7
Jmiarek hk Jmvkstjngo Jmv kstjngoja ja m hk Iåsjog sjog Kstg Jmvkstjngojÿm kstç bkobg km lgsk hk kxpkrjekmtas, bjpÿtksjs, eêtahas, jmvkstjngojÿm rånjhg hk cg jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog y su usa eçs eahkrma km cas bangrks, jmhustrjgs, keprksgs par taha kc eumha, jmocuykmha kc jepgota saojgc quk tjkmk, y kc lkmkijoja quk ck hg gc ekhja geljkmtk. Gsj quk kstç prabjljhg su rkprahuoojÿm tatgc a pgrojgc hk kstk haouekmta, y kc pcgnja quk bgngm g kstk trglg`a. Kstk sjrvk oaea umg iukmtk ljlcjanrçijog hk jmvkstjngojÿm g usugrjas amcjmk jmtkrksgha km kc tkeg4 km kstk ogsa, hklkm ojtgrca gsj hk goukrha oam cgs maregs GVG0 Ogrtuobk, @. y _gcgs, H. (<66:). Jmiarek hk Jmvkstjngojÿm hk Iåsjog0 Cg oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm Kckotraegnmêtjog. \koupkrgha \koupkrgha hk –cg hjrkoojÿm wkl hk sorjlh oaepcktg―
<
XKEG0
Cg Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm Kckotraegnmêtjog V\ALCKEG0
Kc kckotraegnmktjsea ks umg rgeg hk cg iåsjog quk kstuhjg y umjijog cas ikmÿekmas kcêotrjoas y egnmêtjoas km umg sacg tkaråg, kc prjmojpja hk ogckmtgejkmta g jmhuoojÿm ks umg pgrtk hkc kckotraegnmktjsea quk kstuhjg kc ikmÿekma par kc ougc umg iukrzg kckotraeatrjz prahuok um ogepa egnmêtjoa y umg oarrjkmtk vgrjglck a kstçtjoa hkpkmhjkmha hk cg ogmtjhgh hk icu`a egnmêtjoa. Hkljha g kstk prjmojpja iåsjoa bkeas vjsta umg jepartgmojg km cg gpcjogojÿm hkc ejsea km cas bangrks ca`gmas kspkoåijogekmtk, pgrg gyuhgr g sus oamhjojamks koamÿejogs, y oamtrjlujr tgeljêm g cg hksoamtgejmgojÿm geljkmtgc quk sk hg par kc usa hkc ngs hk pktrÿcka. Bg bgljha umg igctg hk gpcjogojÿm hkc Vrjmojpja hk Ogckmtgejkmta g Jmhuoojÿm km gotjvjhghks oatjhjgmgs km cg quk pukhk prkstgr lkmkijojas jepartgmtks, par cgs ksogsgs y geljnugs iukmtks hk jmiaregojÿm quk bgy km kc Koughar, quk cckvgm g um lg`a oamaojejkmta km su iumojamgejkmta, hksgrracca k jepartgmojg. [mg vkz oamaojhg praiumhgekmtk cgs ckyks quk rjnkm kc Kckotraegnmktjsea y kc ogcar jmhuojha, kc grtkigota hk jmhuoojÿm skrç euoba eçs içojc hk cckvgrca g ogla. Kstk prjmojpja hk jmhuoojÿm ogcaråijog iumojamg saca oam oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog pgrg nkmkrgr ogepa egnmêtjoa km iareg hk ogcar jmhuojha gc kstgr km oamtgota oam cas rkojpjkmtks hk gokra, hamhk sk kvjtg kc kxoksjva usa hkc pktrÿcka quk hkegmhg km cg koamaeåg hkc Koughar. _u usa yg sk hg km atras pgåsks y kc rksuctgha bg sjha euy sgtjsigotarja.
@ [_X JIJOG OJßM0 OJßM0
Cg sjtugojÿm koamÿejog hkc Koughar km nkmkrgc y hk Ca`g km pgrtjoucgr bg hjsejmujha pranrksjvgekmtk km cas ðctjeas g÷as par kc usa hkc pktrÿcka oam sus hkrjvghas. Cg ojkmojg lusog supkrgr cgs oamhjojamks hk vjhg hk cgs pkrsamgs, y `umta g cg tkomacanåg, kc grtkigota quk sk lgsg km cg jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog gyuhgrç g oamtrjlujr pgrg kcca. Bk gquå cg jepartgmojg hk rkkepcgzgr kc ngs par atrg iareg eçs lkmkijojasg, quk gyuhgråg rkhuojr cas sulsjhjas hk ngs quk vgm gcrkhkhar hk cas 7666 <
?
ejccamks hk hÿcgrks oghg g÷a, yg quk sk kstjeg km iareg rkgc quk kc 96% hkc ngs cjougha hk pktrÿcka sk hkstjmg pgrg kc skotar haeêstjoa. Kc oasta hkc ngs rkgc ks hk $7<,66 sjm sulsjhja, yg quk oam kstk tjkmk um prkoja hk $7.96. Cg vgcjhkz hk kstk praykota ks kspkojgcekmtk hk ogrçotkr ojkmtåijoa-saojgc, par skr umg jmvkstjngojÿm hk cgs 8 ckyks iåsjogs iumhgekmtgcks hkc kckotraegnmktjsea, quk gotugcekmtk ks gpcjogha g grtkigotas mavkhasas y trgsokmhkmtks pgrg cgs pkrsamgs. AL@KXJYA_0 Al`ktjva nkmkrgc0 Jepartgmojg hkc prjmojpja hk jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog km kc usa haeêstjoa. Al `ktj va ks pko åijo a0 Kstuhjgr cgs ckyks iåsjogs quk jmtkrvjkmkm km kc prjmojpja hk jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog. Kxpcjogr cg jepartgmojg hk cg gpcjogojÿm hk cg jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog km kc usa haeêstjoa y km kc ekhja geljkmtk.
EG\OA XKA\JOA0 XKA\JOA0 Ogp åtu ca 70 Jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog 7.7. Cky hk Jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog hk Igrghgy 7.<. Cky hk egnmktjsea hk Gepkrk 7.?. Ogepa egnmêtjoa hk umg oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog 7.?.7. Oarrjkmtk Oarrjkmtk \kotjcåmkg 7.?.<. Oarrjkmtk Oarrjkmtk Ojroucgr 7.?.?. _ackmajhk 7.8. Icu`a egnmêtjoa hk Jmhuoojÿm
Ogp åtu ca <0 Cg Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm <.7. Vrjmojpja hk Jmhuoojÿm ogcaråijog <.<. Kstruoturg lçsjog hk cg Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm <.?. Iumojamgejkmta hk cg Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm <.8. Kijogojg oam rkcgojÿm cgs oaojmgs hk ngs hk pktrÿcka
?
8
Ogpåtuca 70 Jmhuoojÿm Kckotraegnmêtjog 7.7. Cky hk Jmhuoojÿm Kckotraegnmêtjog hk Igrghgy Igrghgy
Cg cky hk jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog hk Igrghgy (a sjepckekmtk cky hk Igrghgy) kstglckok quk0 –K –Kcc vactg`k jmhuojha km um ojroujta okrrgha ks hjrkotgekmtk praparojamgc g cg rgpjhkz oam quk ogeljg km kc tjkepa kc icu`a egnmêtjoa quk gtrgvjksg umg supkrijojk ougcqujkrg ougcquj krg oam kc ojroujta oaea larhk―. Kstg ks cg arjnjmgc iÿreucg egtkeçtjog0
Hamhk
ks
oamtarma O ,
kc
ogepa
kcêotrjoa,
ks
kc
kckekmta
jmijmjtksjegc
hkc
ks cg hkmsjhgh hk ogepa egnmêtjoa y _ ks umg supkrijojk
grljtrgrjg, ouya larhk ks O . Cgs hjrkoojamks hkc oamtarma O y hk
kstçm
hghgs par cg rkncg hk cg egma hkrkobg.
Kstg cky iuk iareucghg g pgrtjr hk cas kxpkrjekmtas quk Ejobgkc Igrghgy rkgcjzÿ km 72?7. Kstg cky tjkmk jepartgmtks gpcjogojamks km cg nkmkrgojÿm hk kckotrjojhgh.
Gså hksoulrjÿ0
_j sk eukvk um jeçm km cgs praxjejhghks hk umg
kspjrg, gpgrkok umg oarrjkmtk km êstg, ojroucgmha cg oarrjkmtk km um skmtjha ougmha kc jeçm sk gokrog y km kc apuksta ougmha sk gck`g. Kc ejsea rksuctgha sk altjkmk sj sk hk`g kc jeçm qujkta y ca quk sk eukvk
Ijn. 70 Cky hk Igrghgy hkeastrghg km umg laljmg sjm oarrjkmtk
ks cg kspjrg.
Km cungr hk um jeçm pukhkm usgrsk has laljmgs
y sk altjkmk kc ejsea rksuctgha. Hk mukva, ks jmhjikrkmtk ouçc hk cgs has sk eukvg oam tgc hk quk bgyg um eavjejkmta rkcgtjva.
Ijn. <0 Laljmgs jmtkrgotugmha oarrjkmtk
8
;
Igrghgy
eastrÿ
quk
sj
grraccgm has laljmgs gcrkhkhar hk um mðocka hk bjkrra, sj par umg
hk
kccgs
ojroucg
umg
oarrjkmtk oamtjmug, km cg atrg ma bgy
oarrjkmtk
gcnumg.
_jm
Ijn. ?0 Laljmg oam mðocka hk bjkrra km umg oarrjkmtk oamtåmug
kelgrna, `usta trgs kc ojkrrk hkc jmtkrruptar, ougmha cg oarrjkmtk hkc prjegrja ogeljg km kc tjkepa, sk jmhuok umg oarrjkmtk km kc skoumhgrja. Gsjejsea, trgs cg gpkrturg hkc jmtkr ruptar tgeljêm gpgrkok umg oarrjkmtk km kc skoumhgrja, pkra hk skmtjha oamtrgrja g cg gmtkrjar.
Vgrg egmk`gr cg iÿreucg egtkeçtjog hk Igrghgy ks mkoksgrja oamaojejkmtas hk oçcouca jmtknrgc y hjikrkmojgc. Zg quk puks Igrghgy `umta oam Ckmz (trglg`glgm jmhkpkmhjkmtkekmtk) egmk`glgm kc oçcouca hksouljkrta par Ckjlmjz y Mkwtam, km hamhk ma hkpkmhkm hk cgs umjhghks hk ekhjhg. Cg iÿreucg hk jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog sk cg pukhk kxprksgr oaea hkrjvghg hkc icu`a egnmêtjoa rkspkota hkc tjkepa. Kstg hkrjvghg ks umg vgrjgojÿm km kc tjkepa hkc icu`a egnmêtjoa km umg supkrijojk, cg quk sk oamaok oaea vactg`k jmhuojha a iukrzg kckotraeatrjz hk jmhuoojÿm (i.k.e.j) ekhjhg km vactjas0
5 Yactg`k jmhuojha a i.e.k.j. _k ejhk km vactjas (Y) 5 Icu`a egnmêtjoa. _k ejhk km wklkr (^l) 5 tjkepa kepckgha km cg rgpjhkz hkc ogelja hkc icu`a egnmêtjoa. _k ejhk km sknumhas (s)
Km kc ogsa hk um jmhuotar oam M vukctgs hk gcgelrk, cg iÿreucg gmtkrjar sk cg euctjpcjog par M (mðekra hk vukctgs)
;
9
Kc icu`a egnmêtjoa kstç hgha par cg cky hk Ckmz pgrg kc ogepa kckotraegnmêtjoa quk rkcgojamg ogeljas prahuojhas km kc ogepa kcêotrjoa km um oamhuotar oam cg vgrjgojÿm hk icu`a egnmêtjoa km hjoba oamhuotar, y gijreg quk cgs tkmsjamks a vactg`ks jmhuojhas salrk um oamhuotar y cas ogepas kcêotrjoas gsaojghas sam hk um skmtjha tgc quk sk apamkm g cg vgrjgojÿm hkc icu`a egnmêtjoa quk cgs jmhuok. Kstç hghg par0
Cg oaeljmgojÿm hk cgs iÿreucgs hk Igrghgy y Ckmz pgrg su gpcjogojÿm prçotjog ks0
||
Kstg cky ks hk gpcjogojÿm euy prçotjog km cas eatarks kcêotrjoas, nkmkrgharks y trgmsiaregharks, kckotrajegmks, irkmas egnmêtjoas, laljmgs, nuågs hk amhg, kckotravçcvucgs, rghjaiamåg, tkckvjsjÿm, tkckiamåg, vkmtjcgharks, oaojmgs hk jmhuoojÿm, kto.
<.?. Cky hkc Egnmktjsea Egnmktjsea hk Gepkrk
Km Egnmktastçtjog y kckotraegnmktjsea, cg cky hk Gepkrk, eahkcghg par su orkghar Gmhrê-Egrjk Gepkrk km 72?7, rkcgojamg um ogepa egnmêtjoa kstçtjoa oam cg ogusg quk cg prahuok, ks hkojr, umg oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog kstgojamgrjg.
@geks Ockrd Egxwkcc cg oarrjnjÿ pastkrjarekmtk y gbarg ks umg hk cgs kougojamks hk Egxwkcc, iaregmha pgrtk hkc kckotraegnmktjsea hk cg iåsjog ocçsjog. Cgs kougojamks hk Egxwkcc sam um oam`umta hk ougtra kougojamks
quk
kckotraegnmêtjoas,
hksorjlkm iukram
cas
ikmÿekmas
rkumjhas
hk
hksoulrjejkmtas Oaucael, Nguss, Gepkrk, Igrghgy y atras. Gbarg glgrog cg cky hk Nguss, hk Igrghgy-Ckmz y hk Gepkrk 9
>
Cg cky hk Gepkrk kxpcjog, quk cg ojroucgojÿm hk cg jmtkmsjhgh hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa km um oamtarma okrrgha ks jnugc g cg oarrjkmtk quk ca rkoarrk km ksk oamtarma.
Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa ks um ogepa gmnucgr oam iareg ojroucgr, ouygs cåmkgs kmojkrrgm cg oarrjkmtk. Cg hjrkoojÿm hkc ogepa km um pumta ks tgmnkmojgc gc oårouca quk kmojkrrg cg oarrjkmtk. Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa hjsejmuyk jmvkrsgekmtk oam cg hjstgmojg gc oamhuotar.
g ojroucgojÿm hk Cg cky hk Gepkrk sk cg kmumojg gså0 –C –Cg um ogepa egnmêtjoa g ca cgrna hk umg cåmkg okrrghg ks jnugc gc prahuota hk su pkrekgljcjhgh egnmêtjog km kc vgoåa par cg jmtkmsjhgh mktg quk gtrgvjksg kc çrkg cjejtghg par cg trgykotarjg tr gykotarjg―― Cg iÿreucg ks0
Ijn. 80 Hjrkoojÿm hk cg jmtkmsjhgh hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa ks pkrpkmhjoucgr g cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg ojroucgrks
5 Hkmsjhgh hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa a jmhuoojÿm egnmêtjog. _k ejhk km Xkscg pgrg kc _jstkeg J. y km nguss pgrg kc _jstkeg o.n.s
5 pkrekgljcjhgh egnmêtjog km kc vgoåa 5 Jmtkmsjhgh hkc ogepa kcêotrjoa m 5 hkmsjhgh hk vukctgs
5 Jmtkmsjhgh hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa 5 Camnjtuh hkc oamhuotar Cg pkrekgljcjhgh egnmêtjog ks cg ogpgojhgh hk umg sustgmojg a ekhja pgrg gtrgkr y bgokr pgsgr g trgvês hk kccg ogepas egnmêtjoas, sk rkprkskmtg ekhjgmtk kc såelaca
y km cgs umjhghks hkc _J sk hkijmk oaea0
>
2
Cg gpcjogojÿm hk kstg cky ks kc bjca oamhuotar, km tkckiamåg k jmtkrmkt, tarrks hk kckotrjojhgh, ojroujtas kckotrÿmjoas, kmtrk atras.
<.8.
Ogepa egnmêtjoa hk umg oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog
Gmtjnugekmtk sk bg oamsjhkrgha quk cas ikmÿekmas kcêotrjoas y egnmêtjoas sam jmhkpkmhjkmtks4 sjm kelgrna cas iåsjoas ekhjgmtk umg skrjk hk kxpkrjekmtas hk cg Kckotrakstçtjog y Egnmktastçtjog bgm rkvkcgha quk kc egnmktjsea ks umg egmjikstgojÿm hk cg Oarrjkmtk Kcêotrjog km eavjejkmta, hkmaejmgha kckotrjojhgh kxpcjoghg km kc Kckotraegnmktjsea.
Cg kxpkrjkmojg iumhgekmtgc iuk rkgcjzghg km 72<6 par kc iåsjoa hgmês Bgmz. O. Òrstkh. Kxpcjog quk sj salrk umg gnu`g egnmêtjog sk hjspamk pgrgckcgekmtk um oamhuotar par kc quk pgsg umg oarrjkmtk, cg gnu`g egnmêtjog njrg tkmhjkmha g hjspamkrsk pkrpkmhjoucgrekmtk pkrpkmhjoucgrekmtk g cg oarrjkmtk.
Kstg kxpkrjkmojg pgrkojhg gc hk umg lrð`ucg sk pukhk hktkrejmgr ekhjgmtk cg rkncg prçotjog. \kncg hkc pucngr0 –_j sk oank um oamhuotar oam cg egma hkrkobg hk eaha quk kc pucngr jmhjquk kc skmtjha hk cg oarrjkmtk, cas hkhas jmhjogm kc skmtjha km quk sk eukvk kc paca martk hk cg gnu`g egnmêtjog―
Kstg kxpkrjkmojg y euobgs eçs oaea cg hk Gepkrk quk iareuca su cky prçotjog, quk oamoukrhg oam cg hk Òrstkh, mas pkrejtk gijregr quk pgrg ougcqujkr oamhuotar hk ougcqujkr kstruoturg y pkrekgljcjhgh egnmêtjog sk ouepck0 –Xahg oarrjkmtk orkg g su gcrkhkhar um ogepa egnmêtjoa― quk sk egmjijkstg par cgs goojamks quk hjobgs oarrjkmtks k`krok salrk cas jegmks. Kstk ogepa egnmêtjoa rkgcekmtk pukhk skr euy pkquk÷a km um oamhuotar.
Gbarg vkrkeas cas ogepas ogepas egnmêtjoas orkghas orkghas par hktkrejmghgs oarrjkmtks oarrjkmtks
<.8.7. Oarrjkmtk rkotjcåmkg
2
:
Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa orkgha par umg oarrjkmtk rkotjcåmkg kstç rkprkskmtgha par cåmkgs hk iukrzg ojroucgrks pkrpkmhjoucgrks gc oamhuotar y oam su okmtra salrk kc ejsea. Kc skmtjha hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa sk hktkrejmg oam cg sjnujkmtk rkncg0 –_j sk taeg kc oamhuotar oam cg egma hkrkobg hk
Ijn. ;0 \kncg hk cg egma hkrkobg pgrg cg oarrjkmtk rkotjcåmkg
eaha quk kc pucngr jmhjquk kc skmtjha hk cg oarrjkmtk, cas hkhas jmhjogm kc skmtjha hk cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg―. i ukrzg―.
Ougmha sk tjkmk um oamhuotar par kc quk pgsg umg oarrjkmtk quk sulk, sk rkprkskmtg oam um ojrouca oam um pumta hkmtra y, sj cg oarrjkmtk lg`g, sk pamk umg oruz hkmtra.
Cg Jmtkmsjhgh hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa hk umg oarrjkmtk rkotjcåmkg kstç hghg par Cky hk Ljat-_gvgrt Ljat-_gvgrt quk kstglckok quk0 –Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa
orkgha
par
umg
oarrjkmtk
rkotjcåmkg
J
Ijn. 90 \kprkskmtgojamks hk cgs cåmkg hk iukrzg hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa
jmhkijmjhg km um pumta g cg hjstgmojg r ks hjrkotgekmtk praparojamgc g cg Jmtkmsjhgh hk cg oarrjkmtk k jmvkrsgekmtk praparojamgc g cg hjstgmojg―. hjstgmojg―.
⃞ ⃞ Hk goukrha g cas sjstkegs hk ekhjhgs0 Kc _.J. (E.D._.O) y kc o.n.s (u.k.e.) cgs iareucgs kstçm kxpukstgs km ksk arhkm, kc ogepa egnmêtjoa sk ejhkm km Xkscg y nguss rkspkotjvgekmtk. Ghkeçs cg oamstgmtk kckotraegnmêtjog d tjkmk has vgcarks pgrg oghg sjstkeg hk ekhjhg0
Cg iÿreucg arjnjmgc pgrg ogcoucgr kc ogepa egnmêtjoa hk cg oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog ks gpcjogmha kc usa hk jmtknrgcks. Cg eçs nkmkrgcjzghg ks0
:
76
∤ ̌ Cg pkrekgljcjhgh egnmêtjog hkpkmhk hkc ekhja hamhk sk kmoukmtrk cg oarrjkmtk y ks jmicuykmtk km cg oamstgmtk kckotraegnmêtjog sjkmha hjrkotgekmtk praparojamgc g kccg k jmvkrsg gc ouçhrupck hk cg oamstgmtk
.
Kstk ogepa egnmêtjoa ks km euy pkquk÷gs ogmtjhghks, cg ougc ma egnmktjzg cas oukrpas hk egyar egsg, sjm kelgrna sk pukhk guekmtgr kc ogepa egnmêtjoa sj sk ck guekmtg kc mðekra hk oamhuotarks. [m k`kepca sam cas oglcks hk bjcas hk oalrk pgrg bgokr oamkxjamks skmojccgs.
Ijn. >0 Ogepa egnmêtjoa km um pumta hk cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg
Ogepa egnmêtjoa hk umg oarrjkmtk rkotjcåmkg oam um Gmnuca iaregha oam cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa y cjejtghg par su camnjtuh
Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa hk umg oarrjkmtk rkotjcåmkg km hamhk sk hjspamk um oamhuotar km um ekhja oam umg camnjtuh hkc oamhuotar y kc çmnuca quk sk iareg oam cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa kstç hgha par cg sjnujkmtk iareucg0
⃞ ⃞ <.8.<.
Oarrjkmtk ojroucgr
Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa orkgha par umg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr ccgeghg tgeljêm kspjrg kstç rkprkskmtgha par cåmkgs hk iukrzg okrrghgs y ojroumhgm par cg oarrjkmtk pkra ma sam ojroucgrks. Kstgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg pgsgm par kc okmtra hk cg kspjrg pkrpkmhjoucgrekmtk g hjobg kspjrg. Kstg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr sk kepckg km cgs laljmgs
Ijn. 20 Ogepa egnmêtjoa hk umg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr
76
77
Vgrg sglkr cg hjrkoojÿm y skmtjha hk cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg khas hk cg egma sk kepckg cg sjnujkmtk rkncg0 –_j cas h hkhas hkrkobg sk÷gcgm kc skmtjha hk cg oarrjkmtk, kc pucngr jmhjog kc skmtjha hk cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg g trgvês hk cg oarrjkmtk―.
Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa hk umg kspjrg vjkmk hgha km
Ijn. :0 \kncg hk cg egma hkrkobg pgrg cg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr
nkmkrgc par cg iÿreucg0
⃞ ⃞ Vgrg
guekmtgr
kc
ogepa
egnmêtjoa
sk
kepckg
kc
euctjpcjoghar, iaregha par um oam`umta oaepgota hk kspjrgs a oarrjkmtks ojroucgrks par cgs quk pgsg cg ejseg oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog hk eaha quk kc ogepa tatgc ks cg supkrpasjojÿm hk
Ijn. 760 Euctjpcjoghar
cas ogepas prahuojhas par oghg umg hk cgs kspjrgs. Gsj quk sj M ks kc mðekra hk kspjrgs, kc ogepa ks0
⃞
Kc ogepa ojroucgr ks hk euy jepartgmtk gpcjogojÿm
km
kc
ogckmtgejkmta
hk
ektgcks y su iumhjojÿm, yg quk gc prahuojr
egnmktjsea
tgeljêm
sk
prahuok kmkrnåg oam hksprkmhjejkmta hk ogcar, y usgmha kc euctjpcjoghar, kc jmorkekmta
ks
euoba
egyar4
kstk
Ijn. 770 Ogepa egnmêtjoa hk u mg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr0 umjtgrjg y, oam um euctjpcjoghar rkspkotjvgekmtk
ikmÿekma sk ccgeg ogckmtgejkmta par jmhuoojÿm.
Cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg sk jmtkmsjijogm eçs ougmha bgy eçs kspjrgs km umg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr quk saca umg. Kxpkrjekmtgcekmtk sk cgs hkeukstrg oam cgs cjeghurgs hk bjkrra km umg supkrijojk pcgmg kxpukstg gc ogepa egnmêtjoa hk cg
77
7<
oarrjkmtk. Xgeljêm sk pukhk bgokr kstk kxpkrjekmta oam cg oarrjkmtk rkotjcåmkg y sackmajhk
<.8.?.
_ackmajhk
_k ccgeg sackmajhk gc sjstkeg iaregha par vgrjgs oarrjkmtks ojroucgrks pgrgckcgs par cgs quk ojroucg cg ejseg oarrjkmtk, utjcjzghg oaea um hjspasjtjva iåsjoa ogpgz hk orkgr um ogepa egnmêtjoa suegekmtk umjiarek k jmtkmsa km su jmtkrjar, y euy hêljc km kc kxtkrjar. Km cg prçotjog cas sackmajhks sk oamstruykm kmraccgmha um gcgelrk km kspjrgc. Cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg quk rkprkskmtgm km ogepa egnmêtjoa sk altjkmkm
Ijn. 7<0 Ogepa Egnmêtjoa hk um _ackmajhk
oaeljmgmha cgs cåmkgs hk cgs hjstjmtgs kspjrgs.
Kc sackmajhk ma ks ca ejsea quk um euctjpcjoghar hk umg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr, yg quk kstk sjstkeg ks iaregha par um saca oamhuotar kmraccgha, y nkmkrgcekmtk tjkmk iareg hk ojcjmhra cgrna km oaepgrgojÿm oam cas euctjpcjogharks quk sam kspjrgs iareghgs par oamhuotarks umjtgrjas hkc ejsea egtkrjgc oaepgotghas kmtrk så par cg quk pgsg cg ejseg oarrjkmtk.
Vgrg hktkrejmgr kc skmtjha hk cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg sk pukhk kepckgr cg sjnujkmtk rkncg0 \kncg hk cg egma hkrkobg0 _k gngrrg kc sackmajhk oam cg egma hkrkobg hk eaha quk cas hkhas jmhjqukm kc skmtjha hk cg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr. Kmtamoks kc pucngr jmhjog kc skmtjha hkc ogepa km kc jmtkrjar hkc sackmajhk.
Ijn. 7?0 \kncg hk cg egma hkrkobg pgrg kc _ackmajhk
Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa kxtkrjar hk um sackmajhk ks jhêmtjoa gc hk um jeçm rkota quk oajmojhk oam su k`k y ouyg cåmkg _ur-Martk (_-M) kstç km kc skmtjha hk cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg jmtkrjarks. Var êstg rgzÿm pahkeas bglcgr hk cas pacas M y _ hk um sackmajhk. Km kc Ijn. 780 Jeçm _-M km um sackmajhk
7<
7?
kxtrkea M ks par hamhk sgckm cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg y km kc paca _ ks par hamhk kmtrgm.
Kstg prapjkhgh ks utjcjzghg pgrg egnmktjzgr g cas mðockas hk bjkrra nkmkrgcekmtk, trgmsiareçmhask km kckotrajegmks, tkmjkmha kc sackmajhk um mðocka gprapjgha km kc okmtra, g egmkrg hk kmraccgrsk km êc. _k utjcjzg km nrgm ekhjhg pgrg nkmkrgr um ogepa egnmêtjoa umjiarek.
Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa km kc okmtra hk um sackmajhk ks0
⃞ ⃞
Hamhk ks cg camnjtuh hkc sackmajhk y
ks kc mðekra hk kspjrgs. Kc oaojkmtk
ks kc mðekra hk kspjrgs par umjhgh hk camnjtuh.
Cas sackmajhks tgeljêm prahuokm kmkrnåg kcêotrjog gðm egyar quk cgs oarrjkmtks ojroucgrks, utjcjzgha oam ijmks haeêstjoas k jmhustrjgcks.
Bgy ejcks hk gpcjogojamks pgrg kc sackmajhk hk cgs ougcks cgs eçs hkstgoghgs sam0 kc eatar kcêotrjoa, quk trgmsiareg kmkrnåg kcêotrjog km ekoçmjog pgrg eavkr packgs, rukhgs4 km cas tulas hk rkokptarks hk tv, km cas ejorasoapjas kckotrÿmjoas, km cg ekearjg egnmêtjog hk cg oaeputgharg, km ojroujtas kckotrÿmjoas y km euobas jmstruekmtas y kqujpas.
Ijn. 7;0 Gpcjogojamks hk cg _ackmajhk
[m k`kepca pgrg kxpcjogr kc egnmktjsea bgojg cas jegmks skråg km cas vkmtjcgharks. _u iumojamgejkmta rghjog km um rahktk oam 8 laljmgs k jegmks hktrçs hk oghg umg, quk njrgm
prahuojkmha
umg
hjikrkmojg
hk
prksjamks. Gc pgsgr cg oarrjkmtk km cas sackmajhks cas Ijn. 790 Laljmgs hk um vkmtjcghar hk oaeputgharg
7?
78
jegmks sk kxojtgm y kmtrk kccas jmtkrgotðgm cgs cåmkgs hk iukrzg ogeljgmha hk hjrkoojÿm g egmkrg hk njrgr umg rukhg, y cg supkrpasjojÿm hk kstgs cåmkgs, bgokm njrgr g cas vkmtjcgharks cckngmha oaea eåmjea 7;66 rpe bgstg bgstg ?666 rpe.
Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa vgråg sknðm kc ekhja a sustgmojg km hamhk sk kmoukmtrk, kstk igotar yg bglcgha km ogpåtucas gmtkrjarks quk sk ccgeg pkrekgljcjhgh egnmêtjog sk gokrog g cg umjhgh kxokpta km kc bjkrra y måqukc. _am oçcoucas mkoksgrjas pgrg cg oamstruoojÿm hk laljmgs
<.;.
Icu`a egnmêtjoa hk Jmhuoojÿm
Kc icu`a egnmêtjoa rkpr kskmtgha kskmtgha par cg cktrg nrjkng Ω, Ω, ks umg ekhjhg hk cg ogmtjhgh hk egnmktjsea, y sk ogcoucg g pgrtjr hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa, cg supkrijojk salrk cg ougc gotðg y kc çmnuca hk jmojhkmojg iaregha kmtrk cgs cåmkgs hk ogepa egnmêtjoa y cas hjikrkmtks kckekmtas hk hjobg supkrijojk. Hk goukrha g kstg tkaråg sk hkmaejmg icu`a egnmêtjoa g cg ogmtjhgh hk cåmkgs hk iukrzg quk pgsgm par um ojroujta egnmêtjoa.
Cg umjhgh hk icu`a egnmêtjoa km kc _jstkeg Jmtkrmgojamgc hk [mjhghks ks kc wklkr y sk hksjnmg par ^l. Kc maelrk hk kstg umjhgh iuk hgha km bamar gc iåsjoa gckeçm ^jcbkce Khugrh ^klkr.
Km kc sjstkeg oknksjegc sk utjcjzg kc egxwkcc y sus kqujvgckmojg ks0 7 wklkr 5762 egxwkccs. Kc maelrk hk cg umjhgh bamrg g @geks Ockrd Egxwkcc, qujkm prkskmtÿ cg tkaråg umjijoghg hkc kckotraegnmktjsea4 iuk kstglckojhg par kc JKO km 7:?6.
_j kc ogepa egnmêtjoa L ks vkotar pgrgckca g cg vkotar supkrijojk hk çrkg _, kc icu`a egnmêtjoa Ω quk pgsg g trgvês hk hjobg çrkg ks sjepckekmtk kc prahuota hkc vgcar glsacuta hk gelas vkotarks0
78
7;
Km euobas ogsas kc ogepa egnmêtjoa ma skrç maregc g cg supkrijojk, sjma quk
iareg um çmnuca oam cg maregc ( ), par ca quk pahkeas nkmkrgcjzgr um paoa eçs taegmha vkotarks0
Nkmkrgcjzgmha gðm eçs, pahkeas tkmkr km oukmtg umg supkrijojk jrrknucgr gtrgvksghg par um ogepa egnmêtjoa bktkranêmka. Hk kstg egmkrg, tkmkeas quk oamsjhkrgr oghg hjikrkmojgc hk çrkg0
∤ ⃞ Irjtz Camham km 7:82 prkhj`a quk ks pasjlck alskrvgr cg ougmtjzgojÿm hkc icu`a egnmêtjoa km sustgmojgs supkroamhuotargs. Kc ougmta hk icu`a egnmêtjoa ks umg oamstgmtk iåsjog0
Kc jmvkrsa hkc ougmta hk icu`a egnmêtjoa
⁈ sk sukck oamaokr oaea
oamstgmtk hk @askpbsam, utjcjzgha km kc kikota @askpbsam, hkmaejmgha gså par Lrjgm Hgvjh @askpbsam.
Kepckgmha kc kikota @askpbsam ks pasjlck ekhjr oam euobg prkojsjÿm kc ougmta hk icu`a egnmêtjoa, ca ougc sk bg kepckgha `umta oam kc kikota Bgcc ouçmtjoa pgrg ekhjr cg oamstgmtk hk Vcgmod oam cg eçxjeg prkojsjÿm bgstg km cg gotugcjhgh, utjcjzgha km sjstkegs ejorasoÿpjoas hk cg ekoçmjog ouçmtjog.
7;
79
OGVJX[CA ?0 Cg Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm
Ogpåtuca <0 Cg Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm <.7.
Vrjmojpja hk Jmhuoojÿm Ogcaråijog
Kc ogckmtgejkmta par jmhuoojÿm jmhuoojÿm ks um eêtaha pgrg altkmkr ogcar oamtjmua oamtjmua y rçpjha km cgs quk bgyg quk gctkrgr cgs prapjkhghks hk cas ektgcks u atras egtkrjgcks oamhuotarks hk cg kckotrjojhgh. Kstk ogckmtgejkmta km kc ogsa hk cgs oaojmgs hk jmhuoojÿm kstç rknucgha saca pgrg kckvgr su tkepkrgturg y ma hkiaregrca.
Kc praoksa utjcjzg cgs oarrjkmtks kcêotrjogs jmhuojhgs km kc egtkrjgc pgrg prahuojr ogcar. Gumquk cas prjmojpjas lçsjoas hk cg jmhuoojÿm sam ljkm oamaojhas, cas ðctjeas gvgmoks km cg tkomacanåg hkc kstgha sÿcjha bgm sjepcjijogha matglckekmtk kc ogckmtgejkmta par jmhuoojÿm, bgojkmha hk kccg um eêtaha hk ogckmtgejkmta euy rkmtglck pgrg gpcjogojamks quk jepcjqukm kepgceks, umjÿm a glcgmhgejkmta, ogckmtgejkmta y pruklg hk egtkrjgcks.
Cas prjmojpjas lçsjoas hkc ogckmtgejkmta par jmhuoojÿm sk bgm gpcjogha g cg iglrjogojÿm hkshk cas g÷as <6. Hurgmtk cg _knumhg Nukrrg Eumhjgc, cg tkomacanåg sk hksgrraccÿ rçpjhgekmtk pgrg ouepcjr oam cas rkqujsjtas urnkmtks km tjkepas hk nukrrg0 orkgr praoksas ijglcks y rçpjhas pgrg kmhurkokr cgs pjkzgs ektçcjogs hkc eatar. \kojkmtkekmtk, kc okmtra salrk cgs têomjogs hk kijojkmojg prahuotjvg y kc êmigsjs salrk kc oamtrac hk ogcjhgh ek`argha bgm cjhkrgha kc rkhksoulrjejkmta hk cg tkomacanåg hk jmhuoojÿm km pgrgckca gc hksgrracca hk sjstkegs hk patkmojg pgrg jmhuoojÿm hk kstgha sÿcjha oam um oamtrac prkojsa.
Kc kckekmta prjmojpgc pgrg kc ogckmtgejkmta hk um ektgc par um oamhuotar ks cg gctg irkoukmojg oam cg quk vjg`gm cgs c gs ogrngs kcêotrjogs km um oamhuotar. Kxjstk umg rkcgojÿm kmtrk cg irkoukmojg hk cg oarrjkmtk gctkrmg y cg praiumhjhgh oam cg quk pkmktrg km cg pjkzg hk trglg`a4 irkoukmojgs lg`gs hk ; g ?6 dBz sam kikotjvgs pgrg egtkrjgcks eçs nruksas quk rkqujkrgm umg pkmktrgojÿm praiumhg hkc ogcar, ejkmtrgs quk cgs irkoukmojgs eçs gctgs hk 766 g 866 dBz sam eçs kikotjvgs km pgrtks pkquk÷gs a oam paog praiumhjhgh hk pkmktrgojÿm.
79
7>
Ougmta egyar ks cg irkoukmojg, egyar ks kc icu`a hk ogcar4 umg lukmg gmgcanåg pahråg skr kc gota hk iratgrsk cgs egmas pgrg ogckmtgrsk. Ougmta eçs rçpjha sk iratk uma cgs egmas, eçs ogcar prahuok.
Atra ikmÿekma iåsjoa km kc prjmojpja hk jmhuoojÿm ogcaråijog ks kc Kikota @auck4 kstk sk ca oamaok oaea kc ikmÿekma jrrkvkrsjlck par kc ougc sj km um oamhuotar ojroucg oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog, pgrtk hk cg kmkrnåg ojmêtjog hk cas kckotramks sk trgmsiareg km ogcar hkljha g cas obaquks quk suirkm oam cas çtaeas hkc egtkrjgc oamhuotar par kc quk ojroucgm, kckvgmha cg tkepkrgturg hkc ejsea. Kc maelrk ks puksta km bamar g su hksoulrjhar, kc iåsjoa i åsjoa lrjtçmjoa @geks Vrksoatt @auck.
Kc eavjejkmta hk cas kckotramks km um oglck ks hksarhkmgha, ksta pravaog oamtjmuas obaquks kmtrk kccas y oaea oamskoukmojg um guekmta hk cg tkepkrgturg km kc prapja oglck.
[mg hk cgs gpcjogojamks hkc prjmojpja hk jmhuoojÿm km cg gotugcjhgh y kc eçs usgha km cas bangrks ks cg oaojmg hk jmhuoojÿm, cg ougc ks euy kijojkmtk km cg oaoojÿm hk gcjekmtas oam paoa oamsuea hk kmkrnåg.
<.<.
Kstruoturg lçsjog hk cg Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm
Cg oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm kstç oaepukstg prjmojpgcekmtk par0
Laljmg jmhuotarg
Ojroujtas kckotrÿmjoas hk patkmojg
Yjtrjaokrçejog
Laljmg jmhuotarg
Cg laljmg ks um oaepamkmtk pgsjva hk um ojroujta kcêotrjoa quk, hkljha gc ikmÿekma hk cg gutajmhuoojÿm, gcegokmg kmkrnåg km iareg hk ogepa egnmêtjoa. Kstç oaepukstg par oglcks hk oalrk pura kmraccgha km iareg hk kspjrgc y cgs lgrrgs hk bjkrra hjstrjlujhas umjiarekekmtk par kc rkvkrsa hk cg kspjrgc. Kstçm
7>
72
su`ktghas par um sapartk tkreapcçstjoa GL_ (Gorjcamjtrjca-Lutghjkma-Kstjrkma) km iareg hk oårouca.
Cg oarrjkmtk gctkrmg pgsg par cg laljmg nkmkrgmha um ogepa egnmêtjoa hk umg oarrjkmtk ojroucgr y cgs lgrrgs hk bjkrra gotugmha oaea jegmks hjstrjluykm umjiarekekmtk cg kmkrnåg kckotraegnmêtjog g cas utkmsjcjas hk oaojmg. Cgs laljmgs km kc gmvkrsa kstçm ouljkrtgs par um gjscgmtk bkoba hk kspam`g y ogrtÿm quk rkhuokm kc kxoksa hk ogepa kckotraegnmêtjoa y kc oamtgota oam atras ojroujtas. Kstgs laljmgs laljmgs kstçm oamkotghgs oamkotghgs g um ojroujta kckotrÿmjoa kckotrÿmjoa hk patkmojg quk jmtkrgotðgm oaarhjmghg y sjeuctçmkgekmtk. sjeuct çmkgekmtk.
G
L
O
Ijn. 7>0 Laljmg hk Jmhuoojÿm G0 Gcgelrks hk oalrk km iareg hk kspjrgc sastkmjhgs par um sapartk. L0 Kc gmvkrsa hk cg laljmg ouljkrtg par um gjscgmtk. O0 Kc rkvkrsa hk cg laljmg iareghg par lgrrgs hk bjkrra
Cas gcgelrk hk oalrk km um oglck hk bjcas kstçm kmraccghas kmtrk sj iaregmha umjhghks hk oglcks4 kmtrk kccas kstçm skpgrghas par ojroumikrkmojgs pgrgckcgs hk ekmar g egyar quk sk kmoukmtrgm km kc sapartk.
Ijn. 720 _koojÿm hk umg laljmg jmhuotarg Cg laljmg prkskmtg skpgrgojamks kmtrk cas oglcks hk oalrk pgrg kvjtgr su oamtgota y iaregr ogepa egnmêtjoa ojroucgr
72
7:
Cgs ojroumikrkmojgs ma pkrejtk kc oamtgota oam cgs umjhghks hk oglcks hk oalrk pgrg ma prahuojr oarta-ojroujta, y alcjngr g cg oarrjkmtk g vjg`gr par cg kspjrg.
Ojroujtas kckotrÿmjoas hk patkmojg
Cas ojroujtas sam rkhks kcêotrjogs iareghgs par rksjstkmojgs, jmhuotarks, oamhkmsgharks, iukmtks, jmtkrruptarks y skejoamhuotarks quk gotðgm oaea ejorapraoksgharks km cg utjcjzgojÿm hk grtkigotas kcêotrjoas4 oamtjkmk umg trgykotarjg okrrghg. _am utjcjzghas par cg arngmjzgojÿm oaarhjmghg y sjeuctçmkgekmtk hk cas oaepamkmtks kcêotrjoas pgrg rkspamhkr iumojamks quk hkskg kc usugrja. Cas ojroujtas hk cg oaojmg hk jmhuoojÿm sam hk tjpa VLO (tgr`ktg hk ojroujta jeprksa) y sam utjcjzghas pgrg guekmtgr cg irkoukmojg hk cg oarrjkmtk gctkrmg ca lgstgmtk pasjlck pgrg prahuojr ogcar, par grrjlg hk cas 2; Bz. Xgeljêm sjrvkm pgrg rknucgr cg jmhuoojÿm km
Ijn. 7:0 Ojroujtas kckotrÿmjoas hk patkmojg Kstas ojroujtas prkskmtgm oaepamkmtks kckotrÿmjoas pgrg iaregr um hjspasjtjva quk guekmtg cg irkoukmojg ougmha skg mkoksgrja.
um tjkepa hkskgha, apkrgha par kc usugrja km cas egmhas hk oamtrac tçotjcks.
Yjtrjaokrçejog
Ks umg okrçejog quk tjkmk cgs prapjkhghks hkc vjhrja y quk ks euy rksjstkmtk g cgs gctgs tkepkrgturgs y g cas ogeljas lrusoas. _jrvkm pgrg kvjtgr
cg
sgcjhg
hk
ogcar
prahuojha par cgs laljmgs y saca pkrejtk kc pgsa hkc ogepa egnmêtjoa, quk saca jmhuojrç g cas rkojpjkmtks. Kstg ks cg rgzÿm hk parquk ma skmtjeas ogcar km cg supkrijojk hk cg oaojmg.
Ijn. <60 Yjtrjaokrçejog km cgs oaojmgs hk jmhuoojÿm Cg Yjtrjaokrçejog g eçs hk rksjstjr kc ogcar y cas nacpks, rkprkskmtgm cg kstêtjog hk cgs oaojmgs.
7:
<6
Atrg rgzÿm hk su utjcjzgojÿm ks cg hkegmhg hk cas ocjkmtks par grtkigotas içojcks hk su egmtkmjejkmta4 cg vjtrjaokrçejog ks euoba eçs içojc hk cjepjgr par skr ogsj hk vjhrja y ma sk egmobg.
<.?. Iumojamgejkmta hk cg Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm Jmhuoojÿm
Cgs oaojmgs hk jmhuoojÿm iumojamgm saca oam oarrjkmtk gctkrmg, pkra hklk skr hk <<6 Y, yg quk mkoksjtgm euoba
vactg`k
kckotraegnmêtjoa.
pgrg Km
kc
ogepa
Koughar
cg
oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog ks hk 776 Y, ma sgtjsigokråg
cgs mkoksjhghks hk cas
ocjkmtks, yg quk saca prahuok cg ougrtg
Ijn. <70 Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm Cgs oaojmgs hk jmhuoojÿm ks cg tkomacanåg mavkhasg km kc eumha gotugc par su iumojamgejkmta
pgrtk hkc ogcar, y ma guekmtgråg cg irkoukmojg mkoksgrjg.
Cg mgturgckzg hk kstk ogckmtgejkmta ca bgok euoba eçs kijojkmtk quk kc trghjojamgc, puks sk ogcjkmtg hjrkotgekmtk kc rkojpjkmtk g utjcjzgr, y ma jmhjrkotgekmtk oaea sk bgok oam cgs trghjojamgcks vjtrjaokrçejogs lgsghgs km rksjstkmojgs. Ksta oamtrjluyk g um gbarra hk kmkrnåg oghg vkz eçs gprkojgha km cg saojkhgh gotugc4 jmoarparg cgs eçs eahkrmgs têomjogs hk praoksgha hk sk÷gc pgrg canrgr um oamtrac kijojkmtk hk cg patkmojg.
Kc iumojamgejkmta jmtkrma hk kstgs oaojmgs sjnuk um praokhjejkmta oaarhjmgha0
7. Cg oarrjkmtk gctkrmg hk hk <<6 Y vjg`g par kc oamhuotar bgstg bgstg cckngr g cas ojroujtas kckotrÿmjoas. <. Cas ojroujtas kckotrÿmjoas hk patkmojg par ekhja hk jmhuotarks guekmtg cg irkoukmojg hk ;6 Bz g eçs hk 2; Bz. Kstas ojroujtas kstçm oamkotghas g cas oaegmhas tçotjcks pgrg rknucgr kc ogcar y kc tjkepa hk oaoojÿm, y hkspuês egmhgm cg oarrjkmtk eahjijoghg g cgs laljmgs jmhuotargs.
<6
<7
?. Cgs laljmgs gc pgsa hk cg oarrjkmtk
orkgm0
um
ogepa
egnmêtjoa jmhuotar vgrjglck y kc hksprkmhjejkmta hk ogcar par cgs gctgs irkoukmojgs prahuojha par cas gcgelrks hk oalrk4 y cg icuotugojÿm, ogelja hk hjrkoojÿm, y hjstrjluojÿm umjiarek hkc ogepa rknucgha par
Ijn. <<0 Ogepa egnmêtjoa icuotugmtk gotjvgha gc pamkr umg accg Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa ogeljg oamstgmtkekmtk hk hjrkoojÿm, nkmkrgmha ogcar km kc jmtkrjar hk cg accg
cgs lgrrgs hk bjkrra quk sk trgmsiaregm km kckotrajegmks. Kstk ogepa sk apamk g cgs oarrjkmtks hk Iauoguct, ca ougc bgokm eavkrsk kc ogepa egnmêtjoa oam euobg eçs iukrzg, k jmocusa sk prahuok kmkrnåg. 8. Kc ogepa egnmêtjoa egnmêtjoa jmhuok oarrjkmtks oarrjkmtks pgrçsjtgs km km kc rkojpjkmtk. Cgs oarrjkmtks pgrçsjtgs icuykm g trgvês hk cg rksjstkmojg kcêotrjog hk cg accg arhkmçmhask km umg sacg hjrkoojÿm hk icujha pgrg prahuojr kmkrnåg km cas kckotramks, cg ougc sk hksprkmhkm km iareg hk ogcar y ogcjkmtgm cas gcjekmtas. Kstk praoksa tjkmk ekmas pêrhjhgs hk kmkrnåg, kc egtkrjgc sk gnjtg egnmêtjogekmtk, y cg vkcaojhgh oam cg quk sk prahuok cg kmkrnåg ks km saca
Ijn.
umas sknumhas. <7
<<
;. Cg oarrjkmtk rktarmg par cas ojroujtas gc vkmtjcghar vkmtjcghar pgrg egmtkmkr cg tkepkrgturg geljkmtk hkmtra hk cg oaojmg, y kvjtgr kc ogckmtgejkmta hk cas ojroujtas. 9. Cg oarrjkmtk rktarmg g cas taegoarrjkmtks.
Gc eaekmta hk kstgr kmokmhjhg, y sjm um rkojpjkmtk km cg oaojmg, ma prahuok ogcar4 cgs laljmgs sam oaea skmsarks quk hktkotgm cg accg pgrg jmhuojrcg, pkregmkojkmha cg supkrijojk hk vjtrjaokrçejog iråg.
<.8. Kijogojg oam rkcgojÿm cgs c gs oaojmgs hk ngs hk pktrÿcka
_knðm jmiareks hk cas arngmjseas nulkrmgekmtgcks, kc :9% hk cg hkegmhg hkc Ngs Cjougha hk Vktrÿcka (NCV) sk hkstjmg gc skotar haeêstjoa a rksjhkmojgc y kc rkstgmtk 8% sk hkstjmg pgrg usa jmhustrjgc y oaekrojgc. Ma alstgmtk, sk kstjeg km iareg rkgc quk kc ;:% sk hkstjmg pgrg kc skotar haeêstjoa, 77% gc usa jmhustrjgc y oaekrojgc, 2% gc vkbjoucgr y kc <<% bgojg kc oamtrglgmha par cgs iramtkrgs.
Kc Kstgha sulsjhjÿ km kc <67< kc vgcar hk [_H ;<<.? ejccamks quk oarrkspamhk g cg hjikrkmojg kmtrk [_H 98?.> ejccamks par oamokpta hk pgna km cg jepartgojÿm y [_H 7<7.8 ejccamks quk kc Kstgha rkojljÿ par cg vkmtg hkc NCV.
Cgs oaojmgs hk ngs prahuokm eçs ogcar gc qukegrsk cas ngsks ektgma, prapgma oamtkmjha km kc ojcjmhra, y gc oaeljmgrsk oam kc axånkma iaregm pcgseg egmjikstçmhask oaea ccgeg. _k mkoksjtg 7 ojcjmhra hk ngs cjougha hk pktrÿcka pkt rÿcka quk hurg um eks pgrg su iumojamgejkmta.
Gmgcjzgmha cgs ojirgs hkc Okmsa hkc <676 rkgcjzgha par kc Jmstjtuta Mgojamgc hk Kstghåstjogs y Okmsas - JMKO, sk hktkrejmÿ quk hk ?, 276,;82 bangrks kougtarjgmas, kc :6.:2% usg kc NCV oaea oaelustjlck pgrg oaojmgr, km tgmta quk kc :.6<% usg atras tjpas hk oaelustjlcks.
Kc usa hkc NCV pgrg oaoojÿm km oghg uma hk cas bangrks km kc Koughar ks hk <.67 Lcs gc g÷a, kqujvgckmtk g <9?.:: dn a kxprksgha km mðekras hk ojcjmhras hk
<<
7>.96 gc g÷a a 7.8> ojcjmhras ekmsugcks (hk 7; dn), vgcar ogcjijogha oaea rkgc km rgzÿm hkc gcta parokmtg`k hk oamtrglgmha.
Ks gquå hk hamhk pravjkmk cg kijogojg hk cgs oaojmgs hk jmhuoojÿm, quk gyuhgrgm g rkhuojr cas sulsjhjas hkc NVC, cg oamtgejmgojÿm par cg kxpcatgojÿm hkc pktrÿcka hkstjmgha gc NVC y ek`argrç cg koamaeåg hkc Koughar.
Km ogsa quk sk atarnuk kc sulsjhja tatgc g cas 766 d^b hk cas bangrks, kc Kstgha hklkrç rkoamaokr par kstk oamokpta kc vgcar hk [_H ejccamks gc g÷a.
Cg kqujvgckmojg kmtrk oaelustjlcks oaejkmzg oam cg oamsjhkrgojÿm hk cas oamtkmjhas ogcaråijoas hk cg kckotrjojhgh y hkc ngs cjougha hk pktrÿcka. _j cg kckotrjojhgh y kc NCV iukrgm utjcjzghas gc 766% hk kijojkmojg, sk cckngråg g oaepgrgr quk 7 djcanrgea hk NCV kqujvgck g 7?.99 d^b hk kckotrjojhgh.
Xgmta
cg
kckotrjojhgh
oaea
kc
NCV
paskkm
hjikrkmtks
kijojkmojgs
hk
gpravkobgejkmta, par tgmta cgs oaepgrgojamks kmtrk kccas ma pukhkm skr rkgcjzghgs sacgekmtk oam kc oamtkmjha ogcaråijoa.
Ijn. <80 Kqujvgckmtk kmkrnêtjoa kmtrk NCV y kckotrjojhgh
<8
EK XAH AC ANÅG 0
Km vjrtuh hk quk mukstra jmtkrês ks oamiramtgr cg tkaråg oam cg rkgcjhgh, hkc jepgota koamÿejoa y ojkmtåijoa quk tjkmk cg oaojmg hk jmhuoojÿm, mukstrg jmvkstjngojÿm pgrg kc praykota skrç gpcjoghg, yg quk mukstra prapÿsjta ks kvgcugr y oamtrgstgr cg tkaråg ojkmtåijog. Var atra cgha taegmha km oukmtg kc gcogmok, mukstrg jmvkstjngojÿm skrç haouekmtgc k bjstÿrjog, parquk rkoackotgrkeas cg jmiaregojÿm quk kstç prahuojhg km cg iåsjog rkspkota g mukstra pralckeg pgrg iumhgekmtgrca. Var kstg rgzÿm gpcjogrkeas kc eêtaha hkhuotjva y cg têomjog hk alskrvgojÿm hk ogepa ‟ ogepa hk cglargtarja oam sus rkspkotjvas jmstruekmtas. ‟ hk
Cg jmvkstjngojÿm hkc praykota sknujrç par um ogejma ojkmtåijoa, puks sk lgsg km cg alskrvgojÿm hkc ikmÿekma quk hg umg pasjlck kxpcjogojÿm hk kcca, ghkeçs sk mkoksjtgrç umg rkoapjcgojÿm hk su kxpkrjekmtgojÿm y cg nkmkrgcjzgojÿm hk su prjmojpja, kspkojgcekmtk kc hk cg oaojmg hk jmhuoojÿm. Vgrg umg ek`ar oaeprksjÿm ekmojamgrkeas cas eêtahas utjcjzghas0
Eêtaha ojkmtåijoa0 ks um praoksa hkstjmgha g kxpcjogr ikmÿekmas, kstglckokr
rkcgojamks kmtrk cgs vgrjglcks y cas bkobas y kmumojgr ckyks quk kxpcjqukm cas ikmÿekmas iåsjoas hkc eumha y pkrejtgm altkmkr, oam kstas oamaojejkmtas, gpcjogojamks ðtjcks gc baelrk.
Cas ojkmtåijoas kepckgm kc eêtaha ojkmtåijoa oaea umg iareg pcgmjijoghg hk trglg`gr. _us canras sam goueucgtjvas y bgm cckvgha g cg Buegmjhgh gc eaekmta oucturgc gotugc.
Eêtaha hkhuotjva0 oamsjstk km cg tatgcjhgh hk rkncgs y praoksas, oam ouyg gyuhg
ks pasjlck hkhuojr oamocusjamks ijmgcks g pgrtjr hk umas kmumojghas supukstas ccgeghas prkejsgs y gpcjogrcas g ogsas pgrtjoucgrks.
Kstk eêtaha ks oamsjhkrgha oaea um eêtaha ojkmtåijoa quk oamsjhkrg quk cg oamocusjÿm sk bgccg jepcåojtg hkmtra cgs prkejsgs. Ougmha cgs prkejsgs rksuctgm <8
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vkrhghkrgs y kc rgzamgejkmta hkhuotjva tjkmk vgcjhkz, ma bgy iareg hk quk cg oamocusjÿm ma skg vkrhghkrg.
Cg têomjog hk cg alskrvgojÿm0 ks umg gotjvjhgh rkgcjzghg par um skr vjva quk
hktkotg y gsjejcg cas rgsnas hk um kckekmta utjcjzgmha cas skmtjhas oaea jmstruekmtas prjmojpgcks.
Cg alskrvgojÿm, oaea têomjog hk jmvkstjngojÿm, oamsjstk km vkr y aår cas bkobas y ikmÿekmas quk qukrkeas kstuhjgr, y sk utjcjzg iumhgekmtgcekmtk pgrg oamaokr bkobas, oamhuotgs y oaepartgejkmtas oackotjvas. Kstg têomjog ks hk euobg gyuhg pgrg cg jmvkstjngojÿm hk cglargtarja yg quk sk lgsg km cg alskrvgojÿm hk cas ikmÿekmas y sus vgrjglcks.
G så ejsea, kstg praykota kstç arjkmtghg g cas bangrks par kc usa lkmkijojasa y kijogojg quk sk vg hgmha, par ksa sk jmokmtjvg cg praiumhjzgojÿm hkc tkeg yg quk bg prahuojha km cas ðctjeas g÷as hkshk cg orkgojÿm hk cg oaojmg hk jmhuoojÿm, umg gtrgoojÿm g kstk grtkigota.
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\KO[\_A_0
\koursas Buegmas0
Gsksar gsjnmgha0 Jmn. @arnk Nrgmhg
Jmvkstjngharks0
@asê Gmhrês Ogrtuobk Ygcvkrhk
Hkjvy E. Vguogr _gcgs
\koursas Egtkrjgcks0 Oamijhkmojgc4 pgrg eçs jmiaregojÿm salrk su oamstruoojÿm
oamtgotkm gc gutar hkc jmiarek a vjsjtk g cas oamstruotarks hk cgs oaojmgs
<9
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\KIK\KMOJG_
Gcogåma, @. (<66:). Cky hk jmhuoojÿm hk Igrghgy . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//oegnmk tjoa.lcanspat.oae/<66:/69/cky-hk-jmhuoojam-hk-igrghgy.btec
Gcamsa, E. y Goastg, Y. (7:29). Jmtrahuoojÿm g cg Iåsjog JJ . Lanatç, Oacaeljg0 Khjtarjgc Oucturgc.
Gmÿmjea (<66?). Xkomacanågs kckotrÿmjogs gpcjoghgs g oaoojÿm par jmhuoojÿm . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.grgnamjmvkstjn bttp0//www.grgnamjmvkstjng.arn/Xkomacanjgs-kckotramjogsg.arn/Xkomacanjgs-kckotramjogsgpcjoghgs-g-oaoojam-par-jmhuoojam/
Gmÿmjea (<668). Cky hk Igrghgy-Bkmry0 Igrghgy-Bkmry0 Oarrjkmtk kcêotrjog km umg ks kspjrg. pjrg. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.hijsts.ug.ks/kxpkrjkmo bttp0//www.hijsts.ug.ks/kxpkrjkmojgsQhkQijsjog/jmhkx jgsQhkQijsjog/jmhkx78.btec 78.btec
Gmÿmjea (<669). Xkaråg hk cg nrgm umjijogojÿm . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdj/Xkar%O?%GHgQhkQcgQnrgmQumjijogoj%O?%L?m
Gmÿmjea (<662). Kckotraegnmktjsea. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.saojkhghkcgjm iaregojam.oae/hkpgrtiqtalgrrg/egnmktjsea/jmtrahuoojam/jmtrahuoojam.bte
Gmÿmjea (<662). Jmtrahuoojÿm g cg kckotrjojhgh . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//mtjo.khuog ojam.ks /w?/rkoursas/ip/kckotrjojhgh/uh7 /w?/rkoursas/ip/kckotrjojhgh/uh7/jmjojaQkckotQ7.btec /jmjojaQkckotQ7.btec
Gmÿmjea (<66:). Goojÿm hk um ogepa ogepa egnmêtjoa salrk umg oarrjkmtk. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.prjmojpjg-egcgng.oae/d/jegnk bttp0//www.prjmojpjg-egcgng.oae/d/jegnks/phi/wkl-goojams/phi/wkl-goojamogepa-egnmktjoa.phi
Gmÿmjea (<676). Cky hk Ljat-_gvgrt . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjd bt tp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdjj /CkyQhkQLjat-_gvgrt
Gmÿmjea (<676). Cky hk Igrghgy . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/w bttp0/ /ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdj/ jdj/ CkyQhkQIgrghgy
Gmÿmjea (<677). Cg oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm J mhuoojÿm. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.tgrjmng.mkt /pasts/ojkmojg-khuogojam/9><72>>/Cg-oaojmg-g-jmhuoojam.btec
Gmÿmjea (<67<). Kxpkrjekmtas hk Igrghgy . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ijsjoglam`avj.lcanspat.oae/<67/kxpkrjekmta-hk-igrghgy-igrghgykm.btec
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Oaojmg hk Jmhuoojÿm . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wj dj/OaojmgQhkQjmhuooj%O?%L?m
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Gmÿmjea (<67?). Oaojmgs hk jmhuoojÿm0 ±Var quê ma mas qukegeas1 . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.saytkckoa.mkt/grtjoucas/ourjas bttp0//www.saytkckoa.mkt/grtjoucas/ourjasjhghks-yjhghks-yojkmojg/oaojmgs-hk-jmhuoojam-par-quk-ma-mas-qukegeas.btec
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Jmhuoojÿm kckotraegnmêtjog . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhj g.arn/wjdj/Jmhuooj%O?%L?mQkckotraegnm%O?%G:tjog
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Jmhuotjam oaadjmn . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//km.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdj/ JmhuotjamQoaadjmn
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Jmhuotjam Oaadjmn0 Jmhuotjam Oaadwgrk . \koupkrgha hk bttp0// tbkjmhuotjamsjtk.oae/jmhuotjam-oaadwgrk.sbtec
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Jmhuotjam. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.ljns.hk/LCB/km/jmhkx.pb p1aptjam5oaeQoamtkmt&vjkw5ogtknary&cgyaut5lcan&jh59;&Jtkejh5
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Jmhuotar . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/w/jmhkx bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/w/jmhkx.pbp1tj .pbp1tj tck5Jmhuotar&achjh5>?>2<8?>
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Cky hk Gepkrk. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdj/Ck yQhkQGep%O?%G2rk
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Cky hk Igrghgy (NJK). \koupkrgha hk bttp0//cgpcgok.us.ks/wjdj bttp0//cgpcgok.us.ks/wjdj /jmhkx.pbp/CkyQhkQIgrghgyQ(NJK)#Oaojm /jmhkx.pbp/CkyQhkQIgrghgyQ(NJK)#OaojmgsQhkQjmhuooj.O?.L?m gsQhkQjmhuooj.O?.L?m
Gmÿmjea (<67?). Egnmktastçtjog. Egnmktastçtjog. \koupkrgha \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdj/ bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdj/ Egnmktast%O?%G7tjog
Gmÿmjea (<67?). _jnmjijogha hk Vkrskvkrgmojg . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.sjnmj ijoghas.jmia/pkrskvkrgmojg/
Gmÿmjea (<678). Gppcjgmok gmh Kqujpekmt Kqujpekmt _tgmhgrhs rksuct jm Cgrnk Kmkrny, Kmkrny, btt p0//kmkrny.nav/mahk// Koamaejo, gmh Kmvjramekmtgc Lkmkijts . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//kmkrny.nav/mahk >>?;?7/rksjhkmtjgc/phis/oaadntsh.phi
Gmÿmjea (<678). Jmtkrgoojÿm Kckotraegnmêtjog . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpk hjg.arn/wjdj/Jmtkrgooj%O?%L?mQkckotraegnm%O?%G:tjog
Gmÿmjea (<678). Jmtkrgoojamks Iumhgekmtgcks . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpk hjg.arn/wjdj/IukrzgsQiumhgekmtgcks
Lurmktt, \. (<66<). Jmhuoojÿm Bkgtjmn. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.rjobjklurmktt. oa.ud/jmhbkgt.btec.
Ngroåg, G. I. (<666). Cky hk Igrghgy . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//tkckiaregojam.khu. gytacgoarumg.ks/IJ_JOG/haouekmt/tkarjg/GQIrgmoa/kckoegnmkt/ike/ike.bte
<2
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Nÿekz, G. (<677). Kckotrakstçtjog. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdj/K bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/wjdj/K ckotrast%O?%G7tjog
Naekz, G. (<678). Kckotraegnmktjsea. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//ks.wjdjpkhjg.arn/ wjdj/Kckotraegnmktjsea.
Ejorasait Oarpargtjam (Kh.) (<662). (<662). Kckotrahjmçejog Kckotrahjmçejog ouçmtjog. ouçmtjog. Ejorasait Kmogrtg
<66: Ljlcjatkog Vrkejue. ^gsbjmntam, Kstghas [mjhas hk Geêrjog.
Ejtobkcc, G. G. (7:9;). Icuk ngs Gmgcysjs . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.gsnkmgtjamgc.arn/Oamtkmt/Cjlrgry/IcukQNgsQGmgcysjs.phi
Eu÷az, @. (<67? ). Gmçcjsjs hk cg jmojhkmojg hkc usa hk oaojmgs kcêotrjogs kcêotrjogs hk bttp0//www.eamanrgijgs.oae/trglg`as:9/gmgcjsjsjmojh :9/gmgcjsjsjmojh jmhuoojÿm. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.eamanrgijgs.oae/trglg`as kmojg-hkc-usa-oaojmgs-kckotrjogs-jmhuoojam/gmg kmojg-hkc-usa-oaojmgskckotrjogs-jmhuoojam/gmgcjsjs-jmojhkmojg-hkc-usa-oaojmgscjsjs-jmojhkmojg-hkc-usa-oaojmgskckotrjogs-jmhuoojam.sbtec
Arj, @. (<66:). Ogckmtgr kc gnug par jmhuoojÿm . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.kbaw kmks pgmac.oae/ogckmtgr-gnug-jmhuo pgmac.oae/ogckmtgr-gnug-jmhuoojam-salrkQ78>7> ojam-salrkQ78>7>6/ 6/
\. Mgvk, A. (<666). Cky Cky hk Igrghgy. Igrghgy. \koupkrgha \koupkrgha hk bttp0//bypkrpbysjos.pbybttp0//bypkrpbysjos.pbygstr.nsu.khu/blgskks/kckotrjo/igrcgw.btec
_gvgc, \. K. (<67?). Cg Vkrskvkrgmojg . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.ckamjseagrnk bttp0/ /www.ckamjseagrnk mtjma.oae.gr/JM_X<2;.bte
_gwykrs, B. (<676). Baw Jmhuotjam _tavks ^ard0 Kckekmts ai tbk Oaadtap. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.papucgrekobgmjo bttp0//www.papucgrekobgmjos.oae/baek/jepravkek s.oae/baek/jepravkekmt/kckotrjogc mt/kckotrjogc -pcueljmn/baw-jmhuotjam-stavks-ward-kckekmts-ai-tbk-oaadtap
_gwykrs, B. (<676). Baw Jmhuotjam _tavks ^ard0 Baw tbk Bkgt Bgppkms. \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.papucgrekobgmjo bttp0//www.papucgrekobgmjos.oae/baek/jepravkek s.oae/baek/jepravkekmt/kckotrjogc mt/kckotrjogc -pcueljmn/baw-jmhuotjam-stavks-ward-baw-tbk-bkgt-bgppkms
_gwykrs, B. (<676). Xap ? Jmhuotjam _tavk Eytbs . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www. papucgrekobgmjos.oae/baek/jepravkekmt/kckotrjogc-pcueljmn/tap-?-jmhuotjamstavk-eytbs
_kejgtjm, _. & Pjmm, C. (7::2). Kckekmts ai Jmhuotjam Bkgtjmn Hksjmn Oamtrac
gmh Gppcjogtjams. Kstghas [mjhas hk Geêrjog0 Khjtarjgc G_E Jmtkrmgtjamgc.
Xgrgmtacg, G. (<669). Baw Jmhuotjam Oaadtaps Egdk Ekgcs wjtb Egnmkts . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//njzeaha.oae/;:;;98 bttp0//njzeaha.oae/;:;;98?/baw-jmhuotjam-oaadtaps-egdk?/baw-jmhuotjam-oaadtaps-egdkekgcs-wjtb-egnmkts
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^gjsegm, J. (<67<). Iumojamgejkmta hk kstgs oaojmgs g jmhuoojÿm j mhuoojÿm . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//www.tgrjmng.mkt/pasts/jmia/7;88 bttp0//www.tgrjmng.mkt/pasts/jmia/7;88?9:6/Iumojamgejkmt ?9:6/Iumojamgejkmta-hk-kstgsa-hk-kstgsoaojmgs-g-jmhuoojam.btec
^gcdkr, K. (<67?). Jmhuotjam Oaadjmn0 Vrass gmh Oams . \koupkrgha hk bttp0//tb kjmhuotjamsjtk.oae/pragmhoam.sbtec
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