MY MIDTERM PREPARATION I N BHB III BY: 38. Peña Peña,, Clyde Ian Brett C. B7C | 3:00-4:30 | TTH | SFC 301
CHAPTER 5
Motivation Through Job Design
refers to making a job more motivational and satisfying by adding variety, responsibility and managerial decision making. Because job enrichment leads to a more exciting job, it often increases employee job satisfaction and motivation. Managers and professionals in organizations typically have enriched jobs. JOB ENRICHMENT
1. Direct feedback. Employees should receive immediate evaluation of their work. Feedback can be built into the job (such as the feedback that closing a sale gives a sales representative) or provided by the manager. 2. Client relationships. A job is automatically enriched when a worker has a client or customer to serve, whether that client is internal or external. Serving s client is more satisfying to most people than performing a work solely for a manager. 3. New learning. An enriched job allows its holder to acquire new knowledge. The learning can stem from job experiences themselves or from training programs.
4.
Control over method
Benefits of Studying Organizational Behavior Five measurable characteristics of jobs: 1. Determine if employees need or want more responsibility, variety, and growth.
1.Skill variety—the degree to which there are skills to perform.
2. Identify workers with strong needs for growth and offer them more challenge and responsibility in performing enriched work.
2.Task Identity—the degree to which one worker does a complete job, from beginning to end, with a tangible and possible outcome.
3. Use pinpoint those enrichment.
brainstorming changes who
to for want
4.Autonomy—the degree to which a job offers freedom, independence, and discretion in its implementation.
A method of job design that focuses on the task and interpersonal demands of the job. Based on both needs theory and expectancy theory. Job outcomes help satisfy deficiency and growth needs. Core job characteristics psychological states.
3.Task Significance—the degree to which work has a heavy impact on others in the immediate organization or the external environment.
relate
to
critical
Redesigned jobs result in heightened internal motivation (increases in personal and work outcomes) calculated as an index called the Motivating Potential Score (MPS):
Motivation Through Job Design A formally recognized group of employees who are responsible for an entire work process or segment that delivers a product or service to an internal or external customer. Concept is widely used form of job design that is an outgrowth of job enrichment. Serves to broaden of team members.
the
responsibility
1. Increase productivity. 2. Enhance quality. 3. Reduce cycle time of time required to a transaction). 4. Respond more changing workplace.
rapidly
(amount complete to
a
Method of Operation Work together on an ongoing day-to-day basis. Often given total responsibility or ―ownership‖ of a product or service and to think in terms of customer requirements. Trained in team skills and cross-trained as generalists rather than specialists. Self -Managed Work Team Effectiveness Pro: Good record of improving productivity, quality, and customer service. Con: Absenteeism is higher; equipment costs are higher in modular design.
Organizational Behavior Modification
The application of reinforcement theory for motivating people in work settings Focuses on behavior change or is desired.
that
Typically uses positive rather than punishment.
requires
reinforcement
Links desired behavior with consequences (more and less controversial using negative motivators).
positive effective than
Identifying behaviors that require change.
Behaviors to be reinforced should be observable, measurable, task-related, and critical to the task.
Measure baseline performance.
Measurement techniques include direct observation, time sampling, archival data, and historical data.
Analyze the behavioral antecedents and contingent consequences.
What situational factors trigger the desired behavior? What are the rewards for the desired behavior?
1. Creates disagreement with managers over the value of employees contributions. 2. May foster conflict and lack of cooperation among competing groups of employees. 3. Focuses too on the and its expense rewards.
much external size of
attention reward at the intrinsic
1.Carefully diagnose the situation. 2.Choose a motivational approach that best fits the situation’s deficiencies or neglected opportunity. 3.Observe the people to be motivated. Try to discern their interests and concerns. 4.Apply technique.
the
5.Monitor for change in performance.
motivational the
expected
Select an intervention strategy.
Positive reinforcement is applied to increase behaviors and decrease dysfunctional behaviors. Punishment is used as a last resort.
Evaluate change in performance.
If performance does not improve, reevaluate and change the intervention strategy. If performance reinforcement reinforcement:
improves, maintain with through a schedule of
Continuous
Intermittent (Ratio or Interval)
Comment
A
lthough motivation through job design is complex, time consuming and expensive, it must be given careful consideration in any strategic attempt to enhance motivation and productivity. This is especially true because so many newcomers to the professional workforce seek to grow and develop on the job.
A helpful starting point in motivating workers is to ask them describe in writing what they would think be effective motivators for them, including rewards and type of work. Recognize, however, that not everybody is aware of his or her true motivators. Some workers for example will say that the opportunity to make a difference is their biggest motivator, yet they respond better to token rewards such as a gift certificate. Observing what motivates workers should supplement the self -description of motivators. Recognizing workers is an important motivational tool and is usually given only after a task or accomplishment is completed. In situations in which it takes a long time to complete a task or assignment, such as in selling a large commercial truck or developing a system, the worker or team might therefore go without recognition for a long time. These interim acts of recognition are likely to be motivational for the worker acting diligently to accomplish a long term goal. No motivational program is a substitute for adequate
Comment compensation, including pay and benefits. One of the many reasons that money remains an all important reinforcer is that most people have financial worries. One problem is that family income has not kept up with the high cost of housing, creating financial pressures for many wage earners. A major strategy for enhancing motivation is to increase the challenge and responsibility in a job. An enriched, and therefore motivational, job includes some of the following characteristics: direct feedback, client relationships, control over scheduling, unique experiences, control over resources, direct communication authority, and personal accountability. Empowerment is also a form of job enrichment. Job enrichment works best when workers want or need more responsibility, variety, and growth, which is not a given.
CHAPTER 6
The Communication Process 1. Source (the sender)
message in a serious tone.
The source of a communication event is usually a person attempting to send a spoken, written, sign language, or nonverbal message to another person or person. The perceived authority and experience of the sender are important factors in influencing how much attention the message will receive.
4. Receiver
2. Message The heart of a communication event is the message, which is a purpose or an idea to be conveyed. Many factors influence how a message is received. Among them are clarity, the alertness of the receiver, the complexity and length of the message. How the information is organized. The production manager’s message will most likely get across if she says directly. ―I need to talk to you about last month’s belowaverage productivity figures‖. 3. Channel (medium) Several communication channels, or media are usually spoken for sending messages in organizations. Typically, messages are written, spoken, or a combination of written and spoken. Some kind of nonverbal cue, such as smile or hand gesture, accompanies most spoken messages, heavy reliance is now placed on electronic transmission of messages. In the production manager’s case, she has chosen to drop by the team leader’s office and deliver her
A communication event can be complete only when another party receives the message and understands it properly. In the example under examination, the team leader is the receiver. Perceptual distortions of various types (as described in chapter 3) act as filters that can prevent a message from being received as intended by the sender. If the team leader is worried that his job is at stake, he might get defensive when he hears the production manager’s message. 5. Feedback Without feedback, it is difficult to know whether a message has been received and understood. The feedback step also includes the reactions of the receiver. If the receiver takes action as intended by the sender, the message has been received satisfactorily. The production manager will know that her message got across if the team leader say’s ―OK, when would you like to review last month’s production figures?‖ Effective interpersonal communication therefore involves an exchange of messages between two people. The two communicators take turns being receiver and sender.
The Communication Process 6. Environment A full understanding of communication requires knowledge of the environment in which messages are transmitted and received. The organizational culture is a key environmental factor that influences communication. It is easier to transmit controversial messages when trust and respect are high than when they are low. Also, in some organizations workers hesitate to bring negative results to the attention of management for fear of being reprimanded 7. Noise Distractions such as noise have a pervasive influence on the components of the communication process. In this context noise is anything that disrupts communication, including the attitudes and emotion of the receiver. Noise includes work stress, fear , ambivalence and strong advocacy for an opposing position. In a more literal sense, the whir of machinery, piped in music, and the chatting of coworkers with each other and on cell phones are also examples noise in the workplace.
Communication and Information Technology for the team’s use on a specific project. A wiki is a site that allows a group of people to comment on and edit each other’s work. RSS is the acronym really simple syndication, which enables people to subscribe to the information they need. E-mail will probably remain strong for one-to-one communication, but the tools just mentioned will be relied on more heavily for collaboration.
e-mail has two major impacts on interpersonal communication. First written messages have replaced many telephone and in-person interchanges. With the majority of office workers being connected by e-mail networks. Group members often keep in regular contact with one another without having lengthy meetings or Although processing e-nail overwhelms many telephone conversations. Second, people receive people, as the technology has matured the many more messages than they did by paper and situation has been more manageable for many telephone. Many managers and professionals workers. They dedicate certain times of the day to process over 100 e-mail messages per day e-mail exchanges to avoid being distracted from E-mail facilitates communication in many ways, including people in various parts of the world exchanging information without worrying about trying to connect through different time zones. A more subtle consequence of e-mail is that it enhances industrial democracy. Ray Maghroori notes: ― ten or 10 years ago, there was no way for average workers to communicate with leaders.‖ Today, messages no longer filtered through layers of management. A widespread problem with e-mail is that it encourages the indiscriminate sending of messages, including trivial information, mass distribution of information of interest to a limited number of people, the exchange of jokes and sports news, and requests for seemingly unimportant information. The blitz of messages requires many people to work extra hours just to sort through their email on matters that do not add value to the organization. According to one estimate, despite filters, more than 60% of corporate e-mail is spam. Some business firms have counterattacked the problems associated with e-mail by shifting to related technologies. Workers at such well-known organization as Disney, Eastman Kodak, and the U.S military are replacing e-mail with other software tools that function in real time. Among them are private workplace wikis, blogs instant messaging, RSS and more elaborate forms of groupware that allow workers to create websites
other important work. (for some workers however, responding to e-mail is their job, and being away from e-mail is a distraction. Furthermore, company e-mail systems receive less spam than home systems partially because the company is more likely to use powerful spam filters. Also, the sophisticated e-mail user deletes spam after about a two second glance. The most important use of e -mail is for firing people, either for poor performance or as a part of a downsizing. A consultant notes, ―most people consider firing be e-mail one of the most heartless things you can do. E -mail is a faceless, cowardly way to fire someone.‖ The distractions associated with e-mail are widely recognized, leading carious specialists to suggest ways for more productive use of this mode of communication. Exhibit 6 -2 presents representative ideas for the productive use of e-mail
The company blog (or more precisely, a web log or journal) is a rapidly growing from of electronic communication, paralleling the surging use of blogs in private life. Blogs originated by consumers are often used to complain about products or services, and less often to compliment a company.
Communication and Information Technology Blogs were first used by business to communicate with customers in a personal, direct manner, and perhaps form a bond with them. The blog communicates business information, but with a soft human touch. For example, a product manager for single-use cameras might say, ―just the other day, I heard from an off -the-road bike rider, Lily she carries a few single-use cameras with her to every rally. Lily says she would rather smash one of our cameras than her $700 digital rig.‖ A company might also use a blog to communicate its side of the story in response to outside criticism, such as the fastlaneblog launched by GM vice chairman Bob Lutz. At times company emplyess spread negative information about the company on the blog, such as complaining about product safety or a poor dental insurance plan. The company blog can also be used to communicate with employees in a relaxed, casual tone. Employees, as well as customers, can interact with the Web log by providing comments that can be a source of valuable feedback to management, and can be communicated directly to other visitors to the site.
Virtually every reader of this textbook has witnessed or given a talk using presentation technology. Computer generated slide software, such as PowerPoint is currently in vogue, yet overhead projectors are also part of presentation technology. Speakers in all types of organizations supplement their talk with computer slides and often organize their presentation around them. Some speakers sit slumped in a chair, narrating the slides. Many people want presentations reduced to bulleted items and eye-catching graphics. (have you noticed this tendency among students?) the ability to prepare a slide presentation has become an indispensable corporate survival skill. Audiences have become accustomed to watching an array of impressive graphics during oral presentations. The communication challenge here is that during an
oral representation, the predominant means of connection between sender and receiver is eye contact when an audience is constantly distracted from the presenter by movement on the screen, sounds from the computer, or lavish colors , eye contact suffers and so does the message. Another problem is that the speaker who relies on multimedia to the exclusion of the person-to-person contact may be communicating the subtle message, ―I am not really necessary‖ the implication for presenters is to find a way to integrate speaking skills with new technology. One of the biggest challenges is to learn how to handle equipment and maintain frequent eye and voice contact.
Telecommuting is an arrangement in which employees use computers to perform their regular work responsibilities at home or in a satellite office. A major communication challenge to telecommuters is that they rely so heavily on e-nail and groupware and therefore lose out on the social interaction of work, which is so important to many people. Another challenge for distributed workers is that they are expected to respond to company requests outside typical working hours, partially because there is no standard work week for a professional working away from the office. Teleworkers are also encouraged to spend some time in the traditional office in face-to-face communication with other workers.
As alluded, to previously, computerized communication has had a major impact both positive and negative, on behavior in organizations. On the positive side, communication can be more widespread and immediate than in making telephone calls, holding meetings, or sending hard-copy memos. With computer -mediated communication, information can be exchanged at a rapid pace, keeping large numbers of people informed and alert.
Communication and Information Technology For example, it is much easier for an entry-level worker to often leads to poorer -quality work and almost precludes send an e-mail to the division president than to telephone, the flow experience so necessary for creativity. send a letter to, or have a meeting with the excecutive. Multitasking is inherently rude when dealing with another person. Many complaints have been made about Computerized information has also had substantial customer -contact workers who deal with one customer negative impacts on behavior in organizations, while talking to another on a cell hpone. information, above all many workers suffer from the lack of a human touch they want to relate to a person rather than engage in so many electronic exchanges. It is more difficult to motivate, to listen to, or encourage a worker electronically than in person. An emotican smiley is not as warm as a face to face smile. Many workers suffer from substantial productivity losses as they become enticed into excessive internet surfing during company time. As a result, these workers may suffer from lowered performance evaluations and even job loss. Similarly, reading e-mail messages and searching the internet becomes so time consuming that the worker negelcts human interation aspects of the job, such as dealing with coworkers and customer problems. Excessive use of computers often leads to repetitive motion disorder, leaving the worker discouraged and pained. Customer service often deteriorates as a result of information technology. Many banks, for example, force customers with a service problem to call a toll-fee number rather than allowing them to deal with branch representative. A voice-response system instructs the customer to punch in lengthy account number and make choices from a complicated menu. The process is time consuming and difficult for customers not familiar with information technology. The result can be resentment, frustration and the loss of a customer. Computer -mediated communication often results in wired managerial workers. Being electronically connected to the office at all times leads many managers and professionals to complain that their employees expect them to be always available for consultation. Wi-Fi enabled laptops systems enable workers to stay connected to company data even more readily than with the traditional systems. Finally, computerized communication encourages multitasking to the point that many workers feel they are wasting time unless they are attempting two tasks at once, such as talking on a cellphone and accessing e-mail at the same time. The problem is that diminished concentration
Nonverbal Communication The general purpose of nonverbal communication is to express the feeling behind a message. Non verbal communication incorporates a wide range of behavior . nevertheless It can be converted into 9 categories 1. environment- the physical setting in which the message takes place communicates meaning. 2. body placement- the placement of ones body in relation to someone else is widely used to transmit messages. 3. posture- another widely used clue to a persons attitude is his or her posture. Leaning toward another person suggests favorable attitude towards the message one is trying to communicate. 4. hand gesture- gestures of the hand, such as frequent movements to express approval. 5. facial expressions- the particular look on a persons face and movements of a persons head provide reliable cues as to approval or disbelief 6. voice tone- aspects of the voice such as pitch, volume, quality and speech rate may communicate confidence, nervousness or enthusiasm 7. cloting, dress and sppearance- the image conveys communicates such messages as I feel powerful and I think this meeting is important 8. mirroring- to mirror it to build rapport with another person by imitating his or her voice tone, breathing rate and body movement 9. touching- touch is a powerful vehicle for such as emotions as warmth, comfort, agreement and reassurance One of the many practical applications of nonverbal communications is to project enthusiasm and confidence with body language. Ron huff suggests the following 1. loosen your facial expression- a tight grim look gives the appearance of being unapproachable
2. move closer to message senders- work associates feel you are listening intently when you lean slightly toward when they speak it is a subtle way of telling them you care 3. gesture to reinforce a point - if you are exicted or pleased with an idea do not rely exclusively on words pump a fist do gestures.
Organizational Channels of Communication
Formal communication channels are the official pathways for sending information inside and outside an organization. Many companies have developed formal communication channels for managing crises such as fires and explosions The formal communicaton channels are precisely specified in traditional bureacratin organization with its many layers. Communicaton channels are more difficult to follow in the modern network organization
An informal communication channel is the unofficial network of the channels that supplements the formal challenges, most of these informal channels arise out of necessity Informal communication channels help explain why changes in organizational structure sometimes do not change the quantity and quality of work that gets accomplished
The grapevine The grapevine is the major informal communication channel in organizations. The grapevine refers to the tangled pathways that can distort information
Rumors Rumors are important communicaton force within organizations and they tend to thrive In organizations with poor corporate communication, such as penitentiary.
Barriers to Interpersonal Communication Eight communication barriers are described here the first four relate primarily to the sending ot messages; the next there relate more to receiving them, and the last one could relate to sending or receiving. 1. semanatics- many communication problems are created by semantics. The varying meanings people attach to words 2. filtering- the coloring and altering of information to make it more acceptable to the receiver. 3. lack of credibility of the sender - the more trustworthy the source or the sender of a message, the greater the probability that the message will get through 4. mixed signals- communications can break down with a subtle variation of low credibility, sending different messages about the same topic to different audiences.
nature of the message to be communicated. To plan effectively, manageres and professionals must consider the goals and attitudes of theose who receive 2. motivate the receiver - the recipient of the message has to be motivated to attend to the message 3. discuss differences in frames of reference or paradims –a method for understanding and dealing with difference in frames of reference is to recognize that people have different paradigms that influence how they interpret events 4. foster informal communication- an abundance of informal, open communication enhances trust within an organization. 5. communicate feelings behind the facts- the facts in a message should be accompanied by the appropriate feelings
5. different frames of reference - people receive words and concepts differently defending on their frame of reference, a perspective and vantage point based on past experience
6. be aware of nonverbal communication-a speakers tone of voice expression and apparent receptiveness to the responses of others have an impact on the receiver.
6. value judgements- making value judgements prior to receiving an entire message interferes with the communicatrion of its intended meaning. A value judgement is a judgement overall opinion of something based on quick perception
7. obtain feedback- the best efforts at communication may be wasted if feedback on how well the message came across is not received.
7. information overload- electronic communication has contributed to the problem of too much information being dessimated throughout most private and public firms. 8. poor communication skills- a comprehensive communication barrier is a limited ability to send or receive a message clearly.
1. clarify idead before communication- many communication fail because of inadequate planning and lack of understanding of the true
8. adapt to the other persons communication style- people communicate more freely those who match their communication style 9. engage in meta-communication- when having difficulty getting through another person, it helps to talk about your communication difuclty. To meta communicate is to communicate about your communication to help overcome barriers or to resolve a problem
Barriers to Interpersonal Communication
1. show respect for all workers- the same behavior that promotes good cross-cultural relations in general helps overcome communication barriers. 2. use straitghtforward language- when working with people who do not speak your language fluently, speak in an easy-to-understand manner 3. be alert to cultural differences In customs and behavior - to minimize cross-cultural communication barriers, recognize that many subtle job-related differences in customs may exist 4. be sensitive to different in nonverbal communication- all cultures use nonverbal communication, but the specific cues differ across cultures to receive messager accurately when working with people from diverse cultures
Comment
I
nterpersonal communaction is the basic process by which managers and professionals carry out their functions. It is therefore critical to work toward unclogging communication channels in all directions. Part of unclogging these channels is to overcome communication barriers. Two way communication is usually superior to one way communication- interact with the receiver to foster understanding. Wile delivering your message, ask for verbal feedback and be sensitive to nonverbal sings about how your message is getting across. Mangers and professionals are well advised to pay attention to the nonverbal messages they send and receive- a starting point is to become more conscious of ones facial expressions and those other people. Spoken written communication in organizations- as wel as in the world outside, has become increasingly informal, and even managers and professionals make grammatical errors and oversuse abbvrevations in email Interpersonal communication takes place through the following steps: source, message, channel, receiver, and feedback. The environment in which the message is sent and noise are also part of the communication process.
CHAPTER 7
Types of Groups and Teams A group is a collection of people who interact with one another, work toward some common purpose, and perceive themselves as a group A team is a special type of group, team members have complementary skills and are commited to a common prupose, a set of performance goals, and an approach to the task
Some groups are formally sanctioned by management and the organization itself, while others are not. A formal group is one deliberately formed by the organization to accomplish specific tasks and achieve goals. Informal groups emerge over time through the interaction of workers.
All
workplace
teams
have
the
common elements of people who possess a mix of skills working together cooperatively. Four representative work teams are crossfucntional teams Cross functional teams - it is common practice for teams to be composed of workers from different specialties. A cross functional team is a work group composed of workers from different specialties, but at about the same organizational level, coming together to accomplish a task. .
Stages of Group Development Understanding the stages of group development can lead to more effective group leadership or membership Stage 1. Forming- at the outset, members are eager to learn what tasks they will be peroforming , how they can benefit from group membership, and what constitutes acceptable behavior, Stage 2. Storming- during this ―shakedown‖ period, individual styles often come into conflict. Hostility, infighting and confrontation are typical Stage 3. Norming- after storming comes the quicker stage of overcoming resistance and establishing group standards of conduct. Cohesiveness and commitment begin to develop.
A feeling of empowerment An effective group or team believes that is has the authority to solve a variety of problems without first obtaining approval from management, empowered teams share four experiences: potency, meaningfulness, autonomy and impact
Interdependence Several types of interdependence characterize effective work groups. Such groups show task interdependence in the same sense that members interact and depend on one another to accomplish work
Team efficiency As with self -efficacy at the individual leverl, a productive group believes in itself. Team efficiency refers to a team’s belief that it can successfully perform a specific task.
Right mix and size A variety of factors relating to the mix of group members are associated with effective work groups. A diverse group of members-in terms of experience, knowledge and education-generally improves problem solving. Cultural diversity
tends to enhance creativcity because various viewpoints are brought into play. Groups should be large enough to accomplish the work but when groups become too large, confusion and poor condition may result. Also larger groups tend to be less cohesive.
Emotional intelligence Emotional intelligence makes a major contribution to individual effectiveness. Teams also benefit from having members with high emotional intelligence in such ways as building relationships both inside and outside the team
Support of the work group A representative example of how companysponsored training improves group effecriveness took place at centria. A manufacturer of wall and roof system. One aspect of the training was to teach supervisors the STAR system a tool for positive feedback, as explained by the HR director
Effective group
processes
within
the
Many processes that influence effectiveness take place within the group. One is the belief that the group can do the job, reflecting high team spirit. Effectiveness Is also enhanced when workers provide social support to one another thorugh such means as helping one another having positive interactions. Work load sharing is another process characteristic related to effecriveness
Group cohesiveness Takes place when members work closely with each other. In a unified, cooperative manner. A cohesive vroup is likely to be effective. Cohesiveness is closely linked to several other dimensions of an effective work group
Stages of Group Development As with many organizational behavior concepts, group cohesiveness is composed of several componets, interpersonal attraction is a shared liking or emotional attachment to other members of the group. Group pride is the shared importance of being a member of a group. All three componets are related to group efficiency
Familiarity with jobs, coworkers and the environment Another important factor related to work-group effectivenss is familiarity. Familiarity refers to the specific knowledge group members have of their jobs, coworkers and the environment. If you are familiar with your job, such as being an experienced markey analyst, you have the knowledge base to make a better contribution to the group.
Group Problem Solving and Decision Making Group styles
decision
making
The term group decision making refers to group playing a role in making a decision.
The nominal technique
group
The oppsite of an interacting group is a nominal group whose distinguishing characteristic is silent effort during part of group problem solving.brainstorming by computer allows for the same noninteractive input by group members. The steps in the nominal group technique are as follows: 1. members of the target are chosen and brought together 2. the group is too large, it is divided into subgroups of eight or fewer 3. the group leader presents a specific question 4. individual members silently and independtly record their ideas in writing. 5. each group member presents one idea to the group without discussion 6. after all members have represented their ideas, a discussion takes place to clarify and evaluate the ideas 7. the meeting terminates with silent,
and independent voting by individuals. Through a rank -ordering system
The Delphi technique In some decision making situations, group input is needed yet it is difficult to bring people together because of the cost or time away from the office. Another problem is that some groups conflict so much in face -to-face meetings that it is difficult to solve problems and reach decisions. The Delphi technique is well suited for these situations. It is a group making technique designed to provide group members with one anothers idea and feedback, while avoiding some of the problems associated with interacting groups. The Delphi technique incorporates a carefully structured sequence of questionairres distributed to each group member,
Potential Problems Within Groups Group polarization During group problem solving members often shift their attitudes at other times the group moves toward a more conservative position. The general term for moving in either direction is group polarization.
Social loafing An unfortunate by -product of group effort is that an undermotivated person can often squeeze by without contributing a fair share. A social loafing is freeloading or shriking individual responsibility , when a person is placed in a group setting and removed from individual accountability.
groupthink a potential disadvantage of group decision making is griupthink, a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality testing and moral judgement in the interest of group of hesivenes. Simply put, groupthink is an extreme form of consensus. Those in this group atmosphere value getting along more than getting things done groupthink is most likely to take place under certain conditions. A highly cohesive group favors groupthink because members identify strongly with the group
groupthink can be prevented if the group leader or meber encourages all group members to express doubts and criticism of proposed solutions to the problem.
Comment
B
e aware of group norms and the extent to which they facilitate or inhibit reaching organizational objectives. Reward systems must be developed that encourage high group performance. For example, if a group performs well on a given task and management then elevates performance standards, a norm toward lowered productivity may result When forming a new group or team, recognize that time is needed before the group will be able to achive maximum performance. Be aware that group effectiveness is not a random occurece. Strive to incorporate into the group many of the characteristics associated with work group effectivenss, such as proper job design, the right composition, and workload sharing. Groups and teams can be classified in various ways. They are governed to some extent by group norms, and organizational citizenship behavior stems from both individual attitudes and group norms. Formal groups are deliberately formed by the organization, whereas informal groups emerge over time through worker interaction. Four types of work teams are cross -functional teams, virtual teams, crews, and top management teams.
Comment An important innovation in learning is e -learning, whereby the learner studies independently outside a classroom setting and interacts with a computer in addition to studying course material. Although e learning is different from traditional forms of learning, it is still based on basic methods of learning. Self motivation and self -discipline are also required for successful e-learning. People attribute causes after gathering information about consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Blame is an important part of attribution that sometimes blocks problem solving yet at other times leads to positive change.
CHAPTER 8
Self-managing Work Teams A self managed work team is a formally recogzined group of employees responsible for an entire work process or segment that delivers a product of service to an internal or external customer. Method of operation Members of a self managed work team typicaly work together on an ongoing day-by-day basis, thus differentiateing a work team from a task force or committee Team learning operation Research has suggested that an appropriate emphasis on team learning will enhance performance, but too much emphasis on learning might lower performance. Data for the study were collected from the management team members of business units in a fortune 100 customer products company. Each business unit is responsible for marketing, producing, selling and distributing the company’s products line in the business units geographic area Performance data were collected 1 year after the measurement of team learning, to provide a more precise understanding of how learning orientation is related to performance Unusual problems facing the team A workplace team can learn in a hurry when faced with an unsual problem or a crisis. D. Christopher Kayes describes the extreme
example of September 11. 2001 when 2 pilots 5 flgith attendants and 33 passengers responded to armed hikajcers in midflight. In slightly over 30 minutes, a collection of passengers and crew formed a team, quickly analyzed the situation, asked around for additional information, wrote down a plan, and then took decisive action the temporary team did not prevent the hijacking but the plane was diverted from attacking a highly populated area by the team physically combating the hijackers The relevance of fighting the hijackers to continuous team learning is that a team can learn from dealing with the hijackers. Faced with a crisis a team will skip the usual stage of group development.
Collective problem solving One of the mechanisms for team learning is collective problem solving. Members freely share information and opinions with one another to facilitate problem sloving. The team learning can take place in several ways. The basic approach is to use group problem solving throughout the firm. As members solve prolbems together, they continue to learn
Self-managing Work Teams Collective problem solving One of the mechanisms for team learning is collective problem solving. Members freely share information and opinions with one another to facilitate problem sloving. The team learning can take place in several ways. The basic approach is to use group problem solving throughout the firm. As members solve prolbems together, they continue to learn Another collective problem –solving- approach to team learning is to bring people together at a retreat, where theyt work in teams to reflect on ways of improving the organization. At one manufacturing company, a team-based revelation was that too many employee suggestions were too superficial, resulting in minor modifictaions of procedures or products Team coaching Coaching is a direct interaction with the team with the intention of improving team process to enhance performance. Both managers and professional coaches engage in coaching. A manager might coach a product development team toward becoming more adventuresome and risk prone by asking the question. ― have you folks ever thought of going beyond the state of the art‖ the team as a whole might then reflect on the level of its creativity. Individual coaching on the issue would take the form of asking team members one at a time the same question Here we briefly describe the 3 aspects of team coaching Negative versus positive coaching The coach can emphasize the positive or the negative .positive coaching involves being supportive and reinforcing, such as pointing out where the product development team has approached being revolutionary. In the process, the coach encourages self -management. Negative coaching emphasizes active intervention in the product-development situation would be for the coach to join the team for a few product development brainstorming sessions so
he or she could contribute to a couple of revolutionary data Coaching functions Another perspective on team coaching is that it consists of three primary functions. And each function works best at a particular point in the life cycle of the team. And each function works best at a particular point in the life cycle of the team. Motivational coaching focuses on effort, and its functions are to minimize social loafing and to build shared commitment to the group and its tasks. Coaching aimed at motivation tends to be the most helpful
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mployees chosen for self managed work teams should be those who show pride on their work and enjoy working cooperatively with others. Self nomination or asking for volunteers for the self directed work team will decrease selection errors. After employees are selected, they must be trained thoroughly to become productive members of work teams. Managers can remove themselves as imprediments to self -management of teams while retaining the role of adviser and resource person by asking these questions a. what is the cause of the problem? B. what are you doing to fix it? C. how will you know when it is accomplished and d. how can I help Even well-motivated teams tend to function best when given deadlines fr certain tasks to help build commitment Keep in mid the team halo effect. The curios phenomenon that teams are rarely blamed for their failures, instead the finger point sit individual team member when the taem does not accomplish its mission One of the mechanisms for team learning is collective problem solving. Members freely share information and opinions with one another to facilitate problem sloving.
Comment An important innovation in learning is e -learning, whereby the learner studies independently outside a classroom setting and interacts with a computer in addition to studying course material. Although e learning is different from traditional forms of learning, it is still based on basic methods of learning. Self motivation and self -discipline are also required for successful e-learning. People attribute causes after gathering information about consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Blame is an important part of attribution that sometimes blocks problem solving yet at other times leads to positive change.
CHAPTER 9
The Nature of Leadership Leadership
Is defined as the ability inspire confidence and support among the people on whose competence and commitment performance depends. Involves influencing others to achieve objectives important to them and the organization. Contributes to organizational effectiveness through the use of desirable personal attributes to achieve good results. Effective Leadership = Attributes x Results
Inspiring
Innovative
Courageous
Imaginative
Experimental
Independent
Managers
Rational
Consulting
Persistent
Problem-solving
Tough-minded
Analytical
Leaders versus Managers
Structured
Leaders
Deliberate
Visionary
Passionate
Creative
Flexible
Authoritative Stabilizing
Leadership Traits and Characteristics
Cognitive Skills
Mental abilities knowledge
and
Problem-solving skills Imagination, creativity, and a willingness to experiment Technical and professional competence (knowledge of the business)
Personality Traits
Enthusiasm Self -confidence Trustworthiness Emotional intelligence Needs for power achievement A sense of humor
and
Leadership Behaviors and Styles
Behavioral Approach to Leadership
Attempts to specify how the behaviors of effective leaders differ from less effective leaders. Based on the assumption that leaders are relatively consistent in how they attempt to influence group members. Key concept is ―leadership style‖—the relatively consistent pattern of behavior that characterizes a leader. Recognizes that some leaders modify their leadership style as the situation requires.
Leadership Behaviors and Styles Initiating structure Behavioral Approach The degree to which the to Leadership
Attempts to specify how the behaviors of effective leaders differ from less effective leaders. Based on the assumption that leaders are relatively consistent in how they attempt to influence group members. Key concept is ―leadership style‖—the relatively consistent pattern of behavior that characterizes a leader. Recognizes that some leaders modify their leadership style as the situation requires.
Pioneering Studies on Leadership Dimensions OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
leader establishes structure for group members: assigning task, specifying procedures, scheduling work, and clarifying expectations.
Consideration
The degree to which the leader creates an environment of emotional support, warmth, friendliness, and trust.
Research findings
Leaders high on initiating structure were rated highly and had higher -producing work groups. High consideration in leaders is associated with low turnover and high job satisfaction.
Leadership Styles Based on a Combination of Initiating Structure and Consideration
Leadership Behaviors and Styles UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
Production-centered managers
Set tight work standards, organized tasks carefully, prescribed work methods, and supervised closely.
Employee-centered managers
Encouraged participative goal setting and decision -making, fostered high performance by engendering trust and mutual respect.
Findings
Employee-centered managers had the most productive work groups. The most effective leaders had supportive relationships with employees, used group decision making, and encouraged employee goal setting.
PETER KOESTENBAUM ON LEADERSHIP
The central attribute of leadership is the ability to manage polarity— extremes of positions and interests.
Leadership Behaviors and Styles The Leadership Grid©
Describes leadership style in term of concerns for production and people. These concerns reflect attitudes rather than actual behavior. Concern for production includes results, bottom-line performance, profits, and mission. Concern for people includes
group members coworkers.
and
Grid assumes that an opportunistic leader shifts to any Grid style to achieve personal gain and self promotion. Best style is team management — at 9,9 on the Grid (high concern for both production and people).
Leadership Behaviors and Styles
Leadership Behaviors and Styles Leaders do not relate to each group member in the same manner.
Leaders develop unique working relationships with each group member.
In-groups are given additional rewards, responsibilities, and trust in exchange for their loyalty and performance. Out-groups have a more formal (traditional) superior subordinate relationship with the leader.
Research findings
In-group membership beneficial to its members. High-quality exchanges delegation.
is
leader -member improve
Supervisors are not overly influenced by the exchanges.
Contingency Theories of Leadership FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
Measurements situational control based on:
of are
Assumes that the best style of leadership is determined by the situation in which the leader is working.
Leader -member (good to bad)
Uses the least-preferred coworker (LPC) scale to measure the leader’s style.
Position power (leader’s ability to reward and control)
LPC is a measure of how a manager describes his or her relationship to a referent (least-preferred) coworker.
Task-motivated style is best when the leader has very high or very low control of the situation.
Positive LPC descriptions indicate relationship -oriented management styles.
Relationship-motivated style best in situation under moderate or intermediate control.
Negative LPC descriptions indicate task-oriented management styles.
Situational control
Is the degree to which the leader can control and influence the outcomes of group effort.
relations
Task structure (well to ill defined)
Research findings
Socio-independent leaders function best when control is high.
Contingency Theories of Leadership
Contingency Theories of Leadership leadership style to match the contingencies of a particular situation.
THE PATH GOAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP -
Specifies what a leader must do to achieve high morale and productivity in a given situation. Focuses on helping employees find the right path to goal attainment. Assumes that the leader will choose the right
Is based on expectancy theory in that its key propositions relate to motivation, satisfaction, and performance. Choices for adjusting leadership styles to meet situational contingency demands:
Contingency Theories of Leadership
Contingency Theories of Leadership THE SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP MODEL
Explains how a leader chooses a leadership style that is appropriate to the readiness of group members. Readiness is defined as the extent to which a group member has the ability and willingness or confidence to accomplish a
task.
As the readiness of group members increases, a leader should rely more on relationship-related leadership behaviors and less on task related leadership behaviors.
Contingency Theories of Leadership most effective decision making style for the situation.
THE NORMATIVE DECISION MODEL
Leadership is a decision making process in which the leader examines the situation and chooses the
Five styles of decision making: .
Transformational and Charismatic Leadership Transformational Leader range perspective.
Helps organizations and people make positive changes in the way they conduct their activities. Is closely linked to strategic leadership. Is involved in sweeping positive changes. Charisma Is the ability to lead others based on personal charm, magnetism, inspiration, and emotion.
5.Helping people understand the need for change. 6.Investing managers with a sense of urgency. 7.Committing to greatness. Charisma is in the eyes of the beholder.
Key Characteristics of Charismatics:
Transformations : 1.Raising people’s level of consciousness. 2.Getting people to transcend their self -interests. 3.Focusing people on the quest for self -fulfillment. 4.Helping to develop a long -
They have vision. They are communicators.
masterful
They inspire trust. They are energetic. They manage impressions.
their
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s a formal evaluation system for use in improving leadership effectiveness. Input is in the form of a 360-degree survey of people who work for and with the supervisor. Self -ratings are compared to ratings of others. Differences in the two ratings indicate performance area opportunities for improvement. A Continuing Controversy: Do men and women have different leadership styles? There is no clear answer. Women use a more relationship-oriented style of leadership; that is, in general, they are more cooperative, participative, and empowering than men who tend toward a command-and-control, autocratic leadership style. Substitutes for Leadership: Group member Characteristics: Highly capable persons or groups (followers) can function with less leadership. Effective followers are self -managers, are committed, have competence and focus, and possess courage. Task Characteristics: Highly standardized tasks that provide feedback and are intrinsically satisfying can substitute for leadership. Organizational factors: Explicit plans with well-defined goals that are carried out by cohesive groups reduce the need for leadership.
Comment Carefully diagnose the situation. Choose a leadership approach that best fits the situational deficiencies or opportunities. Observe the people to be led; come to understand their interests, goals, and concerns. Apply the chosen leadership approach.
CHAPTER 10
The Meaning of Power, Politics, and Influence Pfeffer (1992, p.30) defined politics as Athe processes, the actions, the behaviors through which potential power is utilized and realized.@ Another author (Dubrin, 2001, p.192) defined organizational politics as Ainformal approaches to gaining power through means other than merit or luck.@ It could be argued that politics are used primarily to achieve power, either directly or indirectly, e.g., by being promoted, receiving a larger budget or other resources, -or gaining desirable assignments. Many people regard organizational politics as something negative (e.g., pursuing self -interests at the ex-pense of others) and something to be minimized. Consequently, although most people know that organizational politics are common, they avoid saying so when it concerns one=s own behavior. It is more common to talk about politics when complaining about a loss to a friend than it is in the context of one's own political maneuvering. When we win on an issue, we call it leadership;
when we lose, we call it politics. In many organizations, politics is a taboo subject, which makes it difficult for individuals to deal with this crucially important aspect of organizational reality. I believe a leader must skillfully use organizational politics to acquire and retain power and to accomplish major goals. Therefore, it would be a mistake to pretend that politics does not exist or to fantasize that a leader can be effective without appropriate (and ethical, I would add) use of politics. As Pericles wrote over 2500 years ago, "Just because you do not take an interest in politics doesn't mean politics won't take an interest in you." I regard organizational politics as neither good nor bad, per se, although it is important for us to distinguish between ethical and unethical political behavior .
Sources of Individual and Subunit Power It is useful to remember that in its original meaning, the idea of politics stems from the view that, where interests are divergent, society should provide a means of allowing individuals to reconcile their differences through consultation and negotiation. In ancient Greece, Aristotle advocated politics as a means of reconciling the need for unity in the Greek polis (city -state) with the fact that the polis was an "aggregate of many members." Politics, for him, provided a means of creating order out of diversity while avoiding forms of totalitarian rule. Political science and many systems of government have built on this basic idea, advocating politics, and the recognition and interplay of competing interests that politics implies, as a means of creating a non --coercive form of social order. Organizational politics are a natural result of the fact that people think differently and want to act differently. This diversity creates a tension that must be resolved through political means. There are many ways in which this can be done, for example: autocratically ("We'll do it this way"); bureaucratically ("We're supposed to do it this way"); technocratically ("It's best to do it this way"); or democratically ("How shall we do it?").
In each case the choice between alternative paths of action usually hinges on the power relations between the actors involved. (Morgan, p.148) An organization's politics is most clearly manifest in the conflicts and power plays that sometimes occupy center stage, and in the count-less interpersonal intrigues that provide diversions in the flow of orga-nizational activity. Politics occurs on an ongoing basis, often in a way that is invisible to all but those directly involved. One does not have to be consciously cunning or devi-ously political to end up playing organizational politics. Political behavior is a fairly natural response to their conflicts to life. Sometimes the conflicts generated will be quite explicit and open for all to see, while at other times they will lie beneath the surface of day -to-day events. For example, relations in meetings may be governed by various hidden agendas of which even the participants are unaware
Empowerment of Group Members 1. Pyramid-shaped structure:
organization
A pyramid concentrates power at the top. Only so much power is therefore available to distribute among the many people who would like more of it. Each successive layer on the organization chart has less power than the layer above. At the very bottom of the organization, workers have virtually no power. Since most organizations today have fewer layers than they previously had, the competition for power has become more intense. 2. Subjective performance:
standards
of
People often resort to organizational politics because they do not believe that the organization has an objective and fair way of judging their performance and suit-ability for promotion. Similarly, when managers have no objective way of differentiating effective people from the less effective, they will resort to favoritism. 3. Environmental turbulence:
uncertainty
and
When people operate in an unsta-ble and unpredictable environment, they tend to behave politically. They rely on organizational politics to create a favorable impression because uncertainty makes it difficult to
determine what they should really be accomplishing. The uncertainty, turbulence, and insecurity created by corporate mergers or downsizing is a major contributor to office politics. 4. Emotional insecurity: Some people resort to political maneuvers to ingratiate themselves with superi-ors because they lack confidence in their talents and skills. 5. Manipulative tendencies: Some people engage in political behavior because they want to manipulate others, sometimes for their own personal advantage. 6. Disagreements that prevent rational decision making: Many executives attempt to use rational criteria when making major decisions, but rational decision making is constrained by major disagreements over -what the organization should be doing. Unless strategy and goals are shared strongly among key organizational members, political moti-vation is inevitable in organizational decision making.
Organizational Politics To make effective use of organizational politics, leaders must be able to make appropriate use of specific political strategies and tactics. Remember that ethical behavior is regarded as an important requirement for effective leadership. As one of many guidelines, -The Center for Business Ethics at Bentley College has developed six questions to help evaluate the ethics of a specific decision. Before engaging in a particular influence act or political tactic, they recommend that a person seek answers to the following questions; * Is it right? (based on absolute principles of moral rights) * Is it fair? (based on absolute principles of justice) * Who gets hurt? (the fewer the better) * Would you be comfortable if the details of your decision or actions were made public in the media or through electronic mail? (based on the principle of disclosure) * What would you tell your child, sibling, or young relative to do? (based on the principle of reversibility) * How does it smell? (based on common sense and intuition)
Let's look at a representative group of political tac-tics and strategies, categorized in the following two sections as ethical or unethical, although many of the strategies and tactics could fall into either category, depending on motivations and methods of implementing them. Used with tact, diplomacy, and good intent, ethical influence tac-tics can be quite effective. Sequencing of tactics is another im-portant consideration. In general, it is best to begin with the most positive, or least abrasive, tactic. If you do not gain the advantage you seek, proceed to a stronger tactic. Also, begin with low-cost, low-risk tactics. This section describes a sampling of ethical political behaviors, divided into three related and overlapping groups: strategies and tactics aimed at (a) directly gain-ing power, (b) building relationships with superiors and coworkers, and (c) avoid-ing political blunders. All of these approaches help a leader gain or retain power. They also help the leader cope with the fact that organizations are not en-tirely rational.
Organizational Influence Tactics 1. Develop Power Contacts and Relationships. After powerful people have been identified, al-liances with them must be established. Cultivating friendly, cooperative re-lationships with powerful organizational members and outsiders can make the leader's cause much easier to advance. These contacts can benefit a person by supporting his or her ideas in meetings and other public for-ums. One way to develop these contacts is to be more social, for example, throwing parties and inviting powerful people, although they may not be available. 2. Make an Early Showing. A display of dramatic results can help gain accep-tance for one's efforts. Once a person has impressed management with his or her ability to solve an important problem, that person can look forward to working on problems that will bring greater power. 3. Keep Informed. It is politically important to keep informed. Successful leaders develop a network to help them keep abreast, or ahead, of developments within the firm. For this rea-son, a politically astute individual befriends key staff members and executive administrative assistants, for example. 4. Control Vital Information. Power accrues to those who control vital infor
-mation. For example, many former gov-ernment or military officials have found power niches for themselves in industry as a Washington representative of a firm that does business with the government. The vital information they control is knowledge of whom to contact to shorten some of the complicated procedures in getting gov-ernment contracts approved. 5. Control Lines of Communication. Related to controlling information is con-trolling lines of communication, particularly access to key people. Adminis-trative assistants and staff assistants frequently control an executive's calendar. Both insiders and outsiders must curry favor with the conduit in order to see an important executive. Although many people attempt to con-tact executives directly through email, some executives delegate the re-sponsibility of screening email 6. Provide Favors and Develop Ingratiation. A skillful leader always has a positive balance of favors given, and can draw on that balance when something is needed in return. 7. Display Loyalty. A loyal worker is valued because organizations prosper more with loyal than with disloyal employees.
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here is a danger when becoming sensitized to political behavior that one begins to see everything as political, to develop a Machiavellian interpretation that suggests that everyone is trying to outwit and outmaneuver everyone else. We be-gin to see politics everywhere, and to look for hidden agendas even where there are none. Rather than use politics to generate new insights and understandings that can help deal with divergent interests, there is a temptation to reduce the concept to a tool to be used to advance our own personal interests. This kind of manipulative stance is reflected in many contemporary writings on the politics of organization, which have a tendency to em-phasize the cynical, selfish, ruthless, get-ahead-at-all-costs mentality that so often turns organizations into corporate jungles. These writings sell through statements such as: "Find out where the real power is and use it" and "Win through intimidation;" This use of a political metaphor breeds mistrust and encourages the idea that organization involves a zero-sum game where there must be winners and losers. While there may be a measure of truth in this, in that many organizations are dominated by competitive relations, the effect is to reduce the scope for genuine openness and collaboration.
