Robert A. Dahl – On Democracy (1998) Summary by Felix de Jonh !hi" i" a "ummary # "tarted ma$in intended %or &er"onal u"e only' but # %iured a lot more &eo&le could &ro%it %rom it. !he uality miht not be u& to &ar' a" # haen*t chec$ed %or any "&ellin error". +o,eer' # am con%ident it i" "u%%iciently clear. For any comment"' ue"tion" or addition"' &lea"e i"it thi" lin$ and comment therehtt&-%elixdicit.com/&098 2ha&ter 1- Do 3e Really 4eed A 5uide (&re%ace) (6 not included) 7art #. !he einnin 2ha&ter - 3here and +o, did Democracy Deelo& 2ha&ter :- 3hat ;ie" Ahead/ 7art ##. #deal Democracy 2ha&ter - 3hat #" Democracy/ 2ha&ter <- 3hy Democracy/ 2ha&ter =- 3hy 7olitical >uality #- #ntrin"ic >uality 2ha&ter ?- 3hy 7olitical >uality ##- 2iic 2om&etence 7art ###. Actual Democracy 2ha&ter 8- 3hat 7olitical #n"titution" Doe" ;are6Scale Democracy Reuire 2ha&ter 9- @arietie" #- Democracy on Di%%erent Scale" 2ha&ter 1- @arietie" ##- 2on"titution" 2ha&ter 11- @arietie" ###- 7artie" and >lectoral Sy"tem" 7art #@. 2ondition" Faorable and Bn%aorable 2ha&ter 1- 3hat Bnderlyin 2ondition" Faor Democracy 2ha&ter 1:- 3hy Car$et62a&itali"m Faor" Democracy 2ha&ter 1- 3hy Car$et6ca&itali"m +arm" Democracy 2ha&ter 1<- !he Bn%ini"hed Journey A&&endix A (6not included) A&&endix (6not included) A&&endix 2 (6not included)
Part I. The Beginning Chapter 2: Where and How did Democracy Develop ( A A Brief History) History) page 7 - 25 !he oriin oriin"" o% democr democracy acy i"n*t i"n*t conti continu nuou" ou"'' a%ter a%ter the %all o% the the 5ree$ 5ree$ and and Roman Roman em&ir em&ire" e" it di"a&&eared. Democracy ,a"n*t inented *once and %or all*' and it i" hard to %ind out ho, much o% it ,a" di%%u"ed %rom it" early "ource" and ho, much' i% any' o% it ,a" inde&endently inented in di%%erent time" and &lace". Accordin to Dahl' "ome o% the ex&an"ion o% democracy – &erha&" a ood deal o% it – can be accounted accounted %or mainly by the di%%u"ion o% democratic idea" and &ractice"' but di%%u"ion can*t &roide the ,hole ex&lanation. #t "eem" to hae been inented more than once' and in more than one &lace. #% the condition" condition" %or inentin democracy ,here %aourable %aourable in one &lace at one time' ,hy not in other &lace" and time"/ (&.9) +e a""ume" democracy can be inde&endently inented and reinented ,heneer the a&&ro&riate condition" exi"t. A &u"h to,ard democratic &artici&ation deelo&" out o% ,hat ,e miht call *the loic o% euality*. #t miht hae been deelo&ed a" %ar bac$ a" the hunter6atherer era. 3hen &eo&le "ettled do,n' a certain hierarchy %ormed. 7o&ular oernment" ,here re&laced ,ith monarchie"' de"&oti"m"' ari"tocracie" and oliarchie"' all ba"ed on ran$in or hierarchy. !hen' around < .2.>. #n "eeral &lace"' %aourable condition" rea&&eared and "mall rou&" bean deelo&in oernmental "y"tem" ,ith o&&ortunitie" to &artici&ate in rou& deci"ion" – &rimitie democracy. !hi" ha&&ened three time" alon the mediterranean' "ome in northern >uro&e. !+> C>D#!>RRA4>A4 #n cla""i cla""ical cal 5reec 5reecee and and Rome' Rome' "y"te "y"tem" m" ,ith ,ith "ub"ta "ub"tanti ntial al &o&ula &o&ularr &arti &artici& ci&ati ation on ,a" %ir"t %ir"t e"tabli"hed on a "olid ba"i"' "o that they could endure %or centurie". 5reece ,a" made u& o% hundred" o% indiidual city6"tate". Athen" ,a" the mo"t %amou". #n <? .2.> they ado&ted a "y"tem o% &o&ular oernment that la"ted nearly t,o centurie"' until it ,a" conuered by Cacedonia in :1 .2.>. Demo" (&eo&le) and rato" (to rule) ,a" &robably coined by Athenian". #t ,a" a ery com&lex "y"tem. !he a""embly ,a" cho"en throuh lottery' and they elected &ublic o%%icial"' li$e 5eneral". !he"e &olitical in"titution" o% 5ree$ democracy' ,ere inored or reEected durin the deelo&ment o% modern re&re"entatie democracy. Roman" called their "y"tem a re&ublic' re" (thin' a%%air) and &ublicu" (&ublic)' "o a *bu"ine"" o% the &eo&le*. Riht" o% &artici&ation &artici&ation ,a" re"tricted re"tricted to &atrician"' &atrician"' or ari"tocrat". ari"tocrat". A%ter "trule"' the &leb" al"o ained entry. Riht" ,here re"tricted to men only' li$e the ree$" and all democracie" until the t,entiet t,entieth h century century.. 7olitic" 7olitic" ,a" re"trict re"tricted ed to the%oru the%orum m Romanum' Romanum' %or many too %ar to &artici& &artici&ate. ate. Roman" neer ado&ted a re&re"entatie oernment ba"ed on democratically elected re&re"entatie". !he Roman Re&ublic endured until 1: .2.>' but ,a" eradicated ,ith the dictator"hi& o% Juliu" 2ae"ar. A%ter hi" a""a""ination (2>)' the re&ublic became an em&ire ruled by it" em&eror". 3ith that' &o&ular rule ani"hed %rom "outhern >uro&e %or nearly a thou"and year". Around 112> &o&ular rule reemered in many citie" in 4orthern #taly. 7artici&ation ,a" re"tricted to member" o% u&&er6cla"" %amilie"- noble"' lare land o,ner"' etc. #n time' the ne,ly rich' the "maller merchant" and ban$er"' "$illed cra%t"men (united in uild")' %oot"oldier"' and the li$e became more dominant and "tarted to oranie oranie them"ele". !hey could threaten u&ri"e"' and a" a re"ult ained the riht to &artici&ate' &artici&ate' and became called the &o&olo (the &eo&le). &eo&le). #n citie" li$e @enice and Flore Florence nce'' the"e the"e "y"te "y"tem" m" %lour %louri"h i"hed ed a" the middle middle ae" ae" came came to a clo"e clo"e'' ma$in ma$in &lace &lace %or %or the Renai" Renai""an "ance. ce. +o,e +o,eer er'' ,ith ,ith the emer emere ence nce o% natio nation6" n6"ta tate" te"'' the"e the"e city6 city6"ta "tate" te" coul couldn* dn*tt de%en de%end d them"ele" and ,here "ubEuated by them' thu"' nation6"tate" ruled by $in" once aain eradicated
&o&ular oernment. 2ity6"tate" became ob"olete. 4OR!+>R4 >BRO7> !he !he demo democr crat atic ic "y"t "y"tem em"" name named d abo aboee mi"" mi""ed ed the the cruc crucia iall char charac acte teri ri"t "tic ic"" o% mode modern rn re&re"en re&re"entati tatie e oernm oernment ent.. !hey lac$ed lac$ed an e%%ecti e%%ectie e national national oernme oernment. nt. !hree !hree ba"ic ba"ic &olitica &oliticall in"titution" ,here mi""in- A national &arliament' com&o"ed o% elected re&re"entatie"' and &o&ular cho"en local oernment" that ,ere ultimately "ubordinate to the national oernment. !he combination o% local and national oernment oriinated in ritain' Scandinaia' !he ;o,land" (elium' the 4etherland")' S,iterland and ariou" other northern location". !he"e "tarted *bottom6u&*' beinnin at local leel' later unitin at reional and national leel. !he @i$in" "tarted oraniin them"ele" in a *!in*' a""emblie" at local leel ,here they ,ould "ettle di"&ute"' aree on ne, la,"' a&&oint $in"' chane their reliion (2hri"tianity) %rom =2> to 12>. y 92> the"e *!in* ,here held all oer Scandinaia. !he in had to ",ear %aith%ullne"" to the la," a&&roed by the !in. @i$in" couldn*t hae $no,n o% the democracie" a thou"and year earlier' but they ,ere eual. !he Freemen thouh' @i$in" al"o held "lae"- enemie" ca&tured in battle or ictim" o% raid". #n the 4etherland" and Flander"' ruler" needed con"ent %rom ,ealthy citien" to tax their &o""e""ion". !he ruler" "ummoned meetin" o% re&re"entatie" %rom the to,n" and mo"t im&ortant "ocial "ocial cla""e" cla""e".. !hi" e"tabli" e"tabli"hed hed certain certain traditio tradition"' n"' &ractice &ractice"" and idea" idea" that "tronly "tronly %aoured %aoured the deelo&ment o% &o&ular oernment. #n ritain' ritain' &arliame &arliament nt re, out o% a""embli a""emblie" e" "ummoned "ummoned &eriodically &eriodically.. y the eihteen eihteenth th century' the $in and &arliament controlled each other. !he +ou"e o% ;ord" ,a" in turn controlled by the +ou"e o% 2ommon". ;a," enacted had to be inter&reted by inde&endent Eude". !hi" "y"tem o% chec$" and balance" ,a" admired by >uro&ean" and American" ali$e. Conte"uieu lauded the "y"tem' the %oundin %ather" o% the BSA ba"ed their "y"tem on thi" ,ithout the role o% a monarch' ,hich in turn &roided a model %or many other re&ublic". D>CO2RA!#GA!#O4- O4 !+> 3AH' B! O4;H O4 !+> 3AH. !he element" %or later democratic belie%" and in"titution"' %aored by local condition" and o&&or o&&ortun tuniti itie" e" in "eera "eerall area" area" o% >uro&e >uro&e ,ere ,ere "timul "timulate ated d by the loic loic o% eua eualit lity y to %orm %orm loca locall a""emb a""emblie lie"' "' in ,hich ,hich %ree %ree men could could &arti &artici ci&at &atee in oer oernin nin' ' to an exte extent. nt. !he con"en con"entt o% the oerned' oerned' initially on taxe"' radually re, into a claim about la," in eneral. 3hen the"e a""emblie" coered a too lare area' &eo&le needed re&re"entation re&re"entation &roided by election. !he"e election" needed to be held on multi&le leel"' %ir"t local' than reional and national' or other intermediate leel". !hi" &roided a ba"e %rom ,hich democratiation could &roceed' but it ,a" only a &romi"e- crucial &iece" ,ere "till mi""in. Fir"t' #neuality &o"ed enormou" ob"tacle" to democracy- di%%erence" bet,een riht"' dutie"' in%luence' &o,er o% "lae" and %ree men' landed and landle""' ma"ter and "erant' men and ,omen' day labor laborer" er" and a&&re a&&renti ntice" ce"'' etc. etc. >en >en %ree %ree men ,here ine ineual ual.. Secon Second' d' exi"t exi"tin in a""embli a""emblie" e" and and &arliament" ,ere a lon ,ay %rom meetin minimal democratic "tandard"' a" they ,ere no match %or the monarch. Re&re"entatie" had only a &artial "ayin in la,ma$in. !hird' re&re"entatie" didn*t re&re"ent the ,hole &o&ulation &o&ulation i.e. men. #n 5reat ritain (18:)' only lection" corru&ted by aent" o% the cro,n. Adance o% democratic idea" and &ractice" de&ended on the exi"tence o% %aorable condition" that did not yet exi"t. !he"e ,ill be de"cribed in 7art #@. #@. Furthermore' democracy didn*t &roceed on an a"cendin a"cendin &ath to the &re"ent' ,ith many u&" and do,n". Re"i"tance moement"' moement"' rebellion"' ciil ,ar"
and reolution". !he ri"e o% centralied centralied monarchie" reer"ed "ome o% the earlier adance"' adance"' thouh they may hae created "ome %aourable condition" in the lon run. a"ed on the ri"e and decline o% democracy' democracy' ,e cannot count on hi"torical %orce" to in"ure that democracy ,ill al,ay" adance or een "urie. Democracy i" a bit chancy' but it" chance" al"o de&end on ,hat ,e do our"ele". 7eo&le are not ictim" o% blind %orce" oer ,hich ,e hae no control. 3ith adeuate under"tandin o% ,hat democracy reuire" and the ,ill to meet it" reuirement"' ,e can act to &re"ere and to adance democratic idea" and &ractice".
Chapter 3: What Lie !head" Page 26 – 32 #t i" needed to ma$e a di"tinction bet,een democracy a" an ideal' and a" an actuality. 7hilo"o&her" hae &ondered on many moral and em&irical Eudement" "urroundin democracy a" an ideal' and the actual democracie". D>CO2RA!#2 5OA;S A4D A2!BA;#!#>S 3e need to under"tand ho, the ideal" and actualitie" are connected. Dahl ,ill "&ell thi" out in later cha&ter". A "y"tem o% determinin ,hether and to ,hat extent a oernment i" democratic' ,ould hae to meet %ie criteria and a "y"tem meetin the"e %ie criteria i" %ully democratic. Four o% the"e ,ill be de"cribed in cha&ter ' and he ,ill "ho, in cha&ter = and ? ,hy the %i%th i" needed. Attainin a &er%ect democratic "y"tem i"n*t &o""ible due to the many limit" im&o"ed on u" in the real ,orld. !he "y"tem ,ould &roide u" ,ith "tandard" aain"t ,hich ,e can com&are the achieement" and the remainin im&er%ection" o% actual &olitical "y"tem" and their in"titution"' and can uide u" to,ard" "olution" brinin u" clo"er to the ideal. !he %ir"t ue"tion' *,hy democracy*' i"n*t concerned ,ith ,hy &eo&le "u&&ort democracy. Some &eo&le "u&&ort democracy ,ithout eer $no,in ,hy. *3hat &olitical in"titution" are nece""airy* i" concerned ,ith the many di%%erence" in democracie" due to "ie or "cale o% &olitical unit"' "uch a" &o&ulation' territory' or both. A "mall nation can acuire democracy ,ithout needin many in"titution"' a" o&&o"ed to %or in"tance the BS o% A. #n"titution" %or a "mall "cale democracy can al"o &roe inadeuate on a larer "cale o% a modern country. !he"e ariation" ,ill be de"cribed in 7art ###. #% een democratic democratic countrie" are not %ully democratic' democratic' ho, about non6democratic non6democratic countrie" that lac$ all or "ome o% the in"titution" o% modern democracy. +o, can they be made more democratic/ +o, could could "ome "ome count countrie rie"" becom becomee more more democ democrat ratic ic than than other other"/ "/ 3hat 3hat condi conditio tion" n" %aou %aourr the the deelo&ment and "tability o% democratic in"titution"' and ,hich condition" are li$ely to im&ede the deelo&ment and "tability thereo%/ !he"e ue"tion" ,ill be "ome,hat an",ered in 7art #@' but are by no mean" %ree %rom uncertainty' but ,ill &roide a %irmer "tartin &oint %or "ee$in "olution". FROC @A;B> JBD5>C>4!S !O >C7#R#2A; JBD5>C>4!S y an",erin *3hat i" Democracy*' Eudement" are ba"ed almo"t exclu"iely on our o,n alue". alue". *3hy Democrac Democracy* y* i" al"o de&ende de&endent nt on alue"' alue"' but al"o on cau"al cau"al connection connection"' "' limit" and &o""ibil &o""ibilitie itie"" in the real ,orld ,orld – the em&irical em&irical Eudemen Eudement" t" – ,hich ,hich relie" relie" more heaily heaily on %act"' %act"' inter&retation" o% eidence and &ur&orted %act". !he"e ho,eer' are ba"ed u&on our moral Eudement" about the meanin and alue o% democracy. >m&irical Eudement" are releant and im&ortant to u"' becau"e ,e care about democracy and it" alue". 7art ## ,ill con"i"t o% the ex&loration o% ideal"' oal" and alue"' ,herea" 7art ### ,ill be more ba"ed ba"ed u&on em&irica em&iricall de"cri&t de"cri&tion" ion" o% democrat democratic ic &olitica &oliticall in"titut in"titution" ion".. #n 7art #@' #@' %aoura %aourable ble and un%aourable condition" %or democratic &olitical in"titution" ,ill be em&irically de"cribed.
Part II. Ideal Democracy Chapter #: What i Democracy" Page 35 – 43 Some oal" cannot be attained by our"ele". +o,eer' by coo&eratin ,ho "hare "imilar aim" ,e miht. miht. !hu"' !hu"' &eo&l &eo&lee miht miht %orm %orm an a""oc a""ociat iatio ion n to ,or$ ,or$ toet toether her in attai attainin nin the"e the"e oal" oal".. !hi" !hi" a""ociation need" a con"titution' ,hich ,ill be ,ritten by a member ,ho &o""e""e" "ome "$ill on the matter. !he content" o% thi" con"titution are oted u&on democratically' a" eeryone i" eual in the a""ociation. #% that &er"on decide" to loo$ %or exam&le" o% con"itution"' he ,ould %ind there are ery di%%erin er"ion" o% con"titution". !here "eem" to be no "inle *democratic* in"titution. !he &er"on decide" to loo$ %or "imilaritie" that Eu"ti%ie" their claim to bein democratic. Are "ome &erha&" more democratic than other"/ 3hat doe" democracy mean/ +o,eer' the term i" u"ed in a "taerin number o% ,ay". +e decide" to inore the &recedent"' becau"e hi" ta"$ i" more "&eci%ic- to de"in a "et o% rule" and &rinci&le" (a con"titution) that ,ill determine ho, the a""ociation*" deci"ion" are to be made' under one underlyin &rinci&le- all member" are to be treated a" i% they ,ere eually uali%ied in &artici&atin in the &roce"" o% ma$in deci"ion" about the &olicie" the a""ociation ,ill &ur"ue. All member" are to be con"idered a" &olitically eual. 2R#!>R#A FOR A D>CO2RA!#2 7RO2>SS Dahl thin$" there are %ie "tandard" that an a""ociation ha" to meet in order to "ati"%y the reuirement that all the member" are eually entitled to &artici&ate in the a""ociation*" deci"ion" about it" &olicie"1.
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Effective participat participation ion.. e%ore a &olicy i" ado&ted by the a""ociation' all the member" mu"t hae eual and e%%ectie o&&ortunitie" %or ma$in their ie," $no,n to the other member" a" to ,hat the &olicy "hould be. Voting Equaity. Equaity . 3hen the moment arrie" at ,hich the deci"ion aobut &olicy ,ill %inally be made' eery member my"t hae an eual and e%%ectie o&&ortunity to ote' and all ote" mu"t be counted a" eual. Enig!tene" Enig!tene" #n"erstan"ing #n"erstan"ing.. 3ithin rea"onable limit" a" to time' each member mu"t hae eual and e%%ectie o&&ortunitie" %or learnin about the releant alternatie &olicie" and their li$ely con"euence". $ontro of t!e Agen"a . Cember" mu"t hae exclu"ie o&&ortunity to decide ho, and' i% they choo"e' ,hat matter" are to be &laced on the aenda. !he democratic &roce"" &roided by the aboe three criteria i" neer clo"ed. 7olicie" o% the a""ociation are al,ay" o&en to chane by the member"' i% they "o choo"e. %ncusion %ncusion of A"uts A"uts . Co"t adult &ermanent re"ident" "hould hae the %ull riht" o% citien" that are im&lied by the %ir"t %our criteria. (&.:?68)
3+H !+>S> 2R#!>R#A/ >ach o% the"e criteria are nece""airy i% the member" are to be treated eually in determinin determinin the &olicie" o% the a""ociation. a""ociation. #% "ome are ien reater o&&ortunitie" o&&ortunitie" to ex&re"" their ie,' ie,' their &olicy i" more li$ely to &reail. #% ote" aren*t ,eihed eually' eually' &erha&" bound to their "ie' larer &eo&le could ado&t &olicie" %aourable %or lare &eo&le. !he third a""um&tion ,a" %ir"t &ut %orth by 7ericle" in :12>- Our ordinary citien"' thouh occu&ied ,ith the &ur"uit" o% indu"try' are "till %air Eude" o% &ublic matter"K LMN and in"tead o% loo$in
on di"cu""ion a" a "tumblin bloc$ in the ,ay o% action' ,e thin$ it an indi"&en"able &reliminary to any ,i"e action. !he %inal t,o a""ure that the %ir"t three aren*t coertly inored by "ome member". SOC> 2RB2#A; PB>S!#O4S !hi" i" not the an",er to the ue"tion ,hat i" democracy' but merely a ood "tart. #t "ue"t" a ood many more ue"tion". For in"tance' are the"e criteria a&&licable to a %ull "cale a""ociation' li$e a oernment o% a "tate/ 3e can. !he &rimary %ocu" o% democratic idea" ha" lon been the "tate. !he in"titution" ,e thin$ thin$ o% a" chara characte cteri" ri"ti tic" c" o% democ democra racy cy are &rima &rimaril rily y deel deelo& o&ed ed a" mean" mean" %or democ democrat ratii iin n oernment o% "tate". +o,eer' no "tate ha" eer %ully mea"ered u& to the"e criteria' nor i" li$ely to. !he criter criteria ia &roi &roide de "eric "ericea eable ble "tand "tandard ard"" %or mea"u mea"urin rin the achie achieeme ement" nt" and and &o""i &o""ibi bilit litie" ie" o% democratic a""ociation. #" it reali"tic to thin$ that an a""ociation could eer %ully meet the"e criteria/ 7robably not. Are they Eu"t uto&ian ho&e"/ #t only &roide" a mea"ure' and can "ere a" uide" %or "ha&in and re"ha&in in"titution" and con"titution" ali$e. #% the criteria ,ould "ere a" u"e%ul uide"' are they all ,e need %or de"inin democratic &olitical in"titution"/ 4o. !here are too many ariable" to an a""ociation ,hich cannot be included. #% one" one" ie," ie," are acce&ted acce&ted ,ithout ,ithout challene' challene' ,hy "hould "hould ,e beliee beliee that democra democracy cy i" de"irable/ de"irable/ And i% not' ,hy "hould ,e beliee in &olitical euallity/ euallity/ #% ,e don*t beliee in euality' euality' ,hy "hould ,e beliee in democracy/
Chapter $: Why Democracy" De mocracy" Page 44-6& #n thi" cha&ter' Dahl ,ill re%er to democracy a" actual %orm" o% oernment' not the ideal %orm. Democracy &roduce" de"irable con"euence" (%iure <' &.<) 1. Aoidin tyranny . >""ential riht" :. 5eneral %reedom . Sel% determination <. Coral autonomy =. +uman Deelo&ment ?. 7rotectin e""ential &er"onal intere"t" 8. 7olitical euality #n addition' modern democracie" &roduce9. 7eace6"ee$in 1. 7ro"&erity non6democratic reime" hae o%ten tried to Eu"ti%y their rule by ino$in the ancient and &er"i"tant claim that mo"t &eo&le are Eu"t not com&etent to &artici&ate in oernin oernin a "tate' im&lyin they need to leae &olitic" to the ,i"e %e, (or Eu"t one). #n one %orm or another the conte"t oer oernment by the one' the %e,' or the many "till exi"t". 3hy "hould ,e beliee democracy i" mo"t de"irable/ ("ee "ummation aboe). 1. 'e(ocracy !eps to prevent prevent govern(ent govern(ent )y crue an" vicious autocrats . !he !he mo"t %undamental &roblem in &olitic" i" to aoid autocratic rule' ,hich they ,ould u"e to "ere their o,n
end". !he co"t" o% de"&otal rule rial tho"e o% di"ea"e' %amine and ,ar. >xam&le" he name" are Stalin (%ami (%amine' ne' &ri"on &ri"on cam&") cam&")'' +itler +itler (33' (33' +oloca +olocau" u"t)' t)' 7ol 7ot (*"el (*"el%6i %6in%l n%lict icted ed** enoci enocide) de).. 7o&ula 7o&ularr oernment" aren*t %ree o% blemi"he"' and o%ten act unEu"tly or cruelly to,ard &eo&le out"ide their border". !o &reent in%licted harm on &er"on" ,ithin their border"' "u%%rae ,a" extended durin the 19th and th century' becau"e &eo&le ,ere then con"idered eual. +o,eer' couldn*t the maEority in%lict harm on the minority by ,hat i" called the tiranny o% the maEority/ maEority/ !hi" i" not an ea"y an",er' a" eery ado&ted la, or &olicy i" bound to in%lict harm on "ome &eo&le. !he i""ue i" ,hether in the lon run a democratic &roce"" i" li$ely to do le"" harm to the %undamental %undamental riht" and intere"t" intere"t" o% it" citien" than any nondemocratic alternatie. alternatie. ecau"e democratic oer oernme nment nt"" hae hae a bette betterr abili ability ty o% bloc$i bloc$in n abu" abu"ie ie autoc autocrat ratic ic rule' rule' democr democraci acie" e" meet meet thi" thi" reuirement better than other %orm" o% oernment. . 'e(ocracy guarantees guarantees its citi*ens a nu()er of fun"a(enta fun"a(enta rig!ts t!at non"e(ocratic non"e(ocratic syste(s "o not+ an" cannot+ grant . grant . Democracy i" inherently a "y"tem o% riht"' they are the e""ential buildin bloc$" o% a democratic &roce"". !o meet certain "tandard"' li$e e%%ectie &artici&ation' a citien need" the riht to &artici&ate and a riht to ex&re"" their ie,". 4ondemocratic "y"tem" don*t o%%er the"e riht"' becau"e i% they do' they*d become democracie". A &romi"e o% the"e riht" (,hether in ,ritin' la, or con"titution) i" not enouh' they need to be e%%ec e%%ecti tiely ely en%orc en%orced ed and and aail aailabl ablee to citie citien". n". #% not' not' the demo democra cracy cy i" merely merely a %acad %acadee %or %or nondemocratic rule (Ru""iaQ). #% and ,hen many citien" %ail to under"tand that democracy reuire" certain %undamental %undamental riht" or %ail to "u&&ort the in"titution" in"titution" that &rotect tho"e riht"' their democracy i" in daner. !hi" daner i" reduced by a third bene%it. :. 'e(ocracy insures insures its citi*ens a )roa"er )roa"er range of persona persona free"o( free"o( t!an any feasi)e aternative aternative to it, A it, A belie% in the de"irability o% democracy doe" not exi"t in i"olation %rom other belie%"' but i" &art o% a clu"ter. clu"ter. >en i% the "tate i" aboli"hed (many anarchi"t*" oal)' coercion o% "ome &er"on" by other &er"on"' rou&" or a""ociation" i" li$ely' robbin the %ruit" o% one*" labour and in addition re6 creatin a coercie "tate in order to "ecure their o,n domination. . 'e(ocracy . 'e(ocracy !eps peope to protect protect t!eir on fun"a(enta interests, interests, a"ic human riht" (#.e "urial' "helter' %ood' etc.) i" de"ired by all. !heir order may di%%er %rom &er"on to &er"on' and democracy ma$e" "ure you hae the o&&ortunity to choo"e ,hich oal" are mo"t im&ortant to you. A" J.S. Cill &ut it- o% a" unier"al truth and a&&licability a" any eneral &ro&o"ition" ,hich can be laid do,n re"&ectin human a%%air" i" that the riht" and intere"t" o% eery or any &er"on are "ecure %rom bein di"rearded ,hen the &er"on i" him"el% able' and habitually di"&o"ed' to "tand u& %or them. LMN +uman bein" are only "ecure %rom eil at the hand" o% other" in &ro&ortion a" they hae the &o,er o% bein' and are' "el%6&rotectin. Dahl aree"K een i% included in the electorate' you can*t be certain all your intere"t" ,ill be adeuately &rotected. ut i% excluded' you $no, %or "ure your intere"t" ,ill be harmed by nelect or outriht damae. #nclu"ion >xclu"ion. <. .ny a "e(ocratic govern(ent can provi"e a (a/i(u( opportunity for persons to e/ercise t!e free"o( of sef-"eter(ination-t!at is+ to ive un"er as of t!eir on c!oosing, ;iin a "ati"%actory li%e can*t be ,ithout other"' but liin ,ith other" mean" you can*t al,ay" do ,hat you li$e. 3hat you ,ould li$e to do con%lict" ,ith ,hat other" ,ould li$e to do. ein a member o% a rou&' you hae to adEu"t to the rule" or &ractice" o% the rou&. #% you can*t im&o"e your ,i"he" by %orce' you ,ould hae to come to an areement. +o, can you be %ree to choo"e the la," o% the "tate' but not be %ree to di"obey them/ #% eeryone aree" unanimou"ly on la,"' there i" no need %or la," (&erha&" to "ere a" reminder). +o,eer +o,eer'' unanimi unanimity ty i" mo"tly mo"tly "hort "hort lied' lied' &er%ect &er%ect con"en"u con"en"u"" unattain unattainable able.. #n %ormin %ormin la," in a democracy' it i" &o""ible to ma$e your o&inion $no,n. #% la, i" enacted' it i" %act. =. .ny a "e(ocratic govern(ent can provi"e a (a/i(u( opportunity for e/ercising (ora respon responsi)i si)iity ity,, >xerc >xerci"i i"in n moral moral re"&on re"&on"ib "ibil ility ity mean" mean" ado&t ado&tin in your your moral moral &rinci &rinci&le &le"" and and ma$e ma$e
deci"ion" that de&end on the"e &rinci&le" only a%ter you hae enaed in a thouht%ul &roce"" o% re%lection' deliberation' "crutiny and con"ideration o% alternatie" and their con"euence". ut ho, can you be re"&on"ible %or deci"ion" that you cannot control/ #% the democratic &roce"" maximie" your o&&ortunity to lie under la," o% your o,n choo"in then it al"o enable" you to act a" a morally re"&on"ible &er"on. ?. 'e(ocracy fosters !u(an "eveop(ent "eveop(ent (ore fuy t!an any feasi)e aternative, aternative, !hi" a""ertio a""ertion n i" hihly hihly &lau"ibl &lau"ible' e' but un&roen. un&roen. At birth' birth' &eo&le &eo&le hae the &otenti &otential al o% liin liin morally morally re"&on"ible. +o, much o% that i" deelo&ed de&end" on many circum"tance" and amon tho"e i" the nature o% the &olitical &olitical "y"tem " y"tem that &er"on i" born under. under. 4ondemocratic "y"tem" redu" the "co&e ,ithin ,hich adult" can act to &rotect their o,n intere"t"' con"ider tho"e o% other"' ta$e re"&on"ibility %or im&ortant deci"ion" deci"ion" and enae %reely ,ith other" to come to an areement. areement. Democratic oernment i" not enouh to in"ure that &eo&le deelo& the"e ualitie"' but it i" e""ential. 8. .ny a "e(ocratic govern(ent can foster a reativey !ig! "egree of poitica equaity, 3hy "hould ,e &lace a alue on &olitical euality/ !he an",er i" %ar %rom "el%6eident' and Dahl &romi"e" to ex&lain the de"irability in the %ollo,in t,o cha&ter" and ,hy it %ollo," i% ,e acce&t "eeral rea"onable a""um&tion" that &robably mo"t o% do beliee in. 9. 0o"ern 9. 0o"ern representativ representativee "e(ocracies "o not fig!t ars it! one anot!er, anot!er, !hi" adantae ,a" larely un&redicted and unex&ected' but eidence i" oer,helmin. O% : ,ar" bet,een 19< and 1989' none occurred amon democratic countrie"' neither ha" there been any &re&aration %or one. !hey did %iht %iht nondemoc nondemocrati raticc countri countrie"' e"' im&o"ed im&o"ed colonia coloniall rule and inter%er inter%ered ed in &olitica &oliticall li%e o% other other countrie" (een ,ea$enin or oerthro,in ,ea$ oernment"). Democratic citien" and leader" learn the art o% com&ro com&romi mi"e. "e. !hey !hey "ee &eo&le &eo&le %rom %rom other other democr democraci acie" e" a" le"" le"" threat threateni enin' n' more more li$e li$e them"ele"' more tru"t,orthy. !here i" a &redi"&o"ition to "ee$ &eace rather than ,ar. 1. $ountries it! "e(ocratic govern(ents ten" to )e (ore prosperous t!an countries it! non"e(oc non"e(ocrati raticc govern( govern(ents ents,, >x&lan >x&lanati ation on i" &artly &artly %ound %ound in the a%%in a%%inity ity bet,e bet,een en re&re re&re"en "entat tatie ie oernment and a mar$et economy' ,here mar$et" are mo"tly unreulated' ,or$er" %ree to chane Eob"' &riately o,ned com&anie" com&anie" com&ete %or "ale" and re"ource"' re"ource"' and con"umer" con"umer" can choo"e amon ood" and "erice". All modern democratic oernment" hae mar$et economie" and a country ,ith a mar$et economy i" more li$ely to be &ro"&erou"' ero a modern democratic country i" more li$ely to be al"o rich. Democr Democrati aticc count countrie rie"" %o"te %o"terr the educat education ion o% their their &eo&l &eo&le. e. Rule Rule o% la, la, i" more more "tron "tronly ly "u"tained' court" are more inde&endent' &ro&erty riht" are more "ecure' contractual areement" more e%%ectiely en%orced and economic interention by &olitician" i" le"" li$ely. Furthermore' democracie" rely on communication' "ee$in and exchanin in%ormation i" ea"ier and le"" danerou" than in mo"t nondemocratic reime". !hi" create" a more ho"&itable enironment in ,hich to achiee the adantae" o% mar$et mar$et econ economi omie" e" and and econo economi micc ro,th ro,th.. +o,e +o,eer er'' mar$e mar$ett econo economie mie"" al"o al"o mean mean econ economi omicc ineuality' ,hich could mean a dimini"hed &olitical euality amon the citien".
Chapter %: Why Political &'(ality )I*" %ntrinsic )I*" %ntrinsic Equaity, Equaity, Page 62-61 3hy "hould the riht" riht" nece""ary nece""ary to a democrat democratic ic &roce"" &roce"" o% oernin oernin be extende extended d equay equay amon citien"/ #S >PBA;#!H S>;F >@#D>4!/ !he American Declaration o% #nde&endence held euality amon men a" "el%6eident. 2ritic" di"mi""ed the"e a""ertion" a" em&ty rhetoric. 2allin it hy&ocri"y' a" the"e riht" ,here not extended to
,omen' "lae"' %ree neroe" and natie American". Since then' ineuality ha" dimini"hed' but many %orm" remain. #neuality' not euality' a&&ear" to be the natural condition o% human$ind. #4!R#4S#2 >PBA;#!H- A CORA; JBD5>C>4! #neuality can be in the ability to ,in a marathon' or in o&&ortunity to ote' "&ea$ and &arti &artici ci&at &atee in oer oernan nance ce.. 3hen 3hen ,e tal$ tal$ about about &olit &olitic ical al eual euality ity'' ,e mean mean to ex&re ex&re"" "" a moral moral Eudement about human bein"' ,hat ,e beliee ouht to be. 3e ouht to treat all &er"on" a" i% they &o""e"" eual claim" to li%e' liberty' ha&&ine"" and other %undamental ood" and intere"t". Dahl call" thi" intrinsic intrinsic equaity, equaity, #n order to a&&ly thi" to the oernment o% a "tate' a "u&&lementary &rinci&le i" needed- #n arriin at deci"ion"' the oernment mu"t ie eual con"ideration to the ood and intere"t" o% eery &er"on bound by tho"e deci"ion". 3+H 3> S+OB;D ADO7! !+> 7R#42#7;> Et!ica an" reigious groun"s, groun"s, For a reat many &eo&le it i" con"i"tent ,ith their mo"t ethical belie%" and &rinci&le" (all created eually a" 5od*" children' yadayadayada). Co"t moral rea"onin' mo"t "y"tem" o% ethic"' ex&licitly or im&licitly a""ume "ome "uch &rinci&le. !e eaness of an aternative principe, >ery eneral alternatie i" %ound to be im&lau"ible and unconincin. A claim to intrin"ic "u&eriority (i.e. # am more im&ortant than you) i" buried in our eoti"tical core' but ,hy "hould ,e acce&t that claim %rom other"/ A rou& ,ith enouh &o,er could en%orce their claim literally oer your dead body. !he"e claim" hae mo"tly been "hrouded ,ith a &re6 determination by a *hiher &o,er*. Pru"ence, Pru"ence, 5oernment" 5oernment" not only con%er reat bene%it" but can al"o in%lict reat harm. 7rudence dictate" a cautiou" concern %or the manner in ,hich it" unu"ual ca&acitie" ,ill be em&loyed. #t i" "a%er to in"i"t that your intere"t" ,ill be ien eual con"ideration ,ith tho"e o% other"' in %ear o% reolt and re&ercu"ion". Accepta)iity Accepta)iity,, A &roce"" that uarantee" eual con"ideration %or all i" more li$ely to "ecure the a""ent o% other" ,ho"e coo&eration you need to achiee your end".
Chapter +: Why Political &'(ality )II*" $ivic $o(petence Page 6-1 3e are not nece""arily bound to endor"e democracy a" the be"t &roce"" %or oernin a "tate. !+> 2OB4!>R2;A#C OF 5BARD#A4S+#7 !he claim that oernment "hould be turned oer to ex&ert" dee&ly committed to rule %or the eneral ood and "u&erior to other" in their $no,lede o% the mean" to achiee it – 5uardian"' a" 7lato called them – ha" al,ay" been the maEor rial o% democratic idea". !hey deny that ordinary &eo&le are com&etent to oern them"ele". !hey im&ly that *5uardian"* are "u&erior in their $no,lede o% the eneral ood and ho, to achiee it. !here are "ome %ault" to the arument %or 5uardian"hi&. !o deleate certain "ubordinate deci"ion" to ex&ert" i" not euialent to cedin %inal control oer maEor deci"ion". 7er"onal deci"ion" made by indiidual" are not euialent euialent to deci"ion" deci"ion" made and en%orced by the oernment o% a "tate. !o oern a "tate ,ell' reuire" much more than "trictly "cienti%ic $no,lede (ed"- hih moderni"m)' oernin relie" on ethical Eudement" a" ,ell. And to oern a "tate ,ell ta$e" more than Eu"t $no,ledeK you al"o need incorru&tability to $ee& &ur"uin the &ublic ood. ;i$e en Fran$lin "aid- !here are t,o &a""ion" ,hich hae a &o,er%ul in%luence on the a%%air" o% men. !he"e are ambition and aarice' the loe o% &o,er and the loe o% money. ;a"tly' to de"in a uto&ia i" one thin' to brin it about i" uite another.
!+> 2OC7>!>42> OF 2#!#G>4S !O 5O@>R4. #% ,e reEect the ca"e o% 5uardian"hi&' ,e conclude- Amon adult" no &er"on" are "o de%initely better uali%ied than other" to oern that they "hould be entru"ted ,ith com&lete and %inal authority oer the oernment o% "tate. On mo"t matter" ,e beliee adult" "hould be allo,ed to Eude ,hat i" be"t %or hi" or o,n ood or intere"t". 3e "ometime" reEect the &re"um&tion %or &er"on" o% adult ae ,ho are Euded to lac$ a normal ca&acity to loo$ out %or them"ele". !he ue"tion i"' are mo"t adult" com&etent enouh to &artici&ate in oernin the "tate. A F#F!+ D>CO2RA!#2 S!A4DARD- #42;BS#O4. #% you are de&ried o% an eual oice in the oernment o% a "tate' the chance" are uite hih that your intere"t" ,ill not be ien the "ame attention a" the intere"t" o% tho"e ,ho do hae a oice. #% you hae no oice' ,ho ,ill de%end your intere"t" or that o% your rou&/ 4o one ,ill adeuately &rotect them' a" hi"tory ha" "ho,n. J.S. Cill a"$ed- 'oes paria(ent+ paria(ent+ or a(ost any of t!e (e()ers co(posing it+ ever for an instant oo at any question it! t!e eyes of a oring(an !en a su)8ect arises in !ic! t!e a)orers as suc! !ave an interest+ is it regar"e" fro( any point of vie )ut t!at of e(poyers of a)or / 7eo& 7eo&le le "ometi "ometime me"" mi"Eud mi"Eude e their their o,n inter intere"t e"t"' "' but but the &re&o &re&onde ndera rant nt ,eiht ,eiht o% human human ex&erience in%orm" u" that no rou& o% adult" can "a%ely rant to other" the &o,er to oern oer them. Dahl conclude"- Full inclu"ion. !he citien body in democratically oerned "tate mu"t include all &er"on" "ubEect to the la," o% that "tate exce&t tran"ient" and &er"on" &roed to be inca&able o% carin %or them"ele". B4S>!!;>D 7RO;>CS ReEectin uardian"hi& and ado&tin &olitical euality a" an ideal "till leae" "ome di%%icult ue"t ue"tion ion". ". Don*t Don*t citi citien" en" and and oern oernme ment nt o%%ic o%%icial ial"" need need hel& hel& %rom %rom ex&er ex&ert" t"// He" they they do. !heir !heir "&ecialied $no,lede i" undeniably im&ortant %or the %untionin o% democratic oernment". 7ublic &olicy i" o%ten com&lex that no oernment could ma$e "ati"%actory deci"ion" ,ithout hel& %rom ex&ert". #% citien" are to be com&etent' ,on*t they need &olitical and "ocial in"titution" to hel& ma$e them "o/ He"' o&&ortunitie" to ain enlihtened under"tandin o% &ublic matter" are a reuirement o% democracy. !he maEority o% citien" miht "till ma$e mi"ta$e"' ,hich i" ,hy adocate" o% democracy "tre"" the im&ortance o% education. 3hat i% the in"titution" %or deelo&in com&etent citien" are ,ea$' and they don*t $no, enouh to &rotect their o,n alue" and intere"t"/ 3e hae ado&ted intrin"ic euality' ,hich ,e a&&lied to the oernment o% "tate. 3e reEected 5uardian"hi&' but acce&ted %ull inclu"ion. !here%ore' i% the in"titution" %or ciic education are ,ea$' only one "olution remain"- they mu"t be "trenthened. 7erha&" the in"titution" created in the 19 th and th century are no loner adeuate. #% "o' ,e need to create ne, one" to "u&&lement the old one". 2O42;BD#45 2OCC>4!S A4D 7R>@#>3 3e hae barely &ee$ed &ee$ed into the remainin hal%- the the ba"ic in"titution" in"titution" that are nece""airy nece""airy %or adancin adancin the oal oal o% democra democracy cy'' and the conditi condition" on" ("ocial' ("ocial' economic' economic' and other") that %aour %aour deelo&m deelo&ment ent and maintena maintenance nce o% the democrat democratic ic &olitica &oliticall in"titut in"titution" ion".. 3e*ll ex&lore ex&lore the"e the"e in the %ollo,in cha&ter"' ,here ,e turn %rom oal" to actualitie".
P!,T III Actua 'e(ocracies 'e(ocracies $!apter 19 3hat 7olitical #n"titution" Doe" ;are6Scale Democracy Reuire/ Page 13- Cain ue"tion o% thi" cha&ter- ,hat doe" it mean to "ay that a country i" oerned democratically/ A %e, thin thin to $ee& $ee& in mindmind- thi" thi" mean" mean" lar lare6" e6"ca cale le democr democrac acie" ie" (not (not commi committe ttee") e")'' eery eery actual actual democracy ha" %allen "hort o% the criteria de"cribed in &art ##' and %inally ,e "hould be a,are that in ordinary lanuae ,e u"e the ,ord *democracy* to re%er both to a oal or ideal and to an actuality that i" only a &artial attainment o% the oal. +O3 2A4 3> 4O3/ +o, can ,e determine ,hat in"titution" are nece""airy %or lare6"cale democracy/ 3e miht examine the hi"tory o% countrie" that chaned their in"titution" in re"&on"e to demand" %or a broader &o&ular inclu"ion (ed"- a%ter 188' %or exam&le). Alternatiely' ,e could examine countrie" ,hich are de"cribed a" democratic. !hird' ,e could re%lect on a "&eci%ic country' or rou&" o% countrie"' or a hy&othetical country' in order to imaine ,hat &olitical in"titution" ,ould be reuired in order to achiee democratic oal". All three method" conere on the "ame "et o% in"titution"' ,hich are the minimal reuirement" %or a democratic country.
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!+> 7O;#!#2A; #4S!#!B!#O4S OF COD>R4 R>7R>S>4!A!#@> 5O@>R4C>4!. Eecte" officas. officas. 2ontrol oer oernment deci"ion" about &olicy i" con"titutionally e"ted in o%%i o%%ici cial al"" elec electe ted d by citi citie en" n".. !hu" !hu"'' mode modern rn'' lar lare6" e6"ca cale le demo democr crat atic ic oe oern rnme ment nt"" are are representative, :ree+ :ree+ fair an" frequent frequent eections, >lected o%%icial" are cho"en in %reuent and %airly conducted election" in ,hich coercion i" com&aratiely uncommon. :ree"o( :ree"o( of e/pression, e/pression, 2itien" hae a riht to ex&re"" them"ele" ,ithout daner o% "eere &uni" &uni"hme hment nt on &olit &olitic ical al matter matter"" broad broadly ly de%in de%ined ed'' inclu includin din criti critici" ci"m m o% o%%ic o%%icial ial"' "' the oernment' the reime' the "ocioeconomic order and the &reailin ideoloy. Access to aternative aternative sources sources of infor(ation, infor(ation, 2itien" hae a riht o "ee$ out alternatie and inde&endent "ource" o% in%ormation %rom other citien"' ex&ert"' ne,"&a&er"' maaine"' boo$"' telecomm telecommunic unicatio ation"' n"' etc. etc. !he"e !he"e alternat alternatie ie "ource" "ource" mu"t not be under under the in%luence in%luence o% the oernment or any &olitical rou&' and &rotected by la,. Associationa Associationa autono(y, autono(y, !o achiee achiee their ariou" ariou" riht"' riht"' includin includin tho"e tho"e reured reured %or the e%%ect e%%ectie ie o&eration o&eration o% democrat democratic ic &olitica &oliticall in"titut in"titution ion"' "' citien citien"" al"o hae a riht riht to %orm relatiely inde&endent a""ociation" or oraniation"' includin inde&endent &olitical &artie" and intere"t rou&". %ncusive %ncusive citi*ens!ip, citi*ens!ip, 4o adult &ermanently re"idin in the country and "ubEect to it" la," can be denied the riht" that are abailable to other" and are nece""airy to the %ie &olitical in"titution" Eu"t li"ted. li"ted.
!+> 7O;#!#2A; #4S!#!B!#O4S #4 7>RS7>2!#@> !he"e do not ordinarily arrie in a country all at once' the la"t t,o are di"tinctly latecomer". Bntil the th century' unier"al "u%%rae ,a" denied in both theory and &ractice o% democratic and re&ublican oernment. !ime o% arrial and "euence in ,hich they hae been introduced hae aried tremendou"ly. #n older democracie"' election" came %ir"t (>nland 1: th century' BS 1? th.) Durin the 19th century' the %ir"t %ie o% the ba"ic democratic in"titution" (a" ob"ered by de !ocueille in the BS)
,ere con"olidated in more than a doen other countrie"' yet eery,here the "ixth in"titution ,a" mi""in. Bnier"al "u%%rae at the time did not include ,omen' or a%rican6american". #t ,a" not until the th century that in both theory and &ractice democracy came to reuire that riht" to enae in &olitical li%e mu"t be extended. !he"e "ix in"titution" con"titute not only a ne, ty&e o% &olitical "y"tem but a ne, $ind o% &o&ular oernment' a *democracy* that had neer exi"ted. !hi" modern %orm i" "ometime" called poyarc!a poyarc!a "e(ocracy (&oly0many' "e(ocracy (&oly0many' archal0rule' ero *rule o% the many*). #t came about in re"&on"e to demand" %or inclu"ion and &artici&ation. +o,eer' are "ome o% the"e in"titution" no more than &a"t &roduct" o% hi"torical "trule"/ !+> FA2!OR OF S#G> 3hy do ,e only "&ea$ o% lare6"cale democracie"/ democracie"/ ecau"e "mall6"cale' li$e committee"' don*t need a lot o% democracy. A &re"idin "&ea$er may be enouh %or it to run democratic. So ,hat do the in"titution" brin to the table/ 7olit 7olitica icall in" in"tit tituti ution on"" o% o% &oly &olyar archa chall demo democra cracy cy
Sati" Sati"%y %y the %ollo %ollo,in ,in demo democra cratic tic crite criteri riaa-
>lected re&re"entatie"
>%%ectie &artici&ation 2ontrol o% the Aenda
Free' %air and %reuent election"
@otin >uality 2ontrol o% the Aenda
Freedom o% >x&re""ion
>%%ectie &artici&ation enlihtened under"tandin control o% the aenda
Alternatie in%ormation
>%%ectie &artici&ation enlihtened under"tandin control o% the aenda
A""ociational autonomy
>%%ectie &artici&ation enlihtened under"tandin control o% the aenda
#nclu"ie citien"hi&
Full inclu"ion
3+H (A4D 3+>4) DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> >;>2!>D R>7R>S>4!A!#@>S/ +o, can citien" &artici&ate e%%ectiely e%%ectiely ,hen the 4 become" too numerou" or ,idely di"&er"ed eora&hically eora&hically %or them to &artici&ate &artici&ate in coneniently coneniently in ma$in la," by a""emblin in one &lace/ Or' ho, can citien" control the aenda o% oernment deci"ion"/ Democracy meant to,n6hall meetin"' and re&re"entatie democracy ,a" a contradiction in terminoloy. +o,eer' the arrial o% the nation6"tate meant that the "mall "tate di"a&&eared' due to military "u&eriority o% the nation6"tate. Re&re"entation ,a" nece""airy. 3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> FR>>' FA#R A4D FR>PB>4! >;>2!#O4S/ #% euality in otin i" to be im&lemented' election" mu"t be %ree and %air' %ree o% re&ri"al and all ote" counted eual. #% citien" are to retain %inal control oer the aenda' you can*t elect "omeone %or a 6year term' thu" election" hae to be %reuent. Free and %air i" di"&uted' Fir"t67a"t6!he67o"t or 7ro&ortional Re&re"entation/ #n term" o% %reuency' anythin oer < year" i" too lon' ho,eer' annual ,ould be too "hort. Amon democracie"' the"e term" ary in lenth.
3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> FR>> >7R>SS#O4/ 7artici&ation i" not %ree i% one can*t ex&re"" them"ele" %reely' and they mu"t be able to hear ,hat other" hae to "ay. 2iic com&etence relie" on o&&ortunitie" to ex&re""' learn %rom other"' enae in debate"' read' hear' ue"tion ex&ert"' etc. 2itien" ,ould lo"e their in%luence to control the aenda i% they are not com&etent. 3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> R>PB#R> !+> A@A#;A#;#!H A#;A#;#!H OF A; A;!>R4A !>R4A!#@> !#@> A4D #4D>7>4D>4! SOBR2>S OF #4FORCA!#O4 +o, can citien" auire the $no,lede they need in order to under"tand the i""ue" i% the oernment control" all the im&ortant "ource" o% in%ormation (or any other "inle rou&)/ 2ontrollin the aenda ,ould be im&o""ible' i% they don*t $no, ,hat i" currently on there i% oernment doe"n*t tell them. 3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> #4D>7>4D>4! ASSO2#A!#O4S #% a lare lare re&ub re&ublic lic reui reuire" re" that that re&re re&re"en "entat tatie ie"" be electe elected' d' then then ho, ho, are electi election on"" to be conte"ted/ conte"ted/ An oraniation or &arty ie" a rou& an electoral adantae' they are ineitable. ineitable. !hey are al"o a "ource o% ciic education and enlihtenment. 3+H DO>S D>CO2RA2H R>PB#R> #42;BS#@> 2#!#G>4S+#7 "ee conclu"ion o% the la"t cha&ter Ju"t a" ,e need "trateie" %or brinin about a tran"ition to democracy in nondemocratic nondemocratic countrie" and %or con"olidatin democratic in"titution" in ne,ly democratied countrie"' "o in the older democratic countrie" ,e need to con"ider ,hether and ho, to moe beyond our exi"tin leel o% democracy.
2+A7!>R 9- @arietie" #. 'e(ocracy #. 'e(ocracy on 'ifferent 'ifferent ;caes page &-&&1 &-&&1 B! 3ORDS DO CA!!>R authoritarian reime" o%ten claim that their" i" really a "&ecial ty&e o% democracy. ;enin claimed a &roletarian democracy i" a million time" more democratic than any boureoi" democracy. 3hy "hould ,e acce&t tho"e claim"/ 3e are entitled to Eude a country to be a democracy only i% it &o""e" &o""e""e "e"" all o% the the &olit &olitica icall in"ti in"titut tutio ion" n" that that are nece nece""a ""ary ry to democr democracy acy.. Doe" Doe" thi" thi" mean mean that that democr democrati aticc crite criteria ria can can be "ati"% "ati"%ie ied d only only by the %ull %ull "et o% &olit &olitic ical al in"ti in"titut tutio ion" n" o% &olya &olyarch rchal al democracy/ 4ot nece""airily6 !he in"titution" o% &olyarchal democracy are nece""airy %or democratiin the oernment o% the "tate in a lare6"cale "y"tem' "&eci%ically a country. ut they miht be unnece""airy or do,nriht un"uitable %or democracy in "maller unit". 6 !he in"itution" o% &olyarchal democracy ary a reat deal and in im&ortant ,ay" 6 ecau"e the in"titution" are nece""ary doe" not im&ly they are "u%%icient %or democracy. D>CO2RA2H- 5R>> @>RSBS COD>R4 #% the &olitical in"titution" reuired %or democracy mu"t include elected re&re"entatie"' doe" that mean the Athenian democracy ,a"n*t/ y "ayin that' you ,ould "ay the &lane by the 3riht6 brother" i"n*t a &lane becau"e it doe"n*t re"emble any modern aero&lane". Codern Codern democracy democracy ha" t,o thin" thin" the 5ree$" 5ree$" didn*t didn*t haehae- inclu"i inclu"ion' on' and the election election o%
re&re"entatie" ,ith the authority to enact la," (they*d leae it to %ate). !hey created a to,n6meetin democracy' but did not inent re&re"entatie democracy a" ,e under"tand it today. ASS>C;H D>CO2RA2H @>RSBS R>7R>S>4!A!#@> D>CO2RA2H Adocate" o% a""embly democracy ,ho $no, their hi"tory are a,are that a" a democratic deice' re&re"entation ha" a "hady &a"t. #t ,a" a deice u"ed by monarch" could lay their hand" on &reciou" reenue". #n oriin' re&re"entation ,a" not democratic. 2ritic" al"o "tate that in a "mall &olitical unit a""embly democracy allo," citien" o&&ortunitie" to enae in the &roce"" o% oernin them"ele"' ,hich re&re"entatie oernment in a lare unit can*t &roide. 5ien the"e adantae"' ,hy ,a" the older under"tandin o% democracy recon%iured in order to accommodate a &olitical in"titution that ,a" nondemocratic in it" oriin"/ R>7R>S>4!A!#O4 R>7R>S>4!A!#O4 A;R>ADH A;R>AD H >#S!>D +i"tory &roide" &art o% the an",er. Democratic re%ormer" "a, no need to di"card exi"tin re&re re&re"en "enta tati tiee "y"te "y"tem" m"'' they they "im&ly "im&ly belie beliee ed d broad broadeni enin n the elect electora orall ba"e ba"e could could %orm %orm a truly truly re&re"entatie re&re"entatie body that ,ould "ere democratic &ur&o"e". !he broadenin &roce"" eentually led to a re&re"entatie oernment ba"ed on an inclu"ie demo". 3hy didn*t they o&t %or a direct democracy/ ecau"e they concluded it ,a" too lare to democratie. O42> COR>- S#G> A4D D>CO2RA2H 7o&ulation6"ie 7o&ulation6"ie and eora&hical eora&hical "ie hae con"euence". con"euence". Re%ormer" don*t ,ant their countrie" to %all a&art into hundred" o% mini6"tate". ac$ in the day' they didn*t hae the mean" o% communication ,e no, hae ,here ,e can *meet* electronically. Athenian democracy had on it" heiht =. citien"' ,hich led &eo&le at the time to beliee that Athen" had a &oli" to bi %or a a""embly democracy to %unction. A""embly democracy ha" "ome "eere &roblem"6 o&&ortunitie" %or &artici&ation ra&idly dimini"he" ,ith the "ie o% the citien body. 6 altho althou uh h many many more more can can &arti &artici ci&at &atee by li"te li"tenin nin to "&ea$ "&ea$er" er"'' the maximu maximum m number number o% &artici&ant" in a "inle meetin ,ho are li$ely to be able to ex&re"" them"ele" in "&eech i" ery "mall' &robably T1 6 !he"e %ully &artici&ant member" become' in e%%ect' re&re"entatie" o% the other"' exce&t in otin. 6 !hu"' een in a unit oerned by a""embly democracy' a $ind o% de %acto re&re"entatie "y"tem i" li$ely to exi"t. 6 Het nothin in"ure" that the %ully &artici&atin member" are re&re"entatie o% the re"t. 6 !o &roide a "ati"%actory "ati"%actory "y"tem %or "electin re&re"entatie"' re&re"entatie"' citien" may rea"onably rea"onably &re%er to elect their re&re"entatie" in %ree and %air election". !+> D>CO2RA!#2 ;#C#!S OF R>7R>S>4!A!#@> 5O@>R4C>4!. Re&re"entatie" can*t o%%er enouh time to li"ten to all citien" they re&re"ent. Small6"cale or ;are6"cale' each ha" their o,n clear adantae"' ho,eer they al"o hae inexorable limit" on ciic &artici&ation that a&&ly ,ith cruel indi%%erence to both. !e a of ti(e an" nu()ers9 t!e (ore citi*ens a "e(ocratic unit contains+ t!e ess t!at citi*ens can participate "irecty in govern(ent "ecisions an" t!e (ore t!at t!ey (ust "eegate aut!ority to ot!ers, A FB4DAC>4!A; D>CO2RA!#2 D#;>CCA #% our our oal oal i" to e"tabl e"tabli"h i"h a democr democrati aticc "y"te "y"tem m o% oer oernme nment nt that that &roi &roide de"" maximu maximum m o&&ortunitie" %or citien" to &artici&ate in &olitical deci"ion"' then the adantae clearly lie" ,ith a""embly democracy in a "mall6"cale "y"tem. ut i% our oal i" to &roide maximum "co&e to deal e%%ectiely e%%ectiely ,ith the &roblem" o% reate"t concern concern to citien"' the adantae ,ill o%ten lie ,ith a unit "o
lare a re&re"entatie "y"tem ,ill be necce"ary. SCA;; #S >AB!#FB;' SOC>!#C>S 7olitical "y"tem" don*t nece""airily realie their &o""ibilitie". !o,n meetin" are not &araon" o% &artici&atory &artici&atory democracy. democracy. 3hen citien" $no, the i""ue" on the aenda are triial' they o%ten choo"e to "tay at home. 2ontroer"ial i""ue" brin them out. !o,n meetin" are not dominated by educated and a%%luent &er"on"' rather "tron blie%" and a determination to hae a "ay are "ometime" mono&olied by a "inle "ocioeconomic rou&. B! #55>R #S >!!>R' SOC>!#C>S. !he achille"6heel o% a "mall "tate i" it" military ,ea$ne"". Athenian" couldn*t &re"ere their inde&endence. !he la"t city6"tate re&ublic (@enice) %ell to 4a&oleon ona&arte in 1?9? ,ithout much o% a "trule. #t ,ould ta$e a catacly"mic eent to eradicate the current nation6"tate" %or "mall6"cale democracie" to emere' but een then it only ta$e" the coo&eration o% a %e, to dominate the other"' there%ore recreatin lare6"cale "tate"' %or ,hich they ,ould hae to reinent re&re"entatie democracy. !+> DAR S#D>- AR5A#4#45 ACO45 >;#!>S !he dar$ "ide o% re&re"entatie oernment- citien" o%ten deleate enormou" di"cretionairy authority authority oer deci"io deci"ion" n" o% extraor extraordina dinary ry im&ortan im&ortance. ce. 4ot only to their their re&re"e re&re"entat ntatie" ie"'' but al"o admini admini"tr "trato ator"' r"' burea bureauc ucrat rat"' "' ciil ciil "eran "erant"' t"' Eude Eude"' "' etc. etc. Attac Attache hed d to the the in"ti in"titu tutio tion" n" aimed aimed at "trent "trentheni henin n democra democracy cy come" come" a certain certain nondemo nondemocrat cratic ic &roce""&roce""- barain barainin in amon amon &olitica &oliticall and bureaucratic elite". !he barainin ta$e" &lace ,ithin limit" "et throuh democratic in"titution" and &roce""e"' but the"e are o%ten broad' the &o&ular &artici&ation and control are not al,ay" a" "tron' and the elite" are ery di"crete' hidin their dealin" %rom the &ublic. 2A4 #4!>R4A!#O4A; OR5A4#GA!#O4S > D>CO2RA!#2/ 3on*t national oernment" "im&ly become more li$e local oernment" (much li$e Athen" under under Cace Cacedon don'' or @enice enice under under 4a&ol 4a&oleon eon)) that that are are "ubord "ubordina inate te to democ democrat ratic ic intern internati ation onal al oernment"/ !he challene i" not to halt internationaliation' but to democratie the orani"ation" it come" ,ith. !he >B i" a ood exam&le' %ormally it ha" all democratic in"titution" needed' but it "till ha" a iantic democratic de%icit. ;imit" %or barainin are "et by ,hat neotiator" can et other" to aree to and by con"ide con"iderin rin the li$ely li$ely con"eue con"euence nce"" %or national national and internat internationa ionall mar$et". mar$et". arai arainin nin'' hierarchy and mar$et" determine the outcome". 7olitical leader" ,ould hae to create &olitical in"titution" that ,ould &roide citien" ,ith o&&ortunitie" %or &olitical &artici&ation' in%luence and control rouhly euialent in e%%ectiene"" to tho"e already exi"tin in democratic countrie"' and citien" need to be a" muched concerned and in%ormed ,ith the i""ue" a" they are on national leel. +o, the re&re"entatie" o% a hy&othetical international citien body ,ould be di"tributed i" another &roblem. 4o "y"tem o% re&re"entation could ie eual ,eiht to the ote o% each citien and yet &reent "mall countrie" %rom bein "teadily outoted. #t "eem" unli$ely all crucial reuirement" %or the democratiation democratiation o% international orani"ation" orani"ation" ,ill ,ill be met. #nter #nternat natio ional nal deci"io deci"ion" n" ,ill be made made by the elite" elite" ia bar barain ainin in – by no mean" mean" democratic. A ROBS! 7;BRA;#S!#2 SO2#>!H 3#!+#4 D>CO2RA!#2 2OB4!R#>S 4o matter ho, "mall a country i"' it need" a rich array o% inde&endent a""ociation" and orani"ation" – a &lurali"tic ciil "ociety. Democratic &rinci&le" "ue"t "ome ue"tion" ,e miht a"$
about the oernment o% any a""ociation6 #n arriin at deci"ion"' doe" the oernment o% the a""ociation in"ure eual con"ideration to the ood and intere"t o% eery &er"on bound by the"e deci"ion"/ 6 Are any o% the member" o% the a""ociation "o de%inetly better uali%ied than other" to oern that they "hould be entru"ted ,ith the %inal authority/ 6 #% the member" are &olitical eual"' "hould the oernment o% the a""ociation not meer democratic criteria/
2ha&ter 1- @arietie" ##. $onstitutions, Page &&-&2 &&-&2 Do di%%erence" in con"titution" matter/ 4o' ye"' and maybe. Dahl ,ill %ocu" in thi" cha&ter on the con"titutional ex&erience o% older democracie" (ed"- i.e. mo"tly ,e"tern countrie"' exce&t 2o"ta Rica). @ariation ariation"" amon amon them are "u%%ici "u%%icient ent to &roide &roide an idea o% the rane rane o% &o""ibil &o""ibilitie itie". ". +o,eer +o,eer'' con"titutional arranement" o% ne, democracie" aren*t le"" im&ortant' they are crucial in the "ucce" o% democratiation. 2O4S!#!B!#O4A; 2O4S!#!B! #O4A; @AR#A!#O4S AR#A!#O4S Dahl di"tinu di"tinui"he i"he"" bet,een bet,een ritten ritten and and unritten. unritten. An un,ritten con"titution i" a re"ult o% a hihly unu"ual hi"torical circum"tance" in 5' 4e, Gealand and #"rael. 3ritten con"titution" hae become "tandard. A Bi of A D#FF>R>42> 2on"titution" matter in to a democracy in a matter o% ,ay". ;ta)iity i" ;ta)iity i" hel&ed by a con"titution by &roidin a "tandard %or democratic &olitical in"titution". in"titution". A con"titution con"titution can &rotect fun"a(enta rig!ts %or the maEority and minoritie" ali$e. #t &roide" neutraity amon neutraity amon the country*" citien"' hain
in"ured %undamental riht" and dutie" it en"ure" the &roce"" o% ma$in la," i" de"ined not to %aour or &enalie the ie," or leitimate intere"t" o% any (rou& o%) citien. Accounta)iity Accounta)iity i" i" &roided by the de"in' to enable citien" to hold &olitician" accountable %or their deci"ion"' action" and conduct ,ithin a rea"onable rea"onable time interal. interal. :air representatio representation n i" "ubEect o% controer"y' it i" ba"ed u&on infor(e" consensus and effective govern(ent . govern(ent . A con"titution miht hel& leader" deelo& in%ormed con"en"u" on la," and &olicie"' by creatin o&&ortunitie" and incentie" %or leader" to enae in neotiation"' accomodation and coalition buildin that ,ould %acilitate dier"e intere"t". !hi" ,or$" ho,eer neatie on the e%%ectiene"" o% oernment' a" it ta$e" more time to react to "udden chane" in "ociety. 2on"tit 2on"titutio ution" n" al"o hel& ma$e co(peten co(petentt "ecision "ecisions+ s+ e%%ectie oernment i" no "ub"titute %or ,i"e oernment. 2on"titution" hel& ma$e oernment transparent an" co(pre!ensi)e "o that citiin" can "ee ,hat their their oernme oernment nt i" u& to and hold them accountabl accountable. e. egiti(acy >egiti(acy can al"o be obtained by maintainin a monarch a" head o% "tate' but "ubEectin it to the reuirement" o% &olyarchy. +O3 CB2+ OF A D#FF>R>42> DO !+> D#FF>R>42>S CA>/ Do the"e di%%erence" really matter/ !o re"earch thi" you need to loo$ at %ormer democracie"' ,hich ,hich retur returne ned d to an autho authorit ritar arian ian "y"te "y"tem. m. #% there there are are hihly hihly un%a un%aora orable ble circum circum"ta "tance nce"" it i" im&robab im&robable le that democracy democracy could could be &re"er &re"ered' ed' ,hich ,hich no con"tit con"titutio ution n can "ae. "ae. +o,eer +o,eer'' i% the circum"tance" are neither %aourable or un%aourable' the de"in o% the con"tititution miht matter.
2ha&ter 11- @arietie" ###. Parties ###. Parties an" Eectora ;yste(s page &3-&4& &3-&4& A &olitical land"ca&e i" mo"tly "ha&ed by it" electoral "y"tem and &olitical &artie"' and they exi"t in a ,ide ariety. >;>2!ORA; SHS!>CS 4o electoral "y"tem can "ati"%y all criteria' ,hich i" ,hy they di%%er "o much. !here are trade6 o%%". Prop o%%". Proportiona ortiona AS#2 O7!#O4S FOR D>CO2RA!#2 2O4S!#!B!#O4S !he ta"$ o% ,ritin a con"titution i" di%%icult and com&lex' ,hich reuire" a country*" be"t
talent"' yet reuire" the a""ent and con"ent o% the oerned. Dahl mention" %ie &o""ible combination" o% electoral "y"tem" and chie% executie". !e continenta European option9 paria(entary govern(ent it! P< eections, !e Britis! ?est(inster@ option9 paria(entary govern(ent it! :PP eections, !e #; option9 presi"entia govern(ent it! :PP eections, !e >atin A(erican option9 Presi"entia govern(ent it! P< eections !e (i/e" option9 option9 ot!er ot!er co()inat co()ination ions, s, France ha" both an elected &re"ident' and a &rime mini"ter de&endent on the &arliament' elected by a modi%ied F7!7 ,ith a "econd round in ,hich any candidate ,ith more than 1.CO2RA!#2 2O4S!#!B!#O4S- SOC> 5B#D>;#4>S Co"t o% the ba"ic &roblem" o% a country cannot be "oled by con"titutional de"in i% the circum"tance" are "trictly un%aorable. Caintainin %undamental democratic "tability i" not the only releant criterion %or a ood con"titution. All con"titutional arranement" hae "ome di"adantae"' none "ati"%y all rea"onable criteria.
7AR! #@- 2ondition" Faourable and Bn%aourable 2ha&ter 1- 3hat Bnderlyin 2ondition" Faour Democracy/ Page &45-&65 &45-&65 3e %ace t,o ue"tion"- +o, can ,e account %or the e"tabli"hement o% democratic in"titution" in "o many countrie" in "o many &art" o% the ,orld' and ho, can ,e ex&lain it" %ailure/ A %ull an",er i" im&o""ible' t,o interrelated "et" o% %actor" are undoubtedly o% crucial im&ortance. FA#;BR> OF !+> !+ > A;!>R4A!#@>S A;!>R4A!#@>S th durin the century' the main alternatie" lo"t out in com&etition ,ith democracy. !hey (monarchy (monarchy'' o&en o&en oliarc oliarchy hy'' heredita hereditary ry ari"tocr ari"tocracy acy)) %atally %atally decline declined d in leitim leitimacy acy and ideolo ideoloical ical "trenth. !houh re&laced by nondemocratic alternatie" (%a"ci"m' nai"m) they %louri"hed brie%ly due to their their de%ea de%eatt in 33. 33. Cilita Cilitary ry dicta dictator tor"hi "hi&"' &"' mainl mainly y in latin latin Americ America' a' %ell %ell due to econo economi mic' c' di&lomatic and military (Arentina) %ailure". !he main democratic antaoni"t antaoni"t (BSSR) colla&"ed colla&"ed due to internal decay and external &re""ure". A %inal ictory %or democracy ha" not been achieed' nor ,a" it clo"e' "ee 2hina. Ciddle ea"tern countrie" are "till not democratic a" ,ell a" "ome countrie" ,ho reerted bac$ to nondemocratic reime" a" condition" ,ere not %aourable. !he"e condition" ,ere>""ential condition" %or democracy 1. $ontro of (iitary an" poice )y eecte" officias, 2, 'e(ocratic )eiefs an" poitica cuture, 3, o strong strong foreign foreign contro contro !ostie !ostie to "e(ocracy "e(ocracy Faourable condition" %or democracy4, A (o"ern (aret econo(y an" society 5, ea su)cutura purais( FOR>#54 #4!>R@>4!#O4 democratic democratic in"titution" are le"" li$ely to deelo& in a country "ubEect to interention by another country ho"tile to democratic oernment in that country. For in"tance' Soiet interention &reented 2echo"loa$ia' 7oland and +unary to ain democracy de"&ite %aourable condition". 7re6exi"tin' datin datin %ar bac$ be%ore be%ore 33. !he BS' BS' a" ,ell' ,ell' ha" ha" a hi"to hi"tory ry o% inter interen enin in in ;atin ;atin America America'' oerthro,in democratically elected oernment" to &rotect their economic intere"t" in the reion' %or in"tance in 5uatamala in 19<. 3ith the colla&"e o% the Soiet Bnion' the BS "tarted "u&&ortin deelo&ment o% democratic in"titution" in ea"tern >uro&e. 2O4!RO; O@>R C#;#!ARH A4D 7O;#2> Bnle"" Bnle"" the military and &olice &olice %orce" are under under the %ull control control o% democrat democratica ically lly elected elected o%%icia o%%icial"' l"' democrat democratic ic &olitica &oliticall in"titut in"titution" ion" are unli$ely unli$ely to deelo& deelo& or endure. endure. !he mo"t danero danerou" u" internal threat to democracy come" %rom leader" ,ho hae acce"" to the mean" o% &hy"ical coercionmilitary and &olice. Cilitary and &olice leader" mu"t de%er &o,er to democratic o%%icial". #n central and ;atin America' America' o% the ? oernment"' :rd ained &o,er by mean" other than %ree and %air election"' mo"t o%ten by a military cou&. #n contra"t' 2o"ta Rica ha" been a beacon o% democracy "ince 19<. #n 19<' 2o"ta Rica eliminated the threat o% a military cou& by aboli"hin the military all toether. 2B;!BRA; 2O4F;#2!S 3>A OR AS>4! Democratic &olitcal in"titution" are more li$ely to deelo& and endure in a country that i"
culturally %airly homoenou" and le"" li$ely in a country ,ith "har&ly di%%erentiated and con%lictin "ubculture". "ubculture". 2ultural con%lict" con%lict" can eru&t in the &olitical arena' arena' and they ty&ically do- oer oer reliion' lanuae' or een dre""6code" in "chool". #""ue" li$e the"e &o"e a "&ecial &roblem %or democracy. 2ultural &roblem" are o%ten ie,ed a" matter" o% &rinci&le %rom dee& reliiou" coniction"' cultural &re"eration &re"eration or rou& "urial. !hey ie, them too crucial to allo, %or com&romi"e' com&romi"e' nonneotiable. A &eace%ul democratic &roce"" reuire" neotiation' conciliation and com&romi"e. #n older democracie"' they hae manaed to aoid "eere cultural con%lict". >en i% the"e di%%erence" exi"t' they hae allo,ed more neotiable di%%erence" (i.e. economic i""ue"). !here are "ome exce&tion". 2ultural di%%erence" hae been "ini%icant in the BS' S,iterland' elium' 4etherland" and 2anada. +o, hae democratic in"titution" been able to "urie in the"e countrie"/ Assi(iation, Assi(iation, !he !he American "olution' riti"h coloni"t" encountered ne, ,ae" o% "ettler" %rom #reland' Scandinaia' 5ermany' etc. y 191' I o% the &o&ulation ,a"n*t born in the BS. !hey a""imila a""imilated' ted' their their dominan dominantt &olitica &oliticall loyalty loyalty and identity identity becomin becomin American American.. !hi" ,a" mainly mainly oluntary or en%orced by "ocial mechani"m" ("uch a" *"hame*) that minimied the need %or coercion by the "tate. +o,eer' +o,eer' A%rican American" American" and 4atie American" American" needed to be coerced to a""imilate' a""imilate' i% not thi" ,a" %ollo,ed by exclu"ion. !hi" re"ulted in an irre&re""ible con%lictK the 2iil 3ar. 'eci"ing )y consensus consensus . Di"tinti Di"tintie e and &otenti &otentially ally con%lict con%lictin in "ubcult "ubculture" ure" hae hae exi"ted exi"ted in S,iterland' elium and the 4etherland". >ach created &olitical arranement" that reuired unanimity or broad con"en"u" %or deci"ion" made by cabinet and &arliament. !he &rinci&le o% maEority rule yielded to a &rinci&le o% unanimity. 2on"en"ual "y"tem" li$e the"e cannot be created or ,ill not ,or$ "ucce"%ully exce&t under ery "&ecial condition". !he"e include a talent %or conciliationK hih tolerance %or com&romi"eK tru"t,orthy leader" ca&able o% neotiatin "u%%icient "olution"K a con"en"u" on ba"ic oal" and alue"K a national identity that di"courae" demand" %or "e&aration and a commitment to democratic &rocedure" &rocedure" that exclude iolent and reolutionary mean". !he"e are uncommon condition"' condition"' and may colla&"e under the &re""ure o% acute cultural con%lict (li$e in ;ebanon' 19<8). Eectora ;yste(s, 2ultu 2ultural ral di%% di%%ere erence nce"" o%ten o%ten et et out out o% hand hand beca becau"e u"e they they are are %ueled %ueled by &olitician" com&etin %or "u&&ort (ed"- enia 1' #ory 2oa"t 1). 7olitician" may deliberately %a"hion a&&eal" to member" o% their cultural rou& and therby %an latent animo"itie" into hatred" that culmi culminat natee in cul cultur tural al clean" clean"in in. . !o aoid aoid thi"' thi"' elect electora orall "ytem "ytem"" coul could d be de"i de"ine ned d to chan chane e incenti incentie" e" o% &olitic &olitician" ian" a" to ma$e conciliatio conciliation n more &ro%itable &ro%itable than con%lict con%lict.. For in"tance' in"tance' no candidate" could be elected ,ith the "u&&ort o% only a "inle rou&' they ,ould need to ain ote" %rom "eeral maEor cultural rou&". !hi" need" to be included early in the &roce"" o% democratiation. ;eparat ;eparation ion,, 3hen cultural cleaae" are too dee& to be oercome by any o% the &reiou" "olution"' the %inal "olution may be %or cultural rou&" to "e&arate them"ele" into di%%erent &olitical unit" ,ithin ,hich they &o""e"" enouh autonomy to maintain their identity and achiee their main &olitical oal" (ed"- Sudan' Contenero' o"oo). !he S,i"" "olution ha" t,o reuirement"- citien" in di%%erent "ubculture" mu"t be already "e&arated alon territorial line"' and "econd the citien" mu"t hae a national national identity identity and common oal" oal" and alue" to "u"tain "u"tain a %ederal %ederal union. union. #n 2anada' 2anada' %rench6 %rench6 canadian" ,ant inde&endence' ho,eer their territory i"n*t "u%%icient territorially deided. D>CO2RA!#2 >;#>FS A4D 2B;!BR>. Sooner Sooner or later later irtuall irtually y all countri countrie" e" encounte encounterr %airly %airly dee& dee& cri"e" cri"e" – &olitica &olitical' l' economi economic' c' ideoloical' military or international. #% a democratic "y"tem i" to endure it mu"t be able to "urie the"e the"e challen challene"' e"' a" it ,ill hae an increa"e increa"ed d ri"$ o% bein bein oerturn oerturned ed by authorit authoritaria arian n leader". leader". Surior" are ,hat ,e no, call the *older democracie"*. !he &ro"&ect" %or "table democracy in a country are im&roed i% it" citien" and leader" "tronly "u&&ort "u&&ort democratic democratic idea"' idea"' alue" alue" and &ractic &ractice". e". A democrati democraticc &olitica &oliticall culture culture ,ould hel& to %orm citien" ,ho beliee that democracy and &olitical euality are de"irable. A "ub"tantial maEority o%
citien" citien" mu"t &re%er &re%er democrac democracy y and it" &olitica &oliticall in"titu in"titution tion"" to any nondemoc nondemocrati raticc alternat alternatie ie and "u&&ort democratic leader" ,ho u&hold democracy. >2O4OC#2 5RO3!+ 3#!+ A CAR>! >2O4OCH +i"torically' the deelo&ment o% democratic belie%" and a democratic culture ha" been clo"ely a""ociated a""ociated ,ith ,hat miht loo"ely be called a mar$et economy' economy' it i" a hihly %aourable %aourable condition %or democratic in"titution" to con"olidate. !hi" i" ho,eer a loehate relation"hi&' a" there are con"tant ten"ion". 3+H D>CO2RA2H +AS S7R>AD !+ROB5+OB! !+> 3OR;D !he th century turned out to be the *2entury o% Democratic !rium&h*. !hat trium&h "hould be ie,ed ,ith caution. #n many countrie" the ba"ic &olitical in"titution" are ,ea$ or de%ectie. #t i" rea"onable to ,onder ,hether democratic "ucce""e" ,ill be "u"tained in the t,enty6%ir"t century. !he an",er de&end on ho, ,ell democratic countrie" meet their challene". One o% the"e ari"e" directly %rom the contradictory con"euence" o% mar$et6ca&itali"m' 3e*ll "ee ,hy in the next t,o cha&ter".
2ha&ter 1:- 3hy Car$et62a&itali"m %aour" Democracy page &66-&72 &66-&72 Democrac Democracy y and mar$et6c mar$et6ca&i a&itali tali"m "m hae a loehat loehate6re e6relati lation"h on"hi&. i&. Dahl ,ill "tate "tate < conclu"i conclu"ion"' on"' o% ,hich ,ill be o%%ered in thi" cha&ter. 1. Poyar 1. Poyarc!a c!a "e(ocracy "e(ocracy !as en"ure" en"ure" ony in countries countries it! a pre-"o(inant pre-"o(inantyy (aret-capitaist (aret-capitaist econo(y an" it !as never en"ure" in a country it! a pre"o(inanty non(aret econo(y, !hi" al"o a&&lie" &retty ,ell to &o&ular oernment" oernment" deelo&ed in the city6"tate" city6"tate" o% 5reece' Rome and medieal #taly and the eolin re&re"entatie in"titution" o% northern >uro&e. #t ha" never endured never endured in nonmar$et economie"... but ,hy/ . !is strict strict reati reation on e/ists e/ists )ecause )ecause certain )asic )asic featur features es of (aret-c (aret-capi apitai tais( s( (ae it favora)e for "e(ocratic institutions, $onversey+ so(e )asic features of a pre"o(inanty non(aret econo(y econo(y (ae it !ar(fu !ar(fu to "e(ocrat "e(ocratic ic prospe prospects, cts, ;on run mar$et6ca&itali"m ha" ty&ically led to economic ro,th' and economic ro,th i" %aourable %aourable to democracy by cuttin &oerty and im&roin liin "tandard" it hel&" to reduce "ocial and &olitical con%lict". #% con%lict" do ari"e' they can be "oled ,ith the re"ult" o% ro,th (i.e. money) to ma$e a mutually "ati"%actory "ettlement. Car$et6ca&itali"m i" al"o %aourable due to it" "ocial and &olitical con"euence". #t create" a lare middle6cla"" ,ho "ee$ %or education' rule o% la,' &artici&ation' etc. A nonmar$et economy can exi"t in a "im&le economy' ,ith %e, re"ource" or deci"ion". ut in order to aoid chao" in more com&lex "ocietie"' a "ub"titute %or the coordination and control &roided by it" mar$et" are nece""ary. !he only %ea"ible one i" the oernment. !o allocate al "carce re"ource"' oernment need" a detailed central &lan and thu" o%%icial" ma$in it' carryin it out' and en%orcin it. !hi" i" ulnerable to corru&tion' and no "tate ha" &roen to be u& to the ta"$. 2entral &lannin con"ede" all monetairy re"our re"ource ce"" to the oer oernme nment nt'' init initin in them them to con"ol con"olida idate te their their &o,er &o,er ,ith ,ith that that money money'' thu" thu" de"tabiliin democracy. SOC> PBA;#F#2A!#O4S >conomic ro,th i" ho,eer not uniue to democratic countrie"' ho,eer' there "eem" to be corre correla latio tion n bet,e bet,een en the t,o. t,o. 2entra 2entrall &lan &lannin nin ha" ha" only only been been e%%ic e%%icie ientl ntly y mana manaed ed a" ,artim ,artimee oernment"' li$e 5 and BS in 33# and ##' in ,hich ca"e" the allocation o% re"ource" had a clear
oal and ,ere ,idely "u&&orted by it" citien".
2ha&ter 1- 3hy Car$et62a&itali"m +arm" Democracy page &73-&7 &73-&7 3, 'e(ocracy an" (aret-capitais( (aret-capitais( are oce" in a persistant persistant confict in !ic! eac! (o"ifies an" i(its t!e ot!er, Car$et6ca&itali"m Car$et6ca&itali"m in ritain by 18 had not only ,on in economic theory' theory' but al"o in &olitic"' la,"' idea"' &hilo"o&hy and ideoloy. +o,eer' ,here &eo&le hae a oice' a com&lete ictory cannot endure. #t brouht ain" %or "ome' but harm to other". Due to the extention o% "u%%rae' "u%%rae' by 188? eery male could ote (in 5). 7eo&le ,ho ot harmed by mar$et6ca&itali"m "ouht &rotection %rom &olitical leader"' leader"' and o&&onent" o&&onent" o% lai""e6%aire lai""e6%aire re, by %ocu""in on the &liht o% the ,or$in cla""e". Car$et6ca&itali"m ,ithout oernment reulation ,a" im&o""ible in a democratic country %or t,o rea"on". Fir"t' Fir"t' the ba"ic ba"ic in"titut in"titution" ion" o% mar$et6c mar$et6ca&it a&itali" ali"m m them"el them"ele" e" reuire reuire exten"i exten"iee oernm oernment ent interention and reulation. 2om&etitie mar$et"' o,ner"hi& o% economic entitite"' en%orcin contract"' &reentin mono&olie"' etc.' de&end on la,"' &olicie"' order" and other oernment action. Second' ,ithout oernment interention and reulation a mar$et economy ineitably in%lict" harm on "ome &er"on" and they ,ill demand oernment interention. >conomic actor" ie little meanin to *the reater ood*' rather inorin it %or "el% ain. +o,eer' i% "ome et harmed' other" "ee ain" to their bene%it". +o, are ,e to Eude ,hat i" de"irable/ !he"e are not Eu"t economic ue"tion"' but al"o moral and &olitical. 2itien" "earchin %or an",e an",er" r" ,ill ,ill ineit ineitabl ably y ra raita itate te to,ar to,ard" d" the ea"ie ea"ie"t "t acce"" acce""ib ible le candi candidat datee %or inter interen enin in'' the the oernment o% "tate. !he outcome o% thi" interention de&end" on the relatie &olitical "trenth o% the antaoni"t" (ed"- cor&oration"). . Because Because (aret-c (aret-capit apitai ais( s( inevita inevita)y )y create createss inequai inequaitie ties+ s+ it i(its i(its t!e "e(ocrat "e(ocratic ic potenti potentia a of poyarc!a poyarc!a "e(ocracy )y generating generating inequaities in t!e "istri)ution of poitica resource resources, s, ecau"e o% the"e ineualitie" in re"ource"' "ome citien" ain "ini%icantly more in%luence than other" oer the oernment*" &olicie"' deci"ion" and action". A" a re"ult' citien" are not eual' "eriou"ly iolatin moral %oundation o% democracy. <. 0aret-capitais( 0aret-capitais( greaty greaty favours t!e "eveop(ent "eveop(ent of "e(ocracy "e(ocracy up to t!e eve of poyarc!a poyarc!a "e(ocracy, But )ecause of its a"verse consequences for poitica equaity+ it is unfavora)e to t!e "eveop(ent of "e(ocracy )eyon" t!e eve of poyarc!y,
2ha&ter 1<- !he Bn%ini"hed Journey page &1-&11 &1-&11 Dahl thin$" the %uture i" too uncertain to &roide %irm an",er" a" to ,hat lie" ahead. +o,eer' he beliee" that certain &roblem" democratic countrie" no, %ace ,ill remain or een inten"i%y. #n thi" cha&ter cha&ter'' he*ll he*ll &roide &roide a brie% brie% "$etch "$etch o% "eeral "eeral challen challene" e" %acin %acin democrac democracy y. +e*ll +e*ll "tic$ "tic$ to older older democracie"' becau"e he beliee" ne,er democracie" ,ill eentually %ace the "ame challene". 2+A;;>45> 1- !+> >2O4OC#2 ORD>R
Car$et6ca&itali"m i" unli$ely to be di"&laced. !here i" not much con%idence in %indin and introducin a non6mar$et "y"tem that ,ould be more %aourable to democracy and &olitical euality and yet e%%icient enouh in &roducin ood" and "erice" amon citien". +o,eer' i% cor&oration" ,ill continue to exi"t in their current manaerial de"&oti"m6li$e "tate' creatin ineuality due to ineual &ro%it" and ain" leadin to ineuality in &olitical re"ource"' i" much le"" certain. !en"ion" bet,een democratic oal" and mar$et6ca&itali"m ,ill &robably continue inde%inetely. 2+A;;>45> - #4!>R4A!#O4A;#GA!#O4 #nter #nternat nation ionali alia atio tion n i" li$ely li$ely to ex&an ex&and d the domain domain o% deci deci"io "ion" n" made made by &oliti &olitica call and and bureaucratic elite" at the ex&en"e o% democratic control". !he challene &o"ed i" to ma$e "ure that the co"t" to democracy are %ully ta$en into account ,hen deci"ion6ma$in deci"ion6ma$in i" "hi%ted to international leel" and to "trenthen accountability. 3hether and ho, to accom&li"h thi" i" %ar %rom clear' accordin to Dahl. 2+A;;>45> :- 2B;!BRA; D#@>RS#!H !here hae been t,o deelo&ment" contributin contributin to an increa"e in cultural dier"ity. dier"ity. Fir"t' "ome citien" citien" ,ho ex&erien ex&erienced ced di"crimi di"criminati nation on Eoined Eoined other" other" li$e them"el them"ele" e" in moemen moement" t" o% cultural cultural identity aimed at &re"erin their riht" and intere"t". Second' cultural dier"ity ,a" mani%ied by an increa"ed number o% immirant" ea"ily di"tinui"hable %rom the dominant &o&ulation. oth leal and illeal immiration ,ill inde%inetely contribute to a "ini%icant increa"e in cultural dier"ity. 2+A;;>45> - 2#@#2 >DB2A!#O4 2itie 2itien" n" recei receie e %orma %ormall educa educatio tion n to in"ur in"uree litera literacy cy.. 7olit 7olitic ical al unde under"t r"tan andin din i" %urth %urther er aumented by the aailability o% releant in%ormation. !he amount o% in%ormation needed i" dimini"hed by &olitical &artie"K the direction o% the &arty i" mo"t o%ten an exten"ion o% it" &a"t meanin oter" hae le"" need to under"tand eery im&ortant &ublic i""ue. Due to &arty com&etition' &olitician" $no, they ,ill be held accountable %or carryin out cam&ain &romi"e" and &arty &roram". On to& o% that' chane" are o%ten made "te& by "te&' not iant lea&"' in order to aoid chao". #% chane" are needed' they can modi%y exi"tin &olicy. Oer time the"e radual "te&" can &roduce &ro%ound chane" and occur &eace%ully and ain &ublic "u&&ort "o they tend to endure. !hree !hree interrel interrelated ated deelo& deelo&men ment" t" "eem to render render the "tandard "tandard "olutio "olution n "eriou"l "eriou"ly y de%icien de%icient. t. $!anges $!anges in scae scae due to internationaliation' action" that "ini%icantly a%%ect the lie" o% citien" are made oer larer larer area". A ri"e in co(pe/ity co(pe/ity mean" it become" more di%%iculy to under"tand &ublic a%%air" a%%air"'' out"tri& out"tri&&in &in the ain" ain" o% hiher hiher educati education. on. 2hane" in $o((unic $o((unicatio ation n li$e tele&hone' !@' radio' etc.' in%ormation ha" become increa"inly acce""ible to the &ublic on een the mo"t com&lex o% i""ue". !hi" may ho,eer not lead to hiher com&etence. #t i" there%ore e""ential that democratic countrie" im&roe the ca&acitie" o% their citien" to enae intelliently in &olitical li%e. Older in"titution" need to be enhanced' dra,in creatiely %rom ne, techniue" and technoloie" o% the 1 "t century. #% the older democracie" con%ront and oercome their challene" in the 1 "t century' they miht Eu"t tran"%orm tran"%orm them"ele them"ele"' "' at lon la"t' into truly adance adanced d democra democracie cie". ". !he "ucce" "ucce" o% the adanced adanced democracie" ,ould then &roide a beacon %or all' throuhout the ,orld' ,ho beliee in democracy.
