Psych 09-2 Psychology of Human Development SY 2011 – 2012 Second Semester Week No. 2 of 17 (Nov. 24-28) Instructions: Please read the following topics carefully Use Search engines to find details Refer to Video server sites to find supplementary tutorials, and provide the links to your assignment assignment reply. References: Berger, KS (2008) The Developing Person Through the Life Span, Span , Seventh Edition Worth Publishers
Topic: Theories of Development Objectives: At the end of the session, the student is expected to: 1. Define Define developmen developmental tal theory, theory, and describe describe how developm developmental ental theories help explain human behavior and development, noting the differences between grand theories and emergent theories. 2. Discuss Discuss the major major focus focus of psychoanal psychoanalytic ytic theorie theories, s, and describe the conflicts that occur during Freud’s psychosexual stages. 3. Describe Describe the the crises crises of Erikson’ Erikson’s s theory theory of psychosoc psychosocial ial development, and contrast them with Freud’s stages. 4. Discuss Discuss the major major focus focus of behavioris behaviorism, m, and explain explain the basic basic principles of classical and operant conditioning. 5. Identify Identify the primary primary focus focus of cognitive cognitive theory, theory, and briefly briefly describe Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. 6. Discuss Discuss the the basic conce concepts pts and techni techniques ques propos proposed ed by Vygotsky in his sociocultural theory of development. 7. Discuss Discuss the basic basic ideas ideas of epigenetic epigenetic theory, theory, giving giving example examples s of how genes and environment interact in human development.
8. Explain Explain the nature nature–nurt –nurture ure controve controversy rsy as it pertai pertains ns to hyperactivity and sexual orientation.
Study Guide A developmental theory is theory is a systematic statement of principles and and gene genera rali liza zati tion ons s that that prov provid ides es a cohe cohere rent nt fram framew ewor ork k for for understanding how and why people change as they grow older. Thus, such theories provide a framework of ideas that (a) form the basis for new testable hypotheses about behavior, (b) generate discoveries, and (c) offer practical guidance. Devel Developm opment ental al theori theories es fall fall into into three three catego categorie ries: s: grand theories, which offer a comprehensive view of development but have proven to be outdated; minitheories, which explain a specific area of develo developme pment; nt; and emerge emergent nt theori theories, es, which may be the comprehensive theories of tomorrow. Psychoanalytic theory interprets theory interprets human development in terms of inne innerr driv drives es and and moti motive ves, s, many many of whic which h are are irra irrati tion onal al and and unconscious. According to Sigmund Freud, development in the first six years progresses through three stages; at each stage, sexual interest and pleasure is focused on a particular part of the body—the mouth during infancy (the oral stage), stage), the anus during early childhood (the anal stage), stage), and the genitalia later in the preschool years (the phallic stage). stage). Following a period of sexual latency, the adolescent enters the fourth stage, the genital stage, stage, which lasts throughout adulthood. Freud believed that each stage has its own potential conflicts between between child and parent parent and that how the child experiences experiences and resolves the conflicts during the first three stages influences his or her personality and lifelong patterns of behavior. In his theory of human human developme development, nt, Erik Erikson Erikson proposed proposed eight eight develo developme pmenta ntall stages stages,, each each of which which is charac character terize ized d by a particular challenge, or developmental crisis. crisis . Erikson emphasized each person’s relationship to the social environment and the importance of family family and cultur cultural al influe influence nces s in determ determini ining ng how well well prepar prepared ed individuals are to meet these crises. Erikson’s stages are lifelong. Inst Instea ead d of adva advanc ncin ing g a stag stage e theo theory ry of deve develo lopm pmen ent, t, proponent proponents s of behaviorism have formulated formulated laws of behavior behavior that operate at every age. The basis of all varieties of behaviorism is the idea that psychology psychology should focus on the objective objective and scientific study
of behavior. According to early behaviorism, conditioning is the process of learning. As demonstrated by the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning (also called respondent conditioning ) involves learning by association: The organism comes to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful one. In operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning ), proposed by B. F. Skinner, the individual learns that a particular behavior produces a particular consequence.Any consequence that follows a behavior and makes the person (or animal) likely to repeat that behavior is called reinforcement. (Thinking Like a Scientist) In the 1950s, researcher Harry Harlow investigated the origins of attachment in infant monkeys. These studies, which demonstrated that infant monkeys clung more often to “surrogate” mothers that provided contact comfort, disproved behaviorism’s view that reinforcement was most important and psychoanalytic theory’s concept of the mother satisfying the infant’s oral needs. Harlow’s experiments also demonstrated the use of theories. Social learning theory emphasizes the ways in which people learn new behaviors by observing and imitating, or modeling, the behavior of other people they consider admirable, powerful, nurturing, or similar. Modeling is most likely to occur when the observer is uncertain or inexperienced. Social learning is related to self understanding, social reflection, and self-efficacy. Cognitive theory focuses on the structure and development of the individual’s thought processes and their effect on his or her attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Jean Piaget viewed cognitive development as a process that follows a universal sequence of agerelated periods: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. According to Piaget, each person strives for cognitive equilibrium—that is, a state of mental balance achieved through the development of mental concepts that explain his or her experiences. Cognitive disequilibrium (a state of imbalance) promotes a search for knowledge as the person modifies old concepts and constructs better ones to fit new experiences. According to Piaget, people adapt to new experiences either by reinterpreting them to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas. Some new experiences force people to revamp old ideas so that they can accommodate new experiences.
Each grand theory has a different focus: emotions (psychoanalytic theory), actions (behaviorism), and thoughts (cognitive theory). Each also reaches different conclusions. Sociocultural theory seeks to explain human development in terms of the guidance, support, and structure provided by cultures and societies. Rather than considering the individual in isolation, sociocultural theorists focus on the dynamic interaction between developing persons and the surrounding social and cultural forces. Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, a major pioneer of the sociocultural perspective, believed that the development of cognitive competencies results from social interaction between children and more skilled members of the community in what has been called an apprenticeship in thinking. The basis of this apprenticeship is guided participation, in which a skilled tutor or mentor engages the learner in joint activities. According to sociocultural theory, in order to understand developmental processes in different cultures, it is essential to understand the values and beliefs of the culture, how they affect children, and how particular competencies fit into the child’s cultural context. In sociocultural theory, a child’s social partners progressively challenge the child’s ever-shifting abilities and motivation. To do so, the mentor draws the child into the zone of proximal development , which is the range of skills that the child can exercise only with assistance. Sociocultural theorists have been criticized for overlooking developmental processes that are not primarily social in nature. The newest developmental theory, epigenetic theory, emphasizes the interaction between genes and the environment. Epi refers to all the factors that affect the expression of each person’s genetic instructions. These include facilitating factors, such as nourishing food, loving care, and freedom to play, as well as stress factors such as injury, temperature, or crowding. Genetic refers to the genes that make each person unique, the genes humans share with all other humans, and the genes that all living creatures share. The idea of epigenetic development contrasts sharply with that of preformism, according to which everything is set in advance by genes. Development proceeds within the range of possible outcomes set by earlier genetic–environmental interactions ( reaction range). Some epigenetic factors are the result of the evolutionary process of selective adaptation, in which, over generations, genes for traits that promote survival become more prevalent in a species.
Many specialties in the social sciences—especially sociobiology, evolutionary psychology, and ethology —also stress the interaction of genes and environment. (In Person) Evidence of selective adaptation is seen in the fact that newborn animals and human infants are genetically programmed for social contact as a means of survival, and that adult animals and humans are genetically programmed for caregiving. The five theories complement one another, as each emphasizes a somewhat different aspect of development. (a) Psychoanalytic theory has drawn attention to the importance of early-childhood experiences. (b) Behaviorism has highlighted the effect of the immediate environment on learning. (c) Cognitive theory has led to a greater understanding of how intellectual processes and thinking affect every aspect of development. (d) Sociocultural theory has reminded us that development is embedded in a rich and multifaceted cultural context. (e) Epigenetic theory emphasizes the interaction between genetic instructions and surrounding contexts. Each theory has faced criticism: psychoanalytic theory, for being too subjective; behaviorism, for being too mechanistic; cognitive theory, for undervaluing cultural diversity; sociocultural theory, for neglecting individual initiative; and epigenetic theory, for neglecting the human spirit. Today, most developmentalists have an eclectic perspective. Instead of limiting themselves to only one school of thought, they apply insights drawn from various theoretical views. Developmentalists agree that, at every point, the interaction between nature and nurture is the crucial influence on any particular aspect of development. Children who are especially impulsive, restless, and unable to attend to anything for more than a moment may be suffering from attention-eficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This disorder is more common in boys than in girls. Among the evidence that genetic inheritance is responsible for ADHD is the fact that ADHD children • often have male relatives with the same problem • are overactive in every context • calm down when they take stimulants. All the grand theories tended to explain homosexuality in terms of nurture. However, new research suggests that it is at least partly due to nature. This has led researchers to draw a distinction between sexual orientation, which encompasses erotic inclinations and thoughts, and sexual expression, which encompasses sexual activities.
Evaluation A. Developmental Fact or Myth? True or False 1. Developmental theories generally have few practical applications. 2. Proponents of behaviorism believe that all behavior arises directly from operant or classical conditioning. 3. Piaget believed that how people think and how they understand the world depends on their age. 4. Psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, and cognitive theory are considered “grand” because of their comprehensiveness. 5. Developmental psychologists are increasingly aware that culture shapes our responses. 6. The newest theory of development stresses the ongoing interaction between genes and environmental forces. 7. Few developmental psychologists today believe that humans have instincts that promote survival. 8. All developmental theories attempt to explain the broad spectrum of human development. 9. Most developmentalists incorporate ideas from several theories into their thinking. 10. Most psychologists agree that the nature–nurture controversy has been laid to rest. B. The “Life Line” Most people naturally divide the life cycle into separate periods of time, or stages, during which they expect certain events to occur (starting a family, establishing a career, retirement, etc.). To clarify your own view of the life cycle, fill in the details of your life up to this point and as you project them to be for the future, along the “life line” that follows. At the top of the line, list your date of birth. At the bottom, list a projected date of death. At an appropriate spot midway along the line (depending on your age), list today’s date. Now, summarize your life to the present by listing any especially significant events at the appropriate points along the line above today’s date (starting school, moving to a new neighborhood, puberty, etc.). Next, project your future as you see it today by filling in the bottom part of your life line. List who you hope to be (your profession or family plans, for example), what you hope to accomplish, and any expected pressures and responsibilities (dealing with adult children and elderly parents, for example) 5 years from now, 10 years from now, and so forth until your death.
Moment in Time Event, Goal, or Expected Role
Date of Birth
Major Developmental Theories: Discover Your Bias Most students come to class with a bias or predisposition toward one or more of the four basic theoretical frameworks. Answer the following questions to see whether you can discern a pattern in your responses that might indicate a bias toward one theory or another. You may check more than one answer if both reflect your opinion. 1. The father of a 2-year-old finds that he becomes very impatient with his daughter when, night after night, she claims she cannot fall asleep because of a “monster that comes out in the dark.” Although each night the father tries to reassure and comfort his daughter, the next morning she does not remember his attempts to reason with her regarding her fear. He should probably: a. try to understand the hidden causes and meaning of his daughter’s dreams. b. give his daughter a reward the following morning if she stayed in bed until falling asleep the night before. c. realize that, because of her limited intellectual abilities at age 2, she cannot be rationally reasoned with. d. consider how he can structure his interactions with his daughter to “mentor” her through her fear. e. recognize that fears of the dark are partly genetic, because they undoubtedly helped our species survive.
Expected Date of Death
2. Most adults become physiologically aroused when they hear the sound of a baby’s cry. This is because: a. the baby’s cry evokes unconscious memories of their own painful childhood. b. at some time during their past, the sound of a baby crying became associated with another stimulus that naturally elicited physiological arousal. c. they consciously become irritated by the distracting sound. d. nurturing young babies is a developmental challenge that all humans face and address in culture-specific ways.
e. humans are biologically predisposed to respond favorably to an infant crying. 3. A preteenage boy is not interested in having sexual experiences. The most reasonable explanation is that: a. he feels threatened; he is denying his true feelings, possibly without realizing what they are. b. he has probably had anxiety-producing experiences with sex and wants to avoid any repetition of these experiences. c. his ideas and values make sexual experiences seem wrong or inappropriate for him right now. d. his social, or cultural, background has not yet fostered such interests. e. his biological immaturity means he has not yet experienced the hormonal surge of puberty. 4. Nine-year-old David is more aggressive in the classroom than Maria is. His teacher should probably: a. refer David to a therapist who can get him to talk about his repressed urges. b. give him stars and privileges whenever he behaves appropriately. c. find out why he is not concentrating on the material; to begin with, have his vision, hearing, and other perceptual abilities tested. d. realize that David’s past social interactions have not challenged him to develop certain social competencies. e. consider that boys are naturally somewhat more aggressive than girls are. 5. Advertisers often incorporate “babyishness” in their promotional symbols because: a. most adults have hidden consummatory urges stemming from their childhoods. b. people are conditioned to act impulsively (and, perhaps, spend money) around children. c. they are afraid of making their sales pitches too intellectually complex for the average consumer.
d. people in most cultures are socialized to respond favorably to babies. e. adults are genetically predisposed to respond favorably to images of infancy.
