Balla, Dynamism of a dog on a leash (1912)


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Gino Severeni, The Dynamic Hieroglyphics of the Bal Tabarin, 1912.

Carlo Carra, Patriotic celebration, 1914.

Futurism is an example of a style in favour of the modern technological society. It was not only a fine arts movement, but also a literary and musical movement. Typical of Modernism is the glorification of the future and the stance against the past. The “brief but violent earthquake of Futurism” came to an end with World War 1. (Boccioni fell off his horse during a cavalry exercise in 1916 and died!) To quote Marinetti: “Spaghetti is no food for fighters!”

Boccioni, Unique forms of continuity in space (1913) Bronze This figure with its flame-like, wing-like muscles and joints shows modern man as a machine striding towards the future.


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At the time of the art movements discussed in this chapter the fashion was for huge, broad brimmed hats, trimmed with masses of feathers and even complete stuffed birds (for those who could afford them), or decorated with ribbons and artificial flowers. This fashion was reflected in artists’ portraits of the time. Test your knowledge of the following styles; Fauvism, German Expressionism, Cubism and Futurism by identifying the correct style for the works below. Give at least three good reasons to motivate your choice of style by referring to characteristics of the specific style as can be seen in the work.

FIG. A

5

FIG. B

FIG. C

FIG. D


“Sometimes my friends in Europe asked me if I didn’t miss the South African sun and every time my answer was no-no, not the South African sun but the spaces of the South African landscape. This love of space gives me a free and abandoned feeling. It gives me my vision and therefore in my work I can never be bound to the restriction of photographic impressions.” Maggie Laubser Maggie Laubser was born on a wheat farm in Malmesbury in the Western Cape in 1886. Her decision to become an artist was a radical one as she was raised in a conservative farming community. Laubser, together with artists such as Irma Stern and Bertha Everard, brought a new energy to South African landscape painting. They translated the influence of German Expressionists and the Fauvists into personalised styles that moved away from imitating the visual reality around them. Laubser’s experience of studying art in Europe combined with her intense spiritual convictions shaped her approach to her art. Her painting style developed from painterly plein-air naturalism to a style in which she simplified and stylised forms and used intense non-descriptive colours. This process of liberation from the visual source meant that she created paintings from rudimentary sketches or from memory. Her approach to her painting was therefore to express her creative freedom as an artist. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

124 In Landscape with Sheep her interest in strongly defined simplified forms and extreme colour contrasts are characteristic of the influence of the German Expressionists. They liberated her vision from the imitation of reality. The composition of the painting conveys her attitude of spiritual harmony. Three sheep graze safely in the central foreground. They are surrounded by a large dramatic landscape of soft hills, a barely visible farm homestead, far-off blue mountains and large bulging clouds. Every form in this composition fits in perfectly with the other. The rhythmic use of forms and colours create a feeling of stability and balance. Maggie Laubser, Landscape with Sheep, No Date. Oil on canvas.

The dark outlines around the forms of the sheep, hills, bushes, mountains and clouds contribute to the expressive characteristics of simplification and two-dimensionality The forms that are not outlined are lighter and fade into the surrounding contrasting colours as seen in the clouds. The strong contrast between light and shade on the three sheep draws attention to her simplified interpretation and simplification of their forms. The contrast between light and shade in the rest of the painting is more subtle. The varying light patches throughout the landscape show the typical variations seen in the changing weather that moves across the Western Cape Swartland area. Her application of paint reflects her disregard for realism and expresses instead her sensuous interpretation of the experience of the landscape. The visible soft brush marks indicate the roundness and depth of the forms. Other artworks by Laubser include the following:

Maggie Laubser. The Harversters (Oestyd). No date. Oil.

Maggie Laubser. Self-portrait. 1924. Oil. Maggie Laubser. In the Highlands, Scotland. 1924. Oil on board. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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J.H. Pierneef J.H. Pierneef was the son of a Dutch builder who settled in Pretoria and married an Afrikaans woman. After leaving South Africa together with his family when the Anglo-Boer War broke out, Pierneef studied at the Rotterdam Academy and had the opportunity to see a wide variety of European artworks. In 1902 the family returned to South Africa. Pierneef visited Europe again in 1925. During this visit, the light effects and colour use of the Impressionists and the Post-Impressionists impressed him. He was also intensely influenced by the artist Willem van Konijnenburg who combined his theories of mathematical proportion, linear rhythm and simplified form. Pierneef experimented with the use of geometrical forms and structures in compositions over the next ten years. Although he also experimented with Impressionist techniques and colours, his primary interest was to create artworks that expressed monumental order and harmony. In works such as Study in Blue, he employs the formal approach that conveys the logic of composition. Pierneef did not only divide the composition geometrically, but also translated the forms in the landscape into a system of related rectangles, triangles and circles. This geometric interpretation was further simplified by using a limited variety of colours. The stylisation in these works is not related to Cubism. It is formalised decorative interpretation of the landscape. Pierneef, Study in Blue, 1928. Oil.

Pierneef, The Kloof, Rustenburg, 1929-32. Oil.

Of his later works, the series of 32 mural panels commissioned by government for the Johannesburg Railway Station shows the influences of the earlier experimentation. In this group of works he was constrained in terms of the size, format, and colour schemes due to the placement of the works in a public environment. He planned each composition according to the principles of compositional design, harmony and balance. One of the paintings in this series is entitled The Kloof, Rustenburg. This popular recreational resort is also one of the oldest towns in the old Transvaal and therefore had an important role in the province’s history. The Kloof was also a popular landscape with Pierneef, who made several paintings of it. The science of orderly design is not immediately revealed in this version of the Kloof. It is clearly an exercise in structural analysis with the strong outlines that emphasise form, the defined colour contrasts and the smooth application of paint.


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The texture of the rocks is visible in the depiction of the shadows but everything else is smooth. The painting creates the impression of organised orderliness as seen in the strong circular arch of the clouds which is repeated in the ochre of the earth in the foreground. This painting is set early in the morning and has a variety of light effects. He used the strong light on the mountain ridges in the background to contrast with the shaded middle ground. His dramatic light contrasts and lack of human or animal presence is typical of all his landscapes. The square format of the panels used for the Railway Sation commission forced Pierneef to use his interest in monumental order to the fullest. He created all the compositions within a circle that filled the square of the board. The squares were divided into 8 quarters. By using this geometric guideline, he structured the compositions as evenly balanced as possible. Pierneef ’s methodical planning methods, stylised and decorative painting style and use of harmonious pastel colours resulted in a formalist style of painting that was new to the South African art scene in the early 1900’s. His work places him within the innovative modernist tradition that originated in Fauvism, Cubism and German Expressionism. Other artworks by Pierneef include the following:

Pierneef, Preparatory study for painting of Louis Trichardt, 1929.

Pierneef, Leadwood Trees, 1944. Oil on canvas..

Pierneef, Bosveld, 1931. Woodcut. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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7


“Who sees the human face correctly; the photographer, the mirror, or the painter?” - Pablo Picasso

Maurice Vlaminck, Derain, 1905. Oil on canvas

Erich Heckle, Portrait of a Man, 1919. Coloured woodprint.

Oscar Kokoschka, Self-portrait, 1913. Oil on canvas.

Artists throughout the ages have been fascinated with the human face, not only to record the appearance, but to give a glimpse of what is going on in the mind. As you have seen in this chapter, artists from the early twentieth century developed new ways to portray the human face. These include the arbitrary use of colour, distortion, definite outlines, simplification, flat colour areas and expressive brushwork.

A critic noted that the Cubist portrait resembled ‘a field of broken glass’. The face became fragmented with sharpedged facets to create the idea of simultaneity.

Photo of Wilhelm Uhde, 1906.

Pablo Picasso, Wilhelm Uhde, 1910. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Start with your SOURCE BOOK The following are a few options to investigate in your source book: • Fill a double page in your source book with examples of portraits from the movements you have studied in this chapter, such as Fauvism and Cubism. Remember to label these works by writing the name of the artist and the title. Make small labels to note stylistic characteristics and paste them onto the works. Examples of characteristics would be bright, arbitrary colours and distortion. • Investigate some of the following approaches to portraying a portrait. Use a mirror for a selfportrait or use a class mate as a model. It might be a good idea to draw on large, loose papers. You can then paste them into your source book or leave them as a portfolio of investigations that you can document with photos in your source book. – Use a pen or koki to make a continuous line drawing of the model. Go slowly and concentrate on small details such as the folds in clothing or the texture of the hair. Take colour kokis or paint and colour your drawing using arbitrary colours like the Fauvists did. – Do a series of portraits showing emotions such as joy, anger and depression. Limit your time by drawing for 5, 10, 15 or 20 minutes to force yourself to work quickly to portray the essence of the emotional face. Try using different mediums such as charcoal, an ear bud and ink, a stick and thin paint or a piece of cardboard and thick paint. Choose one of your drawings and add washes of ink, tea or coffee to create tones and atmosphere. – Make a portrait drawing in pencil. Cut the drawing into sharp facets (like pizza-slices). Paste them in a new way on your page. Connect the areas between the facets. Complete your Cubist-inspired drawing by adding tone, texture and pattern. – Investigate the Cubist idea of simultaneity using a model. Start by drawing the model. After about ten minutes change your position and continue drawing the model from this different point of view. Repeat this process so that you get at least four viewpoints. Your problem is to combine the fragments of multiple views into one image. • After all these preparations you must develop your idea to make a final work or series of works on the theme of portrait. Start by making a mind map. Think of whom you would like to portray. You could choose someone that represents your culture. Consider mood and atmosphere, stylistic characteristics, media and techniques. Consider using a different support to work on that relates to the model. For example paint your mother on a dishcloth. Also consider some of the styles and techniques used by artists you have studied in this chapter. • Write your intention for this project and do some thumbnail sketches to investigate composition possibilities. Remember that direct copying of an image not created by you, such as magazine images, is a form of plagiarism and is unacceptable. You can use a live model or take a series of photos of the model or work from your experiments. • Do a final drawing to finalise your composition. • After you have finished this task, you must reflect in writing on the whole process.


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THE BRIEF Your brief is to make a final artwork on the theme of a portrait. You may consider making a series of works. Your art teacher will guide you in this process and may give you further instructions regarding the media, size, technique, etc. Complete your artwork under the guidance of your art teacher. The following are examples of portraits by learners that show influences from the early 20th century styles you have studied in this chapter.


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Portraits painted on handkerchief and old books.


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CHAPTER

4

Architecture CONTENTS 1. Background • Overview of architecture • Architecture of the 19th century • Louis Sullivan • Art Nouveau • Art Deco 2. Frank Lloyd Wright 3. Modernism (International Style) • Influence of De Stijl • Bauhaus • Walter Gropius • Ludwig Mies van der Rohe • Le Corbusier 4. Late Modernism and High Tech • Le Corbusier • Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers • Norman Foster 5. Post Modernism • Michael Graves • Charles Moore 6. Deconstructivism • Frank Gehry 7. Relating to South African art 8. Practical Assessment Task


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TIMELINE of ARCHITECTURE It is often very difficult to give exact dates for movements. The following timelines gives a broad indication of the duration of movements.

1890

1900

1925

1950

1975

2000

Art nouveau

Art Deco

International style (Modernism)

Bauhaus Late-Modernism

Post Modernism

DECON

Deconstructivism


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Ever since prehistoric times, people have built shelters against heat, cold, rain or attack. Architecture is the art of designing and constructing buildings. It reflects a specific period, place or culture. Architecture organises space for human use. You do not have to look at modern paintings or listen to modern music if you do not want to, but if a new building goes up in your neighbourhood, you cannot avoid seeing it.

inspired and inventive e th st, be at is, re ctu ite Arch or, as the Roman ce ien sc d an t ar of ge marria over 2 000 years ago, d ine pla ex s viu tru Vi ct ite arch mmodity, firmness and ‘co s es ss po t us m re ctu ite arch ially conflicting forces nt te po e th e ar e es Th ’. ht delig ncile. Simultaneously a co re to s ha re ctu ite ch ar that nal requirements, must tio nc fu its l lfil fu t us m ing build t be poetic, possesses us m d an ble sta lly ra tu uc be str d engage the intellect an e lam inf g, nin ea m ty, beau ction that fulfills just tru ns co A n. tio ina ag im and quirements is a mere re s’s viu tru Vi of o tw st fir the ssession of the third – po e th , re tu uc str ian ar utilit t spiritually uplifting bu ial nt se es nno lly ra tu struc re into architecture. tu uc str a s rm fo ns tra – ht delig

“The mother art is architecture. Without architecture of our own we have no soul of our own civilization.”

– Frank Lloyd Wright

idenfeld tures in Architecture, We Dan Cruickshank, Adven 2008 &Nicolson, Great Britain,

Tom Wright, Burj Al Arab, Dubai, United Arab emirates, 1999 This luxury hotel stands on an artificial island linked to the mainland by a bridge. Do you think this building fulfills the requirements for architecture as stated in the quote above? VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Architecture of the 19th century

Overview of architectural systems Post and lintel The earliest architectural system invented consists of a series of upright pillars (the posts) which are roofed with a series of horizontal beams made of either tree trunks or from large slabs of stone (the lintels).

Parthenon

Arch The post and lintel system was not effective in roofing large areas so the Romans developed the arch to use in the construction of large buildings.

Coliseum

Vaulting system A complex system of vaults crossing over one another was used to construct the roofs of churches during the Middle Ages. It peaked in the construction of pointed arches so that roofs became higher and the weight of the roof was supported by a system of flying buttresses. Very solid walls were no longer necessary to support the weight of the roof. Chartres cathedral

The architecture of the 19th century is frequently called Victorian Architecture, because it was during this period that Queen Victoria ruled over the British Empire. Characteristics of 19th century architecture • An eclectic borrowing from the vocabulary of architectural styles from the past, and from other areas of the world – the Victorians used Classical Greek and Roman pillars as decorative elements in their buildings, as well as architectural motifs from countries like India which they had colonised. • Buildings display a variety of shape, line, colour and texture – they are intricate rather than simple. • Buildings are covered in decoration which bears no relation to the structure or function of the building. • Colour is used as a decorative element. • There is a great variety of building materials. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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The Paris Opera House, 1861 – 1875, is typical of this period. The building has a domed roof (Ancient Rome), pillars and pediments (Ancient Greece) and is topped with enormous sculptures.

The Brighton Pavilion combines elements of Gothic with the architecture of India (domes and spires).

Glossary

Eclectic means to select or choose from various sources, a combination of styles. Towards the end of the 19th century a number of factors combined to create a new style of architecture for the 20th century: • Continuing industrialisation creates the need for new types of buildings such as railway stations, factories, railway bridges. All of these were buildings had no prototypes because they had not existed before this period in history. • Rapid growth in urban populations gave rise to the need for architects to build upwards. • In the 1890’s electric elevators were invented, essential to transport people up and down multi-storey buildings. • New materials such as cast iron, wrought iron, and most importantly reinforced concrete enabled architects to build in a vocabulary completely different from that of the Victorians. Architects look to engineering for help, and construct pre-fabricated buildings made of cast iron and steel. Small planes of glass were used to fill in the areas between the cast iron skeleton.

The Eiffel Tower designed by Gustave Eiffel, 1889, was built with cast iron, as were railway bridges all over Europe.

The Crystal Palace by William Paxton was a large exhibition hall built for the World Trade Fair held in London in 1851. This large structure was entirely prefabricated in cast iron and glass. It was moved from its original site in London to another where it was reconstructed. It does not exist today because it was destroyed in a fire. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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WHO WAS Louis Sullivan? Louis Sullivan (1856 –1924) was an American architect who has been called the “father of skyscrapers”. He was part of the so-called Chicago School, a school of architects that were active in Chicago at the turn of the twentieth century. America was in the midst of rapid social and economic growth during the second half of the nineteenth century. A much more urbanized society was forming and the society called out for new, larger buildings. The mass production of steel was the main driving force behind the ability to build skyscrapers. The invention of the electrical elevator helped to make these skyscrapers a reality. Sullivan coined the phrase ‘form follows function’, which would become the great battle-cry of modernist architects.

Louis Sullivan, Guaranty building, New York, 1894 – 1895.

Art Nouveau Roughly 1890 – 1905 (Art Nouveau is also known as Jugendstil in Germany, Sezessionstil in Austria and Style Guimard, in France) The name Art Nouveau was taken from a shop opened by the art dealer Samuel Bing in Paris in 1895. He was selling art and objects in this style. Art Nouveau means a ‘new art’ which would break away from the untidy mass produced articles of the late 19th century. It was a romantic and highly decorative style found in Europe and America. In architecture Art Nouveau wanted to break with historicism i.e. using styles from the past like Greek pillars, Roman domes and Gothic arches. Art Nouveau wanted to replace this historicism with a new style, which used organic shapes (shapes from nature), in a sophisticated and decorative way. Art Nouveau drew its inspiration from natural organic shapes that represent growth and movement to create a new style. The free-form curve and whip-lash line became its main characteristic with lines and shapes based on the swan, the peacock, lilies, etc. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Hector Guimard, Metro Entrance, Paris This structure shows the typical organic nature of Art Nouveau, as well as the new possibilities of cast iron.

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Antonio Gaudí The purist form of the Art Nouveau style can be found in the work of the Spanish architect, Antoni Gaudi (1852 – 1926) with his “organic” architecture where the whole building becomes like a piece of sculpture. Gaudi has avoided straight lines completely in this building with its skeletal organic quality and it is known as the bone house. The ground floor, in particular, is filled with tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work. Most of the front is decorated with a mosaic made of broken ceramics. It starts in shades of golden orange moving into greenish blues. The interior space shows the typical organic shapes so characteristic of the Art Nouveau movement. The roof of this building represents Barcelona’s patron Saint St George slaying the dragon of Spain as an expression of their wish for independence. The death mask balconies and bone-like structure symbolise the Barcelona martyrs.

Antonio Gaudí, Casa Battlo Barcelona, Spain1905-1907.

Art nouveau never became part of modernism due to the excessive decoration.

Art Deco 1925-1939 Art Deco got the name from the large Exposition Inter nationale des art decoratifs et industrial modernes, held in Paris in 1925. It is also sometimes known as Traditional Modernism. In the USA it was called the “Jazz Age”. Art deco was an eclectic decorative style that had a range of influences from Cubism and Futurism to different ancient cultures such as Egypt, Aztecs and Chinese. This was mixed with a fascination with speed and technology which resulted in streamlined shapes. Art Deco had a preference for massive angular shapes, strong geometric forms, graphic sharpness and striking colours.

Andrew Mather, Odeon cinema, London, 1936. Art Deco became the ‘popular’ style between the world wars and many cinemas around the world were built in this style that showed the importance of the movie industry as entertainment.


138 At first it was a style for the rich, but after 1925 it spread to a larger market. Art deco had a large influence on architecture between the two world wars and absorbed many influences of Bauhaus and the International style. Although it enjoyed a great deal of popularity it was criticised due to its ornamental appearance. The Chrysler Building is a good example of Art Deco. The spire on the top of the skyscraper has a base composed of seven radiating terraced arches with sharp, pointed triangular windows placed in it, which is designed to imitate the shape of the hubcap of the Chrysler motorcar of the time. Inside this building the doors of the elevators are sumptuously decorated in Art Deco style. They are inlaid with veneers of wood and brass in geometric shapes that symbolize the Egyptian papyrus plant.. On the thirtieth floor is a frieze in brick. This shows an abstract design of cars with decorative wheel caps and huge radiator caps. The gargoyles, visible in the detail in the example, were modeled after Chrysler automobile products like the eagle used as a hood ornament on the Plymouth car. These are placed at the corner of the building and serve as water spouts.Symmetrical balance of windows and other features can be seen in the detail of the Chrysler building.

2 1867 – 1959

Frank Lloyd Wright

William van Alen, The Chrysler Building, 1928 – 30, New York,

“A building should not be on a hill, but of a hill” – Wright

Wright was an American architect born in Wisconsin who designed more than 1,000 structures and completed 500 works. Organic architecture Wright believed in an organic architecture where buildings should integrate in a natural way with the landscape and reflect the needs of the people and the spirit of the time. A building should fit into the landscape as if it grew out of it and must not stand out in strong contrast. The rhythms and patterns of nature, as well as the natural interaction between living organisms and their environment, led to the development of Wright’s organic architecture. Wright believed that form and function should be combined. Traditional Japanese architecture with its dominant wide, low roofs that emphasized the horizontal line influenced him. The architecture of ancient civilizations such as those of the Incas and Aztecs influenced him with their monumentality and harmony with the environment. Wright acknowledged the influence of Louis Sullivan who believed that architecture should be honest. The facades and detail of the building clearly show the intention of the building. Wright received public commissions relatively late in his career and his architectural philosophy and contribution to twentieth century architecture initially comes from his domestic architecture. The typical house at the end of the nineteenth century was like a box divided into smaller boxes, namely the rooms. The rooms were dark and usually connected by a long dark passage. Wright changed this in his so-called Prairie houses. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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The Robie House, 1908, an example of his Prairie houses.

Wright realised that people wanted sunny rooms and open living rooms. He designed a long low asymmetrical house that fitted into the flat landscape of the mid-west of America where he lived. The emphasis was on repeating the horizontal lines of the open prairie plains in the house. The house is about space and movement. The rooms of the house are protected under the low roofs. Each large horizontal roof extends from the core of the building outwards beyond the line of windows and form deep cantilevered overhangs that leads the eye to the distance. The interior also flows out through the terraces. The house becomes one of adjustable space and not a

boxed-in space. “I came to realize that the reality of a building was not the container, but the space within.” Closed inside corners were removed (except where privacy was needed) and consists of glass or freestanding walls that do not meet. Most of the prairie houses had a central core that was higher than the rest of the house, usually a twostorey living room or a fireplace. As part of his philosophy of organic architecture he made use of local materials as far as possible. Wright also believed in using the natural elements of water, earth and fire. The soul or essence of the house is the fireplace (fire). These houses are credited with being the first examples of ‘open-plan’ designs.

“Falling waters” or the Kaufmann House, Bear Run, Pennsylvania, 1936. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

140 For many this is Wright’s most poetic building and it is almost as if the house is dedicated to nature. The house is built on a rocky ledge with a massive rock that penetrates through the floor to form a basis for the fire hearth. Line is used to emphasize the oneness with nature. Horizontal lines can be found in the ferroconcrete balconies. These are repetitive and are also in line with the rock formations below. Vertical lines can be found in the stone columns that shoot upward from the house. These are similar to the surrounding trees that project upward as well. The arrangements of these horizontal and vertical lines run parallel with the surrounding nature and reinforce the idea of harmony with nature. The fireplace is the central core of the house. A waterfall runs under the house and falls over the rocky ledge. There are huge cantilevered beams which flow from the fireplace and direct the eye to the landscape below. This is a remarkable, simple building with a geometric composition of horizontal concrete beams with balconies contrasted against the vertical rock walls. All corners inside the house are dissolved in glass and all interiors are extended over the wide balconies into the landscape. There is a greater structural plasticity than ever before in the cantilevered concrete beams that extend over the small ledge. This whole building is the result of the possibilities of reinforced concrete and steel. The Guggenheim Museum, New York, 1959.

In this public art museum Wright moved away from the straight line to the spiral. Wright believed that the earth is round, so rectangular buildings are foreign. The art museum is a spiral of five curves that surround an open shaft. Each subsequent floor is slightly wider so that the building is wider at the top. The building is naturally lighted from a glass dome in the roof and glass strips that separate the different storeys from each other. The walls tilt outward. Paintings on these walls recreate the effect of paintings on an artist’s easel. As an art museum the building is not quite successful, as the bright light through the spiral windows fall directly into the viewer’s face and the floors are not parallel. This building should be viewed as a piece of architectural sculpture. Wright’s principle of continuity is triumphs in this building. It is as if the Kaufman house’s levels are stretched into a huge spiral that was determined by the function of circulation. Wright is seen as a master of manipulation of interior space. Visitors take an elevator to the top floor and then walk down a slightly downward spiral to view the artworks. A concrete band connects the museum with its administration building. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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3

Modernism (International style)

Modernism is a general term referring to twentieth century architecture. It originated before the First World War and became the style that was used more or less worldwide. The term International Style was used for the first time in a catalogue of the First International Exhibition of Modern Architecture held at the Museum of Modern Art, New York in 1932. By the 1930s there was a single dominant style: Modern Architecture. After the Second World War this style became known as the International Style because it was, by then, considered to be the only appropriate or even legitimate style that could be used for any building type and for any society.

“One single building for all nations and climates” – Le Corbusier

Pioneers August Perret was a Frenchman who experimented with reinforced concrete. Reinforced concrete Architecture in the twentieth century changed dramatically because of the use of steel and the invention of reinforced concrete. Architects no longer had to use either the post and lintel system, or the arch, or the vault. Giving extra strength to concrete by placing steel reinforcing in the form of thin steel bars in the concrete while it is still wet, makes reinforced concrete. When it dries reinforced concrete is very strong, and because the concrete is set in a mould (like a jelly) it can assume any shape the architect wishes to imagine. 20th century buildings thus can assume a variety of interesting shapes The Romans used concrete to construct their massive edifices. Reinforced concrete was the invention of the French engineers Hennibique and Coignet in c. 1895. Concrete has the characteristic of compression. It is therefore very strong in direct weight, but not with tension. Reinforced concrete is a material that combines the compression of concrete with the tensile strength of steel.

Peter Behrens (1868 – 1940), was a German who can be seen as the “father” of the modern International Style. He was against any form of decoration, which he rejected in favour of an undecorated style of glass and steel. He was the first real designer of industrial buildings when he was appointed as design consultant in 1907 by the A.E.G. in Berlin. He was responsible for the design of the factories, exhibition halls and packaging of the A.E.G. A.E.G. Turbine-factory can be seen as the first factory building receiving architectural status. It is a glass and steel construction with only the corners and roof of concrete. One can see the structure of steel piers filled with a light framework of glass on the outside. Decoration was restricted to a minimum. The beauty of the building is in the construction and inherent beauty of the materials. Characteristic of this building is the light and air, as well as free open and adaptable interior. Behrens believed in the virtue of the machine and according to him, machines are effective and thus designs based on machines will also be effective. This is the idea of functionalism. The great names of the International Style – Mies van der Rohe, Le Corbusier and Gropius – all worked at same stage in the Berlin offices of Behrens.

A.E.G. Turbine-factory, 1908 – 9,


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Influence of De Stijl (1917 - 1925) De Stijl was a movement founded by Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian to promote their use of geometric abstract shapes and primary colours, based on the idea of universal harmony. Their ideas extended to architecture and design as well as to painting. They believed that they could help to create order and social harmony by presenting society with balance and harmony in works of art and architecture. De Stijl started against the background of the World War 1 in neutral Holland. De Stijl was against individualism and believed that togetherness in harmony could be the way to a utopian future. They were against any form of tradition and believed in balance, harmony, order, logic and purity. Architectural spaces were arranged according to a system to create function and harmony. De Stijl’s artists and architects had a large influence on the development of the International style of architecture. The Schroder House is a smalldetached suburban house, but it is almost a three dimensional realization of a Mondrian painting. Many of its features foreshadow what was to become the vocabulary of architecture taught at the Bauhaus. This later became known as the International Style architecture. Characteristics of this house are the flat roof, cubic shapes, lack of decoration, roof slabs cantilevered at the corners, large windows in continuous horizontal strips and an open, weightless quality. The colours are typical of De Stijl. The surfaces are in white and shades of grey. Black was used for the window and door frames, and a number of linear elements were painted in the primary colours. The importance of Bauhaus In 1919 Walter Gropius was appointed director of the Weimar School of Arts and Crafts in Germany which he renamed as the Das Staatliche Bauhaus. Bauhaus is a word coined from two German words: “to build” and “house”. His first aim was to improve the quality of designs produced for industrial goods. Bauhaus wanted a new unity between art and technology. The idea of basic design was developed to apply it as a scientific method in art, where art products could be broken down into their most basic elements such as the cube, sphere and cylinder. Some of the most influential artists of the twentieth century taught at the Bauhaus such as Paul Klee, and Wassily Kandinsky. The interrelation between material, skill and the product’s functionality was paramount. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Gerrit Rietveld, Schroder House, Utrecht, Holland, 1922.

Gropius was succeeded by the Swiss architect Hannes Meyer in 1928 whose work sought to shape a harmonious and socialist society. Despite his successes, in 1930 Meyer was removed from his post due to his Marxist convictions and was succeeded by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Mies van de Rohe concentrated on producing architects. In 1933 when the Nazis came to power, the Bauhaus was forced to close by Hitler. Gropius and Mies van der Rohe went to the USA where they taught architecture at universities, thus ensuring that the principles of the Bauhaus style of architecture became known worldwide. The architectural style introduced by the teachers at the Bauhaus was called Modernism.

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Walter Gropius Walter Gropius (1883-1969) He believed in “form follows function”, meaning that the shape of the building derives from its function; one should be able to tell what a building is used for by looking at its exterior. Together with Adolf Meyer he developed the “glass skin” and the “curtain wall” in the Fagus shoe factory, 1911 –16.

“Architecture begins where engineering ends” – Walter Gropius

Walter Gropius, Bauhaus Buildings, Dessau, Germany, 1925.

When the Bauhaus school moved to Dessau in 1925 Walter Gropius designed the new buildings, which became the model for buildings of the modern movement for many years to come. The Bauhaus at Dessau consisted of two blocks linked by an enclosed bridge. These two buildings contained lecture rooms, workshops, student accommodation, a refectory (place to eat), a theatre, a gymnasium and the offices of Gropius ‘architectural practice. The skeleton of the building was reinforced concrete, while one side of the workshop consisted of a glass curtain wall. The roof was flat, covered by a new waterproof material. The buildings were striking because of their emphasis on functionality and by the absence of

decoration. Gropius insisted that the function of a building should determine its form or shape. This functional quality was not to be disguised by any surface decoration. Gropius created the studios, classrooms and administrative space for maximum efficiency and spatial logic throughout. This building had many features that later became characteristics of modernist architecture such as the inclusion of steel-frame construction, a glass curtain wall and reinforced concrete. The clean lines and cube like structures became typical of modernism. These rather austere buildings of the Bauhaus therefore became the prototype buildings of the International Style. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Mies van der Rohe, German Pavilion, Barcelona, 1929

Characteristics of the International Style The three principles of the International Style are: • skeleton structure • standardization • absence of decoration The materials used were exclusively “modern” – glass, steel, and reinforced concrete. (Steel was known for centuries before mass production made it viable for building purposes.) Natural materials like wood and stone were avoided. Functionalism – function determines shape, thus emphasizing the consumer aspect of the building. The beauty of the building is in its functional success. The advantages of steel and reinforced concrete: • Vast distances can easily and economically be spanned thus creating large interior spaces. • Openings in walls are now unlimited, because the skeleton structure carries the weight of the roofs and floors. The building has no need of conventional weightbearing walls to support the roof and the floors, so the walls become a glass sheath, which is called a “weather curtain”. Steel and concrete frames therefore liberated the outside walls from the task of supporting the roofs and floors. Due to the improvements of plate glass, the outside walls could now be a “curtain” of glass, metal etc. These CURTAIN WALLS just had to protect against the weather and noise and enclose interior spaces. Architecture of volume rather than mass is created. Window and door openings can be enlarged and be placed in any place for design and functional reasons. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer, Fagus Shoe factory, Alfeld, Germany, 1911

Philip Johnson, Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949

145 • The weight of the building rests on only a few places and a garden or road can be placed underneath the building. • The disappearance of solid weight bearing walls gave a new suppleness to architecture, because of the independence of walls and divisions to the support the building. • The division between architecture and the environment is broken and the one can enter the other e.g. sliding doors to extent a room onto a garden terrace. • Often the building comprises of a steel box, supported on a reinforced concrete central core. The various floors of the building are cantilevered off this central core. (A cantilever is a projecting area of concrete which has no support other than the core to which it is attached.) • All building services – electricity, water and sewage, telecommunications, lifts, escalators, central heating, air conditioning – are hidden within the building itself so that the exterior shape is pure and clean. • The regular distribution of structural support led to designs with a rectangular emphasis. (In coherence with the formalistic abstraction of e.g. De Stijl). Simple cubic shapes were based on skeleton constructions. • A new concept of interior space resulted from the use of new strong building materials. Interior space could now be freed from supports, and a continuous flow of interior space resulted – the birth of the open plan. • The elimination of applied decorations resulted in the structure and material of the building providing its decorative features. The structural parts were not disguised and the natural beauty of the materials were shown and not covered up (truth to materials). • The elimination of strong colour contrasts inside and outside is a characteristic. Most buildings are in the natural colour of the materials or painted white. Some Dutch architects used strong accents of colour as a direct influence of De Stijl. • The Flat roof enables the plan to be any shape. • The International Style was effective in urban planning, cheap mass housing and garden cities. Any large-scale buildings that needed cheap, standardized building units were effective. Because most of the components of the building are identical (e.g. windows) these can be mass produced and pre-fabricated. Thus the cost of building a structure is kept down. The economic aspect was another reason why these buildings became popular all over the world – they could be erected quickly and relatively cheaply.

Mies van der Rohe, Illinois Iinstitute of Technology, Chicago, 1940

Le Corbusier, Dom-ino system, 1914. It is a single modular unit that can be repeated in many different arrangements to create a more complex whole that can serve a many purposes.

Cantilever system

Mies van der Rohe, Lake Shore Apartments, Chicago. 1951.


146 • The glass which sheaths the building is reflective and thus the appearance of the building can vary according to the weather and time of year. Clouds may be reflected in the glass façade, causing a section of the building to “disappear”. The building can appear weightless, or seems to hover above the ground. • This illusion of weightlessness is intensified by the fact that many of these buildings are actually raised off the ground and supported on pilotis, freeing the area beneath the building for parking or recreation. • Most International style buildings are multi-storied, especially public buildings. • Smooth machine created surfaces and the use of mass-produced standard sizes in building parts such as glass plates, steel frames etc. • The most outstanding characteristic of twentieth century architecture is the flow of space. • The International Style can be seen as a sober architecture of cubic shapes, with an absence of mouldings, a love for smooth machine finishes and large windows. Oscar Niemeyer, National Congress of Brazil, Brazilia, 1957 – 64.

A cartoon showing how modern architects prefered the block. (Source: Louis Hellman, Architecture for Berginners)

Examples of architects working in the International style

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

“Less is more” – Mies van der Rohe Mies van der Rohe (1886 – 1969) was the director of the Bauhaus from 1930 till the closing of the school in 1933. He emigrated to the U.S.A. where he lectured at the Illinois Institute of Technology. His influence was carried through his students. Mies believed in “less is more”. This means that absolute simplicity says more than complex decoration. A building should be made from as few means as possible – only glass, steel and reinforced concrete. His extreme simplification in his work was the consequence of a process of simplifying to an absolute pure essence.


147 The Seagram Building, (designed in conjunction with Philip Johnson) is a perfect example of the International Style. It is a rectangular skyscraper without detail or decoration. It shows the Miesian idea of “skin and bone architecture. Steel and concrete for him were the strength of the building (bone), while glass was the shining “skin” covering the skeleton. The bone and skin are separated so that there is no confusion about what supports the roof and floors, and what protects from the weather. This symmetric and formal building is raised on stilts and the lobby is a volume enclosed in glass, deeply recessed behind the main facades of the tower.

Mies van der Rohe, Seagram Building, New York, 1958.

Mies van der Rohe, The Farnsworth House, 1946 - 50

The Farnsworth House, is probably the most complete statement of glass and steel / skin and bone architecture. The house is a rectangular structure of steel “H” columns set in two parallel rows. Between these eight columns there are two slabs framed in steel. At each end the floor and roof slabs cantilever out two meters beyond the last row of columns. Between these two floating slabs is a simple living space surrounded by glass that reflects the changing seasons. This building shows the emphasis Mies placed on discipline, order, simplicity, clarity and truth.


148

Le Corbusier

“A house is a machine for living in”

– Corbusier

This Swiss born architect, Charles-Edouard Jeanneret called le Corbusier, was in his early work one of the strongest practitioners of the International style. Le Corbusier believed that “a house is a machine for living in”. This means that a house is primarily a functional object, and that the design is secondary to its function This was extremely important to him. He based his designs on the Modular, ie, the height of a man.

Le Corbusier, Villa Savoye, Poissy near Paris, 1929 – 1931.

This is maybe one of the purest examples of the international style. In this house one can see Le Corbusier’s five points for domestic architecture. • Piloti – Using modern methods of construction the house could be raised off the ground on pilotis creating space for parking etc. • Roof gardens – technology made flat roofs possible even in countries with high rainfall creating extra space on top of the home.


149 • The open plan – with the elimination of weight bearing walls, the walls could be in any shape or pattern. • The free facade– exterior walls like interior walls could be thin membranes. • The long window – thin, horizontal bands of glass wrapped around corners, because of modern construction methods. In the Villa Savoye shows the full utilization of modern technology as seen in the frame supports and materials such as reinforced concrete used in walls, floors, pillars and ramps. The space at the bottom and top is not wasted as it can be utilized. The top deck of the solarium reminds one of a steamship. In this building Le Corbusier uses simple rectangles, flat areas and cylindrical shapes. This building is the product of reason and a symbol of man’s conquest of nature. Le Corbusier believed that a building should be apart from nature and should not fit in with nature, like a piece of sculpture. The concrete was finished off smoothly with painted stucco, mainly in white. Interior views of Villa Savoye

The Modern International Style is: • Rational • Abstract • Machine orientated • Functional • Simple and rectangular • Involved with contemporary technology • The mainstream of 20th century architecture Johannesburg, South Africa

Hong Kong, China VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

150 The International Style: As the name suggests, this style spread over the world, a single type of building for all nations and climates. Thus most cities in the world have a similar profile. The modern architects assumed the role of missionaries – buildings designed according to the doctrines of modernism would be the salvation of the whole world … local cultures, traditions and social networks were irrelevant and outdated, according to them. There would be, as Le Corbusier said, “one single building for all nations and climates”.

Sao Paulo, Brazil

New York, USA

Reaction against Modernism The International Modern Style which had been dominant since the 1940s was, by the 1970s seen as boring or inhumane and in some environments, quite brutal. Examples of this could be seen in faceless mass housing projects, the destruction of historical central city areas by tower blocks and highways. The rigid zoning laws allowed only a single urban function to exist in a single area. Thus the center of cities became the ‘central business district’ – an office only area devoid of life after 6 o’clock. Post Modern architecture is split up into a number of sub-styles with each looking at a different ways to handle complexity in design. Each style is trying to reveal the richness of environmental experiences that Modernism had tried to suppress. Modern technology offers designers the possibility of doing literally anything. Architects had an enormous variety of choices both in ‘style’, materials and technology.


151

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Some people believe that the ‘correct’ environment/architecture would result in ‘correct’ behaviour. • This cartoon comments on Modernism in architecture. What is it trying to say? • Do you think that modernist architecture created a better environment or not? Give reasons for your opinion. • Think of ways in which your school’s architecture could be improved to create better behaviour in the pupils. Louis Hellman, Architecture for Berginners

4

Late Modernism

Begins in the 1960’s During the Second World War in Europe many cities suffered widespread destruction. The centres of cities such as Dresden in Germany and Coventry in England were left with very few structurally sound buildings as the war came to an end. London needed massive rebuilding. After the war, new governments in Europe and the United States were often socialist in their politics. Thus they promised their people extensive rebuilding programmes which offered housing for all. The problem was to deliver housing for vast numbers of people with the limited funds available. Both governments and architects were also looking to build according to a new style. Modernism with its completely new look, as well as its ease of construction and comparative inexpensiveness, was seen as the perfect architectural style for reconstruction after

the war. High-rise buildings in cities were seen as the perfect solution to housing large numbers of people in a small area and still having space for green areas and recreation. Late Modernism can be seen as the continuation of modernism, which started with the International Style, and shares characteristics like the: • Acceptance of technology • Functionalism • A Formalistic approach • Use of contemporary materials • Absence of decoration • Anti-humanism Typical of Late Modernism is that it is austere, sober, minimalist and formalistic. The emphasis is more on the autonomy of the building and is devoted to the tradition of the new. Late Modernism took many of the stylistic traits and values of modernism to the extremes. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

152 The two faces of Late Modernism 1. BETWEEN 1945 AND THE 1970’S MODERNISM MOVED INTO A SECOND PHASE. Characteristics • The building retains many of the characteristics of the work in the International Style, especially its rectangular high-rise nature. • The exclusive rectangular shape becomes modified, because concrete, rather than glass defined the shape. • Late Modern buildings no longer use the weather curtain made of glass. The exterior is largely concrete which is moulded into shapes which are not always entirely rectangular. • The use of glass decreases further in the 1970’s following the Energy crisis in which the Middle Eastern nations withhold oil from the world markets and force the price up. Buildings, which rely heavily on energy for cooling in summer and heating in winter because of their glass facades, become too expensive to construct. • Buildings thus become sculptural and monumental in quality, rather than weightless and delicate. Le Corbusier This architect’s mature work shows how he uses concrete to construct buildings, which are like giant pieces of sculpture. He evolved a style which was called CONCRETE BRUT in which he uses offshutter concrete in a very masculine way. Reinforced concrete can be shaped into many and varied styles because the “liquid” concrete is set in a mould. These moulds were initially made out of wooden planks. Once the concrete sets the moulds or shutters are removed. Le Corbusier liked the roughness and honesty of the concrete just as it came out of the shutter, unpainted or unclad in any way. This use of off-shutter concrete in sculptural shapes was the trademark of his mature work.

The Unite d’Habitation, Marseilles, France (1946 – 52)

Examples: The Unite d’Habitation, Marseilles, France (1946 – 52) comprises a block of 337 flats which included a school, shops, laundry and communal recreation areas. It is a “brut” concrete structure raised on giant pilotis. The roof garden was especially important to Le Corbusier. Narrow maisonettes ran from the front to the back and were served by internal streets. Architects hailed it as a masterpiece. In reality it was expensive, uncomfortable and out of tune with the needs of the working class families for which it was meant. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

153 The Pilgrimage Chapel, Notre Dame du Haut, 1955 was built on the hill outside the French town of Ronchamp. The ground plan is asymmetrical. The walls are very thick, and are irregularly pierced with rectangular apertures of varying sizes fitted with brightly coloured stained glass. The large “mushroom” shaped roof rest on pilotis just above the walls, leaving a small aperture for clerestory lighting at the junction of wall and ceiling. The interior of the chapel is relatively small, dark and mysterious, lit by candles and pools of coloured light from the windows. (below)

The Pilgrimage Chapel, Notre Dame du Haut, 1955

Exterior altars finished with off-shutter concrete furniture provide for areas where many thousands of people can participate in an outdoor mass. The tower allows natural light to fall on the altar.

High Tech Late Modernism or High Tech is a multinational style, claiming to have overcome the dreadful environmental defects of earlier steel and glass boxes by using up-to-date technology.

“I confess to being obsessed with invention” – Norman Foster

Characteristics of High Tech • The architecture is pragmatic and glorifies technology. The buildings display excellence in technology and place an emphasis on complex detail. • They used ‘high tech’ building materials, which flaunt their technological nature e.g. stainless steel, chrome, plastics and various metal finishes. • Drawing on aircraft technology, their exposed structures are light and strong, using heavily insulated wall panels, steel and aluminum frames and mirror glass in neoprene gaskets. • The skeleton of the building (or its method of construction) is often evident on the outside of the building. • Exposure of the structures (light and strong) that includes all services like ventilation, pipes, stairs etc., are placed on the outside of the building, so as to create free and unrestrained floor-space which could be changed to create offices, exhibitionhalls or factories. Visually, this gives the building a complex appearance Richard Rogers, Lloyd’s Building, London, 1986. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

154 • Although designed to be efficient, some high rise buildings have been incredibly expensive to construct because of the use of very expensive custom-made parts. High Tech architecture is therefore very expensive, wasteful of energy and mainly suited to public buildings. • The structural and service elements in the building were often c in olour-codedbright colours. Examples of High Tech:

Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers, Pompidou Centre, Paris, 1971 - 77

(Also known as the “Beaubourg”) In this building, which looks like an industrial factory, the modernist emphasis on structure, circulation, open space, industrialism and abstraction, is taken to a Late Modern extreme. This centre is a centre for arts and culture and it was named after the then French prime minister, George Pompidou. The centre was somewhat controversial at the time as it stood in sharp contrast to its historic surroundings, which is one of the oldest sections of Paris. The centre contains several exhibition facilities for art, music, film and theatre, a department for plastic arts, a national museum of modern art, a centre for industrial design, a public library and a centre for acoustic research. The skeleton or anatomy of the building is placed on the outside to show the “metabolism”. The building is designed like a serviceable hangar supported by a megastructural steel pipe frame. They used colours to code the pipes and ducts on the outside of the building, e.g. red for human movement, blue for air-conditioning etc. If you know the codes, it is easy to find your way in this building that receives thousands of visitors VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Norman Forster & Partners, 30 St Mary axe (“The Gherkin”), London, 2004.

daily. Giant escalators in Perspex tubes carry visitors up the outside of the building. The floor blocks were designed to cover changeable internal spaces and the elevation is glazed. The architects said that they wanted to create “a giant meccano set with internal spaces that can be altered, rather than a traditional static doll’s house.” The element of fun is seen in this quote:” the building is a toy for playing with”.

155 The design was influenced by sources outside of architecture such as the Concord design and military design for mobile bridges. This building is made up of three slabs all at different heights, so that from the front it looks solid, but from the side it looks like a fairytale castle with three thin pinnacles soaring into the air. The building has an atrium (an open courtyard) ten stories high inside, and the X-shaped trusses are evident from the inside as well as the outside of the building. It was one of the most expensive buildings in the world to construct because all the pieces were custom-made from the most expensive steels and other materials. It “shows off ” or flaunts late 20th century technology and gives an impression of technological supremacy and power which is what a giant financial corporation would wish to convey.

Norman Foster, The Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, Hong Kong, 1979 – 86

5

Post Modernism

The 1970’s and 1980’s

“Less is more is a bore” – Robert Venturi Since the sixties there was also an architectural style that turned away from technology. Modern architecture created large-scale environments, which were hard, mechanical and distressing to human occupation. The energy crisis of the seventies showed the shortcomings of the tower block regarding cooling and heating. Modern architecture from the preceding years rejected decoration and considered it irrelevant, but decorations cover joints between materials and keep rain away from facades. The machine-like appearance of Modern architecture often failed socially, e.g. Le Corbusier’s Unité d’habitation, Marseilles. Modern architects tried to be social engineers to create a new social structure through new physical forms. People, however, do not fit into neat patterns.

Since the 1970’s the optimism of the 20th century dream of technological advantages has been gradually destroyed by worldwide recessions and ecological anxieties. From this there developed a culture during the 70’s and 80’s which believed that the present is uncontrollable, the future unthinkable, so the past remains open for nostalgia. Post Modernism rejected the historical continuity of modernism for a condition known as pluralism. Pluralism means the acceptance of different styles and viewpoints, each having the same value. Therefore works could combine contradictions and differences. The PostModernist “borrows” freely from the styles from the past, even the Modernist past. It allows the artist the freedom to choose without identifying specifically with a style.. This shows the difference between Post Modernism and revivalism’s. (The Modernist feels that the problem of Post Modernism is that it escapes the present.)


156

“If there is something appealing in the very openness of the Post Modern scene, there is also something dismaying in it. For it reminds us that ours is a culture without a centre or focus … Perhaps we know too much about art to believe in the absolute efficiency of any single style or tradition.” – Daniel Bell One of the strongest influences on Post Modern architecture is the work and writings of Robert Venturi. Already in the 60’s he started to use decoration and borrowed from popular symbols from Las Vegas and Disneyworld, because of the vitality of these places. He changed the typical Modern statement of Mies van der Rohe, namely “less is more” to “less is more, is a bore”. Venturi as one of the earliest Post Modernist architects who said he wanted to express the richness and ambiguity of modern life.

Robert Venturi, Vanna Venturi House, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, 1962.

Characteristics of Post Modernism • Post-Modernism rejects the machine-like appearance and monotony of Modernism. Architects have the freedom to use sources from any tradition and to mix them as they feel. • Post Modern architecture is an eclectic style in which decoration, sculpture and traditional materials are combined with modern construction methods. Complexity is valued more than simplicity. • The critic Charles Jencks described it as a double coding: the combination of modern techniques with something else, usually traditional means to communicate with both the public and other architects. This is a mixing of the old and the new, the elite and the popular, etc. • Post Modernism is not traditionalism or “revivalism”, as it is committed to contemporary technology and they aimed to address social realities. Modernism is not rejected, but Post Modernism developed from it and “borrows” from it. Post Modern differs from Modernism by using irony, parody, complexity and eclecticism. It originated from the social failure of Modernism. When it comes to honesty in the use of materials the Post Modernist architect would not hesitate to cover the steel skeleton with stonework! • Whereas modern architecture was concerned with the idea of architecture as art and the new technology, Post-Modernism strives to humanise architecture to serve man. According to Michael Graves the scale of a room should recall the scale of man. As with a person it should have a head, a middle and feet. Cities should be scaled according to humans with flats not higher than four storeys so that people can still yell to others at street level. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Philip Johnstone, York, 1978 – 82.

AT&T Building, New

One of the first large-scale Post Modern skyscrapers with the so-called “Chippendale” top. It was heavily criticized, but today it appears rather ordinary.

157

•

•

•

•

•

A home or city is empty without human connections, e.g. the fireplace or a central piazza.. Because of this, there is a strong use of classical elements. A column has a head, middle and feet. Many of the Post Modernist architects make use of classical elements such as pillars, pilasters and friezes. It is however not Neo Classical because there is a mixture with other traditions like the modern tradition. It is often playful and even humoristic. Modernism put great emphasis on the continuity of space in architecture, but their spaces were often monotonous and divided into rectangles. Post Modernism wants to create interesting spaces. The Post Modernistic space is ambiguous, irrational and fragmented. Post Modernism’s interest in history includes the local environment of the planned building. Post Modernism emphasizes the ethnic background, local building materials and traditions. Colour makes an important return. The palette of Post Modernism is more playful e.g. pastels and like Late Modernism it uses colour to heighten structural qualities. Decoration plays an important role in humanizing a building and although it might sometimes seem whimsical it is very calculated. Post Modernism can be seen as an architecture which wants to serve mankind. The architect is an individual with the freedom to mix any sources in his work. Post Modern architects value old buildings and do not simply demolish them to make place for new ones. They will often incorporate an old building, or an old façade in the new building, which they are constructing.

Michael Graves, Swan Hotel, Walt Disney World, Florida, 1990.

Michael Graves, Team Disney, The Michael D. Eisner Building, Burbank, California, 1991.

James Stirling, Changes to the Neue Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart, 1977 – 84


158 Examples: Michael Graves, Public Services Building, Portland, Oregon, 1982. This leading Post Modern architect, who was trained as a Modernist, said that Rome taught him architecture. In his humanistic architecture he refers mainly to the classical. This hermetic fifteen storey building reminds us somewhat of a mastaba and includes several classical motifs like rosettes and seven storey high pilasters. The massive form and the extremely small windows create an almost disturbing contrast. The building is painted in different soft colours which appeal to people in an emotional way. This strong building with small windows relates to Renaissance buildings. Michael Graves, Public Services Building, Portland, Oregon, 1982

Charles Moore – Piazza d’Italia, New Orleans, 1976 – 8

Charles Moore – Piazza d’Italia, New Orleans, 1976 – 8. This piazza (a city square) was designed for the Italian community of New Orleans. In this work all the classical orders are present – some with playful changes. The grooves of the columns are emphasized by water fountains, water falls from metopes, columns received neon bands around their necks and some columns are in stainless steel. Moore mixes the classical with more banal sources e.g. the use of neon to frame certain structural parts. The floor of the piazza shows a map of Italy with Sicily at the centre because Sicilians sponsored the project. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

159 According to Clemence Greenberg, the great guru of Modernism:

“Post Modernism is aimless, anarchic, amorphous, self-indulgent, inclusive, horizontally structured and aims for the popular.” Other critics called it reactionary, nostalgic, schizophrenic and a sort of escapism. On the positive side, Post Modernism could be seen as an effort to produce a more human art and a re-evaluation of all values. Though Post Modern architects strongly reacted to works of the Modern era and made noisy proclamations about the end of an era, their actual vocabulary has involved little more than the sticking together of pre-existing pieces of Modern Architecture with appliqués of skin-deep historicism. By contrast, the inventions of the masters e.g. Le Corbusier, altered the spatial anatomy of design.

6

Deconstructivism

“You’ve got to bumble forward into the unknown”, – Frank Gehry

Background Deconstructivism in architecture came together when Mark Wigley and Phillip Johnson curated the 1988 Museum of Modern Art exhibition Deconstructivist architecture. Architects presented at the exhibition were Peter Eisenman, Frank Gehry, Zaha Hadid, Coop Himmelblau, Rem Koolhaas, Daniel Libeskind, and Bernard Tschumi. Since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture. Many critics see Deconstructivism as part of the broader Post Modernism in society that criticised and sought to remedy some aspects of the performance of Modern Architecture. Influences • Deconstruction is a term introduced by the French philosopher, Jacques Derrida, with the idea that there is not one single intrinsic meaning to be found in a work, but rather many, and often they can be conflicting. The architect Peter Eisenman collaborated directly with Derrida on various projects and Derrida’s ideas influenced many architects associated with Deconstructivism. Frank Gehry, House, Santa Monica, 1978


160 • Russian constructivism was a movement founded by Vladimir Tatlin and Alexander Rodchenko in Russia around 1915. It had a profound influence on architects, both in their graphics and in their visionary architecture, little of which was actually constructed. The primary graphic motifs of constructivism were the rectangular bar and the triangular wedge, others were the more basic geometries of the square and the circle. • Other Modern art movements that had an influence on Deconstructivism were Futurism, analytical Cubism and Minimalism. Analytical cubism had an effect on Deconstructivism, as forms and content were dissected and viewed from different perspectives simultaneously Deconstructivism also shares with minimalism a disconnection from cultural references.

Vladimir Tatlin, Model for the Monument to the Third International, 1919.

Naum Gabo, Model for Constructed Torso, 1917.

Zaha Hadid, Planned project for the Nuragic and Contemporary Art Museum, Gagliari, Italy. Hadid has won an international competition in 2006 to design this museum.


161 Characteristics of Deconstructivism: • Deconstructivism, or Deconstruction, is an approach to building design that attempts to view architecture in bits and pieces. The basic elements of architecture are dismantled. Deconstructivist buildings may seem to have no visual logic. They may appear to be made up of unrelated, disharmonious abstract forms. • Deconstructivst architects wanted to free architecture from the restrictive ‘rules’ of Modernism such as ‘form follows function’, purity of form and truth to materials. They were against the ordered rationality of Modernism and wanted to dissembled architecture. • Architectural form seems to explode into loose collections of related fragments. • The dominance of the right angle and the cube was destroyed by extensive use of the diagonal line and the `slice’ of space. • They looked for dynamic spatial possibilities and experiences. In that they deconstructed the forms of Modern architecture by creating apparently illogical clashes of grids, spaces and volumes. The form of buildings was broken open. Beams are projecting, unfinished or incomplete. Walls are broken or slanted and windows are turned at angles. Construction methods are often exposed. • In Deconstructivist buildings different spaces intersect one another in irregular ways. This is an attempt to reveal the character of each and every space and the occasional conflict and coincidence in the relationship between them. • Buildings became complex and sometimes contradictory. • By challenging common ideas about space, order and regularity in the environment they provoke shock, uncertainty, unease, disquiet, disruption and distortion. • Deconstructivism rejects the idea of ornament as an afterthought or decoration. • Deconstructivism also rejects the idea of the `perfect form’ for a particular activity and rejects the familiar relationship between certain forms and certain activities. They wanted a free play of design and so make architecture a ‘pure’ art form. Form was detached from the idea of function and although it might solve some of the functional problems, that was not the main purpose. • There was extensive use of computer aided design. Threedimensional modelling and animation (virtual and physical) assists in the conception of very complicated spaces. The ability to link computer models to manufacturing jigs (CAM - Computer-aided manufacturing) allows the mass production of subtly different modular elements to be achieved at affordable costs. • A Deconstructivist building often seems antigravitational and fragmented. There is a sense of unpredictability and a controlled chaos.

Coop Himmel(b)lau, Una Palast Movie Theathre, Dresden, Germany, 1993 – 1998.

Toyo Ito, Serpentine Gallery, Kensington Gardens, London, 2002

Eric Owen Moss, The Box, Culverstad, California, 1990 – 1994.

Zaha Hadid, London Aquatics Centre, London, 2012.


162

Frank Gehry, The Rasin Building (also known as ‘The Dancing Building’ or ‘Fred and Ginger’), Praque, Czech Republic, 1996

Frank Gehry, The Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, USA, 2003.

FRANK GEHRY Gehry is an award winning Canadian American architect. The Guggenheim Museum, Bilboa, Spain, 1997. This art museum is one of several art museums that belong to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation. It is built alongside the Nervion River which runs through the Basque city of Bilbao. This is an immensely dramatic building that appears as a mass of asymmetrical forms that seem to be collapsing. It is a collection of interconnected building blocks housing galleries, an auditorium, a restaurant, a museum store, and administrative offices. Gehry proposed a juxtaposition of fragmented volumes revolving around a central axis. The atrium resembles a gigantic metallic ship and unifies the whole composition. The site has been a major factor of inspiration for the design. The site is intersected by the La Salve bridge, which provides one of the entrances to Bilbao. The Guggenheim Museum Bilbao integrates the city’s waterfront with its historic and business districts. Sited as it is in a port town, it is intended to resemble a ship. Its brilliantly reflective

The Guggenheim Museum, Bilboa, Spain, 1997. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

titanium panels resembling fish scales that echo the other organic life like fish, as well as the river, upon which the museum sits. For the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao Gehry first worked with a series of models made of cardboard and wood which allowed him to manipulate and refine the forms that make up the building. Later CATIA (Computer Aided Three Dimensional Interactive Application), a computer modeling system, was used to explore and document forms. The major materials used for the gallery buildings are limestone and titanium, a metal similar to stainless steel. Stone is used for the rectangular shaped spaces and titanium for the unusual rooms. The limestone and titanium-clad exterior lends a space-age character to the building. Reaction against Deconstructivism Some critics see it as a purely creative exercise with little social significance. It becomes elitist and detached from ordinary people.

163

4.2


In this chapter there are many terms and ideas pertaining to architecture that may be new to you. Explain in your own words what you understand by each of the following in your own words: Post and lintel system

Less is more is a bore

Reinforced concrete

Eclectic

Skin and bone architecture

Curtain wall

Form follows function

High Tech

Less is more

Organic architecture

Functionalism

Concrete Brut

Cantilever

Humanistic architecture

Anti-gravity architecture

Standardization

4.3

Skeleton structure


The four buildings above are examples of Modernism (International style), Late Modernism, Post Modernism and Deconstructivism. Enlarge the table below then place each building under the correct style and complete the table.

A

B Modernism (International style)

C Late Modernism

Post Modernism

D Deconstructivism

Place the correct building under each style Name the architect of each building Give the name of each building Name the purpose/function of each building Briefly discuss the construction of each building e.g. building materials, construction methods. Name any five characteristics of each style seen in the specific building to explain why it is a good example of the style VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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This is one of the new striking buildings in South Africa. How would you classify the style of this building? Take a sketchbook and/or camera and document any striking building from the 20th or 21st century in your town or city. Paste the sketch and/or photo in your workbook. Write a paragraph about the building by describing its function, building materials, construction and influences/ characteristics according to the styles you have studied in this chapter.

Paragon Architects (Henning Rasmuss and Anthony Orelowitz), 15 Alice Lane Towers, Sandton, Johannesburg, 2011.


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Relating to South African architecture

This Modernist style building is a tower form office block with a basement parking area and a low-rise block that would be used for public relations and educational purposes. The whole external façade of the building consists of a precast aggregate reinforced with column and beam liners. The aggregate is dark grey Malmesbury shale that was chosen to echo the colour of Table Mountain and to with stand the discolouration due to weather and other environmental effects. On each side of the building there are two perimeter columns, in total eight columns, that together with the central services core, support the twenty eight floors. The positioning of these columns is situated outside the windows which mean that the interior of the offices and the basement parking area is not interrupted by structural support. The core of the building on the level of the foyer, as well as the lift lobbies and the lifts themselves, are sheathed in stainless steel. All materials were chosen because of their durability and easy maintenance. Ceilings were made from fire resistant acoustic tiles. Care was also given to the future planning of office space making it flexible and a state of the art air conditioning system was included. Plants were added to help reduce noise levels.

The BP Centre, 1 Thibault Square, Cape Town

Environmental factors were taken into account in the positioning of the building as it was placed at 45 degrees in relation to the rest of the buildings. This orientation reduced the amount of sun on the façades which reduces the use of the air conditioning system. Pre-cast vertical screens were also installed in order to shield the occupants from direct sun, but to still use the reflective light of the sun for lighting purposes while air flow would be uninterrupted. This positioning also gave the occupants a view of the mountain or the harbour rather than facing the surrounding buildings.

The dramatic foyer of the tower block is linked to the low-rise block by means of a link bridge. The foyer is contained within a frameless glass drum suspended from a steel ring attached to the underside of the structure. The building’s position on Thibault Square is also to its advantage as it allows for the building to be approached from all directions. This encourages the flow of pedestrians around the building and through the arcade between the tower block and the low-rise building. Typical of Modernism no decoration was added to the appearance of the building.


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Helmut Jahn, The Diamond Building, 11 Diagonal Street, Johannesburg, 1983.

This building by the American architects, Helmut Jahn, was commissioned by the Anglo American Company for the offices of their global diamond corporation, De Beers. The building shows High Tech characteristics in its use of shiny glass and steel. The allusion to the shape of a diamond in the design shows Post Modernistic symbolism and was intentional and lead to its nickname. The effect of a glittering diamond was created with an outer wall of reflective glass. By using the dark reflective glass so that it appears to be unframed and smooth he created the effect of a shiny diamond, reflecting the surrounding city and the changing sky. Within the building the impressive foyer consists of an atrium of five stories high that was finished with the same reflective glass that was used for the exterior. The building that to some was an architectural masterpiece and to others a capitalist symbol that did not show consideration for the environment, was completed by the beginning of 1983. The building is currently owned by ABSA. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Bob van Bebber, as part of Boogertman Urban Edge & Partners Design, Soccer City or The FIFA World Cup Stadium, Soweto, Johannesburg

This contemporary construction is Post Modernistic in its approach that honours history while using symbolic elements that will appeal to people.

This stadium was constructed within the original shell of the FNB stadium. Retaining the support system of the old building and emphasizing it through painting it grey, acknowledges the origin and history of the new building. The building The architect Bob van Bebber, used the recognisa- was rebuilt into a three-tiered rather than twoble shape of the calabash, a pumpkin that is dried tiered stadium as the upper third of the existing out to be used as a container for liquids such as embankment was rebuilt to form a secondary tier. traditional African beer, as inspiration. Through The most popular seats in the stadium on the lower this he summarized the spirit of traditional Africa embankment were rebuilt thereby improving as the idea of the calabash symbolizes sharing and view lines and comfort. Seating on the upper hospitality as well as a melting pot of cultures. The tier was extended to encircle the pitch. Ramps function of the stadium is therefore aptly reflected and lifts that allow for easy access by disabled in its shape as the Word Cup soccer tournament spectators were also included. The orange seats is a modern day melting pot of world cultures. are broken by lines of black seats that each point in the direction of the nine host cities. The tenth The use of a mosaic style cladding on the outside line points to Germany, the host country for the of the building is an important part of the World up in 2006. decorative effect to create the effect of a calabash. The mosaic of fire and earthen colours, inspired The architects planned around certain green by the natural African landscape is emphasized by elements that they wanted to emphasize. Lighting a ring of lights running around the bottom of the is energy efficient and fittings from the previous structure, simulating the idea of fire underneath stadium were re-used. Rain water that runs off the calabash. Within the colourful mosaic there the roof, stands and pitch is collected in a big is also an uneven scattering of glazed panels that underground moat around the pitch which collects looks like sparks of fire when lit up in the evening. all the rain water. The bulk of the water is used for This uneven distribution of eight different colours the pitch and excess water for the toilets. 90% of was positioned using computer randomization. the material from the old stadium have been reThe 40 000 panels that were used for this used in the new building. The construction has decorative tubular outside skin are new fiberC received two awards because of its outstanding concrete panels reinforced with glass fiber which, design and practical solutions. according to the architects, is a greener alternative to using fiber cement panels or aluminum sheets. The panels are lighter and more durable than conventional panels. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Space can simply be described as the ‘great nothingness’ that is all around us. Space is an important element in art. Architecture is debatably the art form in which space plays the biggest role. The spaces created by architects’ influence the way people live work and play, as well as influencing the way people act and behave. Space, also features in other art forms, such as in the way a sculpture occupies real space and a painting creates an illusion of space by making use of perspective.

Maurice Escher, Relativity, 1953. Lithograph.

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Start with your SOURCE BOOK to generate ideas for an artwork exploring the idea of altered spaces. The following are a few options which could generate ideas for an artwork, exploring the idea of altered spaces. You may attempt them all or choose one or more to investigate: • Make at least five A4 photocopies of interesting buildings. You may use some of the ones you have studied in this chapter or buildings from your country or environment. You can consider taking photos of buildings in your town or city to use. • In Deconstructivism the basic elements of architecture are dismantled and then reconstructed in bits and pieces. Use the photocopies to make a collage of a fictitious building or part of a fictitious building. It need not be a logical building. • Think of how you can alter the space in your collage. Consider how the following would alter architectural spaces: – Fragmentation – Natural disasters – Human occupation and activities – War – Objects – Your own choice of alternation


169 An example of a collage of architectural structures.

• Look at the examples above and then work with your photocopies to alter spaces by inserting pictures. • You now need a composition for your final artwork. You may use the whole collage as inspiration or use cropping to find an interesting part. Consider using an unusual format, for instance a square or a long thin format. See the examples at the end of this project where the collages have been cropped in different ways. Make a few thumbnail sketches to investigate different solutions. • Choose your most successful solution and make a tonal drawing of it. • Write down your intention with your final artwork, considering the choice of medium, style, composition, meaning, etc. • Look for at least three artworks that have also used altered spaces in some ways. Write down your reasons for choosing them. • After you have finished this task, you must reflect in writing on the whole process.


170 A more deconstructive collage based on the same structures as the first example. The art work would work well as a drawing, painting or print. If you decide on doing a drawing you can consider using varnishes, oils or bitumen to create atmosphere.

THE BRIEF Your brief is to make a final artwork on the theme of altered spaces. Your art teacher will guide you in this process and may give you further instructions regarding the media, size, technique, etc. Complete your artwork under the guidance of your art teacher.


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Between the World Wars CONTENTS 1. The First World War 2. Dada • Marcel Duchamp 3. De Stijl 4. Neo-Objectivity 5. Surrealism • Automatism – Joan Miro and Max Ernst • The dream world – Salvador Dali and Rene Magritte 6. Art and politics in the 1930s 7. Three Iconic American paintings 8. Mexican Muralism 9. Frida Kahlo 10. Other artists who worked between the World Wars 11. Relating to South African art 12. Practical Assessment Task


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The First World War (1916 – 1918)

“The most colossal, murderous, mismanaged butchery that has ever taken place on earth” -Ernest Hemingway, writer First World War began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world’s great powers which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (e.g. France, the British Empire, Russia, and, later, Japan, Italy, and the United States) and the Central Powers (e.g. Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey)). Until World War II, it was often called the Great War because it was the most destructive and widespread war the world had ever seen. It was a war fought in trenches all over Europe. A modern war fought with aeroplanes, machine guns and tanks, but the commanders often behaved as if it were a 19th century war. They marched their troops across open land to be slaughtered by the machine guns. The use of poison gas added to the horrors of the war. Two great battles fought on the Western Front in 1916, the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Somme alone, cost almost two million lives. Nearly twenty million people died claiming most of a generation of young men. Its legacy, emotional, political and economic, continued to haunt Europe and led to the foundation of the Second World War 21 years later.


Otto Dix, Storm Troopers Advancing under Gas, one of the series of etchings and aquatints Dix published as The War in 1924.

Photo of trench warfare

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“The real Dadaists are against Dada.”

DADA

- The February 1920 Bulletin Dada

An international movement from 1916 –1922 BACKGROUND Dada and Surrealism dominated the years between the two world wars. Both were born in revolt against the First World War and both questioned the traditional values of society. They had a dramatic influence on subsequent art movements. Dada started mainly as a literary manifestation. During the First World War the German writer and poet, Hugo Ball established the Cabaret Voltaire in Zurich. It was a centre for artists and writers sharing an outlook of protest against the society of their time. Cabaret Voltaire was a cross between a nightclub and an art society. It was founded by Hugo Ball and others for artistic and political purposes. During meetings poems were read, and paintings were painted by using intuition without control. Happenings were held. During one meeting 80 speakers spoke simultaneously on different subjects. During an exhibition, hammers were handed out with the request that the audience destroy the art works. Events at the cabaret proved crucial to the founding of Dada.

An example of a sound poem by Hugo Ball

There are different accounts of the origin of the name “Dada”. One version is that the word was discovered accidentally in a GermanFrench dictionary. Dada also means hobbyhorse in French. It is also the first word of a child. The name caught on because of its childlike sound. It showed their search for freedom and a new beginning. From Zurich, Dada quickly spread internationally to Cologne, Hanover, New York and Paris. Several magazines formed a part of Dada e.g. “Dada” in Zurich, the “Electric Fan” by Max Ernst in Cologne and “391”. Influences Dada was a protest movement against the First World War. Millions were killed and people were pondering human existence. Dada originated from the disillusionment and disgust of the senseless barbarity of the war. According to the Dadaists the different governments for autocratic and materialistic gains started the Great War.

Hugo Ball in costume performing a sound poem at the cabaret Voltaire

Photo from the First World War VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

174 The war showed what happened when governments were greedy and too materialistic. They felt that human logic had led to this human carnage and that the only solution lay in political anarchy (anarchy = absence of government, disorder) and placing importance on human emotions, the intuitive and the irrational. Thus, Dada was a protest movement against the traditional social values (moral, religious and political) which had made the war possible.

“ Dada was a rebellious upsurge of vital energy and rage; it resulted from the absurdity of that imbecilic war. We young people came back from the war in a state of stupefaction, and our rage had to find expression somehow or other. This it did quite naturally through attacks on the foundations of the civilization responsible for the war… our enthusiasm encompassed total revolution.” – Max Ernst Photo from the First World War

Characteristics of Dada • Dada was a state of mind. They wanted to mock and shock. • It was a protest movement against the good taste and moral values of the middle class. This negative movement wanted to destroy all traditions in art. Therefore they seldom used ordinary media in painting and sculpture e.g. montage by Hannah Hoch and assemblage by Schwitters. • Dada in its quest to be free from all theories, standards and authority, mocked everything. “Use Rembrandt as an ironing board” shows their disregard for traditional art. (Man Ray’s Cadeau, an assemblage consisting of an iron with nails, would have been appropriate.) Modern art was also mocked with the exhibition of a toy ape with the title “Portrait of Cèzanne”by Picabia. • Dada was a revolt against logic and reason. In their disregard for the conscious mind, they started to explore the subconscious in music, literature and the fine arts. (Surrealism would continue with this.)

Picabia, Portrait of CÉzanne, 1921.

Examples of artworks There is no Dada style as there was in Cubism. Dada was rather a state of mind. Individual artists were responsible for all kinds of innovations that had a profound influence on later artists. These include the following: • The use of chance – Hans Arp • The use of junk/’’recycling’ – Kurt Schwitters • Photomontage – John Heartfield and Hannah Höch • Ready-made – Marcel Duchamp VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Man Ray, Cadeau (The gift) (1921) Flat iron with nails.

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“The important thing about Dada is that the Dadaists despised what is commonly regarded as art. We declare that everything which comes into being or is made by man is art” - Arp WHO WAS HANS ARP? Jean Arp / Hans Arp (16 September 1886 – 7 June 1966) was a German-French sculptor, painter, poet and abstract artist using other media such as torn and pasted paper. Dada was not only negative, because in their deliberate irrationality they liberated the creative soul and introduced a new way of creating art, namely, the use of chance. Hans Arp was one of the first artists to use the method of chance. Arp tore up a drawing with which he was dissatisfied and threw the pieces on the floor. He found that the chance pattern in which they lay was “expressive” and he pasted them in the positions that they had fallen in the pattern they had made. This method led to a work such as Collage with Squares arranged according to the laws of Chance, 1916. By using chance the artist works irrationally. It is a way in which the individual expresses himself in a world that is becoming increasingly organized. The use of chance leads to spontaneity. The spontaneous moment was seen as pure truth as it was free of doctrination and history.

Hans Arp, Collage with Squares arranged according to the laws of Chance, 1916.

WHO WAS SCHWITTERS? Kurt Schwitters (20 June 1887 - 8 January 1948) was a German artist who was born in Hanover, Germany. He worked in different media such as his collages, called Merz Pictures and installations, called Merzbau.

“Everything the artist spits is art!” - Schwitters.

Kurt Schwitters showed that works of art could be created with junk. He called his works Merz (from a letter head of KomMERZbank) He used these waste products e.g. discarded wrappings, tram tickets and other refuse to create collage. There are similarities with Duchamp, but Schwitters did not go along with the anti-art propensities of Dada and used the formal elements such as colour, shape etc. in creating his artworks. He showed that everything can be used to make art. Kurt Schwitters, Merz Picture 29A, Picture with flywheel, 1920.


176 Starting in 1923 he created the first of his Merzbau, a column-liked shape in the middle of a room filled with found objects in Cubist-like grottoes creating an installation. This work later spread over six rooms. His significance is in realising that everything, including socalled junk, can be used to create art. It was destroyed in the bombing during the Second World War.

Raoul Hausmann, Self-portrait of the Dadasopher, 1920. Photomontage.

Hannah Höch, Cut with the Kitchen Knife through the Beer-Belly of the Weimar Republic, 1919. Photomontage.

Photomontage Photomontage is a variation of collage in which pasted items are actual photographs or photographic reproductions selected from the press and used by the Berlin Dada group. The major exponents included John Heartfield and Hannah Höch. Individual photos combined together create a new subject or visual image and proved to be a powerful tool for the Dada artists who were protesting about social and political issues.


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“I thought to

WHO WAS MARCEL DUCHAMP? Marcel Duchamp (28 July 1887 – 2 October 1968) was a French artist considered by some to be one of the most important and influential artists of the 20th century. The French artist, Duchamp was a highly successful painter with his variations of French avant-garde styles. In the Armory show of 1913 in New York, his futurist inspired Nude Descending a Staircase became the butt for cartoonists and was described as “an explosion in a shingle factory”.

discourage aesthetics... I threw the bottlerack and the urinal in their faces and now they admire them for their aesthetic beauty”

- Marcel Duchamp

In 1915 Duchamp gave up painting almost entirely when he left France for America. ANTI-ART AND THE READY-MADE In his disgust with the ruling order in art he came to a logical conclusion in his rejection of art and the meaninglessness of the world. He mocks traditional art values by choosing a manufactured object and declaring it to be art e.g. a bicycle wheel mounted on a chair. An object becomes art because the artist declares it to be art, for instance the Bottle Rack and Fountain. The ready-made is thus an ordinary manufactured object that becomes “art” because of the artist’s choice, it is also anti-art, because it is against the idea of the artwork as labour intensive. Duchamp said that the choice of the object should be a “no choice”, in that it is without aesthetic qualities and exists as art only because the artist felt like choosing it. It is anti-art, because it goes against the idea of the uniqueness of the artwork and makes a mockery of the art museum system. It says that anything is art, which must lead to the idea that nothing is art, or that nothing has value.

Marcel Duchamp, Nude descending a staircase, 1912. Oil on canvas.

Marcel Duchamp, Fountain, 1917.

The Fountain is an industrially produced urinal, to which the artist made three changes: 1. he has placed it on a plinth 2. he has signed and dated it 3. he has entered it for an art competition.

Marcel Duchamp, Bicycle wheel, 1913.

Marcel Duchamp, Bottle rack, 1914. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

178 The most notorious of his ready-mades was the urinal which he called Fountain and signed R. Mutt on it. The Society of Independent Artists put on a show in 1917 to which any artist who paid $6 could submit work. There was no jury, and theoretically, no restriction on what could be entered. The committee objected on moral grounds, an objection, which Duchamp dismissed as absurd as such objects, could be seen every day in plumbers’ windows. This provocative gesture is essentially Dada. Duchamp treated a copy of the Mona Lisa (the “icon” of the Renaissance) disrespectfully by adding a goatee and moustache to her and he added the letters, L.H.O.O.Q. If these letters are read quickly in French they produce the phonetic equivalent of the sentence “she has a hot ass” referring to Leonardo’s homosexuality. This work can be seen as an assisted ready-made.

Marcel Duchamp, L.H.O.O.Q. (1919) Pencil on a reproduction of the Mona Lisa

One of Duchamp’s major works was a large painting on glass, which he called The Bride Stripped Bare by her Bachelors, Even. This work consisted of a large sheet of glass which he worked upon with oil paint, foil, lead wire, dust and varnish. The addition of dust and the oxidation caused by rust was seen by Duchamp as the operation of chance upon his work. It was an extremely complex work, which took many years to complete. Duchamp finally pronounced it complete when the glass was accidentally cracked during transportation in 1926. In 1923 Duchamp, in a supremely Dada gesture, gave up art altogether and devoted his life to playing chess, although he did work on several projects towards his death.


Marcel Duchamp, The Large Glass, 1915 – 23. Glass, lead foil, fuse wire, and dust.

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Marcel Duchamp, Art Genius or Art Charlatan? What is your opinion about these titles? Write a short essay of about one page in which you substantiate your opinion on Duchamp. Refer to at least two of his works. (Charlatan = fraud, imposter, pretender, con artist)

Glossary A “found object” is a natural or man-made object which unaltered, is either exhibited as an artistic object in its own right or incorporated into a work of art.

Ready-made is Duchamp’s name for a mass-produced object chosen at random and elevated to an artwork e.g. Fountain. Influence and importance of Dada Protest actions are usually short-lived, and by 1922 Dada ended because of its absurdity. Many Dadaists became Surrealists (Ernst, Arp) and Dada’s use of chance and irrationality became one of the principles of Surrealism. Although Dada can be viewed as absurd, it had a tremendous influence on Modernism as Dada was not merely destructive, but also opened up new ways of creating art.

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Dada was known for its many publications and provocotive statements. The Dada exhibitions as seen in the historical photo on the right, was a mixture of art works and statements. Imagine that you are part of the Dada movement in 1920. You are asked to make a brochure (A4) to advertise a Dada exhibition. See that you include at least three artworks and some Dada statements. Try to represent the Dada attitude in your choice of colours, typography and lay-out. Consider using photomontage as inspired by this movement. There are many examples of Dada publications available on the internet. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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De Stijl

De Stijl was a movement founded by Theo van Doesburg and Piet Mondrian in 1917 in Holland. Mondrian termed his art Neo-Plasticism and based it on the idea of universal harmony. He developed his abstraction by simplifying a tree to vertical and horsontal lines. He promoted purity by using pure colours, pure lines and pure shadow and light by using black and white. His abstract art consists of a white ground, upon which was painted a grid of vertical and horizontal black lines and the three primary colours.

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Piet Mondrian, Composition II in red, blue and yellow, 1930. Oil on canvas

Neo-objectivity (Neue Sachlichkeit)

The New Objectivity or Neue Sachlichkeit in Germany, took its name from an exhibition held in 1923 in Mannheim, Germany. It was a realist style that depicted, satirized and criticized the corruption, frantic pleasure and general demoralization of Germany after its defeat in the First World War as well as the ineffectual Weimar republic that governed Germany at the time. The movement ended with the rise of the Nazi’s.

Max Beckman, The Night, 1919. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

George Grosz, Pillars of society, 1926. Oil on canvas.

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Otto Dix, Metropolis, 1928. Triptych in mixed media on wood.

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Surrealism

“He that cannot imagine a galloping horse on a tomato, is an idiot” - Andrè Breton.

Background Many Dada artists went on to became Surrealists. Surrealism under the leadership of Andrè Breton, (known as “the pope of Surrealism”) who felt that Dada was too absurd and destructive. Breton felt the need for more positive action. This led to Breton’s First Surrealist Manifesto in 1924. Under his leadership, artists and writers, wanted to create an art based on the irrational chance in art. Breton chose the name Surrealism, meaning beyond or above reality, to describe spontaneous writing. According to Breton, Surrealism is the art born from the sub-consciousness. Surrealism rests on the belief in the superior reality of certain forms of association, in the omnipotence of the dream, and the disinterested play of thought. André Breton

Exquisite cadavres This was a favourite game of the Surrealists to unlock the subconscious mind. The name is derived from the phrase, “The exquisite corpse will drink the new wine”, that resulted when Surrealists first played the game. Usually played with four people, a paper is folded into four parts. The first person draws a head and folds it to conceal most of it. It is then passed to the next person to draw the torso and so on. It was also played with words where each of them would write a phrase on a sheet of paper, fold the paper to conceal part of it, and pass it on to the next player for his contribution. Try playing this game with your friends.

An example of Exquisite cadavres by Man Ray, Joan Miro, Max Morise and Yves Tanguy VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

182 Influences The Surrealists were influenced by many artists throughout the ages that explored the world of dreams, fantasy and imagination. These include Hieronimus Bosch, Henry Fuseli, Goya and Symbolist artists.

Hieronymus Bosch, The Garden of Earthly delights, oil on wood triptych.

Henri Rousseau, The Sleeping Gypsy, 1897. Oil on canvas.

Henry FusEli, The Nightmare, 1781. Oil on canvas.

De Chirico (Metaphysical School) was a forerunner of Surrealism with his portrayals of uninhabited cities with undertones of shock, fantasy and strangeness. Surrealism was also strongly influenced by the art of children, naïve art and the art of the mentally disturbed. They were thus interested in art produced in a subconscious way.

Giorgio De Chirico,Melancholy and Mystery of a Street, 1914. Oil on canvas.


183 Influence of modern psychology Modern psychology claims that reason and logical thoughts are only a superstructure of human thought. Man possesses a depth that reason cannot penetrate namely the subconscious. The importance of the subconscious part of the human brain was developed through the theories and psycho-analysis of Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939). According to Freud the conscious part is only the tip of the iceberg. All human activities are influence by the subconscious. Freud’s writings made it clear to the Surrealists that the subconscious, instincts and dreams are an integral part of human beings. According to Freud, certain experiences, usually negative ones, are forced into the subconscious leading to all kinds of complexes. In his writings Freud also explored themes like the role of sexuality, especially the way in which childhood sexuality affects later adult behaviour.

His pupil, C.G. Jung (1875 – 1961), went further and claimed that all people share a collective unconscious. So the Surrealists believed that if they use this important source, the subconscious, as basis for creation, they would communicate with all people in a subconscious way, because of the collective unconscious. Jung wrote about the importance of the world of dreams, and how symbols, which appear in dreams, can help us to understand ourselves. (The Surrealists used these theories for their own gain and not to help others e.g. the interpretation of dreams.) Characteristics of Surrealism

Max Ernst, The Robing of the Bride, 1940. Oil on canvas.

The Surrealists found a new basis for art in: • the rule of illogic, rather than logic • the exploration of the sub-conscious, rather than the conscious mind • the importance of the dream world, rather than the rational waking world. • The Surrealists derived their art from the subconscious and the most common themes in their paintings, are those which are often suppressed in the conscious mind, namely to do with sexuality, violence and death. • Freud’s view that man’s sexual fantasies appear in dream images, influenced the Surrealists and they often used symbols with a sexual connotation e.g. fruit (female) or columns (male). • Surrealism wanted to escape and conquer the chaos of their times by using a power that is higher than reality, namely the sur-reality. • Surrealism was a view of life and a state of mind.


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Salvador Dali, Burning giraffe, 1936. Oil on canvas.

Salvador Dali, Dream caused by the Flight of a Bee around a Pomegranate One Second before waking up, 1944. Oil on canvas.

In Surrealism two tendencies, namely automatism and the dream world, can be identified, although many artists worked in both. Automatism Automatism was the Surrealist term for Freud’s technique of free association, which he also used to reveal the unconscious mind of his patients. In this tendency a new form of abstract art was developed. It is characterize by organic, biomorphic and amoeba-like shapes. The subconscious mind creates colours, lines and shapes in a hypnotic condition. Creativity is automatic and the use of chance is more important than rational thought. To assist the free flow of the subconscious they used automatism by starting to draw or paint without any preconceived ideas (like doodles) to create chance effects. They often used specific techniques to unleash the subconscious mind such as: • Frottage where one places a piece of paper on a textured surface and rubs over it with a pencil and then uses it to inspire an artwork.. • Decalcomania where black paint is spread on a sheet of paper, and another sheet is pressed down lightly on top, and then carefully lifted off just before the paint dries. The resultant effects were used to develop an artwork. • “Automatic handwriting” where one starts to draw without a preconceived idea and then identifies symbols and figures in the drawing. • Mixtures of oil, water and paint resulted in spontaneous effects. These could then be transformed into images by using the rational mind.


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WHO WAS MIRO? Joan Miro (1893 – 1983) was a Spanish Surrealist artist.

“For the Harlequin’s Carnival I made many drawings in which I expressed my hallucinations brought on by hunger. I came home at night without having dined and noted my sensations on paper,” – Joan Miro.

Joan Miro, Carnival of Harlequin, 1924 – 25. Oil on canvas.

A room with a window and a table are indicated and they belong more or less to the everyday world, but after that Miro’s imagination took over. Bizarre assemblies of insect-like creatures play, dance and make music. One of them having the suggestion of a human face with a ridiculous moustache. According to Miro: “I begin painting and as I paint the picture begins to assert itself, under my brush. The form becomes a symbol for a woman or a bird as I work … The first stage is free, unconscious, but the second stage is carefully calculated.” Automatism’ gave him the freedom to portray his dreams and fantasies.

Max Ernst, Europe After the Rain, 1940 – 2. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

186 Europe after the rain was created while the artist was in hiding from the Germans during the occupation of Paris during the Second World War. The work suggests the desolation of a collapsed civilization. Ernst used a technique similar to frottage by spreading paint over the canvas and then compressing it while still wet to create this fantastical landscape. Afterwards he added some detail and shading, e.g. figures and pillars. The dream world In this tendency figurative and illusionistic paintings convince the viewer of the reality of the

dream and the subconscious mind. Dream images were made by painting recognizable scenes in a detailed realistic way and then placing them in completely illogical situations, e.g. burning giraffes or watches being devoured by ants. The Surrealists found “convulsive (shocking) beauty” in images such as the “chance encounter of a sewing machine and an umbrella on a dissecting table”. Images were painted in an extraordinarily detailed realist technique. Brush strokes are fine and detailed. The picture surface is smooth rather than tactile. The illusions of space and depth are realistically portrayed. Colour is super-real: it is luminous and dreamlike.

WHO WAS DALI?

“The only difference

Salvador Dali (1904 – 1989) was a Spanish between me and a born Surrealist painter. He was a very skilled mad man, is that draughtsman known for his dream-like paintings. I am not mad!” He was also involved in film, sculpture and Salvador Dali. photography. Dali is also remembered for his outrageous and eccentric behaviour. His attentiongrabbing public actions sometimes drew more attention than his artwork to the dismay of those who held his work in high esteem and to the irritation of his critics. Salvador Dali has become the best known of the Surrealist painters, in part because of his wildly exhibitionist behaviour. He wore extraordinarily clothes, grew and waxed an outrageous moustache, and did things like giving a lecture at the Sorbonne with one foot in a bowl of ass’s milk. His work shows a precise realist technique combined with discordant luminous colour. In his work a commonplace object gradually becomes a nightmare object.

Salvador Dali, The Rainy Taxi, 1938. This installation was exhibited at the International Exhibition of Surrealism in Paris in 1938. It consisted of an aboned vehicle, with ivy growing over it, and the dummies of the driver and a hysterical woman passenger inside, showered with water and crawled over by live snails.


Salvador Dali, Lobster Telephone, 1936. Telephone, plaster. This object shows how Dali would combine everyday objects to create a dreamlike effect.

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Salvador Dali, Metamorphosis of Narcissus, 1937. Oil on canvas.

In the Persistence of Memory (24 x 33 cm) Dali creates a barren space where time stands still. A strange never-setting sun illuminates the landscape. The cliffs in the distance are actually from a place in Catalonia, where he grew up. An amorphous creature sleeps in the foreground. This could be the face of Dali himself with long eyelashes that seem to be insect-like. Dali has draped this creature with a limp pocket watch. Another watch hangs like a pancake from the branch of a dead tree that springs unexpectedly from a block-like architectural form. A third watch hangs half over the edge of this rectangular form, beside a small watch resting dialdown on the block. Ants swarm mysteriously over the small watch, while a fly walks on the face of the neigbouring watch. It is as if these watches were organic and decaying, soft and sticky. In this work commonplace objects gradually become objects from a nightmare. The watches clearly allude to time passing, but the softness of these instruments for measuring time, however, renders them unreliable. The watches become ‘like rotten flesh’ attracting ants and a fly and suggest that all things must come to an end. Dali painted this fantasy with a meticulous painting technique and attention to detail to convince the viewer of the reality of this scene. Dali called his works ‘hand-painted dream photographs’. The colours in the cool blues and warm yellows recall the palette of Jan Vermeer.

Salvador Dali, The Persistence of Memory, 1931. Oil on canvas.


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WHO WAS MAGRITTE? René Magritte (1898 – 1967) was a Belgian Surrealist artist. His work challenges the viewer’s perceptions of reality with his witty and thought-provoking images.

“The mind loves the unknown. It loves images whose meaning is unknown, since the meaning of the mind itself is unknown” - René Magritte

In this painting Magritte puts together precisely and realistically painted objects that do not belong together logically. He paints a smoking steam train coming out of a fireplace in a suburban room. He blends together the ordinary to create a strange and disturbing scene from a nightmare.

René Magritte, Time Transfixed, 1938. Oil on canvas.

The work, This is not a pipe, is also known as the Treachery of Images. Magritte represents a meticulously painted briar pipe. It looks like a real pipe, but then he writes underneath it in French that ‘this is not a pipe’, which of course it is not, it is only a painted image of a pipe. With this, Magritte explores the relationship between the real world and the painted world.

René Magritte, This is not a Pipe, 1931. Oil on canvas

René Magritte, The Menaced Assassin, 1927. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

189 The legacy of Surrealism Dali collaborated with the filmmaker, Luis Bunuel in Un Chien andalou, 1929. The opening scene was where a man stands by a window sharpening a razor. Outside a cloud passes a full moon. A woman stares impassive in a close-up before the camera. The razor is drawn against her eyeball. This shocking scene opened up Surrealism in cinema. During the first screening of their second collaboration, l’Age d’or, 1930, police had to be called in to clear the cinema. Scenes from these movies include a man wiping his mouth from his face, a rotting donkey on a grand piano and a hand covered in ants. Surrealism brought liberation to art. It introduces the subconscious and dream world as an important source of creativity. Art, literature and cinema were enriched by Surrealism.

Superman, The Man of Tomorrow, Dan Jurgens and Brett Breeding

How have you become aware of the legacy of Surrealism? Think of books you have read or movies you have seen.

5.3


Surrealism introduced the dream and the subconscious as sources of creativity. Explain ways in which this has been incorporated by analysising the paintings by Yves Tanguy and Max Ernst. In your explanation clearly refer to the following: • influences • the expression of the subconscious and the dream • technique and style • use of formal elements

Max Ernst, The Elephant Celebes, 1921. Oil on canvas.

Yves Tanguy, Mama, Papa is Wounded, 1927. Oil on canvas.


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Art and Politics in the 1930’s

In 1929 the Wall Street stock market crashed in America and was followed by The Great Depression, a time of economic hardship worldwide. Photographers such as Dorothea Lange documented the conditions. In Europe several dictatorships emerged such as the Third Reich (Nazi’s) under Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini’s Fascism in Italy. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict fought in Spain that ended with General Franco’s victory and dictatorship. Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in reaction to this war in his homeland. These events and especially Hitler’s hunger for expansion would lead to the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. This ended the reign of Paris as centre for avant-garde art as it was replaced by New York after the war. Dorothea Lange, Migrant mother of Seven Children, 1936. Photograph.

Hubert Lanzinger, Adolf Hitler as Standard Bearer, c. 1935, is an example of the propagandist art of the Third Reich. Most modernist art was seen by the Nazi’s as degenerate because it was un-German, Jewish or communist according to them. This led to an exhibition of this so-called undesirable art the so-called degenerate art (entarte) in Munich in 1937. Many avant-garde artists were now branded enemies of the state and had to go into exile. Many of the artworks were destroyed. More than 500 works by Kirchner, for example, were destroyed and this led to his suicide in 1938.


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Three iconic American paintings

Andrew Wyeth, Christina’s world, 1948. Tempera.

Grant Wood, American Gothic, 1930, Oil on Beaver board.

Edward Hopper, Nighthawks, 1942. Oil on canvas.


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5.4


Although the three American paintings depicted do not fall under the movements you are studying in this chapter, they are all famous and are often referenced in popular culture. They all give you a sense of a specific time and place in America. They are also interesting to compare to early South African art works by artists such as Gerard Sekoto and George Pemba that you will study in Grade 12. Write a paragraph on each of these works to explain how they reflected on a time and place. Refer to the following: • Describe the scene portrayed • Composition and art elements • Atmosphere, possible meanings/interpretations

8

Mexican Murals

This term describes the large-scale mural painting in Mexico in the 1920s and 1930s. The principal artists were Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Siqueiros (‘The Three Great Ones’). They were all committed to left-wing ideas during a politically turbulent time in Mexico. Their large-scale murals on public buildings were painted to convey social and political messages to the public. To do this, they used a naturalistic style and turned to their history and heritage of pre-Columbian cultures for inspiration.

José Clemente Orozco, Hispano-America, 1934. Fresco.


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David Siqueiros, Echo of a Scream, 1937. Duco on board.

David Siqueiros, Portrait of the Bourgeoisie, 1939. Pyroxaline on cement

Diego Rivera, Man, Controller of the universe, 1934. Fresco.


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Frida Kahlo (1907 – 1954)

“A ribbon wrapped around a bomb,”-André Breton Background Frida Kahlo was a Mexican painter who as a child was confined to bed for nine months after contracting polio, which left her with a slightly malformed foot. At the age of 18, she was involved in a road accident when the bus she was travelling in collided with a tram. She was impaled on a metal rod and suffered fractures of the spine, pelvis and legs. After a month in hospital, she had to wear a plaster corset for a further nine months. It was while she was in hospital that Kahlo began to draw and paint – first the accident and then herself. Her life was a constant struggle between life and death. She underwent repeated hospitalisations and operations. In 1929 she married Mexico’s most famous artist, Diego Rivera, best known for the monumental wall paintings he created for the Communist regime. He was an unfaithful husband, whose affairs included a relationship with her sister. They divorced in 1939, only to remarry at the end of 1940. After a leg amputation in 1953, she was confined to a wheelchair. In her short life of 44 years, she had come to terms with enormous suffering. Because of the accident, she was unable to bear a child. Her three miscarriages or abortions are addressed in her work.

Characteristics of Kahlo Kahlo was a self-taught painter. Kahlo’s work is a mixture of naivety, naturalism and Surrealism. Although she was in contact with the Surrealists, she herself maintained “I didn’t know I was a Surrealist until Andre Breton come to Mexico and told me so. I never painted dreams. What I portrayed was my reality”. Her work shows strong Mexican folkinfluences. Her works are small with a detailed, nearly miniaturist style. Her work is highly detailed and colourful.

Frida Kahlo, Two Frida’s, 1939. Oil on canvas.


195 Her work was directly autobiographical and includes a series of intimate self-portraits. Kahlo turns her attention inward and depicts personal themes, all about her own feelings and things of personal interest. During the one year divorce from Rivera she painted a series of self-portraits depicting her personal grief in a Surrealist manner. Her works bear harrowing witness to her own physical and mental suffering. There is also a cruelty in her paintings – depicting her birth, operations and abortions with a dreamlike coarseness.

Glossary

Feminism is the theory of the political,

economic, and social equality of the sexes. It is also the organised activity on behalf of women’s rights and interests.

Examples of Frida Kahlo Frida Kahlo, Diego on my thought, 1943. Oil on canvas.

Taking her cue from the popular Mexican religious image showing the head and shoulders of the suffering Christ, Kahlo depicts herself wearing a necklace of thorns, as an equivalent for Christ’s Crown of Thorns. She combines Christian and pre- Christian beliefs in this work. According to the Aztecs the spirit of dead warriors returned in the form of hummingbirds. She has a typical plaited Mexican hairstyle and white blouse. She is set against a background of huge green leaves with a monkey and a black cat (symbol of bad luck) seen over her shoulders. Her self-portraits are small realistic renderings of her face with the unflattering unibrow and female semimoustache. She is brutally open and honest. She depicts herself without shame or vanity, opening her emotions for all to see. Self-portrait with thorn necklace and hummingbird (1940) Oil on canvas


196 Sitting on a wooden chair and dressed in a man’s suit, the artist is surrounded by locks of her hair. All that symbolised her femininity, her beautiful hair and colourful dresses, are gone. At the top of the painting above a line of music is the bitter lyric: “look if I loved you, it was for your hair. Now that you are bald, I don’t love you anymore”. This painting was made in the depths of despair following her divorce from Rivera. Self-portrait with cropped hair, 1940. Oil on canvas

In this self-portrait she opens her chest to reveal a fractured column symbolising her injured spine. Her broken body is supported by a steel corset. This is one of her most direct portrayals of her suffering – she cries white tears and her body is pierced by nails. Notwithstanding the portrayal of physical suffering, she retains her femininity seen in her long loose hair and exposed breasts showing she is still a sensual woman. Often in her work, the portrait is centralised to confront the viewer. She places herself against a background of an empty landscape, which could be symbolic of her life and yearning for a child.

The broken column (1944) Oil on canvas

The legacy of Frida Kahlo Frida Kahlo became a cult figure and a feminist heroine, admired for her refusal to let great physical suffering crush her spirit or interfere with her art or left-wing political activities. As a result of her paintings being self-portraits of an intimate nature, they are often seen as depictions of femininity, feminism and other gender-related topics. Before Frida Kahlo, Western art was unused to such implicit images of childbirth or miscarriage.


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There were women artists associated with both Dada and Surrealism, as well as some who followed an individual path, but these artists were often marginalized in art collections and art books. With the rise of feminism, more attention has been focused on these artists, although the male artists still take central stage. Choose any three of the following women artists from this period: • Hannah Höch • Dorothea Tanning • Leonara Carrington • Meret Oppenheim • Georgia O’Keefe Photocopy or print one example of their work and paste them into your book. Answer the following questions on each: • Who was she? (nationality, part of an art movement or not, etc.) • Themes and style of her work • The way her work addresses female concerns

10

Other artists who worked between the wars Modligliani (1884 – 1920) was an Italian born artists who moved to Paris in 1906. Sickly and prone to alcohol and drug abuse he died young. He is known for his elongated shapes.

Soutine (1893 – 1943) moved from Belarus to Paris. He is known for his impassioned expressionistic style with bold colours, strong brushwork and thick surface texture.

Amedeo Modligliani, Jeanne Hébuterne, 1919. Oil on canvas.

Chaim Soutine, Woman in Red, 1922. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

198 Klee (1879 – 1840) was a Swiss artist known for his whimsical and child-like approach to art.

Paul Klee, Senecio, 1922. Oil on canvas.

Chagall (1887 – 1985) was a RussianJew who created a unique narrative style inspired by Jewish folklore and the village life of his childhood. His work is filled with dream-like fantasy executed in brilliant colour.

Marc Chagall, The fallen Angel, 1923 – 47. Oil on canvas.

Giacometti (1901 – 1966) is best known for his sculptures of thin, elongated figures of existentialism after the Second world war. This is an example of his Surrealist sculpture.

Alberto Giacometti, Woman with her throat cut, 1932. Bronze cast.

Moore (1898 – 1986) was a British sculptor known for his reclining figures inspired by non-western art.

Henri Moore, Reclining Figure, 1939. Elmwood. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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ALEXIS PRELLER Born in 1911, Preller grew up in Pretoria and went to Pretoria Boy’s High School. He only considered becoming an artist later as he began his career as a clerk. Extensive travels through Europe and Africa served in part as an art education and inspiration for his paintings. The poetic world filled with signs and symbols that Preller created in his paintings played a groundbreaking role in South African art. Although he rejected classification as a surrealist, the unusual combinations of colours, use of contrasting tonal values, signs and symbols placed in environments inspired by Greek, Egyptian and African cultures, are related to the dreamlike qualities seem in Surrealist paintings. The Kraal is a recreation of Preller’s main source of inpiration – The Ndebele culture. The Mapogga (Ndebele) kraal has been recreated as the setting of a mythical African community. He combined the environment of the decorated mud dwelllings, ritual performances and typical icons. These icons such as eggs, a slit drum and egrets are also found in some of his other works. The busy kraal scene seems to be a representation of everyday life. Women are busy with their daily chores or sitting around and are the dominant presence in this painting. Preller presents a view of the kraal that includes a young woman’s head as she is moving past, very close to the viewer. From there the kraal expands up to where one can see the hills disappearing in the far-off distance. The effect of this sweeping view is that the juxtaposition of the various sizes of figures, buildings and objects are not completely realistic. This contributes to the interpretation that the painting represents more than an observation of a realistic scene. Preller’s emphasis of tonal values combined with contrasting jewel-like oil colours that are applied in a soft, smooth texture is also important in his version of primeval Africa. He paid equal attention to every detail in the painting while also creating a sense of quiet open space in between

Alexis Preller. The Kraal II. 1948. Oil.

each figure and object. It is therefore necessary to inspect this work closely in order not to miss anything. This integration of symbolic objects and happenings with a scene from daily life is reminiscent of the works of artists such as Hieromymus Bosch and Breughel. The use of certain forms, colours and surfaces in his painting is another reason for the connection made with Surrealism. Directly behind the young woman, who is the focus of the foreground, is an unusual mythical animal, standing on a structure that turns it into a hobbyhorse. On its back is a man keeping a large drum steady and on top of the drum a group of minute people are dancing around a burning candle. To the left of this figure there is another unusual scene where a nude female figure VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

200 embraces a monumental burning candle. The shape of this upright burning candle is echoed in the background in a phallic form of the slit drum. This form is also part of a ceremony as it is surrounded by four dark nude male figures dancing. In the extreme right hand corner, behind the ritual dance, is an entrance leading to an enclosed small corral, normally housing cattle, but now a single large white egg inhabits the space. Traditionally this would also be the burial ground for the ancestors. Another reference to the ancestors is the flock of egrets on the wooden structure to the left of the painting. They are also scattered around the homestead on the left. It is believed that the egrets house the spirit of the ancestors. More birds that are also symbolic, are included in the scene, which appears to be a true reflection of the unhurried life in a traditional African village.

Alexis Preller. The Cello III. 1952. Oil.

Preller combined the decorative effects of sculptural architecture with signs of disintegration as if it is a natural part of daily life. The broken thatched roof is supporting a protruding stick with a single round object decorated with a cross, hanging from it. The roof of the home on the left of the painting is covered with a brightly coloured decorative piece of cloth. Preller’s vision evokes a mysterious impression that is not supposed to be self-explanatory as it represents a poetic image of African life. Judith Mason She is a South African artist who also creates Surrealistic images. Describe the images you see in the examples below.

Man Under a Bridge JUDith MASON

Our Lady of the Transit Camp JUDith MASON

Charioteer JUDith MASON VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Alexis Preller. Symbols on a Beach. (Hommage à Bosch). Oil.

Alexis Preller. The Candles. 1948. Oil.

“Night Dog” JUDith MASON

201 FRED PAGE Fred Page lived and worked in Port Elizabeth in an area near the harbour called Central, for most of his life. After his mother died when he was young, he was sent from one foster home to another. As an adult, he lived and painted in boarding houses. This recluse and eccentric artist found his inspiration in the industrialised city landscape in which he lived. His experiences of life on the outskirts of society are represented in the grey blandness of the windswept city streets, seen in his paintings. Although Page’s works emphasize the experience of city life as grey and solitary within empty spaces, there are references to types of people, unusual interactions and titles that are humorous and whimsical. In his painting The Last 365 Days a barren grey landscape of hills fill the central space of the composition. On both sides of the hilly landscape the sides of two buildings portrude into the deserted space. Inside the building on the left hand side of the composition, five baldheaded men dressed in white suits with greyish dark glasses covering their eyes; stand around within the frame of the large window. They look as if they have some purpose, which is not clear to the viewer. In the doorway of the building on the other side of the composition a bearded Fred Page. The Last 365 Days. 1970. Polymer on board. figure, dressed in a white shirt and grey trousers, stands expectantly with a stick in his hand. The two buildings are almost like opposing poles that are linked by small simplified hills or dunes and a row of evenly spaced dead shrubs which are reduced to barren sticks. A white shape that looks like an oversized mask or kite, looms ominously behind the hills in the distance and dominates the landscape in the background. Near the central part, just underneath the mask-like shape, a lone figure, dressed in a grey coat, white scarf and grey hat, pushes a pram through the desolate cold Fred Page. What Happened to Aunt landscape. Gerty? 1980. Oil. A year has passed, according to the title, but what has happened is unclear. The scene is one of Fred Page. Flash. 1963. Pen and Ink. expectancy and the future of this place is uncertain. A dark greyness has overtaken everything and the empty steel grey sky does not promise any sign of relief from the impending doom as promised in the title. As in his other works, it is the spaces in between his unusual choice of figures, buildings and objects that creates a theatrical atmosphere inferring some form of disaster or the result of a disaster that has already happened. He does not provide too many clues and therefore the viewer’s imagination starts to fill in the empty spaces by making up a story about it, based on the sparse evidence presented in the painting. Fred Page. The Coach. 1963. Polymer on Board. Other artists and trends did not influence Page and therefore he created a surreal world from his personalised experiences of life on the streets. His works are not only a testimony to the deep grey blandness found in the city, but also contain a sense of the ridiculous conveyed through the interactions of people and the titles of his works. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Joseph Cornell was an American artist whose most celebrated works are enclosed boxed assemblages which bring together strangely evocative groups of found objects. He was influenced by the Surrealists. His boxes are filled with an irrational juxtaposition of ordinary objects which create a sense of mystery and nostalgia. It reminds one of a theater or film set, a scenario for some bizarre Surrealist drama. The word, juxtaposition, simply means to place things side-by-side. In art this is usually done to create a specific quality, effect or meaning by using two contrasting or opposing elements. The viewer’s attention is drawn to the similarities or differences between the elements. The presentation of ordinary items in extraordinary juxtaposition is central to Surrealist art, as in dreams. Such work also picks up on a principle already started by the Dadaists who worked with found objects and ready mades, that the creative vision can turn into great art.

Joseph Cornell, The Hotel Eden, 1945. Assemblage.

The following quote by the 19th century French poet, Comte Lautreamont, was a favourite of the Surrealists: “Beautiful as the chance encounter of a sewing machine and an umbrella on a dissecting table.”

Glossary

Assemblage is a three-dimensional form of collage that often makes use of found objects, transforming them into art.

Joseph Cornell, Medici princess, 1945. Assemblage.


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Play the following game in groups of three to stimulate ideas. Based on Lautreamont’s quote write the following in the spaces of the quote: The first person fills in an object at number 1 folds the paper to conceal it, and passes it on to the next player for his contribution at number 2 and so on. Try not to think, but rather use the first object that comes to mind.

“Beautiful as the chance encounter of a (1)………….and a (2) ……….. on a (3)………………..” You can also change the adjective (beautiful) to something else, for instance scary, adorable, etc. Write the results of this game into your source book.

An example of a box created by a learner includes a small animal skull, pill boxes, a toy airplane, a piece of coral, a wire pot scourer and a painting of an atom bomb explosion. Look at the visual similarities between the wire pot scourer, the piece of coral and the atom bomb cloud. Notice how the meaning of this piece is enriched by the pill boxes and animal skull.

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Theme: JUXTAPOSITION

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Start with your SOURCE BOOK to generate ideas for an artwork exploring the idea of juxtaposition. The following are a few options to generate ideas for an artwork exploring the idea of juxtaposition. You may do them all or choose one or more to investigate: • “Something old, something new, something borrowed something blue…” The saying refers to good-luck tokens a bride is supposed to wear on her wedding day. Use this saying in a mind map where you list items under old, new, borrowed and blue. Old could relate to anything historical, new to anything technological, borrowed to anything that is not your own, for example objects from other cultures, and blue speaks for itself. • Divide your page into four columns. Write down the following headings and list as many items under each as you can.


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Example: Man-made structures/ objects Bridge Plane Bath, etc.

Nature Moth Tree Fire, etc.

Fantasy Superhero Angel Shaman, etc.

Roles of people Explorer Cook Acrobat, etc.

Everyday ordinary object Toothbrush Pen Garden tool, etc.

Close your eyes and pick one from each column. See if you can visualise these items in an artwork. In both of these options you must decide on the objects/figures you are going to use. You need to find visual source material for each of them. For some you can use the real thing like a toothbrush, while for others you need to find visual material by either taking your own photos or looking for suitable images in books or magazines. • Another option would be to use the technique of photomontage that the Dadaists explored. Use magazine/photographs/pictures to create juxtapositions between objects and figures. The Dada artists rejected the prevailing political conditions. Maybe you could juxtapose social and historic images that show the rejection of political conditions during various periods of South African history. Decide on your choice of images for your artwork and do the following in your source book: • Write your intention and ideas. Make some thumbnail sketches to investigate different compositional solutions. • Research the work of three artists that use juxtaposition in their work. You could show a similar approach. • Do a final tonal drawing of your composition. • Document your thought processes in writing and/or visually for your final art work by considering choice of medium, style, composition, meaning, etc. You may consider making an assemblage box like Cornell and base a drawing or painting on it. • After you have finished this artwork, you must reflect in writing on this whole process.

THE BRIEF Your brief is to make a final artwork on the theme of juxtaposition. Your art teacher will guide you in this process and may give you further instructions regarding the media, size, technique, etc. Complete your artwork under the guidance of your art teacher.


205 One of the most powerful characteristics of art is to surprise the viewer by the combination of seemingly unrelated things that create a new meaning.

The above artworks by learners show how unrelated objects were combined to create dreamlike and surprising compositions.


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CHAPTER

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Survey of post 1946 art CONTENTS 1. Abstract Expressionism • Jackson Pollock • Mark Rothko 2. Pop Art • Andy Warhol • Claes Oldenburg 3. Op and Kinetic Art • Bridget Riley • Alexander Calder 4. Minimalism: • Donald Judd 5. Super Realism: • Chuck Close 6. Neo-Expressionism: • Anselm Kiefer 7. Relating to South African Art: • Kevin Atkinson • Wayne Barker • Johann Louw 8. Practical Assessment Task


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1940

1945

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

SECOND WORLD WAR (1939 – 1945)

Abstract Expressionism

Op & Kinetic Art

POP ART

SuperRealism

Neoexpressionism

Conceptual art


2000

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The effects of World War II Wrild War I ended in 1918. The destruction resulted in about 38 million people losing their lives. There was world wide economic depression and many countries experienced political upheaval which lead to the second World War in 1939. Under the leadership of Hitler Germany began to extend its territory. By May 1945 the war in Europe ended when the Soviet and Polish Armies conquered Berlin. The Pacific war caused by Japanese imperialism ended after America dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. These attacks killed about 200 000 people instantly. As a whole, World War II claimed about 60 million lives. The end of the war resulted in an end to European imperialism due to a loss of political and economic power. This lead to the end of European cultural dominance as well. During the 1930’s many intellectuals fled from Europe to America as a result of political and racial persecution in Nazi Germany. These included scientist Einstein, composers such as Bartok, Schoenberg and Stravinsky, artists such as Hans Hoffman, Max Beckman and George Grosz and Bauhaus figures such as Gropius, Mies van der Rohe and Marcel Breuer.

Churchill waving at the crowds on the day he anounced victory over Germany on 8 May 1945.

Jews captured by German soldiers in Warsaw in 1943. The Holocaust is the genocide of approximately 6 million Jews and at least 5 million other people who did not fit into the Nazi classification of the Aryan nation. Spearheaded by Hitler this state sponsored program entailed a vaiety of methods to exterminate people classified by the Nazi system. Most people were put in concentration camps where they were killed in gas chambers.

The American atomic bomb mushroom over Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. 60 000-80 000 people were killed there VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Influences of European art on American art • A rational formalistic, Purist abstract trend which originated in Cubism, transferred through artists such as Mondrian, Léger, Josef Albers and the Bauhaus designers. • The anti-rational, emotional, expressive trend promoted through Surrealist artists such as Ernst, Bréton, Masson, Dali and Duchamp was transferred to American art.

Mondrian.Broadway Boogie Woogie. Mondrian.1942-43. Oil on Canvas 127×127cm.

The above mentioned two movements where direct opposites within the European context, but the American artists were receptive to both. Developments within the American art scene The Armory Show held in 1913 and organized by the Association of American Painters and Sculptors introduced modern art in the form of avant-garde European and American artworks to the people of New York. The newly opened Museum of Modern Art staged major exhibitions such as “Cubism and Abstract Art”, “Fantastic Art, Dada, Surrealism” and a major retrospective exhibition of Picasso’s work.

Albers.Homage to the Square: Apparition. 1959. Oil on masonite 120.6×120.6cm.

The cartoon Mamma’s Little Angel by Penny Ross, published in 1913 or 1914, illustrates the general public’s reaction to modern art in America. It was perceived as a phenomenon that turned normality and American domesticity upside down. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

211 The American government created the Federal Arts Project during the Great Depression in order to give relief to artists suffering due to the economic conditions. This brought many disparate figures together There was no formal distinction made between the importance of representational or abstract art. The latter became more respectable. These effects were carried over to the 1940’s and 50’s.

Ben Shahn. The Farmers. 1943. Gouache on board. Shahn was known for his left wing politics and as a Social Realist he also took photographs during the Depression years.

“Shall the artist survive?” A Colour silkscreen poster for the Federal Arts Project announcing a daily discussion in New York.

The Social Realist and Regionalist movements in America were the origins of most artists who eventually developed abstract painting styles.

Thomas Hart Benton. The Ballad of the Jealous Lover of Lone Green Valley. 1934. Oil on Canvas. Together with Grant Wood this Regionalist artist influenced artists such as Pollock.

Hans Hofmann. The Golden Wall. 1961. Oil on canvas

Hans Hofmann was a German born artist, teacher and theorist whose first-hand experience of Cubism, Fauvism and Expressionism influenced his teachings in America. He emphasized the process of painting in the duality of the world of art and the world of appearances was reflected in the synthesis of Cubism and Fauvism seen in the works created at his art school in New York.


212 Background of Abstract Expressionism The artists usually referred to as Abstract Expressionists are Jackson Pollock, Franz Kline, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Motherwell, Adolph Gotlieb, Mark Rothko, Willem de Kooning, Clyfford Still and Barnett Newman. These artists did not form a movement but knew each other and were contemporaries in age. There were no uniform stylistic traits and they did not have a manifesto or program. The critics who gave this label to the group of artists however formulated their characteristics. Harold Rosenberg, an art critic, became their unofficial spokesperson in 1952 when he wrote: “At a certain moment … the canvas began to appear to one American painter after another as an arena in which to act – rather than a space in which to reproduce, redesign, analyze or ‘express’ an object, actual or imagined. What was to go on the canvas was not a picture, but an event. The painter no longer approached his easel with an image in his mind; he went up to it with material in his hand to do something to that other piece of material in from of him. The image would be a result of that encounter.”

De Kooning. Woman. 1950-52. Oil on canvas.


Motherwell.Elegy to the Spanish Republic. 1965-67. Oil on canvas.

Rosenberg’s article was published under the title “The American Action Painters”. The title gave rise to the use of the term ‘action painters’ in order to describe the artists whose paintings became the physical act of painting. The action of painting became not only an action of the wrist, but the action of the whole body. This act of painting was seen as an existential exercise which revealed the personality of the artist and was therefore an extreme form of honesty and self-expression.

Clifford Still. Untitled. 1948. Oil on canvas.

213 Not all the artists’ work could be described as ‘action painting’. The other well known art critic of the time, Clement Greenberg, felt that modern art changed along formal aspects. The idea of ‘colourfield painting’ was a tendency to apply colour to extended areas or fields. This was seen in the works of artists such as Rothko, Still and Newman. They strove to remove any motifs, which could evoke associations. Abstract form and expressive colour was used to communicate with the viewer in an immediate way. Newman. FOR Heroicus Sublimus. 1950-51. Oil on canvas.

Characteristics of Abstract Expressionism • Subject matter: They broke away from conventional realistic subject matter and created mainly abstract works in which the physical act of painting, the marks of paint on the canvas and the large surfaces of colour became central to conveying an honest selfexamination of the artist’s personal experience which is derived from the subconscious. • Composition: Most of the artists filled the whole canvas with a non-representational composition. The compositions of the Action painters lack a central motif. They abandoned the traditional idea of composition in terms of relations among the parts. The paintings are filled with expressive brushstrokes creating movement all over the canvas that could continue past the edge of the frame. The term over-all composition is used for such a work. The Colourfield painters created works in which the compositions were more structured and geometric or organic shapes created some form of focal point. • The two-dimensional character flatness of the painting canvas was emphasised by all Abstract Expressionists. Any conscious reference to three-dimensionality is avoided even though the layers of paint create the effect of depth through the overlapping of marks and colour areas. • Shapes: The shapes created on the canvas are meant to be interpreted as brushstrokes, drips or geometric surfaces of colour divided by smaller geometric surfaces of other colours. It does not refer to anything recognizable except for paint on canvas.

• Application: The application of paint by the Action painters was gestural and aggressive. Every brushmark is like the “handwriting” of the artist, telling us about his emotions and his experience. • The Colourfield painters’ works were not as gestural even though the textures of brushstrokes in the works of artists like Mark Rothko and Clifford Still were visible. Newman’s works showed no sign of texture as he painted flat colour surfaces. • Colour: Their use of colour generally did not refer to visual reality. It is only in De Kooning’s works where the reference to flesh is echoed in his use of colour. Colour was very important to the Colourfield painters who saw the non figurative colour surfaces as expressions of the ideas of transcendence and the infinite. • Abstract Expressionism was seen as typically American in spirit as all the artworks were monumental in scale which conveyed a romantic mood of rugged individual freedom and the vast spaces of this country.


214

WHO WAS POLLOCK? Jackson Pollock (28 January 1912 – 11 August 1956) was born in Cody, Wyoming and grew up in Arizona and California. His works are seen as leading examples of action painting of the Abstract Expressionist movement. The paintings for which he became famous, were done on lengths of canvas spread out on the studio floor. He moved around it while throwing the commercial synthetic enamel paint onto the canvas with sticks, trowels or directly from the tins. He included pieces of glass, sand, etc. into some of his paintings. The drip paintings were not premeditated and are visual records of the rhythmic movements of the artist around the canvas and resulted in the nickname “Jack the Dripper”. The expressive character of his works correlate with the existential anguish he experienced throughout his emotional and tumultuous life. “I hardly ever stretch my canvas before painting. I prefer to tack the unstretched canvas to the hard wall or the floor. I need the resistance of a hard surface. On the floor I am more at ease. I feel nearer, more part of the painting, since I can walk around it, work from four sides and literally be in the painting. This is akin to the method of the Indian sand painters of the West …. When I am in my painting, I’m not aware of what I’m doing. It is only after a sort of ‘get acquainted’ period that I see what I have been about. I have no fears about making changes, destroying the image, etc. because the painting has a life of its own. I try to let it come through.” – Pollock

Pollock photographed by Hans Namuth while painting.

The Navajo Indians create sand paintings not as art objects to be admired for its aesthetic beauty, but as part of an elaborate healing ritual or ceremony. Naturally coloured grains of sand are poured onto the floor to create these intricately patterned ‘paintings’. The person who has to be healed HAS to sit on the completed painting which then acts as a portal for the healing spirits to come through and heal the patient.

Jackson Pollock. Autumn Rhythm (Number 30). Oil on canvas. 1950. 2.67 × 5.26 m VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

215 Autumn Rhythm represents the style that attracted the attention of the rest of the art world and general public after Pollock’s first solo exhibition in 1950. The artist moved around the unprimed, unstretched canvas on the floor while pouring, dripping, dribbling, scumbling, flicking and splattering pigment all over the canvas. The unorthodox painting technique was applied from edge to edge of the canvas and the work is seemingly without a beginning or an end. This break from the traditional idea of the painting as a unit is part of the Abstract Expressionists’ achievement. Their paintings became like an environment which encompasses the spectator. A direct encounter with Autumn Rhythm as an object with its particular scale, colour, texture and physical presence is essential. When the spectator stands closer to the painting the visual effect is similar to looking at something that has been microscoppically enlarged and when the spectator stands furhter away it is similar to looking at the universe through a telescope. The labyrinthine network of lines, splatters and paint drips create a rhythmical palimpsest of patterns which is a record of the process of the creation of the work. Although the process was not premeditated and was spontaneous, Pollock himself stated that he did control the flow of the paint and that nothing happened by accident. The title, colouring and horizontal orientation in this painting evoke the idea of nature.

Jackson Pollock. Blue Poles: Number 11. 1952.

Jackson Pollock. Number 1 (Lavender Mist). Oil on canvas. 1950. Alkyd enamels on canvas.

Jackson Pollock. Pasiphaë. 1943. Oil on canvas.


216

WHO WAS ROTHKO? Mark Rothko (25 September 1903 – 25 February 1970) was born in Dvinsk Russia and immigrated to America with his family in 1913. At first he created simplified compositions with flat areas of colour inspired by Milton Avery and Matisse. When he started to associate with other Abstract Expressionists he drew on the myths of antiquity and the idea of Jungian archetypes when creating works with calligraphic and biomorphic images. In 1947 he turned completely to abstraction. He created works with large soft edged colour areas and later started using symmetrical compositions. Closer to the end of his life his works became increasingly somber and in 1970 he committed suicide.

Rothko in front of one of his mural sized paintings.

I am interested only in expressing the basic human emotions – tragedy, ecstasy, doom and so on – and the fact that lots of people break down and cry when confronted with my pictures shows that I communicate with those basic human emotions. The people who weep before my paintings are having the same religious experience I had when I painted them. And if you, as you say, are moved only by their colour relationships, then you miss the point.” – Rothko This example of Rothko’s work, Untitled (Purple, White and Red) is typical of the style that he developed in his mature works where all references to nature were abandoned. The entire canvas surface is filled with rectangular layers of soft hovering, cloudy forms with frayed edges. In this work the texture of the canvas is visible and the application of colour seems in some areas more like dyed surfaces than painted surfaces. The paints soaked into the canvas and then the three shapes of colour were added by scumbling over the thinly painted undercoat. He paid particular attention to the edges of the shapes where the two fields interact.

Mark Rothko. Untitled (Purple, White and Red). 1953. Oil on Canvas. 197.5 ×207.7 cm


217

Glossary

Archetype is the original model or prototype and the perfect example of something. Biomorphic image is a decorative form representing a living object. Palimpsest is when the original marks or writing on a surface have been effaced to make room for a second layer of marks or writing. The interior of the Rothko Chapel in Houston, Texas, a non-denominational sanctuary inspired by Rothko’s mural canvasses. 1971.

A diaphanous glowing effect is created through Rothko’s particular style of application of paint and colour. The effect of these large canvasses on the spectator is of standing in front of an enormous luminous void. This technique suited Rothko in his aim to create an art that served as a connection to spiritual realms, similar to the effect of music and through that he wanted to express the most basic and raw human emotions. Mark Rothko. No.3/No.13. 1949. Oil on canvas. 216.5×164.8 cm


218

SIX FAMOUS PERSONALITIES OF THE POST 1946 ERA Martin Luther King (15 January 1929 – 4 April 1968) was an American clergyman and Civil Rights activist who is remembered for his leadership of civil rights protests on behalf of the American Blacks in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s. He followed the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi through his support of non-violent protest and received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his work to end racial segregation and racial discrimination through civil disobedience and other nonviolent methods. In 1963 he led a march to Washington, supported by 200 000 people. At the end of this march he delivered his famous “I have a dream” speech in which he called for racial equality and an end to discrimination within American society. John F. Kennedy (29 May 1917 – 22 November 1961) was the youngest man, at 43, to be elected as the American president. He served from 1961 until 1963, when he was assassinated. His inauguration provided the expectation of a new beginning for the American nation. Through his vision of social justice and freedom he supported desegregation of schools and universities. He also supported bills for providing Federal financial aid to education and liberalising immigration laws. The Cuban Missile Crisis, building of the Berlin Wall, the Space Race, the African American Civil Rights movement and the early stages of the Vietnam War are events that happened during his presidency. One of the most successful acts in the history of popular music, the English rock band, The Beatles, was established during the 1960’s. Seen as the embodiment of the ideals of social and cultural revolution of the 1960’s this group’s changing style of music and lyrics, dress code, hair styles and life style had a distinctive influence on their fans, who were young teenagers from all over the industrised world. The Beatles popularised the idea of bohemianism and activism against a variety of social and political issues. The band consisting of John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison and Ringo Starr was a major influence on musicians worldwide due to their musical innovations, ranging from pop ballads to psychedelic rock, and their commercial success. Neil Alden Armstrong (5 August 1930-) is a former American astronaut, test pilot, aerospace engineer, university professor and United States Naval Aviator. As the commander of the Apollo 11 he and his colleagues Edwin Aldrin and Michael Collins manned the first lunar landing mission in 1969. He was the first man to land a craft on the moon and the first to step onto its surface uttering his famous words: “That’s one small step for man; one giant leap for mankind.” Enrico Fermi (29 September 1901 – 28 November 1954) known as “the father of the atomic bomb” was an Italian-American physicist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity in 1938. He is particularly known for his work on the development of the first nuclear reactor and for his contributions to the development of the quantum theory, nuclear and particle physics and statistical mechanics. Simone de Beauviour (9 January 1908 – 14 April 1986) was a French philosopher, public intellectual and social theorist. In her writing, influenced by her partner the Existentialist, Jean-Paul Sartre, she emphasized the idea that human beings are free and through their freedom of choice could decide to act in a moral or immoral way which then has an effect on that freedom. Her famous work The Second Sex was an analysis of the history of women’s oppression and a declaration of women’s independence which laid the foundations of contemporary feminism. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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2

Pop Art

Background: The 50’s and 60’s in America World politics was dominated by the Cold War during the 1950’s. This technology and ideological struggle between the East, dominated by the Communist Soviet Union, and the West, dominated by capitalist America, continued until 1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed. American government spending on defense accounted for half of the Federal budget and spurred on industrial growth and technological advances. Automation, the development of self-regulation machines, such as computers, to do work previously done by people, increased the speed of productivity. As the economies of the western world started to recover after the war, the middle class – especially in America – grew tremendously. This resulted in the establishment of two American cultural symbols typical of the 50’s: “The American Dream” – entailing a home in the suburbs (home would entail working husband, wife, children and all modern conveniences available), job security - for the man, at a large corporation, and a new car every few years. Mass media formed part of a wave of conservatism and conformity in the American society, as it was accessible to everybody. It was within the entertainment industry that signs of revolt started to show. The music of people like Chuck Berry, Elvis Presley and the Beatles was only the beginning of a movement away from conformity. Movie actors like Marilyn Monroe and James Dean represented new ideals of antiheroism and anti-authoritarianism. In literature the spirit of rebellion was driven further by members of the Beat generation, Ginsberg and Kerouac, who rejected middle-class culture and social conservatism.

The people of this era are also known as the “Baby Boomers” due to the explosion in population growth in America after the war. This tendency was the product of and cause for conservative family values made popular through the education system and mass media portraying marriage and female domesticity as the primary goal for women.

After 1946 the mass production of televisions took off and by 1953 two thirds of American households had a television. This growing society with materialistic ideals further encouraged the production of consumer products. Industry took advantage of this obsession with collecting objects and geared their advertising and products towards the youth who tried out everything that was dished out to them.

Elvis Presley

James Dean


220 THE SIXTIES The civil rights movement under leadership of Martin Luther King achieved the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 which paved the way for a more equal society in America. The civil rights movement paved the way for the vociferous anti-war movement challenging the American government’s continued military involvement in Vietnam as well as a powerful women’s rights movement which highlighted the blatant inequalities within this ‘ideal’ society. During this time the spirit of revolt sparked the subculture of the hippies among the youth of America. Taking their cue from the Beat Generation they took the spirit of their countercultural values further by living in their own communities where interracial relationships, the sexual revolution, altered states of consciousness induced by various drugs, psychedelic rock music and an interest in Eastern philosophy were part of their lifestyle.

The introduction of the contraceptive pill in the USA in 1960 was a popular form of birth control that contributed to the idea of sexual liberation, one of the legacies of the hippie culture.

BIRTH CONTROL PILLS


Poster for the Woodstock Festival designed by Arnold Skolnick

Jimmy Hendrix at the Woodstock Festival in 1969

221 Origins of Pop Art Influences from Europe • Pop art’s roots are to be found in Dada. The Pop artists revived techniques used by the Dadaists such as incorporating images and objects created by other people and exhibiting them as art. • While the Dadaists used their art to oppose and destroy conservative interpretations of aesthetic beauty, the Pop artists developed gestures of opposition to the art establishment by representing aspects of modern life in the 20th century. • Pop art was not the anti-art movement that Dada was and the artists did not commit themselves to any specific agenda or philosophy either. Marcel Duchamp reacted against what they were doing in the following statement: “This Neo-Dada, which they call the New Realism, Pop Art, Assemblage, etc., is an easy way out and lives on what Dada did. When I discovered ready-mades I thought to discourage aesthetics. In Neo-Dada they have taken my ready-mades and found aesthetic beauty in them. I threw the bottle rack and the urinal into their faces as a challenge and now they admire them for their aesthetic beauty.” Richard Hamilton’s collage Just What Is It That makes Today’s Homes So Different, So Appealing? is iconographic as it contains almost all aspects related to mass culture. A black and white version was used as the cover for the catalogue of the This is Tomorrow exhibition. Hamilton mainly used American magazines as sources for the images. The main environment is a modern American sitting room advertising “modern fashion in floors” in the Ladies Home Journal. He also used text from this advertisement as the title for the collage. The staircase advertisement for Hoover also comes from the Ladies Home Journal. The body builder was the winner of Mr L.A. 1954 and the photograph was taken from the Tomorrow’s Man magazine, while the burlesque woman is Joan Baer, who posed for erotic magazines in her youth. The picture of Young Romance was an advertisement for

Britain • In 1954 Lawrence Alloway, a British art critic first used the word POP to describe art inspired by the imagery of popular culture. He was referring to artworks created by a collective of artists, architects and writers in Britain, known as the Independent Group. They explored ideas concerning the place of consumer culture in fine art, the use of found objects and science and technology in their discussions. Imagery from the popular American consumer culture, such as covers of science fiction magazines, comic strips, pin-ups, movie posters, photo journalism, car designs and machines, were the main source of their interest. • This interaction was taken further when an exhibition entitled This is Tomorrow was organized featuring some of the members of the Independent group. The concept behind the exhibition was to produce work on the theme of modern life and that architects, artists, designers and critics would work in groups in order to promote dialogue and challenge boundaries between the visual arts. • In a letter Hamilton also defined Pop art as “popular, transient, expendable, lowcost, mass-produced, young, witty, sexy, glamorous, and Big Business”.

Richard Hamilton. Just What Is It That Makes Today’s Homes So Different, So Appealing? 1956. Collage.


222 the magazine in another publication. The TV, tape recorder and Ford logo are also from advertisements of these famous brandnames at that time. The image of the planet earth was taken from the cover of a Life magazine and used on the ceiling. Hamilton alleged that he used a blow-up of a photograph of a crowd of people on an American beach as the carpet. The view through the window is a widely reproduced photograph of the exterior of a cinema in 1927 showing the premiere of a “talkie” film. In this collage the inundation of modern home life by consumer media and modern technology is the central message. The television has taken the central position that used to be the fire place. The man and woman of the house have become icons of physical “perfection” posing as a body builder and erotic, centre fold model. The man’s role is suggestively diminished by replacing the weight with a lollipop and the woman is refferred to as part of the furniture by giving her a hat resembling a lampshade. The spectacle of modern life is summarised in this collage by appropriating images in a similar way to Duchamp who used objects like the urinal and bottle rack.

America The beginning of Pop Art in America is not as defined as in Britain. It gradually grew out of Abstract Expressionism and it was not until 1961 that the New York art scene realized the impact of Pop Art. The American artists did not see the mass media imagery in the same light as the Europeans. To the latter it had an exotic glamour and to the Americans it seemed banal and commonplace. This resulted in artworks that attempted to identify and define the essence of Americanism through the lowest common denominators that posed ambivalent and provocative questions about popular imagery as well as the state of visual art itself. The work of Robert Rauschenberg and Jasper Johns is seen as the first American artists to start employing popular imagery and found objects as part of their artworks. Initially Pop art was dismissed by the American art world. The art critic Rosenberg dismissed it and said that because it was illusionistic, it was easier to talk about. This was true as Pop art was a commercial success in the galleries. The public could understand it and collectors started to buy it.


Jasper Johns. Flag. 1954-55. Encaustic, oil and collage on fabric mounted on plywood.

The Characteristics of Pop Art Pop art represents the reality of everyday objects by referring to images and objects that people have experienced during their daily lives. Pop art was not trying to be satirical or critical. It is an affirmation of modern life, making people aware of the world around them.

223 Shape: Hard edged shapes with a limited representation of three dimensional depth, were synonymous with images from advertising and cartoons and could be seen in the works of artists such as Lichtenstein, Wesselman, Rosenquist, Lindner and Warhol. Artists who used a more expressive style and in whose works the shapes are more three dimensional were Hockney and Rauschenberg. Application: The more expressive textural application of paint seen in works of Johns, Dine, Rauschenberg and Thiebaud are not typical of the majority of the Pop artworks. Characteristic of most Pop art is the smooth application of paint showing no individualistic, expressive signs of emotion. This reflects the influence of the impersonal and mass produced advertising media. Composition: The Pop artists did not follow a uniform Richard Lindner. The Couple. 1976-1977. Oil on canvas.

style of composition. Some artists used compositions that were extremely simplified, depicting only objects or portraits with a flat background. This reflect mass production as seen in advertisements or on the shelves of supermarkets. Compositions of artworks by Rauschenberg and Rosenquist reflect the overload of visual information associated with modern city life.

Wayne Thiebaud. Cakes. 1963. Oil on canvas.

James Rosenquist. F-111. 1964-65. Oil on canvas with aluminum. Twenty-three sections.304.8 x 2621.3 cm. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

224 Media: Influenced by Dada and the modernist awareness of the painted surface as a reproduction of reality, artists felt free to experiment even further with mediums that were not previously considered as art materials. Robert Rauschenberg. Odalisk. 1955-1958 Freestanding combine -Oil, watercolour, crayon, pastel, paper, fabric, photographs, printed reproductions, newspaper, metal, glass, pillow, wooden post and lamps on wooden structure with stuffed rooster.

Subject matter: This is the aspect that defines Pop art. All the artists used imagery related to the popular culture of the time – advertisements, photographs published in newspapers, comic strips, movie posters and any modern objects that people used daily. Each artist made different observations about their subject matter through their artworks. Colour: The use of bright contrasting colours draws attention to the flatness of the objects and emphasizes their generic properties.

Tom Wesselman. Still Life # 30. 1963. Oil, enamel and synthetic polymer paint on composition board with collage of printed advertisements, plastic flowers, refrigerator door, plastic replicas of 7-Up bottles, glazed and framed colour reproduction, and stamped metal.

Roy Lichtenstein. Look Mickey. 1961.Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

225

WHO WAS WARHOL? Andy Warhol (6 August 1928 – 22 February 1987) Warhol, the son of Czech immigrants started his art career as a commercial illustrator who drew shoe illustrations and did window displays. Through this work he realized the idea of using existing popular images as source and inspiration for artworks. These artworks reflected contemporary society’s stereotypes. Not only was his subject matter products of popular mass culture, but he also used the silkscreen process that was used to create mass produced labels and advertisements. He employed assistants at his Art Factory to create his artworks. These works were intended to lack individuality and uniqueness.

Warhol with camera and friends in studio

What’s great about this country is America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same thing as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca Cola, and know that the president drinks Coke, Liz Taylor drinks Coke, and just think, you can drink Coke too. A Coke is a Coke, and no amount of money can get you a better Coke than the bum on the corner is drinking. All Cokes are the same and all Cokes are good. – Warhol Andy Warhol. Marylin Dyptich. 1962. Acrylic on canvas. 208 × 145 cm

Marilyn Dyptich: This acrylic silkscreen painting consists of two canvasses. In the canvas on the right the photograph of Marylin Monroe has been printed in black on a white background and on the canvas on the left she is printed in multiple colours. The same image, a photograph from a film Monroe starred in, Niagara, was used as the source. It was printed twenty five times on each canvas with the silkscreen process. This technique was used extensively by the commercial industry to print labels for products as well as advertisements. It is therefore associated with modern society’s drive for mass production of anything that can be manufactured and sold. Warhol and his assistants converted the photograph to a silkscreen and then the image was printed by pressing the paint through the screen with a squeegee.


226 On the black and white canvas, some of the prints are clearly printed while some are extremely faded and some have become almost completely black through the build-up of acrylic paint during the printing process. The image looks as if it has been photocopied many times and has become a very simplified two dimensional version of the original photograph. The canvas on the left shows Marylin printed twenty five times with bright pink for the face, bright yellow for the hair, red for the lips, white for the teeth, turquoise for the eye shadow and the collar and orange for the background. Most of the images are clearly printed, but here the registration of the colours is not always perfectly accomplished. This means that some of the colour areas do not correspond perfectly with the black outline and therefore the eyes, mouth and eyebrows are misaligned. On this canvas some of the images are also printed in darker colours than the others. On both canvasses each image is not exactly the same as the other and this creates a sense of individualism in the series of prints which is associated with something that is handmade rather than manufactured by a machine. In spite of the slightly individualistic imperfections, the repetition of the same image and its presentation in this gridded format gives the effect of a mass produced image that is manufactured as a commercial product. This product is meant to inundate the world of the buyer to entice them to buy more. The repetition of the single image also creates the effect of the repetition seen in a film reel and this idea is strengthened with the blurring effect. The passing of time can be read in the imitation of a motion picture. This work relates to the many other paintings showing repetition created by Warhol.

Andy Warhol. 210 Coca Cola bottles. 1962. Silkscreen ink, Acrylic and pencil on linen. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

The interpretations of this artwork are related to the fact that Warhol chose to use the image of an icon of Hollywood. Through the repetition of her image he established the idea of the “Eternal Girl” as an icon of modern society. As the work was created about four months after Monroe committed suicide it seems more meaningful. The work becomes a play-off between absence and presence, life and death. The idea that a film star can always be seen ‘alive’ in their films and that they are remembered while, in real life they are not alive anymore draws attention to the conflict of the public image and life and the personal life of an icon of society. Warhol denied any symbolism, as usual, and said that Marylin was just another person and that he used pretty colours to represent her beauty. Marylin Monroe publicity photograph for movie Niagara

Andy Warhol. Brillo Soap Pads Boxes. 1964.

Andy Warhol. Electric Chair.1971. Screenprint .

227

WHO WAS OLDENBURG? Claes Oldenburg (born 28 January 1929) This Swedish-American artist participated in New York Happenings during the 60’s and was influenced by the Dadaists’ and Surrealists’ interest in paradox. The works that he became known for were reproductions of fast food items and functional objects from daily modern life. He interpreted these items on a gigantic scale in vinyl or canvas stuffed with foam. The huge scale and modified texture of the realistically rendered objects often comical and disturbing, comments on the values of contemporary life.

Oldenburg’s best-known public statement is a manifesto published in 1961 of which the following is an excerpt: “I am for an art that is political-erotical-mystical, that does something other than sit on its ass in a museum. I am for an art that grows up not knowing that it is art at all, an art given the chance of having the starting point of zero. I am for an art that embroils itself with the everyday crap and still comes out on top. I am for an art that imitates the human, that is comic if necessary, or violent, or whatever is necessary. …I am for an art that is smoked like a cigarette, smells like a pair of shoes. I am for an art that flaps like a flag, or helps blow noses, like a handkerchief. I am for an art that is put on and taken off, like pants, which develops holes, like socks, which is eaten, like a piece of pie.”

Claes Oldenburg.Soft Fur, Good Humours. 1963. Wood, vinyl, kapok, wire, plexiglass on metal stand and painted wood base

Claes Oldenburg. Soft Toilet. 1966. Wood, vinyl, kapok, wire,plexiglass on metal stand and painted wood base

Claes Oldenburg. Pastry Case I. 1961-2. Enamel paint on nine plaster sculptures in glass showcase. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

228 Floor cake: Oldenburg created complex metaphors through changing the size and texture of the objects that he chose to represent. The supersized Floor Cake is an experiment with the effects of displacement. It occupies a large area in a room and the viewer has to walk around it to be able to look at it from all sides. The viewer is dwarfed by the piece of cake. Unlike a traditional sculpture Oldenburg made the chocolate cake soft, but like the exaggerated size of the work, the colour and texture is caricature-like as it is constructed out of canvas and painted with synthetic polymer paint and latex. The effect is garish rather that enticing. Seen together with the other disproportionately enlarged items of food, his works become a satirical comment on these familiar objects as icons of an obsessive consumer society. This transformation widens the boundaries of art through the interplay of art and reality. The spectator is presented with something as art and it does not resemble traditional art in any way. Oldenberg also stated that his intention was to create artworks that are visual representations of his fantasies and should be touchable, unlike a painting of an object. These soft sculptures are different from traditional sculpture in the sense that the overall form can be changed according to where it is to be exhibited.

Claes Oldenburg. Floor Cake. 1962. Synthetic polymer paint and latex on canvas filled with foam rubber and cardboard boxes.

Glossary

Appropriate is to take possession of or to take to oneself. Generic is a general characteristic that could be applied to any individual of a large group or class. Stereotype is a fixed impression of something or somebody that is unchangeable, regular and monotonous.


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6.1


Look at the following examples of Pop Art and answer the questions about it. Divide a page into three columns for this activity. In the first column make a list of the subject matter portrayed in each artwork.

In the second column write down, what you think the source of the subject was.

In the third column write down your associations / interpretation of each person, object or image in the artwork.

Identify and explain the formal aspects that are characteristic of Pop Art in each artwork. Do this on a separate page.

Oldenburg. Free Stamp. 1982. Steel and aluminum painted with polyuretane enamel. 8.8×7.9×14.9 m.

Hockney. A Bigger Splash. 1964. Acrylic on canvas. Robert Rauschenberg. Retroactive I.1964. Silkscreen painting.

Warhol.Campbell’s Soup Cans. 1962. Synthetic polymer paint on 32 canvasses. Wesselman. Smoker.1976. Screenprint.

Lichtenstein. M-Maybe. 1965. Oil and magna on canvas.


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3

Op and Kinetic Art

Op and Kinetic art were originally both linked to movement. Both styles were represented at an exhibition “Le Mouvement” in Paris in 1955. The obvious difference between the two is that Kinetic artists were interested in the idea of real motion while the Op artists were interested in virtual movement. Both these styles developed simultaneously with Pop Art in the 1960’s as a result of the new attitude to abstraction among artists in general. The Pointillists, a PostImpressionist group can be seen as one of the forerunners of Op art. Instead of mixing the colours on their palettes, they used the optical effect of pure colours, painted in dots, in their paintings. The spectator’s eyes were supposed to blend the colours when looking at the painting from a distance. The works and theories of Josef Albers who taught at the Bauhaus, Black Mountain College and Yale, influenced the development of this Op art. He emphasized the relationships between colours as in his series of paintings entitled Homage to a Square. The deceptiveness of colours due to the influence of different colours on each other, is the topic of his paintings. The word ‘kinetic’ comes from the Greek kinesis – movement and kinetikos – mobile, therefore artworks which are Kinetic involve movement. Artists have always been fascinated with the portrayal of movement, but the kinetic artists are interested in movement itself and the physical reality of movement is therefore an integral part of their artworks.


Victor Vasarely. vega Nor. 1969.

The ideas supporting kinetic art started with the Futurists who stated the following in their manifesto in 1909: “A roaring motor-car that looks as though running through shrapnel is more beautiful than the Victory of Samothrace … we declare that the splendor of the world has been enriched by a new beauty: the beauty of speed.” After the Second World War some of the Russian Constructivists such as Tatlin, Rodchenko, Gabo and Pevsner criticized the Futurists for not recreating movement in their art. They planned to work towards an artform in which movement is central to the artwork. Rhythm, structure and time are as important as the three dimensional structure and visual image of the sculpture. They rejected the idea of mass that was so important to traditional sculpture. Well known Op artists include Victor Vasarely, Bridget Riley and Yaacov Agam. Alexander Calder, Julio le Parc, Jean Tinguely and George Rickey are some of the well kown Kinetic artists.

231 The characteristics of Op art and Kinetic art • Op art is a retinal art that creates optical ambiguity and physical disorientation through the representation of repetitive shapes and colours and explores the limitations of the human eye. • Kinetic art explores how things look when they move. It could be the movement of the parts of the artwork set in motion by an internal mechanism or an external stimulus, such as light, air or the spectator. The effect would be the optical transformation of the elements out of which the work consists. Over time kinetic art developed in response to an increasingly technological culture.

Yaacov Agam. Infinite Reach. 1985. Serigraph in colour on reflective mylar. Op Art.

Jean Tinguely. Metamachine 4. 1958-9. Mixed media sculpture. Kinetic Art.

Victor Vasarely. Cheyt-M. 1970. Tempera on canvas. Op Art.

• Subject matter: Op art has been described as the generator of visual responses. Most of the artworks associated with this style provoke illusionary images and sensations and this leads to the conclusion that the subject matter in these works is illusion. In Kinetic art the influences of the technology of machines lead artists to explore the idea of time and the visual effects of movement as topics. • Composition: Most of the well known Op artworks have formally structured compositions on rectangular two-dimensional surfaces that were precisely planned in order to evoke the visual effect of movement that the artist intended to achieve. • Kinetic works are usually three-dimensional and therefore spectators could walk around them. The kinetic artists did not have a specific style that was adhered to; it rather depended on the intention of the artist. Most of the works consist of different parts that have a relation to other parts of the sculpture. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

232 • Shape: All the Op and Kinetic artworks are abstract. The shapes used by most of the Op artists tend to be geometric. The use of precisely painted organically inspired lines can be seen in the works of the artist Bridget Riley. Most Kinetic artworks use geometric shapes that are not related to the visual world around them, but there are exceptions. Calder created mobiles with organic shapes evoking the idea of real things. • Application: The fact that the visual effects of Op artworks are reliant on the interaction of colours and shapes resulted in a generally precise and almost machinelike application of paint that does not show any uniqueness in terms of mark making. • Colour: The use of colour is central to the optical effect that is created in an Op artwork. Colours are well planned and used in combination with shapes to create syncopated rhythms and patterns. • The Kinetic artists usually retained the colour of the media and therefore the sculptures were generally neutral colours. Calder was one of the few artists who also included colour in his mobiles. He used bright primary colours as well as white and black. • Media: Op artists used a variety of paint media ranging from oil paint to acrylic paint as well as printmaking. The surfaces that they worked on differed greatly from the more traditional canvas, wood and paper. • Kinetic artworks involved industrial materials such as steel, copper, aluminum, wire, glass, perspex, glass, mirrors and electrical lighting which were not traditional sculpture materials. Some of the artists used pre-fabricated machine parts to create new machines with visual effects as their function.


Julio Le Parc. Continental-lumière mobile Continuous Light Mobile or Unceasing Light Mobile. 1960–66. Hanging metallic elements and spotlights. Kinetic art.

233

WHO WAS RILEY? Bridget Riley (24 April 1931-) Riley is a British painter who grew up in Norwood, London. She studied at Goldsmiths College and the Royal College of Art. Her early works are figurative and semi-Impressionistic. Under the influence of artists such as Vasarely she developed her signature style by 1960. In these abstract works she used repetitive geometric and organic patterns to create an effect that explored the dynamism of sight and produced a disorienting effect on the viewer.

“For me nature is not landscape, but the dynamism of visual forces…an event rather than an appearance. These forces can only be tackled by treating colour and form as ultimate identities, freeing them from all descriptive or functional roles.” – Riley Current is representative of Riley’s early optical paintings. These works from the early 1960’s were all black and white. She introduced colour from 1966. The title refers to what the artist observed in nature and she represented it by painting a pattern of the ripples on the surface of a stream. She used regular patterns of line which cover the entire surface of the painting. The undulating black and white lines appear to vibrate and form three-dimensional depressions that quiver on the painting’s surface. This appearance of movement is activated through the juxtaposition of black and white. One of Riley’s goals was to create an active space between the picture surface and the spectator. The formal elements of Current, and of other optical artworks were very carefully planned so that it could have an effect on the viewer. The positive and negative shapes in this and other optical compositions are of equal importance. The regular distances between the positive and negative areas create a visual tension in the viewer’s mind that gives the illusion of movement even though the artwork is static and painted on a two-dimensional surface.

Bridget Riley. Current. 1964. Synthetic polymer paint on composition board. 148.1×149.3 cm.

Bridget Riley. High Sky 2. 1992. Tempera on hardboard

Bridget Riley. Cataract. 1976. Emulsion PVA on linen.

Bridget Riley. Movement in Squares. 1961.


234

WHO WAS CALDER? Alexander Calder (22 July 1898-11 November 1976) This American engineer-trained artist pioneered kinetic art and is most famous for inventing mobile sculptures driven by air currents. He also created motorized mobiles, monumental public stabiles and a variety of artworks in other media. He was influenced by artists such as Mondrian, Arp and Miro when he created his linear sculptures that had the effect of weightlessness.

Alexander Calder. Arc of Petals. 1941. Painted and unpainted sheet aluminum, iron wire and copper rivets. Mobile.

Alexander Calder. The Brass Family. 1929. Brass wire and painted wood.

Arc of Petals: This abstract construction of biomorphic shapes recalls organic shapes seen in Surrealist paintings. Calder’s mobile constructions generally consisted of flat pieces of metal connected by wire veins and stems. The fact that he shaped, bent and twisted his media entirely by hand strengthened the evocation of natural forms. This mobile is an antigravitational cascade in which the larger petal shapes at the top gradually become smaller towards the bottom of the construction. Calder played with the relationships between form, size, colour, weight, space, balance and motion. He created a careful balance between the various components resulting in a work that gives the industrial materials a feeling of lightness and delicacy. The unpredictable influence of natural air currents adds to the working of this kinetic sculpture as it causes movement in parts of the composition. This changes the relationship between parts of the sculpture for that moment. The work evokes the feeling of falling leaves during autumn. Calder’s interest in movement and the changing physical relationships between all objects was supported by his engineering background and his fascination with astronomy.

Alexander Calder. Crinkly avec disc Rouge.1973. Public sculpture in Stuttgart. Stabile

Alexander Calder. Red. 1956. Painted sheet metal and wire. Mobile

glossary

Syncopate is to distribute accented and unaccented lines, patterns or colours in a composition. virtual when something does not physically exist, but is made to appear as if it does exist through the effect of something else – in this case the use of line and colour.


235

4

Minimalism

The following statement by Malevich in 1913 can be seen as the basis for Minimalism in the 1960’s:

“art no longer cares to serve the state or religion; it no longer wishes to illustrate the history of manners, it wants to have nothing further to do with the object as such, and believes that it can exist, in and for itself, without things”. The Minimalist movement originated as a protest against Abstract Expressionism in which an exaggerated metaphysical and existential importance was placed on each movement and brushstroke of the artist. Rationalism, a mathematical way of thinking, abstractly was seen as a point of departure by the Minimalists. Mondrian also influenced the ideas of the Minimalists as they followed his belief that a work of art should be completely conceived by the mind before its execution. Ready-mades involve the use of an object as an artwork. This was started by Duchamp who minimized the role of the artist in creating the art object. The artist became the one to make the decisions as to what to choose to exhibit and how it should be exhibited. This is also seen as an influence on the creation of art by the Minimalists. Flat fields of colour as seen in some of the Abstract Expressionist’s work already contained elements of Minimalism. The ‘colourfield’ painters such as Barnett Newman and Ad Reinhardt made paintings in which there was nothing else but a line on a flat field of colour or simple symmetric one-colour paintings. The British philosopher Wollheim created the term “Minimalism” in 1965 to describe sculptures without content. The title Primary Structures was also given to these works during an exhibition in 1966 in New York. Another title was ABC ART. Donald Judd, Carl Andre, Frank Stella, Tony Smith, Sol Lewitt and Dan Flavin are some of the artists associated with Minimalism.

The characteristics of Minimalism • Minimalism is a self-conscious art movement that strove to create works that are absolutely pure and have integrity through the simplification of art to its essence, namely, the mediums of which it is made. • Subject matter: The simplicity of the mediums, geometric shapes and the scale of the Minimalist artworks are its subject matter. The artists did not use any expressive content and the titles of their works do not reveal a hidden meaning.

Robert Morris. Exhibition at the Green Gallery. 1964. Seven geometric plywood structures painted grey.


236 • Composition: The arrangement of the geometric shapes in relation to the space around it and, if more than one shape was used in the sculpture, in relation to the other parts of it, was seen as a very important aspect of the artwork. This had to be planned ahead with precision. The use of symmetry and the repetition of identical shapes are typical of Minimalist art. • Shape: The Minimalists used simple unitary geometric shapes that were mostly three-dimensional. • Media: Most of the artists used industrial materials like galvanized iron, cold rolled steel, fluorescent tubes, bricks, Styrofoam cubes, copper plates, slate, preshaped wood and industrial paint. • Application: In their quest to oppose the overemphasized value attributed to individual markmaking by the Abstract Expressionists, the Minimalists’ works did not show any signs of their personal signature. The workmanship on their art was neutral and could have been executed by anybody. In some instances the materials were ready-made items that had been created in a factory and purchased by the artist. • Colour: The original colour of the media the artwork was made of was generally used and therefore neutral colours associated with various metals and wood were prevalent. When artists changed the colours they used neutral grey, black or white. The artists whose use of colour differed were Stella, who did sculptural paintings and Flavin, who used a variety of coloured fluorescent lights.

Sol Lewitt. 3×3×3. 1965. Painted wood.

Carl André. 144 Graphite Silence. 2005. 144 Graphite cubes. 10×10×10cm each.

Dan Flavin. Monument I for V. Tatlin. 1964. Fluorescent lights. Frank Stella. Adeldante. 1964. Metallic powder in polymer emulsion on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

237

WHO WAS JUDD? Donald Judd (3 June 1928 – 12 February 1994) Judd was born in Missouri and studied Philosophy and art history at Colombia University in New York. He worked as an art critic from 1959 to 1965. After abandoning painting in the 1960’s he felt that he freed his work from the European obsession with composition and illusion. In his three dimensional works he used industrial materials to create abstract works that emphasised the purity of colour, form, space and materials. Although he is known as one of the key artists and his works shared many of the principles identified in Minimalism, he rejected being labelled as such.

“Three dimensions are real space. That gets rid of the problem of illusionism and of literal space, space in and around marks and colours – which is riddance of one of the most salient and most objectionable relics of European art. The several limits of painting are no longer present. A work can be as powerful as it can be thought to be. Actual space is more powerful and specific than a flat surface.” – Donald Judd Untitled (Stack): Donald Judd, like many of the other Minimalist sculptors such as Carl Andre and Sol Lewitt, was interested in mathematical progressions within a series of identical repetitions. In this work the shelf-like stacked box forms are fastened to a wall. It consists of twelve identical units. Each square measures 22.8×101.6×78.7 cm with a vertical space between each unit of 22.8cm. The box forms were made from galvanised iron and painted with green lacquer paint normally used on motor vehicles. The boxes were constructed by a metalworks manufacturing company according to his specifications. Judd’s emphasis on the planning process for this artwork, the use of non-traditional art materials, the repetition of exact shapes and the fact that he does not physically create the work, challenges the intense meaning placed on the individuality of a brushmark by the Abstract Expressionists. In works such as these Judd wanted the attention to be placed on form, volume, interval, space and colour. There are no visual references to other objects, art works or feelings. His works are also rarely given titles which further emphasises the impersonality and abstraction of the sculptures. The idea of installing the evenly spaced boxes to a wall draws attention to the idea of gravity as the boxes stand out like shelves and do not rest on each other or on the floor. The positive shapes of the boxes are repeated by the negative spaces – which have the same dimensions as the boxes. Attention is drawn to the physical experience of the viewer of the three dimensional object and its environment. It is installed imposingly from the floor to the ceiling and it projects out from the wall for more than 100 centimeters.

Donald Judd. Untitled (Stack). 1967. Lacquer on galvanised iron.


238

Donald Judd. Untitled. 1976. Brass.

Donald Judd. Installed spaces in Marfa, Texas.

Glossary

Rationalism is the belief

that reason is the foundation of everything and that it is superior to and independent of sense perceptions.

5

Donald Judd. Untitled. 1967. Lacquer on galvanized iron.

Super Realism

BACKGROUND Super Realism, also described as Photo Realism or Hyperrealism, started in the late 1960’s and peaked in the 1970’s. The artists made large scale paintings directly from photographs. The style developed out of Pop Art in terms of the choice in subject matter. The paintings showed a cold objectivity and lacked emotion, an attitude associated with Minimalism. As with Pop art, Super Realism was popular with the uninformed public who easily understood and interpreted the exact replication of photographs. Super Realism also hints at the fascination of the public with images in the media, especially films and advertisements. It suggests that there should be an awareness of visual indoctrination. Ralph Goings, Richard Estes, Chuck Close, Malcolm Morley and Audrey Flack are important artists who painted in this style. Duane Hanson and John De Andrea ‘s sculptures are also associated with Super Realism.


Ralph Goings. Paul’s Corner Cushion. 1970. Oil on canvas.

239 Characteristics • Super Realism is an impersonal and precise style of painting and sculpture that drew attention to the effect of photography on the perception • Subject matter: Objects, places and people from American suburban and urban everyday life that were not perceived as visually enchanting, were captured in photographs that were then replicated as closely as possible. The artists also worked with the concepts of reality and artificiality as they replicated an image that was already replicated from real life as a photograph. The result of copying a photograph as a painting or sculpture was therefore seen as an important part of the subject matter. • Composition: Some artists used traditional, balanced compositions. Artists such as Estes and Goings used photographs that are similar to the compositions of the Impressionists in which the composition is chosen for the variety of surfaces and light effects in it and is seemingly random. Morley deliberately chose random parts of photographic material such as postcards and advertisements in magazines, to reproduce. • Shape: The realistic shapes of people, objects and the surroundings are precisely painted with sharply defined edges showing a detailed illusion of the three dimensional world. Some of the Super Realists also included photographic effects such as blurry areas, as part of their paintings. • Colour: The use of colours depends on the kind of photographs used as a source by the artists. Flack’s paintings are usually very brightly coloured, while Estes’ works have a tendency towards colder colours as he concentrates on the reflections in city windows as his subject matter.

Malcolm Morley. On Deck. 1966. Magna on canvas.

Richard Estes. Supermarket, Columbus Avenue. NY. 2008. Oil on board. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

240 • Application: The application of paint is extremely smooth showing no visible brushstrokes. The use of airbrush by some artists also contributed to the complete elimination of personalized marks in the paintings. As the technique of creating precisely detailed shapes, colours and tonal values are very important to this style. The artist must have the technical ability to create a photographical finish.

• Media: Most of the artists used traditional media such as oil or acrylic on canvas, but there are artists who used the commercial painting technique airbrushing. The artists used projectors or the grid method to transfer the image onto the canvas or paper. The Super Realist sculptors like Hanson used fiberglass reinforced polyester resin to create the life size replicas of people. He then painted them with oil paint in the photo realistic style and dressed them in real clothes and accessories.

Audrey Flack. Wheel of Fortune (Vanitas). 1977-78. Oil over acrylic on canvas.

Duane Hanson. Woman Eating. 1971. Fibreglass and mixed media with accessories. Life size.

John De Andrea. Diane. 1987. Three dimensional life size sculpture: injection mould VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

241

WHO IS CLOSE? Chuck Close (5 July 1940 - ) Close was born in Washington and studied at the University of Washington, Seattle, Yale University and in Vienna. He achieved fame as a Super Realist in the late 1960’s after he created a series of massive-scale portraits. He concentrated on depicting the human face from photographs that he took himself. His later portraits are very colourful and draw attention to abstract mark making as a component of photo realism.

“I am not trying to make facsimiles of photographs. Neither am I interested in the icon of the head as a total image. I don’t want the viewer to see the whole head at once and assume that that’s the most important aspect of my painting. I am not making Pop personality posters like the ones they sell in the Village. That’s why I choose to do portraits of my friends – individuals that most people will not recognize. I don’t want the viewer to recognize the head of Castro and think he has understood my work.” – Close This Self Portrait was the first of the series of monumental head and shoulder portraits created from neutral black and white photographs using the commercial art technique of airbrush. Like the Minimalists Close set himself some restrictions. He used only mug shot compositions, used only black and white and painted on a colossal scale. The transfer of the photograph to the canvas was done by using the grid technique devised by the Renaissance masters. By following this methodical technique, the image becomes a mosaic of black, gray and white. Every minute detail of the photograph was reproduced block by block. He used a mixture of black acrylic paint and water to spray onto the canvas with the airbrush. The extremely fine detail such as the illusion of light reflecting off the hairs of his beard was achieved by scratching minute areas of paint from the surface of the canvas with a razor blade. The idea of reproducing a photographic portrait to this degree of technical refinement on such a large scale, makes the image seem less like the person in the photograph. The viewer of the painting is confronted with intricate detail such as wrinkles, pores, hair and discolouration of the skin, which would not normally be noticed with the naked eye or on a small scale photograph.

Chuck Close. Self Portrait. 1968. Acrylic on canvas. 2.73 × 2.12m.


242 The magnified version of a portrait draws attention to the textures represented and to the tonal values. Another aspect that becomes more visible in his painting is the ‘faults’ in the photograph. When taking the close-up photograph Close normally focused on the eyes and cheekbones, which means that the tip of the nose and the area around the ears would be slightly blurred. These ‘mistakes’ are

Chuck Close. Linda. 1976. Acrylic and graphite on gessoed linen.

6

Chuck Close. Arne. 1980. Stamp pad ink drawing on paper.

Chuck Close. Big Self Portrait. 2001. Acrylic on canvas.

Neo-Expressionism

BACKGROUND: THE 1980’S – 1990’S The technological advances that took place during this decade were continuously hampered by circumstances that affected everybody on earth. A number of recessions, the fuel crises, ecological concerns, nuclear weapons and a growing divide between the poor and the wealthy influenced the way people think. A culture emerged that saw the present as uncontrollable, the future as unthinkable and that left the past, which brought on a spirit of nostalgia. This was the beginning of the Post-Modernist era in art, literature and philosophy, which is seen as a reaction to Modernism. Man is thought to have lost contact with himself, his spirituality, history and tradition and is driven by a continuing search for the ‘new’. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

also part of the painting. Close allowed himself no interpretive freedom during the painting process. The fascination with this extreme form of realism can be attributed to people’s interest in trompe l’oeil, when we mistake the painting for the real thing. The value of these works is the attention it focuses on looking at the copy of something as opposed to looking at the real thing.

The 1980’s was the decade of New Wave, Thatcher and Reagan, the start of AIDS and the decade that concluded with the fall of communism in Eastern Europe. Neo-Expressionism appeared on the art scene in the early 1980’s with important exhibitions such as Zeitgeist, “A new spirit in painting” and the Kassel Dokumenta of 1982. Painting emerged from the 1970’s being seen as the dominant art medium once again. NeoExpressionism forms part of the wider PostModern culture. The Neo-Expressionist tries to get meaning through contact with the self, history and tradition. The acceptance of different points of view is an integral part of the acknowledgement that we live in a pluralistic society where there is no binding factor. Neo-Expressionism explores and accepts different styles as of equal value.

243 Influences and origins of Neo-Expressionism

Characteristics

The idea of Expressionism as a way of making art that stresses the spontaneous expression of feelings and not the theoretical aspects of art is the basis of Neo-Expressionism. Emotive artists such as Munch and the German Expressionists were important influences on the Neo-Expressionists. The influence of the works of Nolde, Beckman, Grosz and Kirchner activate the imagination and give vent to human emotions. This was in contrast to the impersonal art of Minimalism, Pop art and Conceptual art. Abstract Expressionism had a great influence, on the expression of individual emotions and the brush mark as the individual ‘handwriting’ of the artist. As a Post-Modernist movement the Neo-Expressionists deliberately used eclectic sources, from a variety of styles and sources, some of which seemed incompatible to the general public. Eclecticism is the attitude of having the freedom to choose from the large background of history and art history as well as contemporary culture. Although the Neo-Expressionist artists in general were perceived as opposed to the sterility of Conceptual art, their art depends on certain ‘conceptual’ features in the sense that they question the possibility of true expression while making works that are expressive. The American domination of avant-garde art was broken by the strong presence of European artists, especially from Germany and Italy. Palladino, Cucchi, Chia and Clemente came from Italy and Baselitz, Immendorf, Penck, Fetting and Kiefer from Germany. They were artists associated with this style. In America Schnabel and Salle became known for their Neo-Expressionist works.

• •

David Salle. Old Bottles. 1995. Oil and acrylic on canvas

Neo-Expressionism is a style of painting that communicates a sense of inner disturbance, tension, alienation and ambiguity through the representation of people and objects in a rough primitivist and sometimes fragmented manner. Subject matter: The Neo-Expressionists’ works reflected contemporary urban life and values. They combined contradictory images and styles as part of their personal investigations into history and myths. Their works can be interpreted as the result of complex social and cultural circumstances as experienced by individuals. It also reflects a form of aesthetic anarchism that stood outside the boundaries of tradition.

Jorg Immendorff. Café Deutschland. Contemplating the question-Where do I stand? 1987. Oil on canvas.

• Composition: Their works showed a complete disregard for the traditional rules of composition and design. They frequently fragmented and overlapped images. The idea of a central image and unity disintegrates in the Neo-Expressionist artwork. This is the influence of a pluralist society as images are scattered over the canvas without logic. • Shape: They used figurative images that are recognizable, but that are frequently obscured because of the expressivity of the painting style and the use of fragmentation and the layering of images. Some of the artists deliberately painted clumsily, creating works that appear childlike as a result of direct emotional expression. In some of the paintings shapes have a graphic character and a strong linear quality. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

244 • Application: The general appearance of their work is gestural and energetic with the emphasis on mark making. It is especially the German Neo-Expressionists whose painting is described as wild, violent and emotional, with the application of ‘heavy paint’. • Colour: The colours used by the NeoExpressionists are deliberately against the idea of ‘good taste’. Their use of strong and contrasting colours that seem arbitrary is used to express feelings and moods that are violent, erotic or even destructive. Mimmo Palladino. Untitled. 1995. Mixed media.

A.R. Penck. Polish Rider. 1983. Oil on canvas.

Rainer Fetting. Psychedelic East I. 1990. Oil on canvas.

• Media: Traditional media such as oil or acrylic paint on canvas is predominant. There were artists who also experimented with media such as Schnabel and Kiefer. Schnabel covered his canvas with broken plates and then painted onto them as he felt he could not get his paint to be thick enough. Kiefer used a variety of objects to create textured surfaces to paint on such as sand, straw, lead and glass.

WHO IS KIEFER? Anselm Kiefer (8 March 1945-) Kiefer was born and raised near the east bank of the Rhine in the region of the Black Forest. After studying law in Freiburg he studied informally with the Conceptual artist Joseph Beuys in the 1970’s. He is best known for his large scale paintings encrusted with lead, glass, dried flowers or plants and impasto paint. His oversized books were made out of sheets of lead. Most of his works refer to subjects that center on personal identity, Germany and its cultural origins. His apocalyptic landscapes recall ancient myths appropriated as icons for the Third Reich and then declared as taboo by people trying to forget the wrongs of Nazi Germany.

“Rubble is the future. Because everything that is, passes. There is a wonderful chapter in Isaiah that says, grass will grow over your cities. This sentence has always fascinated me, even as a child. It is poetry, the fact that you see both things at the same time. Isaiah sees the city and the different layers over it, the grass and then another city, the grass and then another city again.” – Anselm Kiefer 2005 VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

245

Glossary

Eclectic is when an artist

borrows freely from a variety of sources and is not exclusive in opinion or taste. Pluralism is when more than one principle or idea is recognised and where minority groups in society maintain independent traditions.

Anselm Kiefer .Wayland’s Song (With Wing). 1982. Oil, emulsion and straw on photograph, mounted on canvas, with lead. (2.8 × 3.8m)

Anselm Kiefer. Nuremberg. 1982. Acrylic, emulsion and straw on canvas.

Wayland’s Song (With Wing) The story behind this painting derives from anonymous Scandinavian poems that tell the history of the Teutonic gods. The operas of The Ring of Nibelung by Wagner were based on these stories. Hitler used Wagner’s operas as symbols of the celebration of German nationalism. Besides the attraction of the romantic aura of the stories as interpreted by the composer, the use of the stories as a topic, after the acknowledgement of German guilt in the Holocaust, is a deliberate decision by Kiefer. The part of the story that Kiefer uses as inspiration for this painting tells how the greed and deceitfulness of the gods, who are not immortal, leads to their downfall and death. Wayland is the greatest of all metalsmiths and he is captured by the king of Sweden. He is crippled so that he cannot flee and placed on an island to forge treasures for the king. After escaping, he takes revenge by killing the king’s two sons. He presents the king, queen and princess with ornaments in which he included the skulls, teeth and eyes of the princes. Before he fashions himself wings and flees, he seduces the king’s daughter and leaves her pregnant with his child. This evil story has been interpreted by Kiefer as a scorched landscape of burnt and ploughed fields in oil and enamel paints, photographs and lead wings. It has a double meaning as it not only refers to the metalsmith as an ancient metaphor for the artist, who can magically fashion gold out of lead as a Christian symbol of redemption, but it also refers to the German Holocaust of the Third Reich. The artwork represents the ornaments fashioned by the metalsmith for the royal family and the German nation. Kiefer incorporated straw into the heavily painted surface of this large painting. The presence of the organic deterioration of the straw is a direct reference to the idea of the natural cycle of life and an ominous vision for the fate of Germany.

Anselm Kiefer. Lilith at the Red Sea. 1990. Mixed media.

Anselm Kiefer. The Seven Heavenly Palaces. 2008. Installation in Foundazione Hungar Bicocca, Milan.


246

6.2


The following works are figurative and abstract works from various post-1946 movements. • Identify the movement into which each artwork fits. Provide reasons for your identification. • Compare the three artworks in the two categories. Discuss the following in your comparison: - Style of execution of the artwork - Use of colour - Composition - Subject matter

FIGURATIVE ARTWORKS

ABSTRACT ARTWORKS

Jackson Pollock. Blue Poles: Number 11. Oil on canvas. Rosenquist. President Elect. 1960-61/64. Oil on masonite.

Duane Hanson. Tourists II. 1988. Fibreglass and mixed media with accessories. Life size. Victor Vasarely. Vega 200. 1968. Oil on canvas.

Baselitz. Dinner in Dresden. 1983. Oil on canvas.

Carl Andre. Equivalent VIII. 1966.


247

6.3


The following artists are also part of the post-1946 era but do not fit into the larger categories of styles or movements in this time.

PORTRAYING THE HUMAN FORM Through time the human body has been portrayed for various reasons and in different ways. The variety of techniques and styles convey the effects of modernisation on the human race. Complete the following about each of the six artworks in your workbook. Describe the way each artist used the human figure in the composition by referring to the following:

Describe the painting style of each work by referring to the following:

What is your interpretation of each work? Looking closely at it. Consider the following in your answer:

- Proportion and placement of the figure within the composition. - What is in the background of the figure? Describe the environment. - Proportions of the figure. - The pose of the figure. What is the person doing? - Is movement represented in the pose of the figure? - Describe the facial expression of the person. - Is the person wearing clothes? Describe the clothes or the lack of it.

- Has the person been painted in a realistic style or not? Explain your answer. - Shapes of the body parts - Visibility of brushstrokes - Three dimensionality - Tonal values - Use of colour

- Atmosphere created through the composition and painting style - The title of the work

Lucian Freud. Portait on a White Cover. 2002-3. Oil on canvas.

Lucian Freud dedicated most of his career to depicting the naked body. His models were himself, his family and friends and people who interested him. He painted from life and exposed human vulnerability through his rendition of flesh in impasto paint. Although his works are figurative they have an intensity that sets them apart form other figurative artists. Francis Bacon is known for his paintings that are figure compositions often including portraits of his friends, colleagues and many self-portraits. His painting style is characteristic and is a “tightrope walk between what is called figurative painting and abstraction”. He conveys a combined message of the damage caused by modern life and painterly beauty. Francis Bacon. Selfportrait. 1973. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

248 Jenny Saville creates larger than life figures and focuses on depicting the physicality of female bodies. The comparison of the textures of skin and paint is central to the experience of her paintings. Many of her works are selfportraits, but her source material includes a collection of photographs from pathology textbooks, plastic surgery manuals and chronicles of injuries and burns, as well as from working from live models.

Jenny Saville. Prop. 1992. Oil on canvas.

Basquiat’s brightly coloured figurative paintings expressively tell stories about his life in the city and his cultural roots. He started off as a graffiti artist and developed this direct method of expression in layered paintings on canvas. The combination of words, signs and symbols drawn from his daily experiences in New York during the 80’s convey powerful and honest messages.

Tuymans’ figurative paintings are philosophical or existential responses to the human condition. His subject matter is taken from a wide variety of sources and range from major historical events to the inconsequential and banal.

Basquiat. Philistines. 1982. Acrylic and oilstick and spraypaint on canvas.

Luc Tuymans. Speech. 2010. Oil on canvas.

Paula Rego. The Policeman’s Daughter. 1987. Oil on canvas.

Paula Rego’s large scale paintings center on the experiences of women. The personal relationships within the disturbing narratives are deliberately ambiguous. Her works opposes the idealized and socially acceptable ideas about how women should look and behave. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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KEVIN ATKINSON Kevin Atkinson is known as an experimental artist who succesfully created paintings, sculptures, installations, kinetic artworks, land art, performance art, and conceptual art. Through all this experimentation, he lived out a philosophical attitude. This attitude was not only informed by European influences such as Jung or the American Abstract Expressionists, but also by his knowledge of African myths and rituals. In painting, he also showed that he should not be classified in one way or another. He moved from an almost clinical style of abstract painting that contained aspects of colourfield painting and Optical art in the use of smoothly painted opposing colour surfaces, to a densely layered abstract expressionist style of painting. His use of symbolic shapes to suggest feelings or ideas can be seen in both the expressionist and controlled colourfield optical artworks. His work White African Landscape is an example of his use of an abstract expressionist style of painting. On this imposing square canvas, Atkinson used a variety of bright, almost primary colours together with some black and darkened blue. The brushmarks were applied in a variety of directions and show that this work was built up in layers. The physical roughness of the markmaking implies feelings of energy, force, or impatience. The scale and jagged, shockingly bright brushmarks of this painting is like a physical attack on the visual senses, when confronted with it in real life. The title refers to a landscape and the work suggests the idea of a landscape as an expressive Impressionist experience of it. The lack of references to detail leads one to the idea that the painting represents the experience of colour and heat in a simmering landscape. The blurred shapes of a bright red path with darker blue, green, black, red and ochre bushes and foliage on either side, the blinding white and yellow of the sun on the horizon and an ominous dark blue sky above it, is a version of an experience rather than a visual representation. Created in 1982, this work is a metaphorical reference to the experience of living in South Africa at the time. The uncertainty and turbulence due to the direct conflict between the repressive government and the underground fight for human rights and freedom for the majority of the inhabitants of the country is embodied in the colours and marks of this painting. The psychological effects of division, fear, guilt and alienation is not represented figuratively, but rather in the abstracted version of the experience of a landscape.

Kevin Atkinson. White African Landscape. 1982. OIL ON CANVAS. 300 cm × 300 cm


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Kevin Atkinson. I am a Verb. 1970. Oil. Kevin Atkinson. Laser I. 1970. Acrylic.

WAYNE BARKER Wayne Barker has always been controversial in his interaction with the establishment and his art conveys a critical outlook on society. In the series of multi-media works that he created more recently, he juxtaposes and layers popular and familiar images symbolic of the old and new South Africa. The combinations of images and objects confront the viewer with controversial aspects from the apartheid era and the new post-apartheid culture. Barker has repeatedly used Pierneef ’s paintings as a backdrop for his statements about South African society. This reference to the old South Africa is steeped in meaning. Pierneef ’s paintings are representative of the idea that the majestic South African landscape is uninhabited virgin territory waiting to be exploited. Another important aspect in the reference to Pierneef is that he supported the ideology of apartheid through the so-called “separate but equal development of different race groups” and that he accepted a commision from the government in 1929 to do a series of large paintings of landscapes representing various regions in South Africa, for the Johannesburg Station. Barker chose the heroic dream of patriotism as symbolised by Pierneef ’s works as a working surface for further comments. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Wayne Barker. High noon: Enoch and Langenhoven. 2010. Mixed media and neon tubing on canvas.

251 In the work, High Noon: Enoch and Langenhoven the process of unpacking the message depicted by Barker becomes similar to excavating an archeological site. He looks at the meanings of images, objects and words for the various race groups, as well as relating them to contemporary society and culture. The Pierneef painting in the background of this work is of Mount-AuxSources, the highest point of the Drakensberg Mountains as seen from Lesotho. This painting is representative of South Africa’s imperialistic tendencies as it was assumed that Lesotho would soon be included within the Union of South Africa. Over the copy of Pierneef ’s version of this majestic landscape, Barker outlined the map of Lesotho in three thick red lines and around it is a textured red surface that resembles a bloodstain. Within the Pierneef landscape, he included reddish structural lines that are a reminder of the lines used by Pierneef in the process of planning the geometrically balanced compositions of the landscape paintings for the Johannesburg Station. Barker’s composition is balanced by two oval monochromatic paintings on the right and left hand sides of the square format. On the left, he depicted the portrait of Enoch Sontonga, author of Nkosi Sikelel i’ Afrika and on the right is CJ Langenhoven, author of Die Stem.Above them, in the middle, the word ‘dual’ is superimposed in blue neon tubing. Underneath the word is a typical gun used by sheriffs and outlaws on the American frontier, superimposed onto the painting facing downwards. The gun points towards an alarm clock stuck on the time five minutes to twelve which is placed on top of what seems to be a bible on a small shelf attached to the painting. The reference to the American classic film “High Noon” in the title of the work suggests the image of the fatal struggle between good and evil which is threatening to happen in a few minutes. The fact that Lesotho is the background of this ‘dual’ could refer to the events following South Africa’s past of apartheid. In 1998 the South African Defence Force assisted to restore peace on behalf of the SADC after protests threatened to turn into an overthrow of the newly elected government. In this context South Africa could be seen as the ‘righteous’ sherriff. Another aspect of the pun in the artwork is the ‘dual’ of the two authors whose poetic eulogies

of patriotism represent the struggle between and division of racial groups in South Africa. The current situation was brought about by eventual attempts at compromise in 1994 when a democratic government was established by combining the two songs into a new national song. Barker’s choice of popular icons combined into layered multi-media artworks are evocative commentary about a society that is struggling to come to terms with its history.

Wayne Barker. Start Dreaming. 2007. Mixed media

Wayne Barker. Colour Country. 2010. Mixed media and neon tubing on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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JOHANN LOUW Through the years, this artist from the Western Cape has developed his reputation as a painter of figures and landscapes. Louw’s application of paint alludes to Lucian Freud and Frank Auerbach. The thick application of oil paint and layering of subtle tonal values presents the viewer with a visual interpretation of a tactile experience. The tactile experience is also visible as the physical experience of putting the paint onto a surface in a way that reflects a psychological interpretation of the subject matter. In the work Landscape with Figure Concealed, landscape and figure painting has been combined. The two genres are separated by portraying the figure in a grey vacuum underneath the austere open landscape. This separation forms part of the conceptual statement represented in the painting. In general, the people portrayed by Louw eminate a sense of alienation that could be representative of the daily existential struggle as experienced by people. The anonymity and the positioning of the figure as cut off from the viewer as well as the sparseness of the surrounding environments support this interpretation. The nudity of the figures also conveys a feeling of vulnerability through the blatant exposure of the body as flesh. The landscape in this painting is a view of a gradual hill in the foreground that leads to more hilltops on the horizon. The sky is overcast and grim which is reflected in the dark colours used in the landscape. Louw does not convey any of the finer detail of the landscape in the closer foreground.


Johann Louw. Landscape with Figure Concealed. 2005. Oil on canvas.

He presents the viewer with an interpretation of the landscape in tonal values with lighter areas closeup leading to more densely shaded areas in the background. The brushstrokes, textures and tonal values are used to give a summarized version of the landscape. Under the landscape, what appears to be a female figure lies on her stomach. The figure seems to be relaxed, but because it is within this lead grey rectangular background underneath the landscape, the intentions of the artist could be interpreted in a variety of ways. The figure could be buried beneath the dark landscape. The Afrikaans version of the title alludes to the fact that the figure is protectively hidden. This is emphasised by the positioning of the arms and the darkly shaded face as if the vulnerable frontal side of the body has to be hidden from the elements or the gaze of the viewer.

253 The inclusion of the figure as a separate entity could also be a comparison of sensual aspects. The shapes of the figure echo the soft shapes of the hills. The textures and tonal values of the flesh are painted in a similar style to that of the landscape. Louw’s paintings are loaded with implied meanings. A philosophical and psychological viewpoint towards existential issues of humanity, sexuality and race as experienced within the South African context, are underlying to his paintings.

Johann Louw. Seated figure with glove. 2002. Oil on canvas.

Johann Louw. Large Head lying. 2006/7. Oil on canvas. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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8


The Pop artist, Andy Warhol, started with his Time Capsules in 1974 when he realized that the cardboard boxes used in a studio move, were an efficient way for dealing with all his “stuff ”. The boxes were filled with thousands of magazines and newspapers, invitations, receipts, record albums, photographs, letters and artwork. Movie ticket stubs and unpaid bills would be placed next to pizza dough and a pair of Clark Gable’s shoes, with never-before-seen pieces of Warhol’s early art. An open cardboard would be placed next to his desk. Once the box was full he sealed it with tape, marked it with a date and/or title, and put it in his archive. Warhol created 612 completed Time Capsules by his death in 1987. With the opening of the Andy Warhol Museum in 1994, the Time Capsules became accessible to curators, scholars, and the general public, revealing new and important information about Warhol’s life and expanding the public’s understanding of his work. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Part of the contents from one of Andy Warhol’s Time Capsules

Andy Warhol, Part of his Time Capsules

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Robert Rauschenberg, (1925–2008), is one of the masters of post-1945 art. His work is often called ‘Neo-Dada’ and he influenced Pop Art by his everyday imagery, but his abstract expressionistic brushwork set him apart from them. Rauschenberg is best known for his “Combines” (his term for assemblages combining painting and everyday objects) and silkscreened paintings (photo-screen printed imagery overlaid with freely painted areas). He was a prominent chronicler of American culture in the second half of the twentieth century through his use of images and objects.

“The past and the future don’t interest me,” I am in the present.”

Robert Rauschenberg, Canyon, 1959. Oil, house paint, pencil, paper, fabric, metal, buttons, nails, cardboard, printed paper, photographs, wood, paint tubes, mirror string, pillow & bald eagle on canvas

– Robert Rauschenberg

Theme: TIME CAPSULE What would you place in a time capsule to tell of your present life? Take a cardboard box and fill it with newspaper cuttings and headings, magazine cuttings, ticket stubs, mementoes of school activities, social events, etc. Place some objects in it e.g. the box of your hamburger, the lid of a cool drink bottle, etc. Make drawings or take a photo of those items that you do not want to place in the box. For example your computer or cell phone. Try to represent many facets of your life – from things that you are concerned about in the world and your country, to more personal things.


256 CT I VI T

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Start with your SOURCE BOOK You have now collected a lot of material to represent your present life. The following are a few options you may investigate in your source book: • Consider the following questions and write your thoughts on them: – Why do people collect and save objects? – What can you find out about someone through his or her collections? – What could someone find out about you if they opened your locker at school or your closet at home? • Choose at least five objects, cuttings, photos, etc., from your time capsule and make small sketches of them on two pages. Explain next to each one why you have included it. • Decide on at least five images/objects from your box that you want to include in your final artwork. Investigate different compositional options. Decide if you want to present your chosen visuals as if on a notice board, include part of the box, or as a traditional still-life composition. • In this chapter you were introduced to many art styles such as Abstract Expressionism, Op Art, Pop Art, Super-Realism, Neo-Expressionism, etc. Photocopy at least five artworks from these movements. Paste them in your book and comment on the technique and how it represented the time in which it was created in. • See if you can find any contemporary South African artists to use as inspiration for example Kudzanai Chiurai, Conrad Botes, Asha Zero, and place your research in your book. • Decide on a final composition based on your time capsule and make a good preparatory drawing of it. Include notes on the style, media and other technical considerations. The final work can be two-dimensional, include assemblage or be three-dimensional e.g. create a work in a wooden box. It is advisable to combine some of the styles from this chapter in your final work, just take care to integrate it as a whole. • Document your working progress in writing and/or visually. • After you have finished this task, you must reflect in writing on the whole process.

THE BRIEF Your brief is to make a final artwork on the theme of a time

capsule.

Your art teacher will guide you in this process and may give you further instructions regarding the media, size, technique, etc. Complete your artwork under the guidance of your art teacher.

Time capsules are usually sealed and buried for a long time. It might be a good idea to seal the boxes from your class and to open them next year, at the end of grade 12, to see how you all have changed or stayed the same!


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New Media CONTENTS 1. Conceptual Art • Joseph Kosuth • Hans Haacke 2. Installation Art • Judy Chicago • Olafur Eliasson 3. Performance Art • Joseph Beuys 4. Body Art • Vito Acconci 5. Earth Art • Robert Smithson 6. Video and Digital Art • Nam June Paik 7. Relating South African Art to New Media • Kendell Geers • Berni Searle 8. Practical Assessment Task • Identity


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1940

1945

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

SECOND WORLD WAR (1939 – 1945)


Op & Kinetic Art

POP ART

SuperRealism

Neoexpressionism

Conceptual art


2000

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New Media

In the 1970’s more women were aware of the issues surrounding discrimination against women. There were frequent protest marches and a large variety of organisations canvassing to improve work conditions, to create equal opportunities and to deal with issues of sexism, reproductive freedom, rape and domestic violence. Through consciousness-raising, women could identify common struggles and receive support while feminism grew into a mass movement. From this form of engagement, the slogan “the personal is political” aptly summed up the goals of second-wave feminism. What were once private issues were now in the public realm. Signs of revolutionary change in western society were clearly visible in the 1960’s. The long hair, short skirts, flower power, references to love and peace and new emergence of popular musicians were not just fashion statements. The attitude it represented was a reaction to the conservatism of the previous generation. Political and social structures that were previously viewed as central to western society were questioned through movements of peace activism, civil rights, social equality as well as women’s and gay liberation. The 1960’s and 1970’s were defined by social unrest and political upheaval. Unlike white feminists, black women fought a two fold battle against racism and sexism. Black feminism grew out of second-wave feminism’s failure to address the unique struggle.

This is the background out of which Conceptual art grew. Art was seen as a way to challenge socio-political issues as well as revolutionizing the fundamental structure of the art world. Stylistic concerns of the previous generation were questioned and the framework within which art was made, exhibited and viewed was changed radically. Senator Nelson, an environmental activist, took a leading role in organizing the celebration, first held on April 22, 1970. He was hoping to demonstrate popular political support for an environmental agenda. He modeled it on the highly effective Vietnam war teach-ins of the time. While this April 22 Earth Day was focused on the United States, an organization launched by Dennis Hayes, who was the original national coordinator in 1970, took it international in 1990 and organized events in 141 nations. Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network, and is celebrated in more than 175 countries every year


260 The first LGBT (Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender) pride marches were held on June 28, 1970. Originally called Christopher Street Liberation Day, marches were held in 1970 to commemorate the first anniversary of the Stonewall Riots - a violent clash between New York City police and gay people at the Stonewall bar on Christopher Street. Each year in a growing number of cities, the Stonewall marchers called for “Gay Power” and “Gay Liberation,” and their politics and consciousness transformed a small reform movement into a grassroots gay liberation crusade.

Protestors on Interstate 5in 1970. Thousands of people spilled onto I-5 on their way to an anti-war protest in downtown Seattle. In this photo, 30 state patrolmen in riot gear await the crowd. The march was redirected, but the following day, 10,000 more people returned to the freeway to protest.

Influences on New Media The constant questioning of commonly accepted aesthetic standards, the value placed on certain artworks through institutions, the financial support and the art audience already started with artists such as Manet in the late 19th century. This attitude of self-criticism or self-reflection was perpetuated through Conceptual art and related artforms, Installation art, Performance art, Body art, Earth art as well as Video and Digital art. The Cubists’ representation of a variety of viewpoints in their paintings can be seen as one of the first attempts at changing the viewing experience of art. The awareness and emphasis on the experience of the viewer lead to the development of installation art. By exhibiting readymades and assemblages as art the Dadaïst Duchamp and some of the later Surrealists challenged the traditional values placed on the technical skill in creating the artwork, the importance of the artist as the creator, the final product as an aesthetically pleasing object, the role of the spectator of the artwork and the resale value of the artwork. Viewers were also challenged as it questioned the function and meaning of the gallery or museum as exhibition space for art. These influences are important in the development of all the New Media artforms. The installation view of the Exposition International du Surrealism Eros, Paris, 1959.This installation was conceptualised by Duchamp who lined the walls with pink and green velvet to give the gallery an explicit corporeal feeling that would evoke the eroticism of the display. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Picasso. Portrait of Daniel Henry Kahnweiler. 1910. Oil.

261 The Surrealist exhibition displays in Paris in 1938, 1947 and 1959 and in New York in 1942 are examples of the installation of paintings, drawings and sculptures into an environment that was intended to be experienced as a whole work. The concept behind these installations were linked to the Surrealist agenda of sparking new trains of thought and not intended to be viewed with specific meanings attached to the elements. The Futurists wanted to disrupt the complacent public through their performances and thought of it as an artistic battle in which the audience was provoked to respond. Besides using a variety of theatre traditions such as film, acrobatics, song and dance, clowning and a mixture of absurdity that bordered on madness, these performances had no story line and constantly invented new ways of shocking the audience, expecting them to participate in some way. They deliberately used anti-academic, primitive and naïve forms of theatre. In 1916 popular nightclub in Zurich, the Cabaret

Russolo. Futurist painter, musician and composer and his assistant Piatti with noise instruments. He investigated the art of noise and the first performance of noise music, reflecting the atmosphere of large cities, was performed at his mansion in 1913.

Voltaire was the centre of the collaborative Dada performances that included live readings of poems, dancing, music and singing that reflected the anarchic, anti-art and anti-establishment attitude of the movement. The Cabaret Voltaire only lasted for five months, but laid the foundation for revolutionising art. Surrealism developed out of the disolved Dada movement. The Surrealists continued organising performances that explored the realms of the mind as they explored the study of psychology as subject matter. In the Berlin Art Exhibition in 1923 El Lissitzky was allocated a room in the gallery space. He used all six surfaces of the room thereby integrating the architectural elements into a unified display of his works. He attached colour relief forms to the ceiling the floor and the four walls and thereby encouraged the movement of the viewer within the exhibition space. This encouraged a new idea of experiencing three-dimensional space that was not related to the traditional representation of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface.

El Lissitsky. Proun Room. 1923. Painted wood.

The Minimalist attitude focussed on the process of planning the artwork, the simplicity of the medium, composition, shape, form and colour and the use of industrial materials that obliterated the signature mark making of the artist. This influenced the Conceptual artists in that art became dematerialized and the actual artwork was not visible anymore. It lead to a further disregard for the creation of art objects seen in Installation art, Performance art, Body art, Video art and Digital art. In the 1960’s the Minimalists’ acknowledgement of visual experience of the relationship between the sculptural geometric shapes and the environment of the gallery also leads to the almost theatrical experience of space and shapes by the spectator. The Environments and Happenings during the 1950’s and 60’s created by artists such as Karpow, Cage, Oldenburg and Samaras were the first manifestations of installation art. The development VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

262 of intellectual play between the objects, the environment and the interaction of the spectator took place during the 1970’s and 1980’s when installation art became a prominent art form. Since the 1990’s installation art has become an institutionally accepted artform and filling up large spaces such as the Guggenheim museum and the Turbine Hall of the Tate Modern. Since ancient times humans have used different methods such as scarification, tattooing, piercing, body painting and reshaping as a way to define themselves in terms of identity and culture. Artists’ use of their physical bodies as medium or surface for relating a concept or statement developed together with the emergence of Conceptual art. Body art is closely connected to Conceptual art and a sub category of Performance art or Happenings as the artist perform conceptual actions by using or abusing the human body. Earth Art or Land Art has been practised by people

through the ages without it being categorised as art. An ancient monolith such as Stone Henge is a good example of how people created structures in nature with a symbolic purpose. Landscape painting is also an influence on earth art as many artists painted on site thereby developing a connection with the environment and the effects of the weather that feature in the paintings. The formal idea of Earth or Land Art emerged in the USA in the late 1960’s. The first exhibition that can be seen as the origin of the artform was titled Earth Works and was held in 1968 at the Dwan gallery in New York. The spirit of political activism of the 1970’s that coud be seen in the emerging feminist and environmental liberation movements influenced the message of some Earth artworks. These artworks are also described as Environmentalist Art as it contains an ecological message. Marcel Duchamp. Anémic Cinema. 1926. Duchamp filmed a moving spiral design intercut with a spinning disc containing French phrases.

Andy Warhol. Sleep. 1963. Still from the film that documented John Giorno, a friend of Warhol’s, sleeping for 5 hours and 20 minutes.

The invention of the camera is the origin of the changes that started taking place in the 20th and 21st centuries in terms of representation, communication and the audience. Since the development of the film camera, video camera and the computer, artists immediately started to use its potential for experimentation in the creation of visual artworks. The members of the Dada movement rejected traditional cinema because it existed as a medium of impression made to the taste of the masses. In spite of this there were artists such as Marcel Duchamp and Man Ray who experimented with the possibilities of visual disruption, that could be achieved through this new technological medium. The Surrealists recognized the potential of cinema as a medium to explore in their quest to expand the possibilities of visual expression in art through a juxtaposition of unusual images, the rejection of reality and the frequent use of shocking imagery they created films related to the world of dreams that were pioneering at the time. The first artists known to exhibit video artworks are the German artist Wolf Vostell, who created threedimensional collage works and Nam June Paik who experimented with broadcast pictures distorted by magnets in 1959. Andy Warhol is another artist known to have used the film camera to create films in which he commented on a variety of topics in a conceptual way in the 1960’s. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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2

Conceptual Art

Characteristics • Conceptual art is a dialogue with the spectator about ideas and therefore the use of language as the origin of art is a central part of it. The subject matter addresses a vast range of information, subjects and concerns that are not easily contained in a single object and are therefore more appropriately conveyed by written proposals, photographs, documents, charts, maps, film, video, the artist’s own body and language itself. Different names are given to associated trends and / or sub-divisions. It is difficult to place work under the following headings: Body Art, Happenings, Performance Art, Installation Art, Land or Earth Art or Video Art. An artwork often falls under more than one of these categories. • Traditional characteristics of art such as use of colour, depiction of shapes, application of the media and the traditional ideas about composition are not applicable to Conceptual art. • Subject matter and the use of media are the two dominating aspects addressed by Conceptual art while composition is an aspect that some of the artists take into account when placing objects or printed words within an exhibition space. • The physical object, as in traditional painting and sculpture is not as important as the idea or concept of the artist. One of the early Conceptual artists, Lawrence Weiner gave up the practice of making physical works of art. Through this practice the intention was to open up the possibilities of what art should be – not to dictate that it should be one thing or another. • Words and language became as important to artworks as images. Conceptual art is based on the intellect rather than the visual experience. A group of artists who published a journal Art and Language also challenged the idea that an artwork should be a physical object.This contributed to the dematerialisation of the art object. • The commodification of art was rejected. • A conceptual artwork could be experienced through its description and could be endlessly repeated, without any uniqueness. • Traces of the authorship of the artist were removed in the use of new media. The aim of the artist was now more important than the execution thereof. Life and art were integrated in the artworks which lead to a paradox as the art became impersonal although it focussed on a personal concept.

The cover of the influential journal of conceptual art, Art-Language, Vol. 3 No.4, 1974, was published in London and New York. The group of artists who contributed to the journal proposed a critical analysis of the relations between art, society and politics.

Robert Rauschenberg. Erased De Kooning Drawing. 1953. The act of erasing the De Kooning drawing was a performative act and it resulted in a conceptual work. It is necessary for you to know that there was an actual De Kooning drawing and that it was erased with the artist’s consent in order to understand this work fully.


264 • Subject matter: The nature of art is questioned through a process of planning or decision-making. Unlike Minimalism, that also questioned the nature of art, Conceptual art had a strong sociopolitical background that was manifested in artworks showing dissatisfaction with society and government policies. • The rejection of traditional art forms and presentation lead to the blurring of boundaries between art and the everyday as artists stopped using traditional gallery space for the exhibition of their artworks in using performance, video, the earth or books as mediums and subject matter. • The role of the artist and the spectator is changed in this questioning process. The artist is the instigator, interpreter and sometimes the judge while the spectator sometimes has to complete the artwork.

Marcel Broodthaers. Femur of a Belgian Man and Femur of a French Woman.1964-5.Two human bones, one from Belgian man, one from a French woman, each painted in the colours of the flags of their respective nations. As in this work, several of his works mock the absurdity of nationalism.

On Kawara. TODAY Series. 1989. Kawara’s TODAY series is an ongoing succession of conceptual paintings begun in 1966, each of which was created on the date indicated and in the language of the country in which it was painted. Each painting takes the artist between eight and nine hours--a full day’s work--to complete. Each object, then, is a literal representation of a day in the artist’s life.

WHO IS KOSUTH?

“Being an artist now means to question the nature of art. If one is questioning the nature of painting, one cannot be questioning the nature of art … That’s because the word ‘art’ is general and the word ‘painting’ is specific. Painting is a kind of art. If you make paintings you are already accepting (not questioning) the nature of art.” – Joseph Kosuth Joseph Kosuth (31 January 1945-) This pioneer of Conceptual art studied design, painting, anthropology and philosophy at various institutes. His installations and written publications are philosphical enquiries into the relation of language and art. Kosuth and a number of other artists lodged an attack on conventional aesthetics. The use of words instead of images and objects lead to intellectual provocation. Instead of just looking at an artwork, the onlooker has to think about the meaning and nature of art conceptually. This was the source of an attitude which questioned the emphasis placed on the idea that art simply communicated some meaning, to exploring the thought processes behind the meaning that was communicated in the art work. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Joseph Kosuth. One and Three Chairs. 1965. Wood folding chair, mounted photograph of chair and mounted photographic enlargement of the dictionary definition of “chair”.

One and three chairs consists of a chair, a photograph of that chair and an enlarged dictionary definition of the word ‘chair’. Kosuth’s instructions for this piece is that the exhibited chair does not always have to be the exact same chair as the installer of the work may choose a chair. This chair has to be photographed where it is to be exhibited in front of a wall. The photograph has to be enlarged to the actual size of the chair. The photograph has to be exhibited to the left of the actual chair. The enlarged dictionary definition has to be hung to the right of the chair with its upper edge in alignment with the photograph. The copy of the dictionary definition of the chair and a diagram with instructions explaining the requirements of the installation, both bearing Kosuth’s signature, are the two constant elements of the work.

Kosuth deliberately used a common functional object with a photograph and a dictionary definition of it so that the onlooker has to think about what is ‘real’ in this work. Although this installation is very simple, it is also a complex investigation into the system of signs used by all people on earth. You are presented with three codes for a single object. Both the photograph and the dictionary definition describe the chair. One has to ask how the two descriptions’ functions are different from that of the real chair. Kosuth has created a work that cannot be analyzed by discussing the formal elements in the traditional way, as the chair can be changed and therefore the photograph changes. Each particular installation of this work can be described individually as one has to describe the chair that is used in a specific installation. He saw the fact that the chair and location, and therefore the photograph, changes; but that the artwork essentially stays the same, as the interesting part of the work. Through this aspect, more emphasis is placed on the idea of the artwork rather than on the formal components of the work. Kosuth draws attention to the viewer’s processes of thinking. The aesthetic values placed on traditional artworks are completely denied in this work.

Joseph Kosuth. Clock (One and Five). 1965. English/Latin version, clock,photograph and printed texts on paper. Kosuth investigated different modes of representation in this work as well. Different aspects of the objects were brought together. The enlarged dictionary entries of the words ‘time’, ‘machination’ and ‘object’ are exhibited with real clocks. The influence of language on the way we look at things is the focus of this work.

Joseph Kosuth. Titled (Art as Idea as Idea) the Word “Definition”1966-68. Mounted photographic enlargement of the dictionary definition of “definition”. 144.8×144.8cm. This work is part of a series based on definitions clipped from dictionary entries for words. Kosuth considers the work of art to be the definition of the given word.


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WHO IS HAACKE?

“An artist is not an isolated system. In order to survive he has to interact continuously with the world around him... Theoretically there are no limits to his involvement.” – Hans Haacke Hans Haacke (12 August 1936 - ) This artist was born in Germany, but works and lives in New York. He was a member of Zero, an international group of artists who wanted to re-harmonise man and nature and restore art’s metaphysical dimension by using nontraditional materials. His early works were kinetic art works. In these installations, he explored natural phenomena such as air, water, wind and condensation. The observer would be able to see subtle changes in the installations entitled Real Time Systems. This was a preamble to the works that drew attention and debates. He used the tools of Conceptual art to expose Real Time Systems within the sociopolitical realm. Through these installations, he lodged scathing attacks on what he called “the consciousness industry”.

Hans Haacke. Shapolsky et al. Manhattan Real Estate Holdings, A Real Time Social System, as of May 1, 1971. Photographs, data sheets and charts.


267 A work by Haacke that provoked response from the Guggenheim Museum where it was to be exhibited and cencorship debated is titled Shapolsky et al Manhattan Real Estate Holdings, a Real Time Social System, as of May 1, 1971. The Guggenheim director Thomas Messer censored this work as it had ‘inappropriate’ content according to the museum’s management, while Haacke saw it as an exploration of social and institutional systems. The work comprises of diagrams and 142 black and white photographs of tenement building facades taken from street level. Underneath the photographs, he included typewritten statements that revealed information about the property tycoon Harry Shapolsky’s mortgages, rent deals and tax agreements on each of his properties over a twenty-year period. Shapolsky attracted Haacke’s attention, as he was the biggest property owner in New York. He obtained his information by researching public records. All the properties were in the

slum neighbourhoods of Harlem and Lower East Side of Manhattan and were predominantly rented by black or Hispanic people. The carefully researched data revealed potentially incriminating evidence that implicated the Shapolsky family in exploitative rent charges, insider deals and withheld prison sentences. According to Haacke the exhibition of this ‘real system’ – not imagined – placed the viewer of the work in a new position towards the work. The onlookers now became witnesses to dysfunctionality within the system that surrounded them. Onlookers were therefore not permitted to be in charge of making their own decisions through interpretation as with traditional artworks. The Guggenheim Museum cancelled Haacke’s exhibition six weeks before it opened and dismissed the curator of the exhibition, Edward Fry, who defended Haacke’s work. The response from the museum was that the work was contrary to the

Hans Haacke. Condensation Cube. 1963. Plexiglass and water. In this work Haacke explored a physical occurrence. The condensation cycle is exhibited as an art work in real time. Some of his other works exhibited in the 1960’s, explored the interactions of physical and biological systems, living animals, plants and the states of wind and water. Hans Haacke. MOMA Poll. 1970. ‘Information’ an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art was the first conceptual exhibition by a U.S. museum. Haacke presented this SYSTEM as art: a query, a response and its visual feedback. Question:Would the fact that Governor Rockefeller has not denounced President Nixon’s Indochina policy be a reason for you not to vote for him in November ? Answer: If ‘yes’ please cast your ballot into the left boxif ‘no’into the right box. ‘Ballots’ were dropped into either of two plexi-glass ballot boxes [visitors chose “yes” twice as often as “no”]. New York Governer Nelson Rockefeller was a member of the board of trustees of MOMA and planning a run for the U.S. Presidency at the time.


268 museums policy which said that they would be “pursuing aesthetic and educational motives that are self-sufficient and without ulterior motives”. They acknowledged that the work might have “social and political consequences” and accused Haacke of using “political means to achieve political ends”. The immediate response to the Guggenheim Museum’s decision was a protest by a large group of artists inside the museum. They also signed a pledge not to exhibit at the museum until changes were made to the policy of censorship. The ongoing debate around the issue of the exhibition of art works that criticised the values of institutions supporting the art world or art museums where it was exhibited was a long-term result of Haacke’s work. It also lead Haacke and others to further investigate and reveal how art museums are compromised by their business methods, management techniques, public relations and corporate investments. Haacke’s art career also includes conceptual investigations of other powerful capitalist institutions. The self critical and socially critical aspects of his art works were ground breaking.

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Hans Haacke. A Breed Apart. (detail). 1978. 7 panels. Photographs on masonite, framed under glass. Haacke exhibited this series at a solo exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art in Oxford, England. In the series of photographs he made explicit criticism of the state-owned British Leyland for exporting vehicles for police and military use to apartheid South Africa.


Read the following description of John Baldessari’s artwork I Will Not Make Any More Boring Art and answer the questions about it.

John Baldessari. I Will Not Make Any More Boring Art.1971. Lithograph.


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Before he created this work, Baldessari made landscapes and abstract paintings as an artist. He became disillusioned with painting as a technique. In 1970, he decided to burn all the paintings that he made between 1953 and 1966. He put the ashes into coffins that he buried and placed a notice in the newspaper documenting his act that he titled The Cremation Project. His developing interest in Conceptual art and way of thinking is demonstrated by this early Conceptual artwork I Will Not Make Any More Boring Art. The Nova Scotia College of Art and Design in Canada commissioned him to create and original on-site work. As there was not enough funding for the trip, he proposed that the students create the work on behalf of him. He sent along some instructions and a handwritten page with the sentence on it. Volunteers had to write, “I will not make any more boring art”, a phrase drawn from one of his notebooks, on the walls of the gallery. The students went a step further by repeating the line repeatedly, thereby covering the walls entirely. Baldessari’s initial proposal was to call the work a “punishment piece”, but he decided that the work should not make them feel that they are being reprimanded and that it should rather be an instructional exercise. Eventually Baldessari committed his own version of the work on video where he dutifully wrote the sentence repeatedly in a notebook for the duration of the tape. The idea of writing this sentence over and over, is in contradiction with the instruction not to create any boring art. It is a parody of the school punishment and a comment on the teaching method of copying old masterpieces to learn about their style and technique. The work addresses issues about art, language, games and the art world at large. Questions: • Describe the work according to what you see in the photograph. • Explain what you think the meaning of the sentence is. • Does the fact that it is handwritten influence your interpretation of it? • Does the repetition of the sentence have an effect on the meaning of the statement? • How does this artwork challenge artistic convention? • In the light of the fact that Baldessari only gave the instructions for the creation of this work, can he still be considered to be the artist of this artwork? Explain your answer. • What do you think was Baldessari’s understanding of ‘boring art’? • Does it differ from your idea of ‘boring art’” Explain your answer.

Glossary

Authorship is the fact or position of having written a text or created a work of art. Commodification is the aasignment of commercial value to something that was previously valueless.

Dematerialisation is to disappear or to become immaterial. Paradox is a statement or proposition that, despite sound reasoning from acceptable premises, leads to a conclusion that seems senseless, logically unacceptable, or self-contradictory.


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Installation Art

• Installation art usually consists of an arrangement of three-dimensional objects within a space. • The experience of an installation artwork includes the perception of the exhibition space or environment as part of the intention of the artist. Installations are created for a specific site and the objects have a direct physical relationship with the environment. • Temporality is an important part of some installation artworks. The viewer’s experience of walking into a space and looking around is linked to the passing of time and some installation artworks use this aspect as part of the concept behind it. • Installation art presents the viewer with aspects such as texture, light and space as elements of an experience that have sensory immediacy with the emphasis on physical participation, while traditional art represents these aspects visually. • The subject matter of installation artworks is influenced by and related to Conceptual Art. The idea or concept behind the work is important. Artists refer to a very wide range of topics, addressing aesthetics related to conceptual or theoretical issues and sociopolitical, environmental, spiritual, personal and technological issues as experienced in modern life. • The media used by artists is unlimited. It ranges from being static to being dynamic. It could be organic, graphic, typographic, plastic, sonic, kinetic, photographic, filmic, videomatic, telematic, cybernetic and virtual. Body Art, Performance Art, Video Art, Land Art and Digital Art are related to Installation Art. • The most common aspect of Installation Art is the use of three-dimensional space. The artist usually redefines a particular space. The exhibition space is subjected to the requirements of the installation, which is curated by the artist. Compared to a traditional sculpture, which is already endowed with aesthetic qualities, an installation can only attain an aesthetic impact after it has been constructed. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Dennis Oppenheim. Violations. 1971-2. Installation with hubcaps and tv monitor. This installation offers evidence of 153 misdemeanors in violation of Section 484 of the California Penal Code (Petty Theft). Shiny hubcaps from all kinds of cars lie on the floor while a monitor above shows hands stealthily removing them from cars.

Tracey Emin. My Bed. 1998. Matress, linens, pillows, objects. By presenting her bed as art Emin shares her most personal space with the art viewing public. Through this installation she reveals and admits her imperfection and insecurity as the objects scattered around the bed, and the state of the bed tells the story of a nervous breakdown.

271 • The interaction between the media, the environment and the onlooker is central to an installation artwork. The visitor to an installation artwork expects to be immersed in a sensory or narrative environment and in some cases the active participation of the viewer generates the meaning of the artwork. There are a large variety of types of experiences for the spectator of installation art and this is an important part of the conceptualisation of an installation artwork when planned by the artist. • An installation artwork could be installed into a space permanently, but usually it is dismantled after a certain amount of time. It could then be installed into a new exhibition space. Each installation within a specific environment differs and therefore it is documented photographically to keep a record of it.

Arman. Long Term Parking. 1982. Accumulation of 60 automobiles in concrete. 19,5 m. Parc de sculpture Le Montcel, Jouy-en-Josas, France.

WHO IS CHICAGO?

Yayohi Kusama. Dots Obsession-New Century 2000. 2000. 11 balloons, vinyl dots, variable dimensions (installation) Kusama is a Japanese artist whose paintings, collages, soft sculptures, performance art and installations all share an obsession with repetition, pattern, and accumulation.

“Because we are denied knowledge of our history, we are deprived of standing upon each other’s shoulders and building upon each other’s hard earned accomplishments. Instead we are condemned to repeat what others have done before us and thus we continually reinvent the wheel. The goal of The Dinner Party is to break this cycle.” - Judy Chicago

Judy Chicago (born Judy Cohen, 20 July 1939-) Chicago’s early paintings and sculptures were influenced by the modernist attitude of Minimalism. In the 1970’s she changed direction in her art in order to create works that would have greater content and relevance according to her. The works that she created are blatantly feminist and often contain sexual symbols. Together with fellow artist Miriam Shapiro she established the Feminist Art Program at the California Institute of the Arts in 1972. This program provided a space for young women artists to explore new ways of creating art without the dominance of the male-centered ideologies as seen at most art institutions. This program resulted in the organization Womanhouse that was a collaborative space occupied by female artists. In 1973 she also collaborated in the establishment of the Feminist Studio Workshop.


272 The Dinner Party by Judy Chicago is a multimedia installation that was created as a collaborative artwork by a number of artists and craftspeople under Chicago’s direction. Most of the contributors in the work were female. The work adresses issues around female identity, ethnicity and sexual orientation and has become an icon of feminist art. It consists of a massive triangular banquet table of 14.63 m on each side, which has thirty-nine place settings for notable women from history. The table stands on an elevated triangular platform that is covered with hand cast tiles inscribed with the names of 999 more women from history. The use of the triangle as a dominant shape is intentional as it is symbolic of equality.Each of the 39 place settings is elaborately decorated. A hand-stitched place mat and a table runner with the guest of honour’s name and images or symbols associated with the individual, embroidered on it, sets off an intricately decorated porcelain plate paired with a golden chalice. The plates are symbolic interpretations of each woman and feature butterfly or flower-like sculptural shapes that evoke the vaginal fo rm. The women represented at the table settings are chronologically arranged. As history progresses around the table, the sculptured plates rise higher. Each wing of the triangle represents 13 women who are divided according to their historical period. The number thirteen has a positive and negative connotation. It refers to the number of guests present at the Last Supper and it refers to the number of members in a witches’ coven. On Wing One prehistory is represented by the “Primordial Goddess” with the chronological development of Judaism continuing after it. Then it moves from early Greek societies to the Roman Empire. Hypatia, the first notable woman in mathematics who taught philosophy and astronomy in Alexandria in 400 AD, was allocated a place setting as a symbolic historical figure signifying the decline in women’s power. She was killed by a group of Christians who believed that she caused religious turmoil. Wing Two depict women who are symbols of early attempts to fight for equal rights from early Christianity to the Reformation, such as Saint Bridget and Eleanor of Aquitane. Wing Three represents the American Revolution, Suffragism and the movement towards individual creative expression symbolised by women such as Emily Dickenson, Virginia Woolf and Georgia O’Keeffe. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

View of the Dinner Party showing the place settings for the Primordial Goddess and the Fertile Goddess on Wing One.

Judy Chicago. The Dinner Party. 1974–79. Ceramic, porcelain, textile. 1463 x 1463 cm.

273 The Heritage floor on which the table rests, is a structural and metaphorical support for it because the women whose names are inscribed in gold on the tiles, were chosen to contextualise the 39 women represented in the place settings. This work tells the story of women’s struggle to make their ideas known and to gain prominence in the world only to have their achievements marginalised or erased. It is a reclamation of women’s role in the history of the world The work is controversial for a number of reasons. It criticises the traditional historical viewpoint on what is seen as important contributions in world history. It uses female sexuality in the form of vaginal imagery as symbolic of women’s supreme power and creativity. It also elevated craft techniques such as embroidery and decorative ceramics, normally associated with women, to the level of high art, traditionally associated with men. The criticism against it points to the fact that the choice of certain women as important figures in history and exclusion of others could be seen as a narrow conception of women’s contributions. A situation of inequality is the result of the fact that women are again separated from men in this monument to their greatness. They are also represented in a general way focussing on their reproductive power without taking into account racial, socio-political and cultural differences.

In spite of the criticism The Dinner Party has now been permanently installed at the Brooklyn Museum within its own gallery. This attributes to it the aura of a grand event which, together with the dramatic darkness that surrounds the illuminated table, draws attention to this work as an important statement about the excluded female history within Western society. Even though many women of importance are excluded from it, this work raises the question in the viewer about how it would be possible to stop this cycle of exclusion and how to include all women of the world as a significant part of world history.

A view of the place setting for the British novelist, Virginia Woolf. In her work she discusses issues and prejudices surrounding women’s writing in the Western world.

WHO IS ELIASSON?

“I was interested in how we engage the world. How do we use our skin as our eyes? If you read a cityscape or a landscape with just your mind, and not your body, it becomes like a picture or representation, not something you really engage with.” - Olafur Eliasson Olafur Eliasson (1967-) Eliasson was born in Copenhagen in 1967 to Icelandic parents. He received a travel bursary from the Royal Danish Academy of Arts and used it to go to New York where he worked as a studio assistant. After receiving his degree in 1995 he started collaborating with architect and geometry expert Einar Thorstein in creation illusory environments. He eventually established his own studio in Berlin, which is like a laboratory for spatial research. Architects, enigneers, craftsmen and assitants collaborate with Eliasson to conceptualise, test, engineer and construct his projects. He often uses natural elements such as light, water, fire and wood in combination to recreate outdoor conditions inside a gallery. His works cannot be sold and can only be preserved through descriptions and photographs.


274 The Weather Project is an installation that filled the Turbine Hall at the Tate Modern in London from October 2003 until March 2004. By using the weather as a subject Eliasson commented on something that has always been a part of people’s everyday conversation and physical experience. Through his installation he explored ideas about experience, mediation and representation. Eliasson created a vast optical illusion by creating a semi-circular disc made up of 200 yellow sodium lamps that are reflected in the mirrored ceiling to create the effect of the full circle of a setting sun. The misty atmosphere was generated with humidifiers that pumped a mixture of sugar and water into the air. The viewers who entered this space could see themselves reflected in the huge mirrors that covered the ceiling. They appeared as black silhouetted shadows in the hazy orange light. The effect was that people became part of the community of humanity as their individuality was obscured by the misty orange light and diminished by the scale of the installation in the vast gallery space. This artificial natural environment draws the viewer’s attention to the fact that the space that is supposed to keep the weather out, now contains elements of the weather. The artificial conditions are contained within the enclosed space and it stays the same for the period that the installation runs. Compared to the experience of natural conditions outside, that change all the time and that cover a vast space, this installation emphasises the individual viewer’s sense of spatial environment and time in the experience of the present moment. Even though Eliasson created an illusion he was also interested in the idea of a gallery or museum space as an area where people expect to experience forms of mediation, such as posters, pamphlets, press reviews and text panels next to the artworks. He carefully chose the information that would be used to advertise the installation so that it would not influence or prejudice the viewers’ expectation of the artwork. Simple statements about the weather were used to advertise it instead of photographs of the work.

Olafur Eliasson. The Weather Project. 2003–2004. Tate Modern turbine hall.

It was also possible to go to see the mechanisms behind the installation, such as the substructure, the electrical wiring and mechanisms creating the mist. This is a subversive aspect of the installation that is a break with tradition as the illusion created by the artwork is exposed and the viewer needs to consider a further aspect of the experience of the surrounding reality. Poster used to advertise The Weather Project.


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Rear view of The Weather Project.

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Olafur Eliasson. Your mobile expectations: BMW H2R project. 2007. Eliasson was commissioned to create the 16th car for the BMW Art Car Project.Eliasson and his team replaced the car’s alloy body with a new interlocking framework of reflective steel bars and mesh. Layers of ice were created by spraying large amounts of water onto the structure. This work is displayed in a temprature controlled room as this ois a frozen sculpture that glows from within.

Olafur Eliasson. The New York City Waterfalls. 26 June 2008 – 13 October 2008. This public art project of four man-made waterfalls rising from New York was organized by the nonprofit Public Art Fund and the city of New York. At $ 15.5 million it was one of the most expensive public arts projects.


Read the following description of Cornelia Parker’s installation artwork Cold, Dark Matter: An Exploded View and answer the questions about it. Cornelia Parker asked the army to blow up her garden shed that contained objects collected by her and her friends over the years. The garden shed was firstly exhibited in its undamaged state and was then blown up under controlled conditions. After this destructive act all the fragments were collected and then suspended in a closed room. By doing this she attempted to recreate the moment just after the explosion. A single light bulb at the centre of the installation lit it up, casting dramatic shadows on the walls. The title, Cold, Dark Matter: An Exploded View, that Parker used for this installation is a scientific term for a substance that exists in the universe that remains mysterious and unquantifiable. Installation art is usually created for a specific space and depends on the presence of the spectator. The interaction of the objects and the space in which it is exhibited is used to evoke associations, feelings and thoughts.

Cornelia Parker’s garden shed on exhibition before it was exploded.

Cornelia Parker. Cold, Dark Matter: An Exploded View. 1991. Mixed Media


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The following questions could be aplied to any installation artwork and is a guideline on how to approach an installation artwork. Use Cornelia Parker’s Cold, Dark Matter: An Exploded View to practice answering the questions before visiting an art museum or gallery where you must use it to interpret the a local installation artwork. • • • • • • • • • • •

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What materials have been used by the artist? Can you see what it has been made from, and the processes involved? What has the artist done to the materials? How many parts is it made of? How do the materials affect its meaning or your response to it? How is the installation arranged? How does the installation use the space (light, sound, architecture, human interaction)? What is your relationship to it? How is our relationship to it affected by its presence in our space? How is it displayed? How does it make us feel about how we move in the space in relation to the installation?

Performance Art

• Performance art is live art presentations by artists and it is a way of bringing the formal and conceptual ideas about the making of art to life. • Performance art is related to theatre, but it is usually without a story or dramatic effect. It has no rules and is experimental. • The subject matter addressed in Performance art is related to Conceptual art that placed importance on the idea as art rather than the creation of an object. In Performance art, the ideas are demonstrated or executed. The nature of the performance can be esoteric, shamanistic, instructive, provocative or entertaining. • The performance artwork can be presented by the artist alone or in collaboration with other performers. The performer is usually the artist and not a character as in theatre.


Robert Morris. Site. 1965. Morris collaborated with Carol Schneeman. Dressed in white and wearing a rubber mask copied from his own face, he manipulated the volume of the space by shifting the boards into different positions. As he did so he revealed a naked woman reclining on a couch in the pose of Manet’s Olympia. Ignoring the figure and accompanied by the sound of a saw and a hammer working on planks, he arranged the panels, implying a relationship between the volumes of the static figure and that created by the movable boards.

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Yves Klein. Anthropometries. 9 March 1960.

• The performance artwork can include painting, sculpture, dialogue, poetry, dance, lighting, music and visuals made by the artist or in collaboration with other artists. • The performance artwork can be presented anywhere, depending on the kind of statement intended by the artist. This aspect has lead to the democratization of art. Art became something that can be accessible to everybody. It relates to the fact that a perfomance art piece is not for sale although the artist can sell admission tickets or film rights.

Yves Klein. Anthropometries. 9 March 1960. Klein dircted three nude models to cover themselves in blue paint and to press themselves against the prepared canvasses while twenty musicians played Henry’s Symphonie Monotone.

• The performance artwork can last for a few minutes to many hours and it can be performed only once or repeated several times. • As with Installation art the viewer can be included in the Performance artwork as part of it or simply by moving through it. • The work can be documented photographically or on video.

Rebecca Horn. Unicorn. 1971. Horn created a series of ‘models of interaction rituals’. In this performance a series of white straps laced across a naked female figure who wore the horn of a unicorn on her head. Dressed this way, the figure walked through a park in the early morning as though defying the viewer to ignore its beautiful presence.

WHO WAS BEUYS? Joseph Beuys (12 May 1921 – 23 January 1986). This influential German artist was born in Krefeld near the Dutch border. During his military duty as an aircraft radio operator and co-pilot, he was in a plane crash in the Crimea, Russia. According to him, nomadic Tartars rescued him by rubbing his whole body with animal fat and wrapping him in felt in order to warm and heal his body. Although this information has not been verified, the story and the symbolism associated with animal fat and felt has become an important part of Beuys’ artistic identity. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

278 After completing his military duty, Beuys enrolled as a sculpture student at the Düsseldorf Academy of Fine Arts where he graduated in 1952. Throughout his career, he promoted political reform to increase power for individuals, worked for world disarmament and the transformation of the education system. His unconventional definition of the practice of art included debate, discussion and teaching and he continually exchanged ideas in public on how art could play a wider role in society. He is known as a performance artist, sculptor, installation artist, art theorist and teacher of art.

“To be a teacher is my greatest work of art. The rest is the waste product, a demonstration. If you want to express yourself you must present something tangible. But after a while this has only the function of a historic document. Objects aren’t very important any more. I want to get to the origin of matter, to the thought behind it.” - Joseph Beuys

I Like America and America Likes Me is a performance piece that was performed by Beuys in May 1974. He flew to New York, landed at the Kennedy Airport, walked quickly through the terminal and while still inside the building, was wrapped in felt, put on a stretcher and hastily loaded into the waiting ambulance that sped off with him with sirens going as if there was a medical emergency. He was delivered to the René Block Gallery on East Broadway where he was carried in on the stretcher. He stood up inside the gallery when they arrived in the bare room where a coyote walked around in an enclosed area. Inside the enclosure Beuys regularly repeated the same actions using the props - felt blankets, a walking stick, gloves and a flashlight. Beuys wore a triangle pendant around his neck that he struck three times to start the sequence of his regular actions and to call himself, the coyote and the audience to order. After this a loud turbine noise, which signified an undefined energy, was played outside the enclosure. Beuys then put on his gloves, wrapped the felt blanket around him so that he disappeared inside it with a flashlight. Then he extended the crook of the staff from the opening at the top of the felt wrap that made it look like an antenna or lightning rod. While keeping his eyes on the coyote constantly he interacted with it in various ways over the course of three days. He would gather the large felt blanket around him and walk closer to the coyote. He used the walking stick to suggest the figure of a shepherd. Every day 50 new copies of the Wall Street Journal would be delivered and were scattered around the floor. The coyote behaved as a wild animal would, inspecting everything cautiously, biting and tugging at it and then marking its territory by urinating on it. Its behaviour shifted from being cautious, detached, and aggressive, to sometimes companionable during the time while it was confined in this room with Beuys. After three days Beuys left the enclosure, was wrapped in a felt blanket again, put onto a stretcher, taken to the waiting ambulance and rushed with sirens blaring, back to the airport. Here he boarded the airplane again and returned to Germany. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

This photograph features Beuys being loaded into the ambulance that transported him to the René Block Gallery.

Beuys wrapped in the felt blanket with the staff portruding from the opening at the top.

The coyote tugging at the felt blanket wrapped around Beuys.

279 The performance included many symbolic aspects and took on the form of a self-invented ritual. The fact that Beuys arrived and went to the area of the performance without interacting with any other part of America, while the name of the country features in the title, is significant. According to Beuys:”I wanted to isolate myself, insulate myself, see nothing of America other than the coyote…and exchange roles with it”. This relates to the idea that he is performing the role of a modern shaman who restricts himself from normal behaviour in order to complete the ritual successfully. The mode of transport and accompanying sirens points to the idea that the situation is a medical emergency, which also relates to the idea that the performance can be interpreted as a modernised version of a healing ritual. Joseph Beuys. Fat Chair. 1964-1985. This composite of two organic materials, animal fat and wood forms an openended metaphor for the human body, its impermanence and the tendencies of social life to conform to constructed convention. After the work was created in 1964, it was encased in a glass, temperature controlled display case. It underwent a slow natural process of decay until 1985, by which time the fat hat almost completely decomposed and virtually evaporated.

Joseph Beuys. How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare. 26 November 1965. Düsseldorf. With his head covered in honey and gold pigment, a steel sole tied to his right shoe and a felt sole tied to his left shoe, he spent three hours silently mouthing explanations of his picturesto a dead hare that he held in one arm. The work is concerned with the irrelevance of explanations in art and with opening communication with the non-rational world of the soul.

The idea of using a coyote as symbol for America relates to the fact that coyotes were symbolic of a powerful spiritual creature linking the physical and spiritual world of the Native American Indians. For them this hardy animal was a symbol of survival that taught them how to survive in diffcult times. The coyote is a link to the prehistory of people in America and is described as a transformer that can bring order to chaos and chaos to order. The Native American Indians also describe him as the enemy of boundaries. The characteristics of Culture Hero and Trickster can be found in similar figures in other traditional societies all over the world.

Joseph Beuys. The Pack. 1969. Volkswagen Bus (1961), 20 wooden sleigh, each equipped with fat, rolled-up felt blanket, rope, flashlight and leather belt. This work is autobiographical, with reference to the story about how he was rescued by the nomadic Tartars during World War II. The 20 sledges represents the idea of a pack of rescue dogs, each equipped with the essentials to save a life. The Volkswagen bus is useless in the face of a large calamity when more primitive means, in the form of the sleds and its survival packs, become the only way to survive. The sleds are therefore symbolically exiting the bus and not being towed by it.


280 When the European settlers invaded America, coyotes were seen as a pest in more than one sense. The symbolism that the Native American Indians attached to the coyote was perceived as a threat to the western form of law and order. The coyote threatened the breeding of live stock and was also a satanic symbol that threatened the Lamb within the Christian symbolism. Between 1921 and 1981 the American government exterminated over 3 million coyotes. The performance can be seen as a ritualistic conversation about the problematic issues surrounding the relationship between modern Western society and traditional prehistoric beliefs.

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The opposition of old and new also relates to the opposition of nature and culture, which is clearly noticeable in the performance. Beuys felt that the duality referred to through the symbolism of the coyote and himself, commented on the history of persecution of the American Indians as well as the relationship between the United States and Europe. A few people witnessed this performance, but as it was documented on film, it is possible to experience parts of the performance again. Beuys’s intention of social transformation through his actions is therefore more attainable through the influence of technology.


Read the following description of the performance by Coco Fusco and Guilermo Gomez Peña, Undiscovered Amerindians Visit the West and answer the questions about it. Fusco and Gomez-Peña conseptualised the performance, Undiscovered Amerindians Visit the West, in reaction to the widespread practice of human displays. They enclosed themselves in a ten by twelve foot golden cage dressed in outrageous costumes and preoccupied themselves with performing outlandish “native tasks”. In some of her performances, Fusco wore a grass skirt, leopard skin bra, baseball cap and sneakers. She also wore braided hair as sign on her status as a “native”. Gomez-Peña wore an Aztec-style breastplate and a leopard skin face wrestler’s mask. The idea of this performance was intended to be satirical, but at least half the viewers thought that the Amerindians were real. Coco Fusco described the idea for their performance as follow: “Our plan was to live in a golden cage for three days, presenting ourselves as undiscovered Amerindians from an island in the Gulf of Mexico that had somehow been overlooked by Europeans for five centuries. We


called our homeland Guatinau, and ourselves Guatinauis. We performed our “traditional tasks,” which ranged from sewing voodoo dolls and lifting weights to watching television and working on a laptop computer. A donation box in front of the cage indicated that, for a small fee [one dollar], I would dance (rap music), Guillermo would tell authentic Amerindian stories (in a nonsensical language), and we would pose for Polaroids with visitors. Two “zoo guards” would be on hand to speak to visitors (since we could not understand them), take us to the bathroom on leashes, and feed us sandwiches and fruit. At the Whitney Museum in New York we added sex to our spectacle, offering a peek at authentic Guatinaui male genitals for $5. A chronology with highlights from the history of exhibiting non-Western peoples was on one didactic panel and a simulated Encyclopedia Britannica entry with a fake map of the Gulf of Mexico showing our island was on another.”

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The performance by Coco Fusco and Guillermo Gomez-Peña of Two Undiscovered Amerindians Visit the west was first performed at Columbus Plaza, Madrid, Spain as part of the Edge ’92 Biennial. It was organised in commemoration of Columbus’ voyage to the New World. The first performance was in 1992 and after that, it travelled to various international venues over the world until 1994.

The characteristics of Performance art were used as a guideline to set the following questions. Analyse Fusco and Gomez-Peña’s performance piece by answering the questions. • Is the perfomance artwork a collaboration? Provide reasons for your answer. • Discuss in what ways the performance is different from traditional art. • Would you describe the performance as “experimental”? Why? • Make a list of all the objects that you can identitfy from the photographs that are part of this performance. • What did the artists do in this performance? • Where did the performances take place? Does it influence the message of the performance? Provide reasons for your answer. • How long do you think each performances lasted? • Is the viewer’s participation important to the performance? Provide reasons for your answer. • Is this performance a profitable commodity? Provide reasons for your answer. • What is the subject matter of this performance? Do the artists comment on any particular issues through it?


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Body Art

• Body art involves the human body as the medium of expression. The artist’s body is often, but not necessarily used. • The activities related to the practice of body art can be done in private because communication takes place through photography, film and text in order to document it. Most actions take place in public where there is a direct interaction between the viewer and the artist/performer. • The attempt to move away from the system of the commercialisation of art by making it part of daily life and so rendered it impossible to be sold as an object, remains an important aspect of body art. • Mutilation or pushing the body to its physical limits is an important method used to create a statement through body art. • The absence of the body is also used as a strategy in the practice of body art. • Body modification through implants or plastic surgery is another technique used by some artists to convey a message.

Bruce Nauman. Self Portrait as a Fountain. 1966-67. Colour Photograph. This documentation of Nauman’s performance spewing water could be a comment on Duchamp’s subversive work, ‘Fountain’. Nauman has subverted Duchamp’s work, as the artist is now not only the author, but also the artwork.


Marc Quinn. Self. 1991. Blood, stainless steel, perspex, refrigiration equipment. This frozen sculpture was created from 4.5 litres of the artist’s own blood taken from his body over a period of 5 months.

Dennis Oppenheim. Reading Position for Second Degree Burn. 1970. Book, skin, solar energy. Exposure time: 5 hours. Jones Beach, New York. Oppenheim was concerned with the idea of colour change, ‘a traditional painter’s concern’, but achieveD by the simplest means available – sun burning skin.

283 Chris Burden. Trans-fixed. 1974. The photographs documented the performance in which Burden’s body was stretched across the back of a Volkswagen and a friend drove nails through the palms of his hands, into the car. The car was then pushed out of the garage and onto the highway, where it obstructed traffic and where the engine was run at full speed for two minutes and after that it was put off and pushed back into the garage again. In this reference to the crucifixion of Christ Burden’s body became the sculptural material. He explored controversial issues while endangering his own body.

Orlan is a French performance artist who uses her body and plastic surgery to change it. She pushes the boudaries of beauty through these performances. By undergoing multiple cosmetic procedures since 1990, she moulded her face into her image of beauty. Instead of banishing cosmetic surgery, she embraces it; instead of rejecting the masculine, she incorporates it. The photo documentation of her performances provides the imagery and the finances for her work. According to Orlan:“My work is a fight against nature and the idea of God… the inexorability of life,DNA-based representation. And that’s why I went into cosmetic surgery; not looking to enhance or rejuvenate, but to create a total change of image and identity. I claim that I gave my body to art. The idea is to raise the issue of the body, its role in society and in future generations, via genetic engineering, to mentally prepare ourselves for this problem.” Keith Arnatt. Self-Burial (Television Interference Project). 1969. Nine photographs on board. In this work Arnatt displayed his fascination with works of art that are created in the natural landscape. This sequence of photographs were broadcast on German television in October 1969. Each photo was shown for about two seconds, sometimes interrupting a programme shown at peak viewing time. The displays of the photographs’ were not announced and viewers had to make what sense they could of it. Arnatt said of the documentation of his work: “The continual reference to the disappearance of the art object, suggested to me the eventual disappearance of the artist himself.”

Gilbert and George. Singing Sculpture. 1970. Photograph of performance. They covered their faces and hands with multicoloured metalised powders dressed in suits that became a kind of uniform for them. Standing together on a table, they danced and sang the Flanagan and Allen standard ‘Underneath the Arches’ – a song in which two tramps describe the pleasures of sleeping rough. The song is meaningful as it identifies with the fringes of society in prewar England while it was popularly performed as part of the vaudeville tradition. Gilbert & George were invited to present The Singing Sculpture all over the world, sometimes for eight hours at a stretch. After that they began to create films and pictures from their performance works that could reach a larger audience and did not requite them to be physically present.


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WHO IS ACCONCI? Vito Acconci (24 January 1940 - )Acconci was born in the Bronx, New York. After beginning his career as a writer and a poet who was concerned with the visual arrangement of words on a page rather than the meaning of the words, he started to make his first visual artworks by combining photographs with texts to document task-oriented activities. In these works, he began to realise the communication between body and camera, which would eventually be an essential aspect of his work. Between 1969 and 1974 he began to do performances that were conceptually well planned and seemed to be very simple in formal terms. In these performative body works, he confronted viewers directly, which made it very controversial and provocative. He commented on the psychology of the relationship between the body and public space, the transformative aspects of the body and the value of play. Characteristics In the 1970 piece Trademarks Acconci sat in front of the camera in a series of contorted poses and bit as many parts of his nude body as he could possibly reach. He described his motive through this act as follows: “to move into myself - move around myself - move in order to close a system.” His teeth left impressions on the skin of his arms, legs and shoulders. He then covered the bite marks with printing ink and made prints of them. These prints serve as a documentation of the body’s attack on itself. Acconci also intended this performance as criticism of the commercial practice of branding a product in order to trade with it, as done by social institutions of art and the economy. This performance was not done in front of an audience, but was documented photographically and through the prints created at the end of the performance. The photographs with accompanying text were published in the fall of 1972 issue of the Avalanche magazine. This method of communication by the artist changes the viewer’s experience of the performance act completely. The experience of viewing the photographs create a distance between the viewer and the performance act as time has passed, as it is being viewed afterwards. At the same time the viewer can look at the different stages of the performance at a closer range than what would have been possible at the actual performance. It becomes clear to the viewer that while looking at the photographs of this abject masochistic act, that the act of looking at it is now a part of the completion of this performance. The viewer has become an accomplice to the artist’s intention by looking at the work and reading about it. The work evokes conflicting sensations of present and past, closeness and distance, and attachment and alienation. Vito Acconci. Trademarks. 1970. Photo documentation and ink prints with written descriptions. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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5

Earth Art

• Earth art, Land art or Environmentalist art are artworks created in nature, actively using natural materials and sometimes also introducing manufactured materials. • Land art is a term that was predominantly used in the 60’s and 70’s and refers to large-scale, artwork made outdoors on the land, but not necessarily ecologically focussed. Land artforms are usually large scale environmental sculptures that use the natural environment both as a site and as the materials for the creation. The landscape is manipulated in many of these works. • Some earth or land artforms focus on the interaction of the environment and human activity. • The relationship between the artist and the environment is also a topic that is regularly explored. • Environmentalist art or Eco art is a broad term encompassing ecologically responsive artworks. • Earth artworks were created in opposition to the commodification of art and as a revolt against traditional painting and sculpture. This standpoint shows the influence of Conceptual art. • Earth artworks are usually in open spaces, but can also be exhibited inside a gallery. • When an earth artwork is created in an open space it is usually done as an interaction with that specific space and therefore the term ‘site-specific art’ is used to describe it. This aspect shows the influence of Minimalism as they emphasised the idea of interaction between the artwork and the surrounding space. • Many earth artworks are ephemeral and therefore it is documented photographically to show its creation, final product and process of deterioration.

Christo and Jeanne-Claude. Surrounded Islands. Biscayne Bay, Greater Miami, Florida, 1980-83, photograph 1983 by Wolfgang Volz. The first image is a planning drawing for the project. Using 6.5 million square feet of floating pink fabric, Christo and JeanneClaude encircled eleven islands in Miami’s Biscayne Bay, extending the perimeter of each island by 200 feet. An elaborate undertaking that involved legions of contractors, engineers, attorneys, and seamstresses, Surrounded Islands also required extensive consultation with marine biologists and ornithologists. Ultimately, the project benefited its surroundings: Christo and Jeanne-Claude’s crew removed forty tons of garbage from the uninhabited islands. Evoking hibiscus flowers and flamingos, the vibrant woven polypropylene fabric was sewn to correspond to the contours of each island. As the unfurling began on 4 May 1983, the islands themselves seemed to bloom. The artists and their crew of 430 surrounded the last island three days later. Remaining on view for two weeks, the work was visible to the public from the causeways, the land, the water, and the air.


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Nancy Holt. Sun Tunnels. 1976. It consists of four large concrete tubes, laid out in the desert in an open X configuration. The nine foot diameter, 18 foot long “tunnels” are pierced by holes of varying size, that correspond with the pattern of selected celestial constellations. There is a tunnel for Draco, Perseus, Columba and Capricorn. Andy Goldsworthy. Balanced Ice Column. 5 January 198 . Helbeck Crags, Cumbria.

Richard Long. Walking a Line in Peru. 1972. Photographic documentation of a line created with crushed grass when walking the distance. Long began his walking lines in the late 1960’s. It records a sense of human history or of direction. He has travelled in this space and he is referencing and even walking oon top of previous histories, dealing with the cultural history of walking.This piece is worked on top of the numerous line drawings made by the Nazca culture between 800 and 300 B.C.

Walter De Maria, The Lightning Field, 1977. Long-term installation in Western New Mexico. This earth artwork is situated in a remote area of the high desert of western New Mexico. The area is known for its electric storms. It is comprised of 400 polished stainless steel poles installed in a grid array measuring one mile by one kilometer. The poles -- two inches in diameter and averaging 20 feet and 7½ inches in height -- are spaced 220 feet apart and have solid pointed tips that define a horizontal plane. A sculpture to be walked in as well as viewed, The Lightning Field is intended to be experienced over an extended period and is only established when lightning hits the points of the poles. A union is created between man and nature.


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WHO WAS SMITHSON? Robert Smithson (2 January 1938 – 20 July 1973) Smithson was born in Passaic, New Jersey and studied painting and drawing at the Art Students League of New York. His early works were paintings that showed the influences of Pop Art, but he developed as a supporter of Minimalism as he started using glass sheets and neon lighting to investigate visual refraction and mirroring in his art works. He also showed an interest in applying mathematical impersonality to art by writing about it.

Sign showing the way to Spiral Jetty.

Spiral Jetty is a monumental earthwork sculpture that was constructed in April 1970 within 6 days. This work represents a dialogue between the artist and the natural world and is situated in the Great Salt Lake of Utah. Smithson was attracted to the site because of the stark beauty of the landscape and industrial remnants, such as an old pier and discarded oilrig in the area. He also chose the Rozel Point site because of the blood red colour of the water that connects with the idea of a primordial sea. The reason for the red hue of the water is the presence of salt tolerant bacteria and algae. A construction company was hired to execute the artist’s instructions. They used two dump trucks, a large tractor and a front-end loader to haul the 6 550 tons of rock and earth into the lake. Black basalt rocks from the site and earth were used to form the 460 m long coil that stretches couter clockwise into the transluscent red water. The jetty is 4.6m in width and therefore invites interaction as people can easily walk on it. The work is affected by natural elements and is therefore not consistently visible due to the varying water level and because it is being eroded. It is only visible when the water level falls below 1,279.5 m. In 1976, the water level rose and submerged it and except for a brief period in the 1990’s it only re-emerged recently. Nature dominates human activity. The spiral structure is magnificent in terms of its size and location, but it goes nowhere. It evokes

Robert Smithson. Spiral Jetty. 1970. Long term installation in Rozel Point, Box Elder County, Utah.

the feeling of the human existential situation within the universe as frail creatures on a planet that luckily still supports them. The work is extremely big and not social at all. People going to look at it at the site will feel small and alone within the remote and desolate landscape. Smithson was also inspired by a variety of ideas such as the molecular structure of salt in the creation of Spiral Jetty. He forsaw that the remoteness of the work would keep visitors to Aerial view of Spiral Jetty showing a part of the coastline. a minimum and therefore made a 30-minute film to document the work for exhibition purposes. The construction of the artwork was financed by a grant from the Dwan Gallery. Smithson acquired a 20 year lease for the site at a $100 per year. Since June 2011 the work controversially became the property of the State of Utah. In his later writings, he investigated 18th and 19th century ideas about landscape architecture that clearly influenced his earthwork explorations. He also wrote about his fascination with the sight of dumptrucks excavating tons of earth in industrial areas around New Jersey. This inspired him to create a series of ‘non-sites’ in which earth and rocks collected from a specific area were installed at a gallery as sculptures.


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6

Video and Digital Art

Characteristics • Video art relies on moving pictures and consists of video and / or audio data. This artform makes use of the apparatuses and processes of television and video. • Digital technology such as computers, compact discs, DVD’s, the World Wide Web, mobile phones and a large variety of digital cameras, monitors and projectors are used as part of the creative and presentation processes of works described as digital art. Digital art has also been described as computer art and multimedia art. • As with the other artforms related to conceptual art, video art and digital art address an infinite range of subject matter. The effects of new technology on society as a whole have increasingly become an important topic questioned by video and digital artworks while using the latest technology. These artforms are accessible all over the world and therefore the complex diversity of identities are constantly being emphasised through it. • The idea of representation as experienced in traditional artforms such as painting, drawing and sculpture has changed drastically because of the ways in which video and digital art are being implimented. The passing of time and placement of visual reality already changed through the development of photography. Now the presentation of multiple viewpoints, the juxtapositioning of images, the simulation of virtual realities, the inclusion of sound and the use of interactivity in artworks, have transformed the creative process and the reception of these artworks. • Video and digital art, like the various artforms related to conceptual art; focus on art as a form of communication rather than art as a unique exhibitable and commodified object. The possibilities of endless reproduction of video and digital artworks, as with photographs, contribute to this movement away from the glorified unique art object.


Bill Viola. Nantes Triptych. 1992. Video and mixed media. 29 minutes, 46 seconds installation. In this work Viola uses the triptych, ususally associated with religious paintings.The three panels showfootage of birth on the left and death on the right and a representation of his interpretation of a metaphysical journey represented by a body floating in water. The footage that he used in this installation was not originally shot for the project. Viola sees the making of this work as part of the healing process that he experiences through the making of his art.

289 • The potential to broadcast video and digital art over long distances provide these artforms with an aspect of accessibility for viewers to experience the original artwork that cannot be achieved with traditional art. • The interactive capabilities of video and digital artworks have changed the role of the artist as he/she is not the only creator of the work anymore. The viewer can be allowed to participate in manipulating and changing the artwork that has an effect on the development of meaning. The artist’s role is now similar to a systems designer. • The distance between the artist and the artwork as a technologically produced product, the possible endless reproduction of video and digital art, possibilities of intervention through interactive artworks and the exposure to large amounts of images and signs created through mass media created new questions within modern society about these artforms. People’s perception of reality, time and space, personal and social memory, their use of language, behaviour and beliefs are influenced by new technology. There is no longer an authentic message because of all the possibilities created by technology. The question “What is art?” is posed again as it has been every time a new form of art developed.

Bruce Nauman. Live Taped Video Corridor. 1970. In this closed circuit-video installation Nauman set two monitors above onE another at the end of the corridor of ten meters long and 50cm wide. The lower monitor features a video tape of the corridor and the upper monitor is a closedcircuit tape recording of the entrance to the corridor. On entering the corridor and approaching the monitors you quickly move into the area that is surveyed by the camera, but the closer you get to the monitors, the further you are from the camera. The result is that your image becomes increasingly smaller and you see yourself from behind. A feeling of disorientation is created as you are walking away from yourself, and this is heightened through the claustrophobic narrow corridor. The person entering the corridor takes on the role of someone monitoring their own activities.

Eduardo Kac. Genesis. 1999. Transgenic Internet Installation. This work explores the intricate relationship between biology, belief systems, information technology, dialogical interaction, ethics and the internet. Kac created an artificial “artist’s gene” by translating Genesis 1:26 from the bible into Morse code and converting the code into the base pairs of genetics. He then obtained this gene from a laboratorium that produces synthetic genetic sequences on demand and put this unspecified bacterium into a petri dish that was placed under an ultraviolet light that could be activated by online viewers who could see it by webcam. The activation of the light would cause the mutation of the bacterium. Viewers are faced with the question of taking control over nature or not. This project has become an examination of the relationship between infromation technology and biotechnology, resulting from a life form which was based on language and code. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Glossary

Transgenic describes the technique of transferring genetic material from one organism into the DNA of another.

WHO WAS PAIK? Nam June Paik (20 July 1932 – 29 January 2006) The Korean born American artist left Korea with his family when the Korean War broke out. After graduating in philosophy, art history and music history at the University of Tokyo he left for Germany where he developed his interest in electronic music. He met the composer John Cage, who introduced him to the ideas of the Dadaïsts and specifically, Marcel Duchamp. He encouraged him to pursue his interest in the combination of art, music and technology. He integrated these media with performance art and installation art. In 1964 he moved to New York where he continued his experimental approach. His training in music and performance influenced his approach to TV and video as artistic applications. Both music and the performance of it are time-based and he was aware of this and made use of elements such as improvisation and risk. He also partnered with designers, engineers, laser expert Norman Ballard and sound artist Stephen Vitiello, along with many others in his quest for new forms. Concerto for TV Cello and Video Tape is one of several objects designed by Paik to be used by the avant-garde cellist Charllotte Moorman. A bridge, tailpiece and the strings of a cello were attached to three television monitors that were housed in clear boxes to show their inner workings. In this work the three televisions displayed images. The one displayed a direct feed of the immediate performance, in another a video collage of other cellists and the third an intercepted broadcast television feed. Moorman played the two-stringed cello with a regulation bow producing electronic sounds and thereby transforming the television into a musical intrument. The sounds were not traditional cello sounds, but as Moorman described it “TV cello sounds”. In this performance artwork the merging of technology and the human musician was a significant statement. Paik stated that he was interested in using technology in a way that defies the idea of it. His association with the Fluxus group, who created Neo-Dada works, also underlines the approach of questioning all borders. The use of the latest technology in this combination of performance, assemblage and video art is a tactic used to subvert the importance attached to the modern mass culture icon, the television. The experimental sound aspect takes it in another direction. The cello is associated


Nam June Paik in collaboration with Charlotte Moorman. Concerto for TV Cello and Video Tape. 1971. Performance piece.

291 with classical music, while in this work it is modified into a new kind of intrument that produces sounds that are electronic and completely alien to the regular classical music supporter. The use of two live feeds in the video works provides the aspect of time that can be experienced as a loop and therefore the technological aspect is turning in on itself. On the one TV monitor, the viewers saw closed circuit footage, the event that is happening in front of them is recorded on camera and transmitted to the TV immediately. In the other TV monitor the display of broadcast television refers to the infiltration of art by mass media and shows something that is happening somewhere else, but also at that same instance. In the video collage, the reference is to the traditional playing of celloes. This video was not live like the other two.

7.4


MORE CONTEMPORARY ARTISTS USING TEXT IN THEIR ARTWORKS

Jenny Holzer. Private Property Created Crime 1985. Electronic LED sign on building at Times Square, New York.

Jenny Holzer. Abuse of Power Comes as No Surprise. 1984.Photograph of Ladypink wearing the t-shirt. Silkscreen print on t-shirt.

Jenny Holzer uses the strategies of mass media and advertising in her work. Her early works were derived from a series of about 300 sayings or slogans, created by her, that played on commonly held truths and clichés. She printed them onto t-shirts, stickers and posters. Through it she often contradicted and challenged commonly held opinions. Since 1982 she began to use electronic displays thereby reaching an even larger audience. Her intention is to counter common assumptions that people are ‘fed’ daily through mass media. Her works often address issues of violence, oppression, sexuality, feminism, power, war and death.

Barbara Kruger. Untitled (I Shop Therefore I Am). 1987. Photographic silkscreen on vinyl.

Barbara Kruger. Untitled (Questions). 1991. Photographic silkscreen on vinyl.

Barbara Kruger began her career as a graphic designer and photographic editor. This commercial background evidently influenced her art. By combining found images and politicized text, she created a signature style that looks like propaganda, but subverts and questions the dominant culture. Her work deals with issues of feminism, consumerism and power. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Tracey Emin. Everyone I Have Ever Slept With 1963-1995. 1995. Tent with applique.

Tracey Emin. It was just a kiss. 2011. Neon tubing.

The effect of Tracey Emin’s works are frequently shocking as she reveals intimate details of her personal life. Emin’s confessional art explores universal emotions, therefore her ability to integrate her work and personal life is meaningful. Her insecurity and imperfections are part of a personal narrative that she tells through a variety of media and formats. Choose one artwork of each of the three artists to discuss. Use the following questions as guidelines in your discussion of each artwork. • Describe the appearance of the artwork: consider the letter types, medium, colour or lack of colour. • What meaning is the artist trying to convey through the artwork? Explain the statements. • What is the emotional intention of the style of the letter type? • Can you see where the artwork is exhibited? Would there be a difference between exhibiting the artwork in a gallery or in public – the street or shopping malls? • Is the artwork like an advertisement? Provide a reason for your answer. • Do you think the artist appropriated the text or statements? Why do you think so? • Why and how does the artist’s use of text add meaning to the artwork? • How does it differ from traditional artworks?


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7

Relating South African art to New Media art

Kendell Geers

“I speak of my work as interventions rather than as works of art, as pieces...a piece being a gun, a weapon.” - Kendell

Kendell Geers is a confrontational artist who uses all the means at his disposal to provoke a response from people and he is successful at it. He has responded to the circumstances around him from a young Greers age. In 1988 he was one of a group of men who made a public statement by refusing to serve in the South African Defence Force as was required from all young white men during the war waged against liberation forces by the apartheid regime. In 1989 he went into exile from South Africa by going to live in the United Kingdom for a brief period and then in the United States, where he worked as an assistant to the artist Richard Prince. On his return to South Africa in 1990 he worked as an artist, curator and art critic. One of his first controversial performances when he returned was entitled Bloody Hell. He documented the perfomance photographically as it was not performed in public. He used his own blood to ritually wash himself of his ‘sins’, his “White Afrikaner Boer body’. The photographs show him with a shorn head at various stages of being covered in blood. This performance made a meaningful statement at a time when the latest messages from South Africa to the rest of the world was the beginning of a new identity and portrayed the ‘rainbow nation’. South Africa would become the leader of the ‘African Renaissance’ on the African continent. Geers is currently a practicing artist in Brussels, Belgium. He continues to use a combination of information from the directory of art history, film, literature, religion, the media and language in installations, videos and performances that challenge the art establishment.

Kendell Geers. Bloody Hell. 1990. Documentation of performance.

The installation Hanging Piece was originally created in 1993, the same year that communist leader Chris Hani was murdered in front of his home while members of the ANC brutally murdered members of the IFP in Kwazulu Natal. According to Geers he created this work as a response to the violent South African context where the realization of peace was in the balance. 1993 was a year of transition as the country was on the verge of electing a democratic government. The work consists of a series of bricks suspended from wire mesh by pieces of red rope. The bricks alluded to the situation in South Africa where it was used as the most basic and availible missile to perpetrate indiscriminate acts of violence out of frustration in the extreme circumstances imposed by the illegal apartheid regime.

Kendell Geers. Hanging Piece. 1993 / 2011 Installation. Metal grid, red rope, red clay bricks.


294 Within the context of art history the installation reminds one of Carl Andre’s Minimalist installations where bricks were used to make the viewer aware of the experience of the most basic art elements such as shape, space, composition and the medium. In comparison Geers’ work is the opposite in terms of composition and the experience of three-dimensional space. Viewers can move through the installation, walking past the hanging bricks. It is this close proximity of the fragile human head to the heavy bricks hanging stagnantly which blatantly contrasts with the violent context within which Geers created the work.

Bricks had already appeared in Geers’ work since 1988. In a performance piece, he threw a brick through the window of a gallery where he was to exhibit. The broken window, shattered glass, and slightly damaged brick were the resulting exhibit, entitled Title Witheld (Brick). Bricks became a political symbol and cultural weapon that threatened to disturb the peace for apathetic white South Africans who, like Geers’ family, just wanted to go about their daily lives undisturbed. They would have their yearly summer holiday at the coast where they would be protected from any law breaking by the “Whites Only” signs and profusion of police deployed to protect them.

Kendell Geers. Title Witheld (Brick). 1998. Performance / Installation.

Man walking through the installation Hanging Piece at the Basel Art Fair 2011.


The installation Hanging Piece was recently exhibited again. Even though it is many years into the legally elected democratic dispensation, the history of its context remains relevant to South Africans, but to Geers the idea behind it has culminated into a more global statement. As an object made of clay, bricks refer to the most basic part of the ‘earth’ and the substance that all people were created from according to the bible. A significant effect of the experience of this installation is that a viewer walking through it could cause some of the suspended bricks to start swinging by bumping into them, which would then impact on other nearby people by hitting them. This ripple effect applies to another contentious current issue, namely, our attitude towards the state of the planet earth that is under pressure to change after years of exploitative habits.

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Kendall Geers. Twilight of the Idols (Buddha). 2002. Installation. Sculture of Buddha wrapped in chevron tape.

Kendall Geers. Rack. Installation. Metal and beer bottles.

Kendeel Geers. Present Tense.2003. Installation with digital clock in the Hagia Sophia, Turkey.

Berni Searle Berni Searle is a Cape Town artist who trained and lectured as a sculptor. She created sculptures executed in concrete, bronze, resin and other mixed media. Her move away from traditional sculpture was inspired by the theme of the 2nd Johannesburg Biennale, Trade Routes: History and Geography. One of the Biennale exhibitions was staged in the Cape Town Castle and was entitled Life’s Little Necessities. Searle created an installation entitled Com-fort as part of this exhibition. She created a replica of the shape of the Castle, a pentagon, on an old kitchen floor in the Castle, by pouring out a thick layer of paprika. Objects associated with a home were embedded into resin blocks and placed on the five points of the pentagon. This installation made reference to colonisation, the Castle as a symbol of power, the spices and slaves who were commodities for the Europeans, who created this halfway station in the Cape and the link between the East Indies and Europe because of the trade.

Berni Searle. Com-fort. 1997. Installation in Castle as part of exhibition entitled Life’s Little Necessities. Paprika and objects in resin.

The slaves who were dropped off in the Cape to work in the Company’s gardens to produce fresh food for the passing ships that landed at the halfway station are an integral part of all South African’s heritage. Brought here by white colonists, the interbreeding with local inhabitants and slaves from other parts of Africa had the result of a ‘mixed race’ of people, classified as ‘coloured’. Searle was only beginning to unravel and explore her connections with the colonial history of South Africa.


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Berni Searle. Untitled (From the Colour Me series). 1998. Colour photograph.

In a series of photographic works, entitled Colour Me that were exhibited as installations in various formats. Searle began to explore the topics of race, heritage, memory and identity in a more personal direction. The photographer Jean Brundit was commissioned to record Searle’s private performances. Searle lay down on her back; her body prostrate, and was then covered with a layer of spice. Bright yellow turmeric, blood red paprika, brown cloves and white pea flour were used alternately in this process. The photographs are close-ups of her face showing the colour and texture of the spices in contrast with her hair, skin, ears and eyes. The photographs were deliberately taken to create a specific impression and were not simply a series of documentations of Searle’s experience of being covered in a variety of spices. The photographs are seductive and brightly coloured and seem like glamorous fashion photographs. At closer inspection one notices that the layer of spice uncomfortably covers Searle’s mouth and is very close to her nose, which inhibits breathing properly. The layer of spice becomes like a mask, obscuring the artist’s true identity. Her eyes are open in all the photographs. The position of her head and eyes change significantly in each photograph. The photographs with the brown cloves and the red paprika show her with her eyes turned directly towards the viewer in what seems to be a challenging or accusing stare. In the photograph with the white pea flour she lay looking ahead of her. She seems to be cut off from what is happening around her, which creates the feeling of vulnerability. This feeling of defencelessness is also visible in the photograph with the yellow turmeric, where she looks indirectly at the vicinity where the photographer and therefore the VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Berni Searle. Untitled (From the Colour Me series). 1998. Colour photograph.

viewer would be. A part of her shoulder and naked breast is exposed in this photograph which emphasises the effect of vulnerability further. In this series it seems as if Searle presented herself to be inspected or observed, as if in a laboratory where a specimen or corpse is placed under the spotlight for dissection or identification. This effect is reinforced in one of the versions of the Colour Me photographic installations, titled Red, Yellow, Brown. The images are full length photographs of her face and body. She also incorporated boxes of the spices underneath the photograph. With that she included photographic colour test charts that are slightly out of focus and could not be used properly due to the weak technical quality. The viewer is presented with a variety of interpretations about the idea of colour and the process of colour classification through the inclusion of the actual spices and the colour charts.

297 The title of the series Colour Me is crucial to the interpretation of Searle’s performances and installations in this series. The most basic of racial stereotyping is evoked through the comparative use of the four colours of spices next to Searle’s skin. By stating ”Colour Me” she is questioning and challenging the viewer’s concept of race and skin colour. The continual use of her own body in other works such as Discoloured, Colour Matters, A Darker Shade of Light, OffWhite and Snow White, is a testimony of the fact that these works represent a very personal process of dealing with the experiences of living in South Africa as a woman who, because of the historic discriminatory practices of racial classification is not described as white or black and how Searle continued this process of interrogation of racial categories, classification through colour and her personal heritage.

Berni Searle. Brown (Colour Me series). 1998. Colour photograph.

Berni Searle. Snow White. 2001. Double video installation in sync. Scale of projection: approx 300 x 400cm DVD format. In the video of the performance Searle kneels naked in the darkened space. Searle is alternately dusted with white flour and showered with water. At first she sits still, accepting the white flour falling onto her in gusts. Once the water has started to drizzle she begins to collect the flour and the she starts kneading it. Her position seems to be one of resignation into the subservient role that she has to play. The reference to colour in the title evokes a variety of associations. As a woman who was classified as ‘coloured’ in apartheid South Africa, she is being made more visible because of the white flour contrasting with the dark background, but at the same time her identity becomes invisible as the flour obscures her features.


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STRIJDOM VAN DER MERWE Strijdom van der Merwe is a South African land artist. He grew up on a farm near Johannesburg and achieved his Fine Arts degree at the University of Stellenbosch. He furthered his studies in Holland. His materials are provided by the chosen site. His works are a process involving natural materials and conditions which are organized according to his creative ideas. His work often involves geometric shapes which represent the coming together of nature and man’s intelligence. He observes the fragility of the beauty of nature and acknowledges the ceaseless cycle of life and death.

Strijdom van der MERWE oaks in dorpstreet: 30 days in july 2008.

Strijdom van der MERWE untitled beach series 1992


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The issue of identity is a very important concern in both contemporary international and South African art. Identity reflects on the individuality, the uniqueness and the characteristics of the self and/or of a ‘group’. The ‘group’ could be an informal bonding of people sharing the same interests and concerns, and/or be based on heritage, language, nationality, etc.

“My exploration through my art of the relationship between myself and nature has been a clear result of my having been torn from my homeland during my adolescence. The making of my silueta in nature keeps the transition between my homeland and my new home. It is a way of reclaiming my roots and becoming one with nature. Although the culture in which I live is part of me, my roots and cultural identity are a result of my Cuban heritage” – Ana Mendieta. Ana Mendieta (1948 – 1985) was sent from her native Cuba to an orphanage in America at the age of 12. This was a traumatic experience and influenced her art making. Ana Mendieta, From the Silueta-series, 1973 – 1977.

In her Silueta series (begun in 1973), she carved and shaped her own figure into the earth to leave haunting traces of her body fashioned from flowers, mud, tree branches and other natural materials. These were private sculptural performances that she documented in photos. For her these interactions with art and nature were a way to deal with displacement from her homeland. In these works she explored and connected with the earth and recalls the pre-historic earth goddesses. She therefore also comments on the position of the female. Important in these works are her posture. For example with arms held overhead she represents the merger of earth and sky. With her arms raised and legs together she signifies a wandering soul. In these ‘earth-body’ sculptures, Mendieta combines body art, performance, land art, video art and photography. Ana Mendieta, From the Silueta-series, 1973 – 1977. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Start with your SOURCE BOOK • Make a comprehensive mind map on identity. Explore ideas relating to yourself and the groups you form part of such as a family, a school or a sub-group such as a skateboarder. Also investigate ideas relating to your gender, heritage, language, culture and nationality. • Narrow your ideas to find one that is refreshing and innovative. Stay away from clichéd and stereotypical ideas. Write down your idea and make some drawings of how you can express this idea. THE FOLLOWING IDEAS CAN HELP YOU TO CONCEPTUALISE AND MAKE THIS ARTWORK. YOU MAY COMBINE OPTIONS OR ONLY INVESTIGATE ONE. YOUR TEACHER WILL GUIDE THIS PROCESS AND MAY GIVE ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS. • As you have just studied this chapter on how artists have expanded ideas about art by using different forms and new media, consider using any of the following:

Installation

Land Art

Performance Art

Body art

Digital Art

• Write down your proposal and combine it with working drawings. Remember that you must execute this work. Be realistic regarding the scale, media and ensure that it would not be harmful in any way. Execute your idea and document it with video or photographs. Do research on at least two artists that have inspired you by discussing specific artworks by them. This could be the final artwork or may be used as the basis for a more traditional artwork, e.g. a painting. • As you have seen in this chapter, many contemporary artists use interesting media/materials and techniques to construct their artworks. See if you can find any ‘new material’ to explore. Try to find something that relates to your specific ideas. For example if you focus on your family identity, teabags could be a suitable material. The following are some examples:

Sand Oil Flour Mud Tar

Polish

Wax Thread Tea Stains Ash Old books Do some investigations of your chosen material. Can you use it on its own or must you combine it with glue or paint to make it permanent? The following list gives some ideas about the use of materials. Explore some of them. Obviously you can use thread for sewing and cutting on old books.

Sewing

Tearing

Rubbing

Layering

Blurring

Fading

Staining

Casting

Cutting

Burning


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Paste all your investigations in your source book. Plan your final artwork on identity in sketches with notes on your ‘new’ media and techniques. You can use it in combination with other more traditional materials.

THE BRIEF Your brief is to make an artwork or a series of artworks on the theme of identity. Your art teacher will guide you in this process and may give you further instructions regarding the media, size, technique, etc. Complete your artwork under the guidance of your art teacher.

Learners used a variety of media and techniques to create these works.

• After you have finished this task, you must reflect in writing on this whole process.


302 The following shows how a learner has explored the idea of identity in teenagers. They are unsure of their role in society. The performance with the animal masks was carefully documented in a series of photos. The photos were used as a basis for the two paintings at the bottom.


303 See how the learners in the following works have reflected on identity.

Do you think the plastic curtain and washing machine parts in the installation on the right enhance the art work by this learner or not?


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CHAPTER

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The Art World CONTENTS What is the Art World? Artworks • What is Art? • Fine Art, Design and Craft • Fine Art, Popular Art and New Media • Appropriation in Art The Artist • What does an artist do? • What is the role of the artist in society? • What kind of training or education must you have to be an artist? Exhibitions • Visiting an Art Museum / Gallery • The Curator • Biennales and Art Fairs How is the price of an artwork decided? Art Auctions Why do people collect art? The Role of the Print Media and the Internet in the Art World


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What is the Art World? How does it function?

Where is the art world? Who is part of the art world? Mark Tansey. The Innocent Eye Test. 1981. Oil on canvas

A simple definition of the art world is impossible. It consists of a complex network of relationships between people for whom ‘works of art’ are the central focus. The following phrases and terminology are part of the extensive definition of the art world.

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Discuss your understanding of the art world in class and use the phrases and terminology as a guideline to create a mindmap about it.


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People that have to do with Art:

An artist’s representation of the timeline of art history


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Explain what the following people do in the art world: • Art restorer • Curator • Donor • Art Collector • Reviewer / Critic The primary elements of the art world are THE ARTWORKS, THE ARTISTS, EXHIBITIONS and THE VIEWERS. Around these elements, there is a vast range of factors that influence each other.

2

Artworks

A difficult question that is regularly posed concerning artworks is WHAT IS ART? Answers to this question cannot be pinpointed to one definition. Art has always been a human activity that occurred since time immemorial in all cultures. The concept ‘art’ did not always exist in all cultures, but objects – that are now classified as art – were an important part of the functioning society. Artworks are the primary sources for interpreting a large range of information surrounding the artist. The following questions can be used as a basic guideline to contextualize the artwork and the artist, thereby establishing their places within the art world. By answering these questions on a variety of artworks one can also get a more informed answer to the question WHAT IS ART? What is it?

Who created it?

For whom was it created?

Where is it?

What materials were used?

How did it come to be here?

What condition is it in?

When was it brought here?

Is it the only one of its kind?

What is the subject matter?

What does it mean?

How is it presented?

ARTWORK

Who acquired it?

Why was it acquired?

How much did it cost?

(applicable to some older artworks) Who viewed it at the time?

What did it mean at the time it was created?

Who views it now?

Through the study of art, artworks are classified in various categories that have an effect on conclusions made. The following general classifications are included to guide you in distinguishing between various intentions and functions of art works within the broader view of THE ART WORLD.


309 Look at the following examples of FINE ART, DESIGN and CRAFT. What are the differences between the three art forms?

Vermeer. The Milkmaid. 1657-8. Oil on Canvas

8.3

Upholstered Eames chairs

Clay pot


Consider the following when you identify and discuss the differences between fine art, craft and design. • Of what is it made? • How was it made? • Who made it? • For what is it used? Since the 19th century, the art world has changed a lot. Artists started to develop a different role in society. Through the further development of technology and the implications of social changes like industrialisation, the appearance of art has changed tremendously. The full range of cultural needs of different groups of people was, and is, catered for in the 20th and 21st centuries. Look at the following examples of FINE/HIGH ART, POPULAR ART, and KITSCH.

Michelangelo. The Creation of Adam. 1511. fresco

Advertisement for the animated film Spiderman.

Ceramic sculpture of cupid on pushbike accompanied by little dog.

Discuss the differences between the three examples by referring to the following aspects: • Describe what has been represented in each one of the three works. • Are there differences in the application of formal aspects when you compare the examples? Discuss it and provide reasons for your observations. • What is your definition of the terms FINE / HIGH ART, POPULAR ART and KITSCH? • Apply the definitions to the 3 images. • Find 2 more images that you would classify as part of each of these terms. Discuss the reasons for your choices. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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Traditional Media and New Media Painting, drawing, printmaking and sculpture are traditional media and are probably ‘easier’ to understand and evaluate than new media. The art world was changed completely with the invention of photography in the 1840’s. One of the primary functions of art, documenting events and figures, was taken over by photography. At that stage photography was seen as a medium that could not be regarded as Art due to the instantaneous process that primarily involves a mechanical process as well as the possibility of endless reproductions. Art began to move away from realistic documentation and society. Artists concentrated on investigating the concept of art itself as a topic. Out of this developed the term art-for-art’s sake. The debate on whether photography is art or not continued for a large part of the 20th century and ended in the 1970’s when Conceptual Art created art that did not consist of an art object and photos were used to document the process. Today there are many artists who use photography as a medium.

8.4


• How do artists who use photography as a medium differ from commercial photographers? • Make a list of 3 artworks in which new media were used. How does the medium contribute to the artwork? • Would it be possible to make the same statements in the examples you provided, by using traditional media? Explain your answer.

Man Ray. Noire et Blanche. 1926. Photograph.


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Appropriation in Art Many artists make use of appropriation by using the work of others in a new context such as in a collage. Although this has been done by many artists it has recently lead to interesting court cases as the issue of plagiarism is involved when someone else’s work is used as your own. The following two examples demonstrate the decisions of American courts concerning the difference between simply copying someone else’s work and re-working it to make an original statement.

Annie Leibovitz’s cover photograph of Demi Moore was used as a source for the movie poster for Naked Gun. The court found that it was not an abuse of the original photo, but a parody of it. In another lawsuit, the artist Jeff Koons was not so lucky. His painted wood sculpture, A String of Puppies was based on a photograph by professional photographer, Art Rogers. Although he changed the media, the court ruled that his version was too close to the original source and not a parody. Koons had to pay a fine.


312 There are many artists, like Koons, who have made use of appropriation as a technique through which they comment on the scene portrayed or the nature of art. Some of the earliest examples are the following works.

Marcantonio Raimondi. Judgement of Paris. 1515. Engraving after a drawing by Raphael of the same title.

Manet. Luncheon on the Grass. 1862-3. Oil. Raimondi’’s engraving was the source of inspiration for this work.

Picasso. Luncheon on the Grass. 1961. Oil. Picasso made a couple of versions of this painting.

Alain Jacquet. Luncheon on the Grass. 1964. Silkscreen print on canvas.

More artists who made use of appropriation are Braque, Duchamp, Dali, Rauschenberg, Warhol, Lichtenstein, Richard Prince, Barbara Kruger and more.

8.5


Look at as many of the artists’ works as possible. Discuss the issue of APPROPRIATION in class. • • •

When is appropriation acceptable? When is it unacceptable? Provide reasons for your answer. Do you think the judgements in the two cases stated above were fair? Why do you think so?


313

3 The Artist What does an artist do? Artists express themselves through art language such as line, colour, shape and composition so that others can share in it. An artist expresses their ideas, emotions, visual experiences and thoughts in a physical form. What is the role of the artist in society? The answers to the above questions have changed through time as the definition and role of art has changed. From Prehistoric rock art, Egyptian art, Renaissance art to Contemporary art there have been radical changes. The changes from prehistoric times are associated with the initial importance of rituals linked to spiritual belief. The production of artworks was increasingly influenced by economic factors in society. The emergence of a philosophical attitude concerning images since the Renaissance has resulted in contemporary approaches in which the artist is seen as a researcher of the world. The artist is expected to air opinions about the state of affairs through a critical attitude. Artists reflect the culturally diverse society and therefore present an endless variety of individual responses. The role of an artist is linked to humanity and therefore seen as a position of engaging with society rather than rejecting it. Artists make people aware of what is within and around them. They challenge, disturb, shock and inspire people. By looking at an artwork viewers’ sense of aesthetics and own creativity of ideas are broadened. What kind of training or education must you have to be an artist? Not all artists are trained and are referred to as self-trained artists. To become a professional artist it is preferable to have some form of tertiary education from a university or an appropriate tertiary college. In chapter one you read about the successful artists Durant Sihlali and Dumile Feni who did not receive formal training. Penny Siopis is an example of a South African who did receive formal training. Penny Siopis is a successful South African artist who has developed through various periods in which she has expressed her investigations of biography and history in a personal way employing a variety of mediums. In her early work she created large banquet oil paintings with vibrant colours. As she became engrossed in her “history” paintings of the 1980’s she added collage. Later she used found objects in assemblages. She stated, “Long I have been intrigued with the idea of an object as narrator.” In the 1990’s she extended her range of media to include monumental installations, film and video. She is particularly interested in biography and autobiography in narrating aspects of memory and change in South African history. She has become an analyst of race and gender issues. Her work becomes a “human tableau” that engages with uncomfortable conversations about emotional, sexual and physical abuse. Examples of two of her works are “Sympathetic Magic” and “Slings and Arrows”. In order to make a decision about where to study after school you have to decide on the direction in which you are interested. It is therefore necessary to understand the terminology that is used to describe the various directions that can be followed. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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What is the direction within the broad framework of Art that you would like to follow? Choose the directions from the following list: VISUAL ART Drawing Painting Sculpture Photography Printmaking New Media (Digital Imaging and Multimedia) DESIGN Graphic Design / Visual Communication Illustration Book Art Jewellery Design Surface Design (Textiles) Industrial Design Fashion Design

8.6

Wiliam Wegman. Fay Ray. 1988. Silver-gelatin print.


Choose a tertiary institution about which to do the following research. You may also choose one that is not listed in this book as private institutions are not on the list. • Identify a suitable institution where you could study. • Where do you live? Find out what institutions are operating in an area close to you. The following list of universities in South Africa can be a starting point, but there are private institutions that you have to find by looking at advertisements in the media and talking to teachers. University of Cape Town

University of Johannesburg

University of Fort Hare

Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University

University of Free State

University of South Africa


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University of KwaZulu-Natal

University of Venda

University of Limpopo

Durban Mangosotho University of Technology

North-West University

Cape Peninsula University of Technology

University of Pretoria

Central University of Technology

Rhodes University

Durban University of Technology

University of Stellenbosch

Vaal University of Technology

University of Western Cape

Tswane University of Technology

University of Witwatersrand

University of Zululand

Look at the courses offered by the universities, colleges and private tertiary colleges and schools. To access this information you can look at their websites or you have to phone them to receive their information brochures by post. • What are the admission requirements in terms of school marks? • Does the institution require any additional access tests? • When do you have to apply to do the tests? • Do they require a portfolio for selection for the course? • What do you have to do for the portfolio? • When does it have to be handed in? • What are the class fees? • Does the institution offer bursaries or any financial assistance? • Is there accommodation provided for students? • Are there admission requirements for the student accommodation? • What are the fees for student accommodation? • If you cannot afford student accommodation is there some form of organised transport that Max Ernst. A Week of Kindness – Show me your suitcase my dear. 1934. Collage. you can use to get to classes? Making a decision about an institution for tertiary studies in art is something that influences the rest of your career. It is therefore necessary to also visit the department of the institution where you want to study to see if they are offering the kind of course in which you are interested. Most tertiary institutions have open days for prospective students that are advertised at schools, but if you make an effort to find out when it is for yourself you can be sure that you will not miss it. If you missed an open day session make an appointment through the secretary of the department to visit it on your own. It is also helpful to find out when the students or staff of the institution have an exhibition so that you can see the kind of artworks produced within the department.


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Interview an artist By talking to a practising artist you can find out more about the role and practice of being an artist. Use the following points as a guideline to making an appointment with an artist in whom you are interested. • Identify an artist who lives and works in your community. • Arrange an interview with him/her by making an appointment, or arrange a telephonic or e-mail interviewed. Use the following guidelines when contacting the artist: • Introduce yourself by giving your name and the name of your school. • Explain how you received his/her name and contact information. • Enquire if it is a suitable time to speak to him/her. • Explain that you are busy with a research project for Visual Culture Studies that require an interview with an artist. • Ask if he/she would be willing to be interviewed. • Inform the artist about the length of the interview and what you would like to discuss in the interview. • If it is possible find out if you could interview the artist in his/her studio. If it is not suitable, arrange for a venue where you could do the interview. • Confirm if the artist would be willing to participate. • Tell him/her that you would send a brief questionnaire and any other information in advance of the interview. The following questions are biographical. It is therefore advisable to send it well ahead of the interview so that you can use it as a basis on which to develop your interview. • • • • • • • •

Where were you born? Where did you grow up? Where did you go to school? Did you have art lessons in school? For how long did you study art? What have some of your past jobs been? Where do you work now? What kind of work do you do? Do research on the artist’s life and artworks. From this information you can create more questions that would inform you about the artist’s role in the art world and how his/her work functions within the art world. Use the following questions as guidelines in setting your own questions.

• Of which systems/groups related to the art world are you part? For example – schools/institutions, communities/cultures, groups – formal/informal, professional associations, ad hoc collectives.


317

• • • • • • • •

How do you communicate with these groups? What do you talk about? Are there common issues that link the various groups of which you are part? What role does your art play in you interaction with these groups? Who or what influences your art practice? How do you organize your time so that you can be productive as well as creative? How do you promote your artworks? Do you have an art dealer? What is her / his role in the promotion of your art? Do you do other work to sustain your art career? If so, how does it impact on your art career? • What advice can you give someone who aspires to becoming a professional artist? Ask some questions about a specific art work so that you can establish what the artist thinks in terms of his/her artistic history and network of ideas: • • • •

What is the work about? What factors influenced you in deciding to use this topic and form of art? Why did you make the work? What do you think is the impact of your work on others? How do you know this? Write a reflective report about the interview afterwards. Use the following points as guidelines for the report:

• Did you address all the relevant issues? Provide reasons for your answer. • Did the artist understand your questions? • Was the experience of collecting information through an interview different from reading the information about the artist in a book? Explain your answer. • What information did you find most informative during the interview? Why? • Do you think the artist learnt something from you? Was it a positive or negative experience for you and the artist?


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4

Exhibitions An exhibition is the display of a range of artworks either by an individual artist or a group of artists. An exhibition may include any art form. Exhibitions usually have a focus which can be one or a combination of the following: • the most recent work of an artist • a range of their art over a period of time • a group of artists who share a common theme, technique or subject matter • aspects of a museum’s collection, such as recent acquisitions • a theme that can be identified in the collection through time • certain methods or materials of art making. The practice of exhibiting is related to the production and display of art, collecting art and the scholarly enquiry about art. Through exhibitions a large variety of participants in the art world are connected: artists, curators, art writers, academics, educators, gallery owners, museum directors, collectors, institutions and communities are all part of the process. Exhibitions have become an important space of inquiry into the state of Visual Arts. Art exhibitions are primarily held in art galleries and art museums. There are art forms that do not fit into these environments such as public sculptures and some forms of performance and installation art, depending on the intention of the artist. Art galleries are usually owned by private individuals and operate as private business enterprises where the sale of art is of primary importance. Commercial galleries organise and market exhibitions for artists and sell their works by commission by taking, for example, 55% of the selling price. There are various types of galleries who specialise in very commercial artworks to very avant-garde artworks. Art museums also hold exhibitions, but not with the intent to sell. The function of an art museum is to collect, to exhibit and to preserve art for future generations. Museums usually house collections and can be publically or privately owned. A museum’s collection is the total body of art works owned by the museum. The choices of art works collected by museums depend on the available finances, the influence of trends and the agenda of the leadership that is in charge of the museum. Loans or donations made to the museum also play a role. Many museums display a range of historical and contemporary artworks while some focus on a particular period. During the Renaissance museums for art were created as part of the humanist project as a field of research that should be available to scholars. Through the ages these collections of art that stayed in the museum building permanently were influenced dramatically by the changing roles of artists, exhibitions and curators. Institutional politics have also had a major impact on art collections, the acquisition and choices in exhibitions. Museum exhibitions are not only places where ideas can be made public, but it is also a place where ideologies are clearly supported through exhibiting specifically chosen objects in the museum space. While the primary focus of museums is the maintenance and growth of a collection of artworks the resulting functions of museums are its contributions to the development of a greater understanding and appreciation of art and the conservation of art. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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A visit to an Art Museum / Gallery Choose an art museum or art gallery that is accessible to visit. The following list provides the names of some of the well known museums and galleries in South Africa, but it is not a complete list. Art Collections held by provincial or national authorities Johannesburg Art Gallery Pretoria Art Museum Durban Art Gallery Tatham Art Gallery – Pietermaritzburg The Nelson Mandela Metropolitan Art Museum – Port Elizabeth South African National Gallery – Cape Town William Humphreys Art Gallery – Northern Cape University Art collections Campbell Collections and Jack Heath Art Gallery - Pietermaritzburg Johannes Stegman Art Gallery - Bloemfontein Oliewenhuis Art Museum - Bloemfontein Michaelis Art Galleries – Cape Town Sasol Art Museum – Stellenbosch Wits Art Museum – Johannesburg UNISA Art Gallery Commercial Art Galleries This is a selection of art galleries. Absa Art Gallery – Johannesburg Artspace Johannesburg Everard Read – Johannesburg / Cape Town Goodman Gallery – Johannesburg / Cape Town Standard Bank Art Gallery – Johannesburg Stevenson – Johannesburg / Cape Town Association of Arts Pretoria Alette Wessels Kunskamer – Pretoria The Artist’s Press – Mpumalanga AVA – Cape Town Johans Borman Fine Art – Cape Town Sanlam Art Gallery – Cape Town SMAC Art Gallery – Cape Town / Stellenbosch Ann Bryant Art Gallery – East London ArtEC – Port Elizabeth The African Art Centre – Durban ArtSPACE – Durban Durban Art Gallery

Entrance to the Michael Stevenson Gallery, Cape Town


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Planning your visit to an art museum/gallery • Get the exact addresses of 2 or 3 art museums/galleries close to where you live. • Find out what days and hours the art museum/gallery is open. • Do they charge an entrance fee? • Investigate what is on display at the art museum/gallery. After the visit • Paste an invitation card to an exhibition into your source book and name five factors that should appear on the card. • Write a reflective report on your visit to the art museum or gallery by discussing what you saw. Were there artworks that you liked? Were there artworks that you disliked? Provide reasons for your answers.

8.10


Find out in which cities the following famous art museums can be found. • MOMA (Museum of Modern Art) • The Hermitage • Guggenheim • Tate Modern • Louvre • Uffizi

8.11


Do research about an art museum’s collection by finding the answers to the following questions: (You can consult the museum’s website, come to your own conclusions after a visit to the museum and speak to the reception staff, educational officer or curator to establish the information.) QUESTIONS ABOUT THE COLLECTION • What kind of artworks are in the collection of this museum? Give a general description of the artworks considering the time period in which they were created and the media that were favoured. • Who began the collection? Why was it created? • How is it maintained? Consider financial donations as well as donations of and loans of artworks. • How does it differ from other museum collections? • Does the collection say something about the area in which it is situated? • Does the collection say something about the time in which we live? • Why is it important that this collection should be conserved and displayed? • Are collections important for our culture? Why? VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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The Curator The curator has one of the most important tasks in a museum or gallery. She/he is in charge of deciding which works should be purchased, what must be on display and doing research about art. The curator has to devise and implement plans for exhibitions.

8.12


in your class group, DISCUSS THE PROCESS OF COMPILING AN EXHIBITION. Consider the following questions in your discussion. Always provide reasons for any of the statements that you make in answering the questions: • What factors influence the idea behind an exhibition? • Does an exhibition need a concept or theme? • After making a choice about the group of works to be exhibited the curator needs to draw up a plan for placing the artworks within the exhibition space. What are the factors that would influence the decisions made in the placement of artworks in an exhibition space? • What are the other important factors that are important in launching an exhibition? • Who would the other role players in the art exhibition process be?


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Complete in your V.C.S. workbook. CREATE YOUR OWN ART EXHIBITION

You have carte blanche as a curator for a museum or gallery. Follow the following guidelines in creating an exhibition on paper: • Decide where you would like to be a curator. You can choose an existing space or create a new exhibition space. Give a description and drawing or photograph of the building and its geographical position. • Draw a floor plan of the exhibition space. • Describe the concept behind your exhibition. Whose artworks are going to be exhibited? Are there specific aspects that you would like to focus on in your choice of artworks? • Make a list of the artworks that you would like to exhibit. • Give your exhibition a title. • Get photographs/photocopied prints of the artworks to be exhibited. • Create your own exhibition by thinking about where you would place the artworks within your exhibition space. Create a preliminary layout plan by pasting the copies on a wall and floor plan. Explain the reasons for your arrangement. • Consider aspects such as display mechanisms, lighting and security. Are these aspects going to influence your exhibition? Discuss how you are going to deal with it. • How is your exhibition going to be introduced and advertised to the public? • Are you going to organize an opening for the exhibition? • When will the opening take place? • Who are you going to invite? • Are you going to invite a speaker to open the exhibition? Who will it be? Why? • Who is going to design the invitation to the exhibition? What would the brief for the design be? • Are you going to provide supplementary information about the exhibition to the viewers? What would it be and how are you going to provide it?

Biennales and Art Fairs Biennale is Italian for “every other year” and describes an event that happens every two years. In the art world it originated with the Venice Biennale which was first held in 1895. From this original event others have coined the term to organise large contemporary art exhibitions that normally include a variety of international artists. Originally one of the main goals of the Venice Biennale was to establish a new art market for contemporary art. As with biennales in other parts of the world the idea of being a commercial event for art was questioned. Due to the fact that the organisation and execution of such an event is usually very expensive the sale of art has remained an integral part of biennales word wide. Mary Sibande. Lovers in Tango. 2011. Installation of life size sculptures. This work was part of the South African pavilion at the 54th Venice Biennale. Together with Lyndi Sales and Siemon Allen her work was chosen by curator Thembinkosi Goniwe as part of the theme Desire: Ideal Narratives in Contemporary South African Art VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

323 As the oldest biennale, the Venice Biennale is also the most well known. Almost like an Olympics of the art world, it hosts as many countries as possible. It has 30 permanent pavilions where countries who have always been involved, exhibit. Each country has to decide how they want to manage and curate their exhibitions for themselves. It is seen as a showcase for contemporary art that is representative of what is happening on the art scene in each country. The Kassel Documenta is another important international art event that is held every five years in Kassel, Germany. Modern contemporary art is exhibited and the Documenta is limited to an exhibition event of a 100 days. Each exhibition is reinvented as a new director is chosen. The exhibitions are usually organised around a theme and the way it is exhibited is site specific.

Stalls for exhibiting artworks at the Basel Art Fair.

The aim of an art fair is primarily commercial. A good example of a large art fair is the Art Basel, held in Switzerland, which coincides with the Venice Biennale. In South Africa the Joburg Art Fair has become a yearly event that is in its fourth year of operation. Art galleries are invited to exhibit the works of artists that regularly exhibit with them and whose work represents the most exciting contemporary art. This event is supported by art collectors, art dealers, curators and gallerists who come to the art fairs to buy art works.

Billboard advertising the Joburg Art Fair

People also come to art fairs, like biennales, to look at art and learn more about what is going on in contemporary art. Some art fairs organise small conferences where stakeholders in the art world discuss a wide variety of issues concerning art. Workshops and art competitions are frequently linked to art fairs and biennales.


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How is the price of an artwork decided? It is not always clear to the uninformed viewer how artworks are priced and therefore people are sometimes astounded at the high prices that some artworks fetch. The people who buy art range from wealthy art collectors to the curators or buyers of art for the collections of public art museums or large commercial companies. They are influenced by the trends of the time we live in. Looking at art around the world the emphasis of modern art is on originality and imagination. The artist’s reputation also influences the price of her / his works. An artist’s reputation is created through the number of exhibitions she / he participated in, if the artworks have been noticed by art critics and if museums and art collectors have noticed the artist and decided to buy some of the works. Historical artworks have a vast price range as the rarity, origins and age of the work influence the demand in the art market. The world’s most famous works, such as the work of the old masters before the 1800’s are in museums and are seldom up for sale. These works are viewed as priceless. As with all financial matters, the state of the art market is ruled by the state of world finances.

Art Auctions Besides selling work through galleries, major artists’ works are sold through art auctions where people can bid on artworks. Art collectors also sell artworks from their collections when they, for example, want to realise their investment or want to re-invest in other artworks. Auction houses such as Sotheby’s employ professionally trained people to estimate the current monetary value of artworks. Art auctions are advertised in the media as well as promoted with collectors and museums who are active participants in art buying. The auction house publishes an illustrated catalogue beforehand, that provides details of the artworks on sale and an estimate of the amount at which it is expected to sell. It is sent to some of their registered clients and recently they have started to publish it on their websites. Each work has a reserve price which is the minimum that the owner will accept. The auctioneer starts the bidding below the reserve price and through bidding the price increases. The last highest bidder buys the work and if the reserve price is not reached, the work remains unsold. The auction house adds a commission to the sales price that is known as the ‘buyer’s commission’. All potential bidders register beforehand so that there can be no ‘accidental bidding’. Many serious bidders are not present at the bidding. Some of them want to remain anonymous and bid by phone or leave a maximum bid with an auction house representative. Some of the most expensive international works sold on auction are: $136.4 million Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Bal Du Moulin De La Galette, 1876 VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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$156.8 million Jackson Pollock, No. 5, 1948

$154.0 million Willem de Kooning, Woman III, 1953

$150.2 million Gustav Klimt, Portrait of Adele Bauer-Bloch I, 1907

$144.1 Million Vincent van Gogh, Portrait of Dr Gachet, 1890

In June 2012 this Irma Stern painting was auctioned for R 17.2 million, which was a record for an South African artist. irma stern, the arab

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Why do people collect art?

There are people who are art collectors and have large art collections. Dr Anton Rupert and his wife Huberte Rupert built a large art collection in South Africa. This collection has been made available to be viewed by the public in a museum built specially for it. There are also large companies such as Sanlam and MTN who collect art. It is not only an investment but also exhibited in their offices. In an office artworks serve the purpose of decoration and establishes an image of the company to anyone who visits the offices. Another aim of businesses is to support the arts and this can be seen in sponsorships such as that of Standard Bank that has not only sponsored the National Arts Festival in Grahamstown, but also the costs of large exhibitions such as the Picasso and Africa exhibition. The money is used for expenses such as brochures, transport costs and insurance costs. The interior of the Rupert Museum in Stellenbosch

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Explain the following terms in relation to collecting art • Prestige • Uniqueness of the work • Investment

• Aesthetic pleasure • Instinct • Ownership VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

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The Role of the Print Media and the Internet in the Art World

Art books, art magazines, brochures, newspapers and the internet all have a powerful influence on the art world. They are seen as sources of information and they shape opinions. A brochure normally accompanies exhibitions. It takes on different forms ranging from one page to a book with colour illustrations. Information about the exhibition is given in the brochure. A list of the works on exhibitions and prices of the artworks on sale form part of the information supplied. Some brochures include more information about the artist, a statement by the artist and in some cases commentary about her / his work by an interested art writer. Reviews of art exhibitions are invaluable sources of information. They can be found in art magazines, newspapers and on the internet. Reviews are usually written by art critics or art writers. Art critics would give a value assessment of an exhibition while there are many art writers that simply provide a description of an exhibition. People’s opinion of art is subjective and therefore there are frequent disagreements. From art history we have learnt that new work in modern art exhibitions were often ridiculed, only later to be praised. In general people do not accept avant garde art that makes a new and unusual statement. As soon as it is accepted by the general public the art work is not avant garde anymore.

Two publications that accompanied exhibitions at the Michael Stevenson gallery. The two artists represented are Willem Boshoff and Nicholas Hlobo.

Art South Africa is a quarterly magazine, published by BrendonBell Publishing, which addresses issues around contemporary Soutn African art.

The limitless amount of art books provide access to good quality reproductions of art works and it is also the space where artists, art historians, art critics and curators can include written theories and more intensive commentary on artists and issues surrounding their work. The internet is the latest technological development that has infiltrated every aspect of the art world. As with the whole world, the art world has become more informed and less centralized because of the instant access to information about everything. The access to information and images that is almost freely available to everybody has made the art world more democratic as the art created in countries other than Europe or America have started to receive more attention. ArtThrob is a South African website that is regularly updated and provides extensive information about current South African art and its involvement in the international world.

South African Art Now is a hardcover book that investigates the roles and artworks of over 80 artists. Sue Williamson, also the founding editor of ArtThrob is the author. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

Art Times is South African visual arts publication that is free and is published monthly

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Glossary A Abstract expressionism: Post-World war II movement centered in New York with large scale, dramatic abstractions. There were two types: “Action Painting” where paint was freely applied to large canvasses to express the energy and feelings of the artist, usually with no emphasized focal point e.g. Pollock, and “Colourfield” which used large colour fields for contemplation e.g. Rothko. Abstract: Art that does not depict recognisable scenes or objects. Shapes, lines, colours, etc., exist without any reference to reality, but with aesthetic value. The artwork is “read” in terms of lines, shape, colours. Also known as non-representational or non-objective art. Abstraction: A tendency towards abstraction, but there are still references to reality, e.g. certain Cubist works Absurd: Unreasonable, ridiculous, silly. Academic art: Refers to mainly 19th century art that has become synonymous with dullness and conventionality in opposition to the then new ideas in art. Academic artists favoured a detailed finish which appeared naturalistic even from close-up, as opposed to the experiments of Romanticism, Realism and Impressionism. Action painting is a style of painting where the application of the paint is gestural and applied without being careful. The process of painting is visible and therefore the physical act of painting is emphasized in the final result. It emphasized the process and not only end result; use the whole body in creating and not only the wrist e.g. Pollock. Actual space: specific space that surrounds a 3D object and is occupied by the same object Aesthetic: the theory of enjoying something for its beauty and pleasurable qualities Aesthetically pleasing: beauty reflected by a product; beauty experienced by its viewer; beautiful and visually pleasing; wwhen something is categorized by its beauty it is looked at from an aesthetical point of view. Aesthetics: A study of art and theories about the nature and appreciation of beauty Allegory: when meaning is represented symbolically in paintings, plays, poems, etc Amorphous: lacking in structure; has no definite form Analogous Colour: colours next to each other on the colour wheel like Red next to Orange, Blue next to Green; often used together in colour schemes Analyse: a detailed and logical discussion of the formal elements (such as line, colour, colour, tone, format etc.) and composition of the work. Anarchism is a political philosophy that has different strains but generally opposes authority and hierarchical organization within human relations. Anarchists support the idea of stateless societies based on non-hierarchical voluntary associations. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

328 Ancient: Belonging to times long past Anti-gravity architecture: In Deconstructivism with the sense of unpredictability and a controlled chaos. Buildings seem very fragmented and look as if it defies gravity. Apartheid: The policy of the National Party who came to power in 1948 in South Africa. The idea was to separate the different races. This policy ended with the first democratic elections in 1994. Appropriate is to take possession of or to take to oneself. Archetype is the original model or prototype and the perfect example of something. Architecture: The art and science of designing and constructing buildings. Art elements: line, texture, colour, shape/form, tonal value Art-for-art’s sake is the usual English rendering of a French slogan, from the early 19th century, ‘’l’art pour l’art’’, and expresses a philosophy that the intrinsic value of art, and the only “true” art, is divorced from any didactic, moral or utilitarian function. Art not made in assignment, e.g. contemporary artists have the freedom to give expression to his/her ideas etc. Assemblage is an artistic process whereby found objects are put together to create two- or threedimensional compositions. Asymmetrical: balance achieved when different elements are positioned off center to one another because they demand the same amount of visual emphasis Automatism: Direct creation from the subconscious as seen in Surrealism, e.g. using doodling, automatic drawing or other methods to start the creative process. Avant-garde; Forefront of newness; artists that create new approaches, styles or techniques. Is ‘Ahead of its time’ and often unacceptable in its time. B Bauhaus: 1919 – 1931, Influential German art school with the ultimate aim of creating a better living environment for everybody by the unity of art, architecture and design. Its design principles were based on geometry and the machine. Biomorphic: associated with forms and shapes found in nature also see the term organic Background: section in an artwork (2D) that seems to be the farthest away from the viewer; section or area behind an object Balance: well-proportioned or equally distributed arrangement of elements; achieved when opposing elements are harmonious within a composition; quality of stability and equilibrium; achieved when position and focus of vital parts of an artwork is controlled; balance can be symmetrical / asymmetrical / radial; Blaue Reiter: (the Blue rider) A group of German artists such as the Russian Wassily Kandinsky and Paul Klee that were concerned with subjective feelings and spirituality. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

329 Body art is an art form where the body is the primary focus. The artist usually uses his /her own body, but it could also be other people where the artist directs the work. It includes many Performance Art pieces as the performative element usually centers on choreographed bodily movements. Bohemian: Originally a description for Gypsies (from bohemia), later it was used in artistic circles o describe those that consciously set themselves apart from bourgeois society. Brücke: (The Bridge) A small group of German artists led by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner who emphasised violent colours and distortion in their paintings and woodcuts to protest social conditions prior to the First World War. C Cantilever: Reinforced concrete areas without support. Censorship is the suppression of speech or other public communication which may be considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient to the general body of people as determined by a government, media outlet, or other controlling body. Centralization of composition: whereby the most important figure was placed in the middle of the composition. Ceramics: object made out of clay that changes quality when exposed to heat; 2D surface like tiles; 3D objects that could have the sole purpose of being sculptural and decorative or functional like a bowl Characteristics: a unique combination of qualities that specifically represent for instance an artist or art style; qualities that make it different from the rest Chiaroscuro: the balance of light and dark in a picture, and the skill shown by the painter in the management of shadows. Strongly lit figures or objects contrast dramatically with a dark background. Chronological order: the true order or sequence in time Circa: used with a date as in c. 1270. It means around or approximately Cloisonism: Outlines in blue or black of bright colour areas. Cold Colours: (or cool colours) colours like blues and greens. They seem to recede towards the back in a painting. They have a calming effect on the viewer. Collage: images, patterns and textures pasted onto another surface Colonization: happened during the industrial revolution in the 19th century when European countries were looking for raw materials. Africa was divided by the European countries into countries as we know today, without considering the indigenous people. Since the 1960s African countries declared their independence. Colour harmony: colours next to each other on the colour wheel work well together or are in harmony VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

330 Colour palette: a specific group or range of a variety of colours, identified to be used in a specific project; the range of colours can be contrasting, complimentary or monochromatic. Colour value: the lightness or darkness of a colour Colour variety: the use of different colours Colour Vibration: when using two highly contrasting colours the touchline / borderline reflects a perception of vibration and movement Colour wheel: shows the relationship between colours such as primary colours, secondary colours, complementary colours in an organised way around a circle / circular chart; used in the study of colour theory Colourfield painting is characterized primarily by large fields of flat, solid colour spread across or stained into the canvas creating areas of unbroken surface and a flat picture plane. The emphasis is on the large fields of colour rather than gestural brushstrokes and the action of painting. This style of painting was developed under the influence of European modernism and was a pioneering part of Abstract Expressionism. Combine paintings: Term Robert Rauschenberg used to describe his artworks that combine real objects, painting and photographic images. Commodification is the transformation of goods, ideas or anything that has not been regarded as goods into a commodity, which is a marketable item that is produced to satisfy needs or wants. Compare: point out differences and similarities in an ordered sequence within the same argument. Complimentary colours: colours situated opposite each other on the colour wheel like red and green, yellow and purple, blue and orange; a primary colour is the complimentary colour of a secondary colour (mix of 2 primary colours) Composition: the combination of the art elements to form a pleasing whole. The arrangement of colours, shapes, shapes, etc. must form a visually pleasing or stimulating unity. The artist is the person who has put these things together, which is called composing. The final result of composing a drawing, painting or sculpture is called a composition. Concept: the idea/s behind an artwork Conceptual – art that expresses ideas Conceptual art is a term that was began in the 1960’s referring to a wide variety of art forms that no longer took the conventional form of the art object. The main element of conceptual art is that it presents the viewer with an idea about art so that the nature of art would be considered and questioned. Conceptual skills: the skills to conceive an original idea or plan; advanced way of thinking with regards to analyzing, observing and interpreting objects, people and situations Conceptualise: to come up with an idea Concrete Brut: The use of off-shutter concrete in a sculptural way that is rough, unpainted or unclad. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

331 Conservator: The person in a museum or a gallery who looks after and preserves the art collection. Contemporary: Usually seen as the art from the 1970’s to today that is cutting-edge and nontraditional. Content: Subject and meaning of the artwork. Context: The social and historical background. It is important to know as much historical background to artists and artworks as possible, so that our understanding of the work is enriched. Contour line: line that follows the edge of forms; the outline of an object Contrast (variety): placing opposite qualities of line, colour, texture or shape together to create contrast and variety for instance the high contrast and differences between very light and very dark areas in an image Contrasting: opposites put together, can be different shapes, line, texture, colour; objects that has very different qualities from each other Controlled: not spontaneous; well planned and executed; having complete control over the outcome / result Creative Process: the stages of creative artworks for instance research, experimentation and reflection Creative thinking: an advanced way of thinking; don’t think only of the obvious but also considers a variety of ways and angles to solve a problem Cubism: Early twentieth century movement dominated by Picasso and Braque; analyzing of shapes from different viewpoints and liberation of representative portrayals. Analytical Cubism broke down real objects into different parts. Synthetic Cubism built up recognizable images from abstract parts using ready-made materials such as newspaper. Curator: The person in a museum or a gallery who recommends what artwork should be bought, what should be exhibited and how, and who researches and writes about the artworks. Curtain wall: a thin non-load bearing wall such as the large expanses of glass which covers many modern buildings. D Dada: 1916 – 1921. An anti-rational, anti-aesthetic movement that started as protest against the First World War. The artists wanted to shock and created works from unconventional materials or based on the use of chance, i.e. Duchamp, Arp, Schwitters. De Stijl: 1917 – 1931, Holland, artists used geometric abstract shapes and primary colours to portray universal harmony. Mondrian,van Doesburg, Rietveld. Decolcomania: Colour applied on a sheet of paper and another sheet pressed down lightly on top and then carefully lifted just before the paint dried e.g. Ernst in Surrealism.


332 Deconstructivism: Architectural style from the 1980s onward that attempts to view architecture in bits and pieces. The basic elements of architecture are dismantled in buildings that may seem to have no visual logic and appear to be made up of unrelated, disharmonious abstract forms, e.g. Frank Gehry. Decorative: Artworks where pattern or decoration is emphasized e.g. Matisse. Design Principles: Balance, Contrast, Unity, Rhythm / Movement, Proportion, Focus / Emphasis / Dominance, Composition / Layout Design: to create a detailed plan of a structure of something focusing on the appearance, convenience and efficient functionality of final design; to make something in a skillful way; to invent something for a particular purpose; a drawing or graphical representation with the purpose to indicate function and how to assemble or make it. Diagonal lines: lines that run from bottom left corner to top right corner and vice versa Digital Art is any art form that has been influenced by computer technology. It started off as twodimensional artworks created through the use of a computer, but has now evolved to interactive art that allows the audience some form of influence on the final image or development of the artwork. Digital design / media: Print, television, film and video, internet, animation, web design Dimensional (one can move around it or the illusion that one can move around it). Dimensions: measurement of any sort (height, width, length, thickness etc; can refer to space Direction: an actual or illusionary line that an object or element seems to be moving along or is pointing at Directional Line or Shape: when placement / position of these elements projects a clear sense of direction that guides the viewer’s eye on a specific visual path / direction Discuss; present your point of view and give reasons for your statements. Distortion: when the original shape of e.g. an object or an idea is altered for example exaggerated. Divisionism: From Impressionism whereby pure colours are placed next to each other to be optically mixed from a distance; division of brushstrokes. Dominance: when one object dominates another in an artwork; e.g. big versus small, bright versus dull, textured versus plain or time. The dimensions of an object can be 2-dimentional (flat or the illusion that it is flat) or 3 Donors: Individuals, business or institutions who gives works of art to museums. E Earth Art or Land Art is a part of the wider Conceptual art movement. The artists started to work directly in the landscape by sculpting it or using natural materials to create structures. The works are usually documented photographically. Some artists brought manmade elements into the landscape as part of their earth art installations while others brought elements of nature into the gallery or museum space.


333 Eclectic means to borrow, select or choose from various sources, a combination of styles.  Eliminate: To take away or erase. Elitist: Belonging to a group of people with privileges other does not have Emphasis: a focal point will for instance emphasise the object or section of an artwork; created by specific colour, texture, line etc that is usually in contrast or stronger in quality to the rest of the objects or sections in the artwork; use of elements in a specific way so that it asks for concentrated visual attention Encaustic: Pigment mixed with wax e.g. Jasper Johns. Evaluate: To estimate the value of something according to set criteria Exotic: is something that is strikingly different and foreign. Often it is suggesting distant countries and unfamiliar cultures. It is different and unusual. Explain: clarify and give reasons for your statements. Expressionism: Permanent art style where the emphasis is placed on the expression of emotions and feelings of the artist. Characteristics include distortion and exaggeration. Expressive: an energetic and sometimes vigorous quality of line, shape, texture or colour that reflects a certain strong emotion or feeling Existentialism is a philosophical school of thought that became popular after World War II because people wanted to reassert the importance of human individuality and freedom. This philosophical school believed that the human being is solely responsible for giving his / her life meaning in spite of the many existential obstacles. Eye level: also see the horizon line F Facade: Front of a building. Fantasy: Imagery existing only in the imagination. Fauvism: 1905 - 1907, a group of artists centered around Matisse whose work was characterized by strong colour and powerful brush strokes. Their work tended to be joyful. Feminism is a collection of movements that worked to define, establish and defend equal rights and opportunities for women within the political, economic and social spheres of society. Figurative: Figures and objects are recognizable, but not necessarily lifelike. All naturalistic artworks are figurative, but not all figurative works are naturalistic. Figure / Ground: used in 2-dimentional terms; relationship between foreground (figure) and background / space around (ground); also see terms negative versus positive space Fine Arts: The ‘non-functional’ art disciplines, such as painting and sculpture. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

334 Focal point: The area of interest to which the viewer’s eye is drawn when viewing the artwork. Foreground: section in an image (2D) that appears to be closest to the viewer; section in front of the rest Form follows function: Term used in modern architecture where the function of a building determines its form, usually simple pure forms that are unadorned. Form: a 3D shape; volume and shape of 3D object or the illusion thereof on 2D surface; overall physical aspect rather than content of work Form: a three-dimensional shape. A form has height, width and depth. It also refers to the illusion of volume in a two-dimensional work. Formal Art Elements: term used to describe the technical structure, composition and form of art; term can be divided into subsections like ‘art elements’ (e.g. line, texture, colour etc) and design principles (e.g. balance, proportion, scale, rhythm etc) Formalism: Diametrically opposed to expressionism. The emphasis is on a cool reasoned and intellectual art. The origin of this tendency is in Cézanne’s reconstruction of nature in basic forms and the realization of the painting as a two-dimensional plane and not a “window” on the world. In formalism the artwork is about the arrangement of the formal elements e.g. line, shape, colour, in a specific order and not what they represents. In the 20th century formalism is usually positive towards the future, science and technology, unlike expressionism. Found object: A natural or man-made object such as driftwood, fabric or a bottle, which unaltered, is either exhibited as an artistic object in its own right or incorporated into a work of art. Fragmentation: To break / divide something into separate pieces / fragments. Free form: any irregular shape found in sculpture, or decoration; created by fluid curving lines Frontal: 3D object that asks primarily to be viewed from one angle / vantage point Frottage: Rubbings over coarse surfaces. Often used as starting point to activate the subconscious. Functional: Working properly; practical without being decorative or luxurious Functionalism: Function of an object or building determines shape and beauty. Futurism: 1909 – 1914. Italian movement founded by the poet Marinetti. Its members rejected the past and instead celebrated the dynamism of the modern machine age and city life. Mainly interested in the portrayal of movement – Carra, Boccioni, Balla G Generic is a general characteristic that could be applied to any individual of a large group or class. Genre paintings: paintings depicting scenes from daily life such as domestic life, town scenes and still-lifes.


335 Geometric shapes: based on geometric, mathematically shapes, such as a circle, square or rectangular. Global: world wide Graffiti: Slogans, images and words in public places. In Italian it means “scratches on a wall” Ground: background or surface within which shapes or marks are created H Happenings are multi-media artworks that can also be described as an art event. It often consists of a staged or pre-scripted event that requires the participation of the audience to complete the work. It is seen as a forerunner for Performance art and developed out of the theatrical events that were a part of Dada and Surrealist exhibitions. Harmony: pleasing combination of elements that makes op the final composition Heritage: qualities, features, traditions of life used especially to refer to things with historical importance that has strong impact on society and that has been passed on from one generation to another of a specific culture High Tech: Post-World War II architecture style that glorifies technology and places an emphasis on complex detail, e.g. Pompidou Centrum. They used ‘high tech’ building materials. Highlight: a point or area that is emphasised by brightness of colour, value or light that is directly reflected Holocaust is from the Greek meaning ‘whole’ and ‘burnt’. This event has another name “Shoah” which is Yiddish for ‘catastrophe’. This word refers to the systematic genocide of approximately 6 million European Jews during World War II in Germany, led by Hitler. Horizon Line: farthest point in the background that we can see; will also find the vanishing point on the horizon; where the sky and the ground connect Horizontal lines: lines that runs from side to side Hue: refers to a colour or the shade of a colour; points at the actual name of the colour Humanism: the emphasis is on what it is to be a human being – an emphasis on man’s spiritual and intellectual capabilities. Humanistic architecture Post- Modernism architecture strived to serve man, e.g. the scale of a room should recall the scale of man. Also human connections like the fireplace as the heart of a room. I Illusion; to convince that which is painted is taken for reality / illusionist e.g. creates on a flat surface (the painting) an idea of deep space


336 Impasto: thickly applied paint, often with textured brushstrokes. Implied Line, Plane, Shape or Form: suggested to the eye but not really there Implied movement: to create a sense of movement in an image that does not have the ability to move; achieved through the way you use your art elements; repetition of elements can also achieve this Implied space: 3D space projected on a 2D surface in other words it gives the illusion of a 3D space but in fact it is only a 2D surface Impressionism: Art movement of late 19th century in which artists attempted to capture what the eye actually sees, namely a fleeting moment. The surfaces is broken up with brushstrokes and the capturing of light is very important. Manet, Monet, Degas, Renoir and others. Indigenous; originally from the country in which it is found, rather than coming or being Innovation: creation of new things; introducing a new method or idea of doing or making Inorganic: manmade, machine or mass produced products / objects; regular and symmetrical shapes Installation art or also known as Environments are multi-media artworks or assemblages designed for a specific place to be installed for a period of time. The spectator usually has to walk through a whole room or gallery space to be able to experience the art work completely. Intellectual Property: the unique ideas, thoughts, inventions and writings of a person Intellectual: with thought; opposite of emotional International style: The characteristic modernist building style of le Corbusier, Mies van der Rohe and others. Characteristics include the skeleton structure, standardization and absence of decoration. Interpret: Analyse and evaluate (give an informed opinion). Contextualise and substantiate with specific examples. Irrational: unreasonable, opposite of rational. Isolate: to make something stand on its own or away from other things. J Juxtaposition: to put things next to each other in order to show a contrast or a new relationship between them. K Kinetic art depends on motion for its effects. Artists who began this movement explored the effects of movement as early as the early 20th century by introducing the element of time and reflected the influences of machines and technology in art. Tinguely, Takis. VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

337 Kitsch: False, sentimental, and pretentious in style and/or in bad taste. L Lateral Thinking: unconventional approach to solving problems; not using traditional or logical approach Less is more is a bore: Venturi’s statement about Post Modernism architecture which used eclectic sources and decoration to express the richness and ambiguity of modern life in opposition to the simplicity and clarity of Modernist architecture. Less is more: Mies van der Rohe’s statement used in modernist architecture where absolute simplicity says more than complex decoration. A building should be made from as few means as possible such as only glass, steel and reinforced concrete. Line: element understood in terms of length and direction Literal interpretation: when you interpret something directly, the way it is perceived by all, not an abstract interpretation Local Colour: natural colour of an object or material Low saturated: colours with no vibrancy; dull colours; little of pure colour left Luminosity: giving off light; could be actual or an illusion M Magnify: to make something bigger. Man-made objects: any object that is produced by humans; can be hand-made or mass produced by machines Maquette: smaller scale model / prototype of the real 3D sculpture, building or construction Mark making: spontaneous making of marks on a surface using any drawing materials; do not represent anything concrete; different drawing materials and application / methods will result in different textural, linear and visual appearance or qualities Mass: suggests weight, density or three-dimensional form of object or area Measurements: size and distance Medium (plural is media): refers to the material used for making an artwork. (It can also refer to the liquid ingredient of a paint e.g. water, linseed oil, etc.) Methodology: the way in which an idea or problem is approached; also refer to the correct or


338 Mexican Muralism: This term describes the large-scale mural painting in Mexico in the 1920s and 1930s. The principal artists were Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco and David Siqueiros (‘The Three Great Ones’). They were all committed to left-wing ideas during a politically turbulent time in Mexico. Their large-scale murals on public buildings were painted to convey social and political messages to the public. Middle Ground: section for instance of an image (2D) that is between the foreground and the background; Minimalism, Primary Structures or ABC ART is a movement that wanted art to stand on its own and not be an imitation of something else. The art works created as part of this movement is abstract and generally based on simple geometric shapes. They used industrial materials to create their works and wanted the spectator to be aware of the most basic aspects of art such as order, harmony and simplicity. Minify: to make something smaller. Mixed media: when an artist uses different media, materials and techniques in one work. Mobile: A type of hanging kinetic sculpture, in which the parts move. Usually movement is activated by – use air streams, e.g. Calder. Modeling: In painting and drawing the depiction of three-dimensional form, usually through indications of light and shadow. In sculpture it is when a form is created by manipulating a soft medium such as clay. Modernism: (Modern art) is the loose term given to the succession of styles and movements in art and architecture which dominated Western culture from 19th Century up until the 1960/1970’s. Movements associated with Modern art include Impressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Surrealism, Futurism, Abstract Expressionism, etc. Modernism rejects the past as a model for the art of the present and is characterised by constant innovation and experimentation. Modulation: suggests smooth transition or change Monochromatic: Colour scheme developed from tints and shades of a singular colour or hue; the use of very closely related colours in a colour scheme; derived from the same colour but shows a variation in value (lighter or darker) of the same colour which result into a range of related colours Monumental: large, colossal. Mood: state of mind or feeling communicated through a composition especially through the use of specific colours and textures Motif: dominant theme or main part of a composition; individual element / symbol or combination of elements that are repeatedly used in a design; can create unity through repetition of motif Mount: placing your art work onto another, usually much stronger surface like cardboard in order to “frame” your work for presentation purposes; mount attached to the back of the artwork leaving a visible frame around the artwork Movement: design elements organised in such a way that it attracts the attention of the viewer to follow a specific direction in the composition; the spread of contrasting or similar qualities of elements throughout the composition can help to achieve movement


339 Multiculturalism: incorporation of influences and images drawn from different cultures Multi-Media: contemporary artists using a variety of media, often ‘new media’ such as text, audio, video, etc. to create an artwork; also refers to electronic media which stores or is used to experience multimedia. Multi-point Perspective: a special linear illusion system with more than two vanishing points on the horizon for parallel lines to connect; creates spatial illusion Mural design: a design applied on the surface of a wall as prime surface Museums: Collect, exhibit, educate research and look after objects so that can be studied by people today and in the future. N Naive Art: A term used for artists with no formal training e.g. Henri Rousseau. Their work usually consists of bright colours and although their approach is naturalistic with a lot of attention to detail, they pay little attention to perspective. Naturalism: Art that seeks to represent accurately and faithfully the actual appearance of things. (The terms naturalistic and realistic are often used synomymously; but Realism refers to a specific movements in the 19th century.) Also known as representational art. Negative space / shape / form: the space around the actual shape or object that is not occupied; the ‘ground’ in a figure-ground relationship; the section that is affected and controlled by a shape or form Neo-Classicism: Late 18th and early 19th century movement that usually used only a few figures in calm, static poses derived from classical sculpture. Before the French revolution it was seen as an art to educate the people. It became the official style of the French Revolution and Napoleon. Neo-Expressionism developed in the 1980’s and was a reaction against the Minimalist and Conceptual movements that dominated the art scene in the 1970’s. Painting as a medium was revived in this expressive painting style that was an international phenomenon. Under the influence of expressionism the neo-Expressionists painted in a rough and violently emotional way using strong colours and banal colour harmonies. Neo-Impressionism: An art movement founded by Seurat and Signac where, the work was meticulously planned and worked out in detail. Colours were placed in separate dabs unmixed on the canvas to be mixed in the eyes of the viewer in a pointillist technique. Neutral colours: classically refers to use of non-colors of black, white and grey and all shades in between; has very low saturation New media: many contemporary artists use unusual materials that are not traditionally seen as art materials such as preserved animals, flour, etc. New Objectivity: (Neue Sachlichkeit) took its name from an exhibition held in 1923 in Mannheim, Germany. It was a realist style that depicted, satirized and criticized the corruption, frantic pleasure and general demoralization of Germany after its defeat in the First World War as well as the ineffectual Weimar republic that governed Germany at the time. The movement ended with the rise of the Nazi’s.


340 No saturation: shades of grey Non Western civilizations: Initially refers to the civilizations that developed outside Europe such as in Africa, the East, on the South Pacific Islands, Australasia, the early civilizations in the Americas, etc. In non western art the conceptual and religious interpretation of images continued to a large extent. Non-figurative: forms that cannot be recognised; unnaturalistic interpretation; abstract Non-representational: objects, forms or shapes that are not recognizable in object or context; abstract O Objective: Free of any bias or prejudice caused by personal feelings. It is based on facts rather than thoughts or opinions. Without feeling Observational drawing skills: skills learned while observing an object, figure or place first-hand during the activity of making a drawing Odalisque: An enslaved woman or concubine in a Turkish harem (the separate private living areas for women, both wives and concubines.) Oeuvre: French word meaning the total works/output of an artist. One-point Perspective: to show a 3D object through a drawing on a 2D surface; lines move away from the viewer and connect at one focal point on the horizon (vanishing point) Opaque: solid not see-through; block all light Op art is a development in painting where artists created optical effects for the spectator that ranged from subtle to disturbing and disorienting. This movement developed in the 1960’s and the artists mainly used variations of geometric shapes and colours influenced by colour theories to create unusual optical effects. Optical Colour Mixing: when placing two contrasting colours / hues side by side (juxtaposed) it creates the visual perception / illusion of colour mixing Organic architecture: the philosophy which promotes harmony between human habitation and the natural world, e.g. buildings that integrate in a natural way with the landscape as in Falling Waters by Frank Lloyd Wright. Organic shapes: shapes found in nature; usually ‘softer’ shapes than geometric shapes; free-form (irregularity of forms) shapes not restricted to mathematical precision; more natural flow in lines and shapes; can also refer to living forms; opposite of man-made objects; rounded or curved forms Orientalism is a term used for the imitation and depiction of Eastern cultures in the West.


341 Ornamentation: the act of applying purely decorative details or designs to buildings. Overlapping: placing the one surface or object, line, colour or texture over another P Palimpsest is when the original marks or writing on a surface have been effaced to make room for a second layer of marks or writing. Pan-African: umbrella term for all African cultures Perceptual skills: the level of skill in the way you perceive things around you; level of awareness Perceptual: from the visual, how something is perceived and portrayed. Perennial: lasting or existing for a long or apparently infinite time Perspective: depicting the 3D quality of an object, building or space on a 2D surface. Linear perspective: based on the observation that parallel lines appear to meet on the horizon at one or more vanishing points. Objects become smaller as they move further. Aerial perspective: (atmospheric perspective) when the atmosphere softens shapes and colours in the distance. When you are near a tree, you can see individual branches and leaves. At a distance it appears to blend together. Photography: the process and art of recording pictures by means of capturing light on a lightsensitive medium, such as film or electronic sensor. Digital photography works with light-sensitive digital pixels. Photomontage: a variation of collage in which pasted items are actual photographs or photographic reproductions selected from the press and was developed by the Berlin Dada group Picture Plane: 2D surface; the flat surface upon which the actual shape or image exists; any illusion of depth / 3D quality is identified to be ‘beyond the picture plane’ Plagiarism is the wrongful appropriation or close imitation of someone else’s thoughts, ideas or expressions that are then presented as one’s own original work. Plane: the section of form that can be described in 2D; mostly identified for instance by the surface of a form Plastic: any material that can be molded or shaped without adding or subtracting mass Pluralism is when more than one principle or idea is recognised and where minority groups in society maintain independent traditions. In Post Modernismit is the acceptance of different styles and viewpoints in Post-Modernism. Pointillism: The technique of systemizing brushstroke into dots in Neo-Impressionism. Polychromatic / Polychrome: Multicoloured


342 Pop Art is a movement that developed in the middle to late 1950’s in Britain and America that took its inspiration from popular and commercial culture that began to dominate society at that stage. It was a reaction against Abstract Expressionism and they used aspects from mass culture such as advertisements, cartoons and mundane utilitarian objects as subject matter to undermine and challenge traditional art. Portfolio in art is a collection or sample of an artist’s work. Positive shape / form / area: the actual shape (2D) or object (3D) placed in a space; the ‘figure’ of a figure-ground relationship; the area that is occupied by an object or form in 3D work Post and Lintel (beam): the first construction method developed in the world, using a lintel (beam) as the horizontal member over a space supported at its ends by two vertical posts. Post Impressionism: A blanket term referring to art that both learnt from and rejected certain Impressionist principles. Cézanne, sought greater pictorial structure, while Van Gogh focused on his emotional response to a scene. Gauguin sought a deeper engagement with expressive and symbolic content. Post Modernism: A loose term to describe culture from about the 1970’s which rejected the historical continuity of modernism for a condition known as pluralism. Pluralism means the acceptance of different styles and viewpoints, each having the same value. Therefore works could combine contradictions and differences. The Post-Modernist “borrows” freely from the styles from the past, even the Modernist past. It allows the artist the freedom to choose without identifying specifically with a style. In architecture it manifested it in revolt against the International Style and made extensive use of eclectic references, e.g. in the buildings of Michael Graves. Preferred: To like one thing more than another Pre-Raphaelites: English movement founded in 1849 with the intention to re-capture the honest simplicity of early Italian painters who had flourished before Raphael, hence ‘Pre-Raphaelite’. They took a lot of themes from the middle ages, literature and often focus on a moral lesson in their works. Primary colours: original colours; can’t be created through the mixing of other colours; primary red, yellow and blue; all other colours are theoretically mixed with these 3 colours Primary Contour: the outermost shape of a form Principles of Design: principles used to order elements of design to ensure a specific outcome / composition for instance through the application of balance, unity, proportion or repetition Printmaking: to transfer an inked image on a plate or block from this surface to another Project brief: formal written instructions prepared by a client for a designer, indicating exact instructions, expectations from the designer, requirements, goals, quality of final product and functionality or usage just to mention a few Propaganda: Art that propagates a political doctrine and follows a certain party/state/political thought to promote an ideology, idea or cause. Often deceptive or distorted information is spread.


343 Proportion: comparative relationship between elements or objects Public sculptures: can be abstract or depicting something specific; can symbolise nation or cultural pride; the position and place of public sculptures play a vital role and add to the environment we find ourselves R Radial balance: the same as symmetrical balance but in this case achieved on a 3D shape like a sphere. When the sphere is cut in half both sides are exactly the same. Balance is achieved by arranging elements in a circular patter around a central axis; balance in all directions around a central point Rationalism is the belief that reason is the foundation of everything and that it is superior to and independent of sense perceptions. Ready-made: is a term first used by Marcel Duchamp for the manufactured objects that he selected and sometimes modified, to exhibit as artworks. Realism: mid-19th century French movement that concentrated on subjects from everyday, workingclass life without any idealisation or stylisation. Daumier, Courbet, Millet. Recycled: any part of an object used again for a similar or different purpose Recycling: to convert waste into re-usable material Reinforced concrete: concrete strengthened with metal wire or rods embedded in it to increase its strength. Relief sculpture: often a part of architecture. Distinguish between high relief where forms are deeply carved and protrude and low relief where figures exist on nearly the same level as in a drawing. Relief: 3D form rising from 2D surface Renaissance: used to describe the period of the 14th to 16th centuries in Europe. The Renaissance developed in Italy during the late Middle Ages, from where it spread to the rest of Europe. The Renaissance represents a gradual shift of mans’ thoughts and view of life from the Middle Ages. Repetition: placing the same shape, object, element or pattern over and over on the same surface or in the same space Rhythm: design elements organised in such a way that the pattern or repetition creates a certain rhythm; proportion of a variety of elements need to vary to avoid a boring design (elements like line, shape, texture and colour equally spaced, similar in size, colour and texture will create a boring design without any rhythm) Romanticism: Early to mid 19th century style that celebrating individualism, the power of the imagination and the emotions. It was highly imaginative and subjective approach filled with emotional intensity and a dream-like or visionary quality.


344 S Salon: The bi-annual official exhibition of artworks in the Louvre. It was open to all artists whose work the jury, consisting of members of the Academy, approved. Most of the leading French artists of the 19th century participated in the Salon. Success at the salon could secure an artist’s reputation and led to profitable state commissions. Salon Des Refuses: French exhibition of rejected Salon works held in 1863 that broke the power of the French academy and led to the birth of avant-garde art with independent exhibitions. Saturated colour: most pure and vibrant state of a colour; no white added to colour Saturation: measurement of the intensity and brightness of a colour Scale: uniform and proportional reduction or enlargement of size and dimension of a form or space; usually does not reflect its actual dimension in the real world; the real size of for instance an object in relation to its surroundings Schedule: a time frame within which a certain amount of work and tasks needs to be completed Secondary colours: mixing two primary colours result into a secondary colour; orange (red + yellow), green (blue + yellow) and purple (blue + red) Sensory awareness: high level of awareness making use of all your senses Sensory: describe things that relates to the five physical senses: sight, taste; hearing; smell; touch Shade of colour: darker value of the same colour; colour + black Shape: a two-dimensional area (flat) with a recognisable boundary. Silkscreen is a printing technique that is done using a framed finely woven mesh that supports a stencil that blocks out the ink when printing. The ink is spread over the mesh and pressed through the minute holes in the mesh with a squeegee or a cloth. The print can be made on any two dimensional surface. This technique has traditionally been used for mass produced commercial images. Simplified: illuminating unnecessary detail; simplified shape showing only basic details Site-Specific: to design a piece of work for a specific space / location / area Skeleton structure is a skeleton of steel “carries” the whole building and make e.g. curtain walls possible. Skin and bone architecture: Steel and concrete were the strength of the building (bone), while glass was the shining “skin” covering the skeleton. Social issues: issues like HIV/AIDS, crime, etc. that has an impact on the day to day social structures of communities Space: 3-dimensional area; refers to distance, area and volume of the space; total area affected by a design; shape or form defined by space found around, behind, in front, below or inside an object VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

345 Spatial Orientation: the relationship between an object and its surroundings Spatial perspective: to show the 3D qualities of a space on a 2D surface Spontaneous: just doing without thinking or planning; spontaneous line suggests a fresh quality of energy and free-flow; it happens naturally and not planned Standardization: Standard sizes of windows, doors, etc. to make building easier, cheaper and conforming. State: say directly what you think – give your opinion, as well as an explanation. Static Form: a form that cannot move at all; does not even have the quality to suggest or create the illusion of movement Static: cannot or do not move Stereotype is a fixed impression of something or somebody that is unchangeable, regular and monotonous. Style: refers to the “how” question about artworks. “How has the artist depicted the subject?” “How has the artist put his/her personal mark on this piece?” Stylised: It refers to distortion of representational images in accordance with certain artistic conventions or to emphasize certain design qualities. It also refers to an artist uses standard characteristics to portray an object. Only the general shape is shown, but detail is ignored. Stripped to basic recognizable characteristics. Subdued: to make a colour, texture, line softer in quality; do not stand out Subject is that which is portrayed in a painting or sculpture. Can be figurative or non-figurative Superimpose: To place a layer on top of another layer. Super Realism or Photorealism is a movement that developed in the late 1960’s when artists worked photographs to copy it as paintings that appeared to look like photographs. This movement developed with Pop Art as an influence on their choice of subject matter and therefore their subject matter is usually mundane scenes or objects from daily life. The movement is primarily associated with painting although there are sculptors like Hanson and De Andrea who used photorealist techniques to create their life size sculptures. Surrealism: Movement between the World Wars based on dreamlike images from the subconscious. Miro, Dali, Magritte. Symbol: character / image / figure that represents an idea, concept or emotion; communication goes beyond its original and literal form; e.g. the heart that is a symbol of love Symbolism: (c1885 – 1910), emerged as a reaction to Realism and Impressionism, because the Symbolists felt they ignored the imagination and emotions. They wanted to paint pictures that evoke certain moods and feelings. Symbolism was also a strong trend in literature. The symbolist painters used mythological and dream imagery for a visual language of the soul. Redon, Moreau.


346 Symmetrical balance: elements positioned equally from a central point or axis; 2D or 3D form mirrored on either side of a central axis Symmetry: degree by which form or elements are arranged in mirror image on either side of a central axis Syncopate is to distribute accented and unaccented lines, patterns or colours in a composition. T Technique: refers not to the medium, but how it was done. For example, if you look at a painting the technique would refer to how the medium has been used. Is the brushstrokes blended and invisible or is can it clearly be seen? Is it smooth, stippled or impasto? Tertiary education is the third stage in education. It follows secondary education, which is high school. The first stage of education is primary education. Texture: Visual (textural quality experiencing through sight) or tactile (textural quality experienced through touch) surface; the texture of silk would feel and look different to the texture of velvet. Three-dimensional: object that has depth, height, length and width to be viewed from all angles (top, bottom, side and back) – one can walk around it Time management: the way you plan and manage the time given to you to perform a task Tint of color: lighter value of the same color; the color + white Tonal value: refers to the degree of light and dark in a given artwork Tone of colour: a specific value of the same colour; colour darkened by adding grey (black and white) Transgenic describes the technique of transferring genetic material from one organism into the DNA of another Trompe L’oeil: when an image or object is painted onto a surface in such a way that it creates the illusion that the viewer beliefs it to be the real image or object Two-dimensional: work / design created on a flat surface Two-point Perspective: to show 3D objects on a 2D surface using line drawings where the lines appear to move away from the viewer and connect at 2 focal points / vanishing points; creates an illusion of space, depth and volume Two-toned: two different values of the same color U Unity: collecting or placing of shapes, colours, textures, line, concepts or objects with similar qualities to project a whole or unified feel VISUAL ARTS GRADE 11

347 Universal language: a language that can be understood by all cultures; visual language represented by symbols, icons, signs that has the same meaning no matter the culture or country like a stop sign, airport sign, toilet signs etc. Art is often referred to as a universal language. V Value Contrast: juxtaposition (placed side by side) of light and dark areas Value: degree of lightness or darkness Vanishing Point: in perspective drawings this is the point where all receding lines will connect / meet Vernacular: local style of architecture specific to an era, area, culture or country style especially used in ordinary houses as opposed to large office blocks; Video Art began with the introduction of video as an inexpensive medium in the 1960’s. It provided the opportunity of recording and documenting performances easily. Video installations have taken on many different forms and can include sound as part of the work. Virtual when something does not physically exist, but is made to appear as if it does exist through the effect of something else – in this case the use of line and colour. Visual Literacy: the ability to ‘read’ and interpret visual images. Identification, understanding what we see and comprehending visual relationships are important. Visual Texture: illusion of texture on a 2D or 3D form Void: empty space; also see negative space Volume: space inside an object W Warm Colours: colours like reds, oranges and yellows. These colours seem to come towards the viewer in space. They create a feeling of excitement. Western Civilization: the development traced from Pre Historic times to the present time in Europe and the colonies of European countries where immigrants continued with Western concepts. It is interesting to note that in Western Art since the Renaissance there was a drive towards optical naturalism until the twentieth century. Work ethic: the way or manner in which you conduct yourself when you perform a given task; in general the level and way you organize and perform the task at hand.


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Visual Arts Gr11 Learner's Guide

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