PSYCHOLOGY
G. Submitted by: Reyes, Jillian Iris G. Submitted to: Ma'am Serafina Maxino
1 – A Course/Section: PT 1 – Date: June 22, 2016
1.) Biology of the following Psychologists:
A. Wilhelm Wundt ( 1832 – 1920 ) Wilhelm Wundt, (born August 16, 1832, 1832 , Neckarau, near Mannheim, Baden [Germany]— [Germany]— died August 31, 1920, Grossbothen, Germany) German physiologist and psychologist who is generally acknowledged as the founder of experimental psychology. Wundt earned a medical degree at the University of Heidelberg in 1856. After studying briefly with Johannes Müller, he was appointed lecturer in physiology at the University of Heidelberg, where in 1858 he became an assistant to the physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz. There he wrote Beiträge zur Theorie der Sinneswahrnehmung (1858 (1858 –62; –62; ―Contributions to the Theory of Sense Perception‖). It was during this period, in 1862, that Wundt offered the first course ever taught in scientific psychology. Until then, psychology had been regarded as a branch of philosophy and, hence, to be conducted primarily by rational analysis. Wundt instead stressed the use of experimental methods drawn from the natural sciences. His lectures on psychology were published as Vorlesungen über die Menschen und Thierseele (1863; ―Lectures on the Mind of Humans and Animals‖). He was promoted to assistant professor of physiology in 1864. Bypassed in 1871 for the appointment to succeed Helmholtz, Wundt then applied himself to writing a work that came to be one of the most important in the history of psychology, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie, 2 Psychologie, 2 vol. (1873 –74; –74; 3 vol., 6th ed., 1908 –11; –11; Principles of Physiological Psychology ). ). The Grundzüge advanced Grundzüge advanced a system of psychology that sought to investigate the immediate experiences of consciousness, including sensations, feelings, volitions, and ideas; it also contained the concept of apperception, or conscious perception. The methodology prescribed was introspection, or conscious examination of
conscious experience. In 1874 Wundt went to the University of Zürich for a year before embarking on the most productive phase of his career, as professor at the University of Leipzig (1875 –1917). –1917). There, in 1879, he established the first psychological laboratory in the world, and two years later he founded the first journal of psychology, psychology, Philosophische Studien (―Philosophical Studies‖). Wundt’s most important later works include Grundriss der Psychologie (1896; ―Outline of Psychology‖) Psychology‖) and Völkerpsychologie, 10 Völkerpsychologie, 10 vol. (1900 –20; ―Ethnic Psychology‖). Psycholo gy‖).
B. Edward L. Thorndike ( 1874 – 1949 ) Edward L. Thorndike, in full Edward Lee Thorndike (born August 31, 1874, Williamsburg, Massachusetts, U.S.— U.S.—died August 9, 1949, Montrose , New York) York) American psychologist whose work on animal behaviour and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism, which states that behavioural responses to specific stimuli are established through a process of trial and error that affects neural connections between the stimuli and the most satisfying responses. Thorndike graduated from Wesleyan University in 1895. He studied animal behaviour with William James at Harvard University (1895 –97) –97) and with James McKeen Cattell at Columbia University, where he received his Ph.D. (1898) and where he spent most of his career. He first proposed his two behavioural laws, the law of effect and the law of exercise, in his doctoral dissertation, which was published publis hed in 1911 1911 as Animal as Animal Intelligence. Intelligence . He regarded adaptive changes in animal behaviour as analogous to human learning and suggested that behavioural associations (connections) could be predicted by application of the two laws. The law of effect
stated that those behavioural responses that were most closely followed by a satisfying result were most likely to become established patterns and to occur again in response to the same stimulus. The law of exercise stated that behaviour is more strongly established through frequent connections of stimulus and response. In 1932 Thorndike determined that the second of his laws was not entirely valid in all cases. He also modified the law of effect to state that rewards for appropriate behaviour always substantially strengthened associations, whereas punishments for inappropriate responses only slightly weakened the association between the stimulus and the wrong response. Thorndike’s early work is regarded as the first laboratory study of animal learning. His emphasis on measurement and the quantitative analysis of data, as opposed to merely descriptive accounts of experiments, has been enormously influential in modern psychology, particularly affecting behaviourist experimentation. While still a graduate student at Columbia, Thorndike began an association with Robert S. Woodworth, with whom he studied transfer of learning. In a paper published in 1901, Thorndike and Woodworth found that learning in one area does not facilitate learning in other areas; where specific training in one task seemed to cause improvement in learning another, the improvement could be attributed to common elements in the two exercises, not to overall enhancement of the subject’s learning abilities. This finding supported proponents of school curricula that emphasized practical, relevant subject matter and activities. As professor of educational psychology at Columbia from 1904 to 1940, Thorndike contributed to the development of a more scientifically grounded and efficient type of schooling. He emphasized the use of statistics in social science research, chiefly through his handbook, An Introduction to the Theory of Mental and Social Measurements (1904). Other important works in the early part of his career were The Principles of Teaching Based on Psychology (1906), Education: A First Book (1912), and Educational Psychology , 3 vol. (1913 –14; 2nd ed., 1921). These books were responsible for many of the earliest applications of psychology to classroom instruction in arithmetic, algebra, reading, writing, and language and also did much to expose the deficiencies and inequalities in the American educational system of the time. When his investigations in the 1920s of adult learning revealed that continued learning ability was determined by inborn personal factors rather than age, adult education was revitalized. Among Thorndike’s later works of note were The Psychology of Wants, Interests, and Attitudes (1935) and Human Nature and the Social Order (1940).
―Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten.‖ C. Burrhus Frederic Skinner ( 1904 – 1990 ) American psychologist B.F. Skinner is best known for developing the theory of behaviorism, and for his utopian novel Walden Two (1948). Synopsis Born in Pennsylvania in 1904, psychologist B.F. Skinner began working on ideas of human behaviour after earning his doctorate from Harvard. Skinner's works include The Behavior of Organisms (1938) and a novel based on his theories Walden Two (1948). He explored behaviourism in relation to society in later books, including Beyond Freedom and Human Dignity (1971). Skinner died in Massachusetts in 1990. Early Life Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904, in the small town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, where he also grew up. His father was a lawyer and his mother stayed home to care for Skinner and his younger brother. At an early age, Skinner showed an interest in building different gadgets and contraptions. As a student at Hamilton College, B.F. Skinner developed a passion for writing. He tried to become a professional writer after graduating in 1926, but with little success. Two years later, Skinner decided to pursue a new direction for his life. He enrolled at Harvard University to study psychology. The Skinner Box At Harvard, B.F. Skinner looked for a more objective and measured way to study behavior. He developed what he called an operant conditioning apparatus to do this, which became better known as the Skinner box. With this device, Skinner could study an animal interacting with its environment. He first studied rats in his experiments, seeing how the rodents discovered and used to a level in the box, which dispensed food at varying intervals.
Later, Skinner examined what behaviour patterns developed in pigeons using the box. The pigeons pecked at a disc to gain access to food. From these studies, Skinner came to the conclusion that some form of reinforcement was crucial in learning new behaviours. After finishing his doctorate degree and working as a researcher a t Harvard, Skinner published the results of his operant conditioning experiments in The Behaviour of Organisms (1938). His work drew comparisons to Ivan Pavlov, but Skinner's work involved learned responses to an environment rather than involuntary responses to stimuli. Later Work While teaching at University of Minnesota, Skinner tried to train pigeons to serve as guides for bombing runs during World War II. This project was cancelled, but he was able to teach them how to play ping pong. Skinner turned to a more domestic endeavour during the war. In 1943, he built a new type of crib for his second daughter Deborah at his wife's request. The couple already had a daughter named Julie. This clear box, called the "baby tender," was heated so that the baby didn't need blankets. There were no slats in the sides either, which also prevented possible injury. In 1945, Skinner became the chair of the psychology department at Indiana University. But he left two years later to return to Harvard as a lecturer. Skinner received a professorship there in 1948 where he remained for the rest of his career. As his children grew, he became interested in education. Skinner developed a teaching machine to study learning in children. He later wrote The Technology of Teaching (1968). Skinner presented a fictional interpretation of some of his views in the 1948 novel Walden Two, which proposed a type of utopian society. The people in the society were led to be good citizens through behaviour modification—a system of rewards and punishments. The novel seemed to undermine Skinner's credibility with some of his academic colleagues. Others questioned his focus on scientific approaches to the exclusion of less tangible aspects of human existence. In the late 1960s and early '70s, Skinner wrote several works applying his behavioural theories to society, including Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971). He drew fire for seemingly implying that humans had no free will or individual consciousness. Noam Chomsky was among Skinner's critics. In 1974, Skinner tried to set the record straight regarding any misinterpretations of his work with About Behaviourism. Final Years In his later years, B.F. Skinner took to chronicling his life and research in a series of autobiographies. He also continued to be active in the field of behavioural psychology—field he helped popularize. In 1989, Skinner was diagnosed with leukaemia. He succumbed to the disease the following year, dying at his home in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on August 18, 1990.
While many of his behavioural theories have fallen out of favour, Skinner's identification of the importance of reinforcement remains a critical discovery. He believed that positive reinforcement was a great tool for shaping behaviour, an idea still valued in numerous settings including schools today. Skinner's beliefs are still being promoted by the B.F. Skinner Foundation, which is headed by his daughter, Julie S. Vargas.
―Religion is an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in with our instinctual desires.‖ D. Sigmund Freud; Scholar, Psychiatrist (1856 –1939) Sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist best known for developing the theories and techniques of psychoanalysis. Synopsis Sigmund Freud was born in Freiberg, which is now known as the Czech Republic, on May 6, 1856. Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method through which an analyst unpacks unconscious conflicts based on the free associations, dreams and fantasies of the patient. His theories on child sexuality, libido and the ego, among other topics, were some of the most influential academic concepts of the 20th century. Early Career Sigmund Freud was born in the Austrian town of Freiberg on May 6, 1856. When he was four years old his family moved to Vienna, the town where he would live and work for most of the remainder of his life. He received his medical degree in 1881 and became engaged to marry the following year. His marriage produced six children—the youngest of whom, Anna, was to
herself become a distinguished psychoanalyst. After graduation, Freud promptly set up a private practice and began treating various psychological disorders. Considering himself first and foremost a scientist, rather than a doctor, he endeavoured to understand the journey of human knowledge and experience. Early in his career, Freud became greatly influenced by the work of his friend and Viennese colleague, Josef Breuer, who had discovered that when he encouraged a hysterical patient to talk uninhibitedly about the earliest occurrences of the symptoms, the symptoms sometimes gradually abated. Inspired by Breuer, Freud posited that neuroses had their origins in deeply traumatic experiences that had occurred in the patient's past. He believed that the original occurrences had been forgotten and hidden from consciousness. His treatment was to empower his patients to recall the experience and bring it to consciousness, and in doing so, confront it both intellectually and emotionally. He believed one could then discharge it and rid oneself of the neurotic symptoms. Freud and Breuer published their theories and findings in Studies in Hysteria (1895). Controversial Publications After much work together, Breuer ended the relationship, feeling t hat Freud placed too much emphasis on the sexual origins of a patient's neuroses and was completely unwilling to consider other viewpoints. Freud continued to refine his own argument and in 1900, after a serious period of self-analysis, published The Interpretation of Dreams. He followed it in 1901 with The Psychopathology of Everyday Life and in 1905 with Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality . The great reverence that was later given to Freud's theories was not in evidence for some years. Most of his contemporaries felt, like Breuer, that his emphasis on sexuality was either scandalous or overplayed. In 1909, he was invited to give a series of lectures in the United States. It was after these visits and the publication of his 1916 book, Five Lectures on Psycho-Analysis that his fame grew exponentially. Lasting Legacy Freud's many theories—including those about "psychic energy," the Oedipus complex and the importance of dreams—were no doubt influenced by other scientific discoveries of his day. Charles Darwin's understanding of humankind as a progressive element of the animal kingdom certainly informed Freud's investigation of human behaviour. Additionally, the formulation of a new principle by Helmholtz, stating that energy in any given physical system is always constant, informed Freud's scientific inquiries into the human mind. Freud's work has been both rapturously praised and hotly critiqued, but no one has influenced the science of psychology as intensely as Sigmund Freud. After a life of constant inquiry, he committed suicide after requesting a lethal do se of morphine from his doctor while exiled in England in 1939, following a battle with oral cancer.
E. Edward Bradford Titchener ( 1867 – 1927 ) Edward Bradford Titchener, (born Jan. 11, 1867, Chichester, Sussex, Eng.—died Aug. 3, 1927, Ithaca, N.Y., U.S.) English-born psychologist and a major figure in the establishment of experimental psychology in the United States. A disciple of the German psychologist W ilhelm Wundt, the founder of experimental psychology, Titchener gave Wundt’s theory on the scope and method of psychology a precise, systematic expression. In 1890 Titchener entered Wundt’s laboratory at the University of Leipzig, and he received his Ph.D. in 1892. Though he had little personal contact with Wundt, he thoroughly assimilated and espoused the view that the concern of psychology is the systematic, experimental study of the normal, adult mind and that its proper, not to say exclusive, method is introspection, or the precise examination and description of conscious experience. He continued to expound Wundt’s views after his arrival at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. (1892), where he became professor of psychology (1895 –1927). From 1898 Titchener was the foremost exponent of structural psychology, which concerns itself with the components and arrangement of mental states and processes. In his ambition to transplant the psychology established by Wundt and nurtured in Germany, he translated 11 German works, including titles by Wundt and Oswald Külpe. He himself wrote eight works, many of which went through several revised editions and were translated into a number of languages. By far the most important was Experimental Psychology, 4 vol. (1901 –05), consisting of two student manuals and two teachers’ manuals. Designed to drill students in laboratory method, the manuals were patterned on those used in qualitative and quantitative experiments in chemistry. Among Titchener’s other works was A Textbook of Psychology (1910), a comprehensive, yet concise, exposition of his psychology. Though a charter member of the American Psychological Association in 1892, he did not remain with it for long. In 1904 he founded the Society of Experimental Psychologists.
"We have this myth that the only way to learn something is to read it in a te xtbook or hear a lecture on it. And the only way to show that we've understood something is to take a shortanswer test or maybe occasionally with an essay question thrown in. But that's nonsense. Everything can be taught in more than one way." F. Howard Gardener Howard Gardner is a developmental psychologist best-known for this theory of multiple intelligences. He believed that the conventional concept of intelligence was too narrow and restrictive and that measures of IQ often miss out on other "intelligences" that an individual may possess. His 1983 book Frames of Mind outlined his theory and his eight major types of intelligence. Gardner's theory had a particular impact in the field of education where it inspired teachers and educators to explore new ways of teaching aimed at these different intelligences. Best Known For: Theory of multiple intelligences Brief Biography Howard Gardner was born on July 11, 1943 in Scranton, Pennsylvania. He described himself as "a studious child who gained much pleasure from playing the piano." He completed his post-secondary education at Harvard, earning his undergraduate degree in 1965 and his Ph.D. in 1971. While he had originally planned to study law, he was inspired by the works of Jean Piaget to study developmental psychology. He also cited the mentoring he received from the famous psychoanalyst Erik Erikson as part of the reason why he set his sights on psychology. "My mind was really opened when I went to Harvard College and had the opportunity to study under individuals—such as psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, sociologist David Riesman, and cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner —who were creating knowledge about human beings. That helped set me on the course of investigating human nature, particularly how human beings think," he later explained.
Career and Theories After spending time working with two very different groups, normal and gifted children and brain-damaged adults, Gardner began developing a theory designed to synthesize his research and observations. In 1983, he published Frames of Mind which outlined his theory of multiple intelligences. According to this theory, people have many different ways of learning. U nlike traditional theories of intelligence that focus on one, single general intelligence, Gardner believed that people instead have multiple different ways of thinking and learning. He has since identified and described eight different kinds of intelligence: Visual-spatial intelligence 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Linguistic-verbal intelligence Mathematical intelligence Kinaesthetic intelligence Musical intelligence Interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence Naturalistic intelligence
He has also proposed the possible addition of a ninth type which he refers to as "existential intelligence." Gardner's theory has perhaps had the greatest impact within the field of education, where it has received considerable attention and use. His conceptualization of intelligence as more than a single, solitary quality has opened the doors for further research and different ways of thinking about human intelligence. Researcher Mindy L. Kornhaber has suggested that the theory of multiple intelligences is so popular within the field of education because it "validates educators' everyday experience: students think and learn in many different ways. It also provides educators with a conceptual framework for organizing and reflecting on curriculum assessment and pedagogical practices. In turn, this reflection has led many educators to develop new approaches that might better meet the needs of the range of learners in their classrooms." Gardner currently serves as the Chairman of Steering Committee for Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Education and as an Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Harvard University. Awards 1981, MacArthur Prize Fellowship 1987, William James Award, American Psychological Association 1990, University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in Education
2000, John S. Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship 2011, Prince of Asturias Award in Social Sciences Multiple Intelligences versus Learning Styles In his 2013 book The App Generation, Gardner and co-author Katie Davis suggest that the theory of multiple intelligences has too often been conflated with the idea of learning styles. The two are not the same; Gardner explains and uses a computer analogy to demonstrate the differences between the ideas. Traditional conceptions of a single intelligence suggest that the mind possesses a single, central and all-purpose "computer" suggests Gardner in his book. This computer then determines how people perform in every aspect of their lives. Gardner's conception of multiple intelligences, on the other hand, proposes that the mind possess a number of "computers" that act mostly independently of one another and contribute to different mental abilities. Gardner believes that people may have somewhere between seven and 10 distinctly different intelligences. Learning styles, on the other hand, relate to an individual's personality and learning preferences. The problem with the concept of learning styles, Gardner explains, is that not only are they only vaguely defined, research has found little evidence that teaching to a student's preferred style has an effect on learning outcomes. Gardner distinguishes between his multiple intelligences and the idea of learning styles by defining intelligences as a mental computational power in a certain area such as verbal ability or spatial intelligence. He defines learning styles as how an individual learner approaches different educational materials.
G. Max Wertheimer, Czech psychologist (1880-1943) Max Wertheimer, (born April 15, 1880, Prague—died Oct. 12, 1943, New Rochelle, N.Y., U.S.) Czech-born psychologist, one of the founders, with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler, of Gestalt psychology, which attempts to examine psychological phenomena as structural wholes, rather than breaking them down into components. During his adolescence, Wertheimer played the violin, composed symphonic and chamber music, and generally seemed destined to become a musician. In 1900 he began to study law at Charles University in Prague but was soon drawn to the philosophy of law and then to the psychology of courtroom testimony. The following year he left Prague to study psychology at Friedrich-Wilhelm University in Berlin, under Carl Stumpf, noted for his contributions to the psychology of music. Wertheimer received his Ph.D. from the University of Würzburg in 1904, developing a lie detector for the objective study of testimony and devising a method of word association as part of his doctoral dissertation. He then carried out research in various areas at Prague, Berlin, and Vienna, becoming particularly interested in the perception of complex and ambiguous structures. He discovered that feebleminded children can solve problems when they can grasp the overall structures involved, and he began to formulate the ideas that would later take root in Gestalt psychology. While on a train trip in 1910, Wertheimer became intrigued by the phenomenon of perception of motion and stopped at Frankfurt long enough to buy a toy stroboscope with which to test his ideas. He noted that two lights flashed through small apertures in a darkened room at short intervals would appear to be one light in motion; this perception of movement in a stationary object, called the phi phenomenon, became a basis for Gestalt psychology. He studied the phi phenomenon with two assistants, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka. Convinced that the segmented approach of most psychologists to the study of human behaviour was inadequate, Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka formed the new Gestalt school. During his early work leading to Gestalt psychology, Wertheimer was on the faculty of the University of Frankfurt, leaving to become a lecturer at Friedrich-Wilhelm University in Berlin
(1916 –29). In 1921, with others, he founded Psychologische Forschung (―Psychological Research‖), the journal that was to be the central organ of the Gestalt movement. Wertheimer returned to Frankfurt as professor of psychology (1929), directing research in social and experimental psychology. Wertheimer criticized the current educational emphasis on traditional logic and association, arguing that such problem-solving processes as grouping and reorganization, which dealt with problems as structural wholes, were not recognized in logic but were important techniques in human thinking. Related to this argument was Wertheimer’s concept of Pragnanz (―precision‖) in organization; when things are grasped as wholes, the minimal amount of energy is exerted in thinking. To Wertheimer, truth was determined by the entire structure of experience rather than by individual sensations or perceptions. Although much of Wertheimer’s work dealt with perception, the Gestalt school soon was extended to other areas of psychology, always emphasizing dynamic analysis and the relation of elements within a structured whole, taking as its basic attitude the concept that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Wertheimer fled from Germany to the United States shortly before the Nazis came to power in 1933. He became a professor at the New School for Social Research in New York City, where he remained until his death. During the last years of his life, Wertheimer devoted himself to problems of psychology and social ethics. His Productive Thinking, which discussed many of his ideas, was published
H. Alfred Adler (1870 – 1937) Alfred Adler was an Austrian doctor and therapist who is best-known for forming the school of thought known as individual psychology. He is also remembered for his concept of the inferiority complex, which he believed played a major part in the formation of personality. Alder was initially a colleague of Sigmund Freud, helped establish psychoanalysis, and was a founding member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. Adler's theory focused on looking at the individual as a whole, which is wh y he referred to his approach as individual psychology. Adler was eventually expelled from Freud's psychoanalytic circle, but he went on to have a tremendous impact on the development of psychotherapy. He also had an important influence on many other great thinkers including Abraham Maslow and Albert Ellis. Best Known For: Individual Psychology The concept of the inferiority complex President of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, 1910 Birth and Death: Alfred Adler was born February 7, 1870. He died May 28, 1937. Early Life Alfred Adler was born in Vienna, Austria. He suffered rickets as a young c hild which prevented him from walking until the age of four. Due to his health problems as a child, Adler decided he would become a physician and, after graduating from the University of Vienna in 1895 with a medical degree, began his career as an ophthalmologist and later switched to general practice.
Career and Later Life: Alder soon turned his interests toward the field of psychiatry. In1902, Sigmund Freud invited him to join a psychoanalytic discussion group. This group met each Wednesday in Freud's home and would eventually grow to become the Vienna Psychoanalytic Societ y. After serving as President of the group for a time, Adler left in part because of his disagreements with some of Freud's theories. While Adler had played a key role in the development of psychoanalysis, he was also one of the first major figures to break away to form his own school of thought. He was quick to point out that while he had been a colleague of Freud's, he was in no way a disciple of the famous Austrian psychiatrist. In 1912, Alfred Adler founded the Society of Individual Psychology. Adler's theory suggested that every person has a sense of inferiority. From childhood, people work toward overcoming this inferiority by asserting their superiority over others. Adler referred to this as 'striving for superiority' and believed that this drive was the motivating force behind human behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Contributions to Psychology Alfred Adler's theories have played an essential role in a number of areas including therapy and child development. Alder's ideas also influenced other important psychologists including: Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers Karen Horney Rollo May Erich Fromm Albert Ellis Today, his ideas and concepts are often referred to as Adlerian psychology. While Adler had converted to Christianity, his Jewish heritage led to the Nazi's closing down his clinics during the 1930s. As a result, Adler immigrated to the United States to take a professor position at the Long Island College of Medicine. In 1937, Adler went on a lecture tour and suffered a fatal heart attack in Aberdeen, Scotland. His family lost track of his cremated remains shortly after his death and the ashes were presumed lost before being discovered in 2007 at a crematorium in Edinburgh, Scotland. In 2011, 74 years after his death, Adler's ashes were returned to Vienna, Austria.
I. Carl Rogers (1902-1987) Carl Rogers was a 20th century humanist psychologist and the founder of person-centered psychotherapy. Early Life Carl Rogers was born and raised in the Chicago suburb of Oak Park, Illinois. He was the fourth of six children of Walter Rogers and Julia Cushing. Rogers was schooled in a strict, religious environment. Originally, he planned to study agriculture at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, with an undergraduate focus on history and religion. In school, his interests shifted away from agriculture and toward religion; after receiving his bachelor’s degree in 1924, he entered a liberal Protestant seminary in New York City, to the dismay of his conservative father. Rogers spent two years in seminary before transferring to Columbia University Teachers College, where he worked with John Dewey. Rogers received his master’s in 1928 and a PhD in clinical psychology in 1931. Professional Life Rogers began his professional career in child psychology in 1930 as the director of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. He also lectured at the University of Rochester between 1935 and 1940. He published The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child in 1939 and accepted a position as professor of clinical psychology at Ohio State University in 1940. Rogers published his views in Counselling and Psychotherapy , in 1942, outlining his theory that a person could gain the awareness necessary to transform his or her life by developing a respectful, nonjudgmental, and accepting relationship with a therapist. Rogers moved to Chicago in 1945 to work as a professor. He established a counselling centre there and published results of his research in Client-Centered Therapy , in 1951 and Psychotherapy and Personality Change in 1954. Later, Rogers returned to the University of Wisconsin, where he remained until he moved to California in 1963 to join the staff of Western
Behavioural Sciences Institute. In 1968, some of the staff at the institute joined Carl Rogers in developing the Centre for Studies of the Person. He remained in La Jolla, California until his death in 1987. Contribution to Psychology Rogers embraced the ideas of Abraham Maslow's humanism, and he also believed that personal growth was dependent upon environment. This belief became the basis for his development of client-centered therapy, later renamed person-centered therapy. While teaching at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Rogers wrote one of his most famous books, On Becoming a Person, in which he claimed that people have their own resources for healing and personal growth. Rogers introduced the concepts of congruence, empathic understanding, acceptance, and unconditional positive regard into the therapeutic environment to enhance the outcome for clients. He encouraged counsellors to demonstrate each of these aspects in order to help the client gain insight, recognize feelings, express selfconcept, and achieve self-acceptance and self-actualization. Rogers claimed that a self-actualized, fully functioning person had seven key traits: 1. 2. 3. 4.
Openness to experience and an abandonment of defensiveness. An existential lifestyle that emphasizes living in the moment without distorting it. Trust in oneself. The ability to freely make choices. Fully functioning people take responsibility for their own choices, and are highly self-directed. 5. A life of creativity and adaptation, including an abandonment of conformity. 6. The ability to behave reliably and make constructive choices. 7. A full, rich life that involves the full spectrum of human emotions. Roger's person-centered approach to therapy has widespread acceptance and is applied in areas of education, cultural relations, nursing, interpersonal relations, and other service and aid-oriented professions and arenas. Rogers’s psychological theories have influenced modern psychotherapy and have directly impacted the field of mental health. Rogers also helped to popularize humanism in psychology. The humanistic psychology movement focused on the human experience of freedom, choice, values, and goals. It departed from traditional psychoanalysis and behaviourism in that it focused on the complete psychological health of a client, rather than simply treating symptoms, and it empowered the client to reach his or her full potential and direct the course of therapy, rather than the therapist diagnosing and assessing the client objectively. Rogers spent many of his final years working to end oppression and cultural conflict. He helped unite Catholics and Protestants in Ireland and fought to end apartheid in South Africa.
J. Stanley Hall (1844 – 1924) American psychologist G. Stanley Hall, in full Granville Stanley Hall (born February 1, 1844, Ashfield, Massachusetts, U.S.—died April 24, 1924, Worcester, Massachusetts) psychologist who gave early impetus and direction to the development of psychology in the United States. Frequently regarded as the founder of child psychology and educational psychology, he also did much to direct into the psychological currents of his time the ideas of Charles Darwin, Sigmund Freud, and others. Hall graduated from Williams College in 1867. Although he originally intended to enter the ministry, he left Union Theological Seminary in New York City after one year (1867 –68) to study philosophy in Germany (1868 –71). He became a lecturer at Antioch College in Ohio in 1872. His decision to adopt psychology as his life’s work was inspired by a partial reading of Physiological Psychology (1873 –74), by Wilhelm Wundt, generally considered the founder of experimental psychology. Hall resigned his post at Antioch in 1876 and returned to Germany for further study, becoming acquainted with Wundt and the German physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz. There Hall discovered the value of the questionnaire for psychological research. Later he and his students devised more than 190 questionnaires, which were instrumental in stimulating the upsurge of interest in the study of child development. After returning to the United States, Hall in 1878 earned fro m Harvard University the first Ph.D. degree in psychology granted in America. He then gave special lectures on education at Harvard, and he used questionnaires from a study of Boston schools to write two significant papers: one dealing with children’s lies (1882) and the other with the contents of children’s minds (1883). A lectureship in philosophy (1883) and a professorship in psychology and pedagogics (1884) at Johns Hopkins University followed. There Hall was given space for one of the first psychological laboratories in the United States. The philosopher-psychologist-educator John Dewey was one of the first to use it. In 1887 Hall founded the American Journal of
Psychology , the first such American journal and the second of any significance outside Germany. Hall was entering the most influential period of his life. The following year (1888), he helped to establish Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, and, as the university’s president and a professor of psychology, he became a major force in shaping experimental psychology into a science. A great teacher, he inspired research that reached into all areas of psychology. By 1893 he had awarded 11 of the 14 doctorates in psychology granted in the United States. The first journal in the fields of child and educational psychology, the Pedagogical Seminary (later the Journal of Genetic Psychology ), was founded by Hall in 1893. Hall’s theory that mental growth proceeds by evolutionary stages is best expressed in one of his largest and most important works, Adolescence (1904). Despite opposition, Hall, as an early proponent of psychoanalysis, invited Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung to the conferences celebrating Clark University’s 20th anniversary (1909). Hall was a leading spirit in the founding of the American Psychological Association and served as its first president (1892). He published 489 works covering most of the major areas of psychology, including Senescence, the Last Half of Life (1922) and Jesus, the Christ, in the Light of Psychology (1917). Life and Confessions of a Psychologist (1923) was his autobiography.
K. Raymond Cattell (1905-1998) Raymond Cattell was a 20th century psychologist who developed the concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence and identified 16 Personality Factors. Personal Life Raymond Cattell was born in a small town in England in 1905. He was raised in Torquay, Devon, England, where he spent his time sailing and experimenting with science. He received a scholarship to the University of London, where he studied chemistry and physics as an undergraduate. Cattell was fascinated by the cultural effects of World War I and grew increasingly interested
in psychology. He changed his major and graduated from the University of London with a PhD in psychology in 1929. Cattell settled in Leicester, England, and founded the first guidance clinic for children in England while in Leicester. Professional Life Cattell was offered a teaching position at Columbia University in 1937 and moved to the United States, where he worked closely with Edward Thorndike. Next, he accepted the G. Stanley Hall professorship with Clark University; and in 1941, Cattell joined the faculty at Harvard University at the invitation of Gordon Allport. He married a student from Radcliffe College, Alberta Karen Schuettler, and worked with her over the years to conduct much of his research. In 1945, Cattell left Harvard to begin a new research laboratory at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, lured by grant money and the first electronic computer. Cattell established the Laboratory of Personality Assessment and Group Behaviour at the University of Illinois, and later established the Institute for Personality and Ability Testing. Cattell was instrumental in the creation of the Society of Multivariate Experimental Psychology and the journal, Multivariate Behaviour Research. Throughout his life, he worked with researchers around the world to explore human behaviour with multivariate statistics that allowed the researchers to evaluate the whole person, rather than measuring one variable against another as traditional research demonstrated. After his retirement from the University of Illinois, Cattell settled in Hawaii, where he worked part-time as a professor at the University of Hawaii. He married again and worked with his wife, Heather Birkett, to develop the 16-Factor Personality Model. Cattell remained in Hawaii, sailing, researching, and writing, until his death in 1998. Cattell won the American Psychological Association's Lifetime Achievement Award when he was 92. Contribution to Psychology Recognized as one of the most influential psychologists of the 20th century, Cattell is best known for his development of the 16 Personality Factors model, developed over several decades of research. In this model, personality is determined by the degree to which a person possesses each of the 16 personality factors: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity,
9. abstractness, 10. vigilance, 11. privateness, 12. apprehension, 13. openness to change, 14. self-reliance, 15. perfectionism, and 16. tension Cattell developed the 16 Personality Factory Questionnaire (16PF) for adults and two separate personality tests for children and adolescents. The examination of these traits has been applied in a variety of settings to evaluate human traits, such as motivation, interpersonal skill, conformity, cognitive style, and openness to change. Cattell emphasized that research should evaluate cultural, genetic, physiological, and familial factors, and it must be drawn from three domains: 1. Life data: The collection of information from a person's everyday life, including their reaction to life circumstances and usual behaviour. 2. Experimental data: A subject's reactions to standardized experiments. 3. Questionnaire data: A subject's self-reported personality traits and behaviours. Questionnaires enable researchers to discern subtle viewpoints and justifications for behaviours that are otherwise challenging to uncover. Cattell also developed the concepts of fluid and crystallized intelligence. Fluid intelligence is the ability to think abstractly, solve problems, and recognize patterns and is unrelated to knowledge and experience. Logic games tend to evaluate fluid intelligence, and most IQ tests evaluate both. Crystallized intelligence, by contrast, is a direct result of learning and experience. Vocabulary, mastery of a foreign language, and learning mathematical formulas are examples of crystallized intelligence. Crystallized intelligence increases with age, while fluid intelligence decreases.
L. John B. Watson (1878-1958) John B. Watson was an early 20th century psychologist who established the psychological field of behaviourism. Professional Life John B. Watson was born on January 9, 1878 in South Carolina. His mother, Emma, was devoutly religious and named him after a Baptist minister in the hope that he would join the clergy. She disavowed smoking, drinking, and other vices, but Watson grew into an adult who openly opposed religion. He had a troubled adolescence, getting arrested for fighting and disorderly behaviour twice, and performed poorly academically. With the assistance of his mother's professional connections, Watson was accepted to Furman University in South Carolina. His academic life turned around dramatically, and he graduated with a master’s degree by the time he was 21. Next, he enrolled in a graduate program at the University of Chicago, where he studied psychology and began to develop his behaviourist theories. Watson was heavily influenced by Vladimir Bekhterev and Ivan Pavlov, and he used principles of experimental physiology to examine all aspects of behaviour. In 1903, Watson presented his dissertation at the University of Chicago and remained there as a research professor, focusing on learning and sensory input in animals. In 1908, Watson accepted a faculty position at Johns Hopkins University. During this time, Watson entered into an affair with one of his graduate students, Rosalie Rayner, while married to his first wife, Mary Ickes Watson. Watson was asked to leave his position at John Hopkins University in 1920, and Watson and Rayner were married in 1921. The couple remained together for 15 years until Rayner's death at the age of 36. After leaving the teaching profession, Watson entered the field of advertising, rising to an executive position in only two years. He spearheaded many enormously successful advertising campaigns,
including ads for Ponds Cold Cream and Maxwell House Coffee. Watson was the grandfather of actress Mariette Hartley, who argued that she developed psychological problems as a result of being raised according to behaviourist principles. Prior to his death, Watson burned most of his letters and personal papers. Watson served as president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1915, and he received a Gold Medal for his contributions to his field by the APA shortly before his death in 1958. Contribution to Psychology Watson published his groundbreaking article on behaviourism in 1913, ―Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It,‖ often referred to as ―The Behaviourist Manifesto.‖ Because there was little evidence of a specific behaviour mechanism in his theory, many of Watson’s colleagues did not accept his beliefs as scientifically valid. His 1919 text, Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviourist , was more readily accepted, though Watson’s behaviourist theories were not fully adopted into academia and mainstream psychology for another decade. Watson’s behaviourist theory focused not on the internal emotional and psychological conditions of people, but rather on their external and outward behaviours. He believed that a person’s physical responses provided the only insight into internal actions. He spent much of his career applying his theories to the study of child development and early learning. Watson conducted several experiments exploring emotional learning in children. One of his most famous experiments was the Little Albert experiment, which explored classical conditioning using a nine month-old baby boy. In the experiment, Watson demonstrated that Little Albert could be conditioned to fear something, like a white rat, when no such fear existed initially. Watson combined a loud noise with the appearance of the rat, in order to create fear in the baby. The experiment was highly controversial and would likely be considered unethical by today's research standards. In 1928, Watson published Psychological Care of Infant and Child , in which he cautioned against providing children with too much affection, and instead endorsed the practice of treating children like miniature adults. He believed that excessive early attachments could contribute to a dependent, needy personality in adulthood, emphasizing that people do not receive excessive comfort in adulthood and therefore should not receive it in childhood. He specifically argued against thumb-sucking, coddling, and excessive sentimentality, and he emphasized that parents should be open and honest with children about sexuality. While the book sold well in its first year, some found Watson’s unsentimental advice chilling. Two years after the books publication, Watson's wife published an article entitled "I am a Mother of Behaviourist Sons" in Parents magazine that encouraged the displays of affection that her husband admonished. Watson's behaviourism has had a long-lasting impact on the nature-versus-nurture debate, and his work illuminated the strong role early experiences play in shaping personality. Watson
paved the way for subsequent behaviourists, such as B.F. Skinner, and behaviourism remains a popular approach for animal training. Some mental health professionals use behaviourist principles to condition away phobias and fears. In addition, advertisers frequently use behaviourist conditioning to encourage consumers to purchase products.
M. Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) Abraham Maslow was a 20th century psychologist who developed a humanistic approach to psychology. He is best known for his hierarchy of needs. Early Life Abraham Harold Maslow was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York; he was the oldest of seven children. At the prestigious Boys High School in Brooklyn, Maslow excelled academically and was active in the Latin and physics clubs. Maslow attended the College of the City of New York and spent one semester at Cornell. Eventually, he transferred to the University of Wisconsin where he was exposed to psychology courses; he earned his bachelor’s degree in psychology in 1930. He taught as an assistant instructor at the university, and worked under psychologist Harry Harlow, earning his MA in 1931 and PhD in 1934. He married Bertha Goodman in 1928, and the couple raised two children. Maslow died of a heart attack in 1970. Professional Life In 1935, Maslow returned to New York to work at Columbia Teachers College where he met and was mentored by Alfred Adler. Later, he worked as a psychology instructor at Brooklyn College, beginning in 1937, where he developed a relationship with Max Wertheimer, a gestalt psychologist, and an anthropologist named Ruth Benedict. These two people were not only Maslow’s friends, but quickly became the subject of his research. He observed and assessed
them and this formed the foundation for his theories on human potential and psychological well-being. From 1951 –1969, Maslow was chair of the psychology department at Brandeis University in Massachusetts. In the late 1950s, humanistic psychology became increasingly popular, with Maslow widely regarded as its founding father. He was recognized for his contributions to the humanistic approach to psychology when he received the honour of Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association in 1967 . Contribution to Psychology Maslow’s humanistic psychology is based on the belief that people are born with the desire to achieve their maximum potential or reach a point Maslow termed self-actualization. Maslow chose to focus his research on the experiences of emotionally healthy people, and he identified their ―peak experiences,‖ moments when they were in complete harmony and unison with the world around them. Rather than focusing on deficiencies, humanistic psychologists argue in favour of finding people's strengths. Maslow argued that his philosophy was a complement to Freudian psychology. He pointed out that, while Sigmund Freud focused on treating ―sick‖ people, his approach focused on helping people discover positive outcomes and choices. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is the framework around which humanistic psychology is built. Like other theories of development, it is a stage-based theory. A person must complete one level of the hierarchy to move on to the next, but not all people move through all stages. The original five-stage hierarchy was expanded to a seven-stage model in the 1970s with the addition of cognitive and aesthetic needs: Basic physiological needs such as food, shelter, and sleep. Safety needs such as security, stability, and order. Social needs such as love, belonging, and friendship. Esteem needs include acceptance by others, a sense of achievement, and independence. Cognitive needs such as intellectual fulfilment and knowledge. Aesthetic needs include harmony, balance, and beauty. Self-actualization is the goal of human development and occurs when a person meets his or her full potential. Self-actualized people are joyful, empathetic, giving, and fulfilled. Maslow argued that self-actualized people are driven by metamotivation: rather than seeking fulfilment of basic needs, they are driven to fulfil their full potential. Maslow identified two types of cognitition. Deficiency cognition, sometimes called D-cognition, is a way of thinking that focuses on what one doesn't have and how to get it. Being-cognition,
by contrast, is a form of thinking for people who are self-actualizing. They focus on acceptance, justice, harmony, simplicity, and similar goals and values. Maslow's concept of self-actualization continues to be a part of contemporary psychology. Although only a small portion of therapis ts identify as humanists, therapists often enco urage their clients to embrace humanistic values by pursuing goals and dreams. Self-actualization is also a part of the colloquial lexicon, with many people using the term when they're fulfilling a long-term goal or pursuing activities that lead to greater happiness and fulfilment. Maslow himself called his work positive psychology, rather than humanist psychology, and positive psychology has recently gained in popularity. 2.) School of Psychology School of:
Proponent:
Year of existence:
Major:
1. Functionalism
William James
1842-1940
Thinking, learning, sensations, images and feelings.
2. Associationism
Edward L. Thorndike
1874 – 1949
Concerned with the concept that learning is the formation of bonds or connections in the nervous system
3. Behaviourism
John Watson
1912
Conscious experience, conscious activity, connection or bonds
4. Gestalt School
Max Wertheimer
1912
Maintains that behaviour is a whole pattern of organized experience
5. Psychoanalytic School
Sigmund Freud
1911-1912
To cure or to treat abnormal behaviour; Psychological Type Theory of Personality
6. Purposivism
Views objects, movements in the behaviour
