Comunicación verbal y comunicación no verbal En términos generales, comunicación es el proceso de trasmisión y recepción de ideas, información y mensajes. (Ver: Comunicación) Vivimos en un tiempo en que la comunicación está en una etapa de grandes avances; pero debemos comprender que no es algo inventado en este siglo ni en el anterior. Existe desde que el género humano apareció sobre la tierra. Los humanos somos seres sociales por naturaleza y, por lo tanto, tenemos la necesidad de relacionarnos con los demás y dejar constancia de nuestra existencia. En la antigüedad, Aristóteles estableció un modelo y la importancia de la comunicación. Sirve para influir en las personas; los mensajes comunicativos, al ser un estimulo, buscan provocar una conducta deseada en el receptor. El hombre, para comunicarse mejor, se puso a estudiarla. Así es como en su clasificación encontramos una diversidad de calificativos. Hay comunicación tanto intrapersonal como interpersonal; con la primera hacemos una interiorización a nuestros pensamientos; con la segunda, nos comunicamos con quienes están a nuestro alrededor y se divide en escrita y oral. Con el desarrollo de la investigación en comunicación aparece: la intercultural, la gráfica, la no verbal, en grupos pequeños y la de masas, entre otras. Para comunicarnos no basta escribir o hablar. Es pertinente considerar los aspectos culturales de los pueblos y sociedades, las características personales de los individuos, hasta el lugar donde viven y su naturaleza étnica, sin olvidar la estratificación social. En términos individuales, el hombre se comunica con sus actitudes, con los movimientos de su cuerpo, de sus manos o movimientos de los ojos, la expresión de su cara. Lo anterior nos lleva a concluir que, aunque la comunicación adopta múltiples formas, las más importantes son la comunicación verbal y la comunicación no verbal. verbal . La comunicación verbal
La comunicación verbal puede realizarse de dos formas: oral: oral: a través de signos orales y palabras habladas o escrita: escrita: por medio de la representación gráfica de signos. Hay múltiples formas de comunicación oral. Los gritos, silbidos, llantos y risas pueden expresar diferentes situaciones anímicas y son una de las formas más primarias de la comunicación. La forma más evolucionada de comunicación oral es el lenguaje articulado, articulado , los sonidos estructurados que dan lugar a las sílabas, palabras y oraciones con las que nos comunicamos con los demás. Las formas de comunicación escrita también son muy variadas y numerosas ( ideogramas, jeroglíficos, alfabetos, siglas, graffiti, logotipos...). logotipos... ). Desde la escritura primitiva ideográfica y jeroglífica, tan difíciles de entender por nosotros; nosotros; hasta la fonética silábica y alfabética, a lfabética, más conocida, hay una evolución importante. Para interpretar correctamente los mensajes escritos es necesario conocer el código, código, que ha de ser común al emisor y al receptor del mensaje.
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La comunicación no verbal
En nuestro tiempo cada vez tienen más importancia los sistemas de comunicación no verbal. verbal . Cuando hablamos con alguien, sólo una pequeña parte de la información que obtenemos de esa persona procede de sus palabras. Los investigadores han estimado que entre el sesenta y el setenta por ciento de lo que comunicamos lo hacemos mediante el lenguaje no verbal; es decir, gestos, apariencia, postura, mirada y expresión. La comunicación no verbal se realiza a través de multitud de signos de gran variedad: Imágenes sensoriales (visuales, auditivas, olfativas...), sonidos, gestos, movimientos corporales, etc. Características de la comunicación no verbal : • Mantiene una relación con la comunicación verbal, pues suelen
Una imagen vale más que mil palabras.
emplearse juntas. • En muchas ocasiones actúa como reguladora del proceso de comunicación, contribuyendo a ampliar o
reducir el significado del mensaje. • Los sistemas de comunicación no verbal varían según las culturas. • Generalmente, cumple mayor número de funciones que el verbal, pues lo acompaña, completa, modifica
o sustituye en ocasiones. Entre los sistemas de comunicación no verbal tenemos : El lenguaje corporal. corporal . Nuestros gestos, movimientos, el tono de voz, nuestra ropa e incluso nuestro olor corporal también forman parte de los mensajes cuando nos comunicamos con los demás. El lenguaje icónico. icónico . En él se engloban muchas formas de comunicación no verbal: código Morse, códigos universales (sirenas, Morse, Braylle, lenguaje de los sordomudos), códigos semiuniversales (el beso, signos de luto o duelo), códigos particulares o secretos (señales ( señales de los árbitros deportivos)
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Comunicación Verbal y No Verbal La comunicación se da cuando dos o más personas interactúan entre sí, expresando sentimientos, ideas, preguntas; es decir, entablando un diálogo y para esto utilizan el lenguaje. No obstante, adicional al lenguaje como tal, verbal, coexisten otros elementos a la hora de la comunicarse y estos son los medios no verbales y paraverbales. Comunicación Verbal Es el uso de las palabras para la interacción, el lenguaje propiamente tal, expresado de manera hablada o escrita. Es aquí cuando recordamos a los factores de la comunicación, comunicación , pues es el sustento de la misma: emisor, receptor, mensaje, canal, código y contexto (por mencionar a los más importantes y los que sirven de base fundamental). La comunicación verbal es oral, oral , es decir:
Se utiliza el canal auditivo
Se capta por medio de la percepción
Es espontánea y se puede retractar
Es efímera
Hay interacción: feedback
Utiliza soportes verbales y no verbales (movimiento ( movimiento de manos, gestos varios)
Posee sintaxis diversa, muy elaborada o no (uso de “muletillas”)
Es posible escribirla
Es lineal, o sea, no se pueden decir o leer dos letras al mismo tiempo
Comunicación No Verbal Habitualmente para comunicarnos utilizamos una serie de elementos que apoyan nuestras ideas y le dan significado a lo que expresamos. Estos factores se enmarcan dentro de lo que no es verbalizado por el lenguaje hablado. Son los que se presentan a continuación: Lenguaje Kinésico
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En ocasiones estos gestos hablan mucho más que las propias palabras, es así, que si se dice estar interesado en un tema específico, pero el rostro está diciendo lo opuesto y la expresión de éste es de aburrimiento…
podemos concluir que la persona se contradice y que realmente no está pendiente de la exposición. Lenguaje Proxémico Es el uso que se le da al espacio físico donde se desenvuelve el hablante y también a la percepción que éste tiene de su entorno cercano. Es la cercanía o distancia que se tiene al comunicar, cuán lejos o próximo se está del otro y esto depende del grado de confianza y del tipo de interacción que se quiera entregar. De esta forma será distinto el acercamiento entre dos amigos que dialogan y se conocen, que un emisor hablando a un grupo de oyentes en una conferencia, donde estará en un o escenario lejano al público. Ahora bien, hay ocasiones en que la proximidad no se puede evitar, aun cuando los que nos rodean no nos sean cercanos y esto ocurre en la locomoción colectiva, el las filas de los bancos, recitales de música o en los ascensores. Lenguaje Icónico Son las imágenes de los objetos, su representación simbólica. Poseen una doble dimensión, esto es que una ilustración, que se entiende es gráfica, también tiene una explicación escrita. Pertenecen a este lenguaje la señalética vial, de tránsito, los letreros que vemos en las calles de la ciudad, los medios de comunicación escritos, sean afiches o publicidad; las obras artísticas: esculturas y pinturas. Comunicación Paraverbal Son los elementos anexos al proceso de comunicación, comunicación , que intervienen en él y le dan sentido al mismo. Acá se encuentran la entonación de la voz, las pausas que hacemos al hablar, el ritmo de nuestras palabras y el énfasis que utilizamos al expresarnos verbalmente. Dentro de lo escrito se hallan los elementos de gramática y ortografía puntual, también el tamaño de las letras a usar, el formato del texto y la distribución de éste en la hoja o base donde se colocarán las palabras.
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Principales Pensadores Pensadores De La Escuela Clasica Y Neoclasica ECONOMÍA Y SOCIEDAD Economía (de οiκος, que se traduce por casa en el sentido de patrimonio y νέμεωιν, administrar) es la
ciencia social que estudia las relaciones sociales que tienen que ver con los procesos de producción, p roducción, intercambio, distribución y consumo de bienes y servicios, entendidos estos como medio s de satisfacción de necesidades humanas y resultado individual y colectivo de l a sociedad. El objetivo de la Economía es estudiar la correcta distribución de los recursos escasos para satisfacer las necesidades del ser humano. En otras palabras, a naliza la relación entre los recursos, que son de carácter limitado y las necesidades, que son de carácter ilimitado.
A. PRINCIPALES PENSADORES DE LAS ESCUELAS 1. CLÁSICA 2. NEOCLÁSICA 1.-ESCUELA CLASICA Los principales pensadores de la escuela clásica están ubicados entre el siglo XVIII y XIX, muchos de los cuales son:
Adam Smith (1723-1790): David Ricardo (1772-1823) Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) Jean-BaptisteSay (1767-1832) James Mill (1773-1836) John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
En ocasiones se ha expandido para incluir a autores como: William Petty (1623-1687)
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Los economistas clásicos intentaron y en parte lograron explicar el crecimiento y el desarrollo económico. Crearon sus "dinámicas de crecimiento" en una época en la que el capitalismo se encontraba en pleno auge tras salir de una sociedad feudal y en la que la revolución industrial provocaba enormes cambios sociales. Estos cambios también provocaron la cuestión de si se podría organizar una sociedad alrededor de un sistema en el que cada individuo buscara simplemente su propia ganancia (económica). Los economistas clásicos reorientaron la economía, alejándose del análisis previo que se centraba en los intereses personales del gobernante y un interés basado en las clases sociales.
Postulados de la Escuela clásica de economía Esquema sobre formas de mercados. * Competencia perfecta en todos los mercados. * El estado no debe intervenir en el funcionamiento de los mercados, ya que los agentes económicos en su acción individual, como por medio de una "mano invisible", son dirigidos al equilibrio y a la eficiencia. Esto es, Laissez faire. En consecuencia, las políticas fiscales, monetarias y los subsidios, obstaculizan el funcionamiento del mercado. * Precios flexibles al alza y a la baja, incluidos los salarios, lo que va a permitir que todos los mercados (de bienes y servicios, de dinero, de trabajo, etc.) estén siempre en equilibrio (si hay demanda u oferta insatisfecha el ajuste de precios se encargará de que el mercado vuelva a recuperar el equilibrio). * El mercado de trabajo está siempre en situación de pleno empleo. No hay paro, el desempleo que pueda existir es de carácter friccional (debido al tiempo que la gente tarda en localizar un trabajo acorde con su capacitación) o voluntario (gente que no quiere q uiere aceptar el salario que le ofrece el mercado). * La producción ofrecida por las empresas viene determinada por el nivel de pleno empleo (a través de la función de producción). Por tanto, la oferta domina sobre la demanda. La curva de oferta es vertical y es la que determina el nivel de producción de equilibrio: variaciones en la demanda tan sólo producen variaciones en los precios.
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* La política fiscal tampoco sirve ya que la economía se encuentra siempre en una situación de pleno empleo, por lo que estas medidas al final sólo se traducen en subidas de precios. * El valor de un bien está dado por la cantidad c antidad de trabajo empleado en la producción de ese b ien.
RESUMEN DE LAS PRINCIPALES APORTACIONES DE LOS PENSADORES P ENSADORES * Los autores clásicos, no dirigieron sus esfuerzos a conceptualizar el término desarrollo, si proporcionaron un sistema categorial que permite operar con las políticas p ara definir el desarrollo. * Básicamente los economistas de la primera mitad del siglo XIX estudiaron la acumulación, no para explicar el desarrollo, sino para justificar la creación de riqueza, la distribución del ingreso * y en el caso de Marx para explicar la ley que rige el movimiento del sistema capitalista y las desigualdades sociales que genera al interior de países.(bienestar social) * Para Smith la acumulación de riquezas depende de la expansión del mercado y de su capacidad para autoacrecentarse.(crecimiento)
* Por su parte, Thomas Malthus (1798) con su obra Ensayo sobre el principio de la población, es reconocido por el tratamiento que le da a los problemas del crecimiento de la población. * En cambio, David Ricardo (1817) en su obra “Principios de Economía Política y Tributación” ofrece un
análisis de la distribución de la producción entre las diversas clases sociales ( PIB per capita), tomando como supuesto básico, que el problema primordial de la Economía Política es la determinación de las leyes que rigen la distribución.
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DETALLES DELAS APORTACIONES DE DICHOS AUTORES
Adam Smith (1723-1790): En 1776 A. Smith escribió su obra Una investigación sobre la naturaleza y causas de la riqueza de las naciones (o simplemente La riqueza de las naciones, SE CONSIDERA EL COMIENZO DE LA ECONOMIA CLASICA) en la que sostiene que la riqueza procede del trabajo. Dice que la clave del bienestar social está en el crecimiento económico y teorizo que la mano invisible del mercado es la primera influencia en una economía libre de mercado., que se potencia a través de la división del trabajo. Por la cual es considerado por muchos especialistas el padre de la Economía E conomía Política.
Entre sus aportes más importantes se destacan: * La diferenciación clara entre valor de uso y valor de cambio. * El reconocimiento de la división del trabajo, entendida como especialización de tareas, para la reducción de costos de producción. * La predicción de posibles conflictos entre los dueños de las fábricas y los trabajadores mal asalariados. * La acumulación de capital como fuente para el desarrollo económico. * La defensa del mercado competitivo co mpetitivo como el mecanismo más eficiente de asignación a signación de recursos
Adam Smith y el comercio internacional
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David Ricardo (1772-1823) David Ricardo fue un economista inglés, miembro de la corriente de pensamiento clásico económico, y uno de los más influyentes junto a Adam Smith y Thomas Malthus. Continuador de Smith. Es considerado uno de los pioneros de la macroeconomía moderna por su análisis de la relación entre beneficios y salarios, uno de los iniciadores del razonamiento que daría lugar a la Ley de los rendimientos decrecientes y uno de los principales fundadores de la Teoría cuantitativa del dinero.
Obra económica Su obra más importante, Principios de Economía Política y Tributación, aparecida en 1817, constituye la exposición más madura y precisa de la economía clásica; en el prefacio afirma que "el principal problema de la economía política es determinar las leyes que regulan la distribución". Con ese fin desarrolló una teoría del valor y una teoría de la distribución, puso de manifiesto con cla ridad que los problemas de la distribución dependen de la teoría del valor.
Ideas Económicas La ventaja comparativa Defiende las ventajas del comercio internacional y en esencia es una ampliación de la división del trabajo propuesta por Adam Smith y opuesta a las la s teorías proteccionistas.
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economía.
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) Fue un economista inglés, perteneciente a la corriente clásica de pensamiento, considerado el padre de la demografía. Thomas Malthus sostenía que la pobreza de las masas era simplemente consecuencia del instinto de reproducción del hombre, y no dependía de los síntomas y condiciones sociales de la época.
Thomas Malthus afirmó en su "Ensayo sobre los principios de la población" que el crecimiento de ésta sobrepasaría la oferta de alimentos en 1798. La teoría de la población de Malthus ha contribuido a que la Economía sea conocida también como la ciencia lúgubre.
Malthus también realizó importantes aportes a la teoría del valor y su medida, así como a la teoría de las crisis y el subconsumo. Una de las ideas que preocupaba a Malthus era lo que él llamaba el “atascamiento general”; guardando la distancia en el tiempo, tanto en el pasado, como hoy en día, muchas empresas producen bienes que él llamaba “esenciales”, como los alimentos, y los “no esenciales”, como son los
artículos de lujo, deseados por las personas. En sus Principios de la Economía Política, publicado en 1820, explico el paro. Lo explica por la insuficiencia de la demanda. Malthus explico que el problema fundamental de la economía es la carencia de la demanda efectiva. Es uno de los primeros autores que tienen una Teorías del paro.
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En 1814 escribió un número de artículos conteniendo una exposición de utilitarismo, para el suplemento de la quinta edición de la Enciclopedia E nciclopedia Británica.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) Fue un filósofo, político y economista inglés representante de la escuela económica clásica y teórica del utilitarismo, planteamiento ético propuesto por su padrino Jeremy Bentham, que sería recogido y difundido con profusión por Stuart Mill. Pensamiento * Teoría de la libertad * Derechos humanos y esclavitud * Conexión con el feminismo Este autor escribió la mejor síntesis de la Economía Clásica, en su libro Principios de Economía Política (1848). Este libro recoge las aportaciones fundamentales del resto de economistas clásicos. También hi zo avanzar importantemente la economía clásica.
William Petty (1623-1687) Es mejor conocido por sus escritos de historia económica y estadística previos al trabajo de Adam Smith. Sus trabajos más famosos son los de tipo demográfico, Aritmética política y títulos similares, en los se trata del primer intento de entender las relaciones entre la población y la economía. Fue creador del termino pleno empleo y formulador de la Ley de Petty
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básicas de la teoría de la productividad productividad marginal con exactitud matemática. matemática. Sus estudios y conclusiones los fue publicando en los tres volúmenes (1826, 1850, 1867) de su magna obra: IsolierteStaat in BaziehungaufLandwirtschaftundNationalökonomie BaziehungaufLandwirtschaftundNationalökonom ie "El Estado Aislado en relación con la agricultura y la economía nacional" Karl Marx, (1818-1883) Testigo y víctima de la primera gran crisis del capitalismo (década de 1830) y de las revoluciones de 1848, Marx se propuso desarrollar una teoría económica capaz de aportar explicaciones a la crisis, pero a la vez de interpelar al proletariado a participar en ella activamente activa mente para producir un cambio revolucionario. Partiendo de la teoría ricardiana del valor-trabajo, valor -trabajo, deduce que el salario percibido por los trabajadores es exactamente el coste de producirlo. La plusvalía es la diferencia entre el valor de las mercancías producidas y el valor de la fuerza de trabajo que se haya utilizado. Las relaciones de producción en el sistema capitalista y la superestructura jurídica que emana de ellas determinan que la plusvalía sea apropiada por la clase burguesa, los propietarios de los medios de producción. Las fuerzas del sistema empujan a la clase dominante a una continua acumulación de capital lo que provoca la disminución de la tasa de beneficios a la
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LeonWalras (1834-1910) Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) Algunos menos famosos pero no menos importantes: MaffeoPantaleoni (1857-1924) Ysidro Edgeworth (1845-1926) Enrico Barone (1859-1924) Giovanni Antonelli (1858-1944) PasqualeBoninsegni (1869-1939) Étienne Antonelli (1879-1971). * Entre los supuestos de enfoque neoclásico está que el comportamiento económico surge del comportamiento agregado de individuos que son racionales y tratan de maximizar su utilidad o beneficio. * Algunas críticas de la escuela neoclásica han sido incorporadas en nuevas versiones de l a teoría neoclásica (por ejemplo, la escuela neokeynesiana está basada tanto ta nto en principios neoclásicos como keynesianos). * La economía neoclásica es el producto de varias escuelas de pensamiento en economía. No todos están de
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* Carl Menger, de la escuela Austríaca que desarrollo los fundamentos del análisis marginal. * LéonWalras, de la escuela francesa, franc esa, que desarrollo la teoría del equilibrio general, creó el concepto de "utilidad marginal" que originó el marginalismo como corriente del análisis económico. Planteamientos de la Escuela Neoclásica E. Roy Weintraub expresa que la economía neoclásica se basa en tres cuestiones, sin embargo algunas ramas de la teoría neoclásica pueden tener distintas aproximaciones: * Las personas tienen preferencias racionales hacia los resultados que pueden ser identificados y asociados con un valor. * Los individuos maximizan la utilidad y las firmas maximizan la ganancia. * Las personas actúan independientemente en base a información completa y relevante. * Sus formulaciones, como todas las de la primera escuela neoclásica giran en torno al principio de utilidad marginal decreciente. Fundando el subjetivismo de la Escuela austríaca, Menger se dif erenció de sus contemporáneos considerando que el análisis económico debería partir del análisis de las necesidades humanas y de las leyes que q ue determinan la utilización de los recursos disponibles para satisfacerlas. A
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Economista, nacido en Liverpool de una rica familia de comerciantes que se arruinó antes de que pudiera terminar sus estudios, por lo que tuvo que emigrar a Australia donde trabajó en la Casa de la Moneda de Sidney. En su objetivo de equiparar la Economía con las ciencias naturales, Jevons utilizó un tratamiento matemático. A comienzo de la década de 1870, simultáneamente a otros trabajos de Walras y Menger, publica una elaborada síntesis de las teorías del consumo, del intercambio y de la distribución, asentando así las bases para la "revolución marginalista" que le siguió. Considera que la utilidad sólo puede ser medida en términos ordinales y que la utilidad proporcionada por un bien es inversamente proporcional a la cantidad de ese bien previamente poseída. Establece claramente la diferencia entre utilidad total y lo que llamó "grado final de utilidad", que después recibió el nombre de utilidad marginal. Afirmó que "el valor del trabajo debe determinarse a partir del valor del producto y no el valor del producto a partir del valor del trabajo" contradiciendo así la teoría clásica de la tradición ricardiana y marxista. Estas fueron sus palabras
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Fundador de la Escuela Austriaca, es considerado uno de los tres fundadores y líderes del marginalismo junto a Jevons y Walras. Entre sus múltiples originales aportaciones destacaremos aquí el concepto de Coste de O portunidad. La polémica que mantuvo con la Escuela Historicista Alemana, la Methodenstreit, especialmente con su líder Schmoller permitió pensar en profundidad sobre la Economía como ciencia y en muchos sentidos sigue viva hoy en los diversos puntos de vista de las diferentes corrientes de pensamiento económico. Estas fueron sus palabras: "La propiedad, por tanto, como economía humana, no es una invención arbitraria sino más má s bien la única solución práctica posible del problema que la naturaleza nos ha impuesto por la disparidad entre la necesidad y las cantidades disponibles de todos los bienes económicos." LeonWalras (1834-1910) La revolución marginalista fue iniciada a comienzos de la década de 1870 por tres economistas: Jevons, en Inglaterra, Carl Menger en Austria, y León Walras en Suiza. De los tres, Walras fue el único que se atrevió a introducirse en las complejidades matemáticas de un equilibrio general multimercados.
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debería tener en cuenta no sólo las consecuencias económicas, sino también las consecuencias morales, religiosas, políticas, etc. (Vilfredo Pareto, Manual de Economía Política, 1906)
B. PRINCIPALES CONCEPTOS MICROECONÓMICOS Y MACROECONÓMICOS 1. DEMANDA, OFERTA Y PRECIO DE EQUILIBRIO 2. PRODUCTO INTERNO BRUTO (PIB), Y AHORRO La división más usual de la economía es aquella que separa la macroeconomía de la microeconomía. La
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crecimiento, la inflación, el desempleo, el déficit f iscal, el déficit comercial, etc., obteniéndose cada vez una mejor compresión de estos fenómenos tanto a corto como a largo plazo.
MICROECONOMÍA Y MACROECONOMÍA: La economía es la ciencia que estudia la forma en que la sociedad hace uso de recursos escasos a fin de lograr satisfacer las distintas necesidades de los individuos. Así la teoría económica enfoca su análisis desde dos diferentes perspectivas: la microeconómica y la macroeconómica. La microeconomía estudia el comportamiento de las unidades individuales, co mo las familias y las empresas,
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macroeconómico destacan algunos temas que tienen un impacto de gran relevancia sobre los distintos agentes económicos y la economía como un todo. A continuación se describen en forma breve algunos de lo s temas macroeconómicos de más importancia en la actualidad. INFLACIÓN La inflación es un fenómeno económico que refleja un desequilibrio entre la oferta y la demanda de los bienes y servicios producidos por una sociedad. Por efecto de la inflación, el poder adquisitivo del dinero disminuye con el tiempo; por ello, para poder
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subir a la vez, ya que no habría suficiente dinero en la economía para comprarlo todo a los nuevos precios. Es así como si se mantuviera constante la oferta monetaria, entonces un aumento en los salarios provocaría desempleo, pero no inflación. La inflación se relaciona con distintas variables, como el tipo de cambio y las tasas de interés.
PRODUCCIÓN AGREGADA Y CICLOS ECONÓMICOS La actividad económica mundial a través de la historia ha mantenido un patrón de comportamiento cíclico entre el auge y la quiebra, lo que los economistas han explicado mediante la teoría de los ciclos económicos, e conómicos,
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erráticos, se pueden descomponer en movimientos que constituyen una sucesión de fa ses ascendentes y descendentes. Si se utilizara como indicador la tasa de crecimiento del producto interno bruto nacional, se podrían observar periodos de algunos años en los que esa tasa es positiva y superior, seguidos por otros periodos en los que la tasa de crecimiento es más baja e incluso llega a ser negativa. Se suele distinguir en cada ciclo cuatro fases, expansión, cima, recesión y fondo. DESEMPLEO Dentro de toda sociedad se encuentra la población económicamente activa o fuerza de trabajo es el
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determinado. Se trata, por tanto, de dos cuestiones que la economía debe abordar con perspectivas diferentes. Por un lado, la microeconomía nos ayuda a entender el comportamiento de las diferentes unidades
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Tasa de paro: índice que nos informa del porcentaje de la población activa que no consigue un empleo. Tipos de desempleo: Estructural: de larga duración. Afecta a personas que proceden de sectores en crisis, con una cual ificación
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Estabilizadores económicos Son instrumentos que permiten corregir desajustes en la economía de un país y que básicamente se aplican a partir de las políticas fiscales y monetarias.
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servicios a un precio determinado. La demanda significa la cantidad ca ntidad que se está dispuesto a comprar de un cierto producto a un precio determinado.
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·
El precio de otros productos parecidos (sustitutivos).
·
El precio de otros productos relacionados con él (complementarios).
·
La renta de los compradores.
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produce el significado dentro de una cultura. De a cuerdo con esta teoría, el significado es producido y reproducido a través de varias prácticas, fenómenos y actividades que sirven como sistemas de significación (estudiando cosas tan diversas como la preparación de la comida y rituales para servirla, ritos religiosos, juegos, textos literarios literarios y no literarios, formas de entretenimiento, entretenimiento, etc.). La novedad que introduce el estructuralismo no es la idea misma de estructura, ya presente de forma continua a lo largo del pensamiento occidental, sino la eliminación en ella de un concepto central que ordene toda la realidad, como sucedía con las ideas platónicas. Para F. Wahl, la cesura estructuralista pasa por el concepto de signo. signo.
1
El iniciador y más prominente representante de la corriente fue el antropología y etnógrafo Claude LéviStrauss((década de 1940), quien analiza fenómenos culturales como la mitología y los sistemas de Strauss parentesco.. parentesco Durante los años 1940 y 50 50,, la escena filosófica francesa se caracterizó por el existencialismo existencialismo,, fundamentalmente a través de Sartre Sartre,, apareciendo también la fenomenología, el retorno a Hegel y la filosofía de la ciencia, con Gastón Bachelard. Bachelard. Cuando en la década de 1960 Sartre se orienta hacia el marxismo marxismo,, surge un nuevo modo de pensar, el estructuralismo. Claude Lévi-Strauss inicia este nuevo movimiento, basándose en las ideas de la etnología. Más tarde le seguirán Jacques Lacan en el psicoanálisis, Louis Althusser en el estudio del marxismo y finalmente Michel Foucault, Foucault, desde un punto de vista muy crítico con la ambiciones estructurales. Cabe destacar que Althusser y Foucault rechazaron la clasificación de su pensamiento dentro del estructuralismo (tal como aparece en su arqueología de las ciencias humanas, Las palabras y las cosas ) y en rigor únicamente Lévi-Strauss realizó una reflexión explícita sobre el estructuralismo como método. En cualquier caso, se trata de un alejamiento de perspectivas meramente historicistas o subjetivistas bajo el intento de hallar una nueva orientación para la investigación que tome como bases correspondencias funcionesles entre distintos elementos que forman parte de las distintas diciplinas. Estructuralismo y literatura[ literatura [editar editar]] Cuando el estructuralismo se utiliza para examinar la literatura, un estructuralista crítico examinará la estructura de una narración más que su contenido para de esta forma comparar y hallar vínculos y estructuras similares en obras pertenecientes a épocas y culturas diferentes. Las propuestas metodológicas, inherentes a las explicaciones teóricas de cada uno, autorreflejan una forma
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Características[ Características[editar editar]] Piaget ha definido las estructuras a través de 3 características: 1. Totalidad, pues posee más propiedades que elementos 2. Transformaciones, ya que posee un equilibrio dinámico 3. Autorregulación, pues supone un sistema de transformaciones autorreguladas por un sistema cerrado Método estructuralista[ estructuralista [editar editar]] Estaba presente en matemáticas, lógica, física y biología. En psicología se asocia con la "forma" para superar los planteamientos de la teoría asociacionista. Se inspira en la lingüística donde se distingue "lengua" y "habla". Lengua es el sistema de signos de la sociedad ya estipulado y el habla el sistema de signos de cada persona o individuo. La sociedad se estudia como un conjunto de signos destinados a asegurar entre los individuos cierto tipo de comunicación.
Empirismo No debe confundirse con método empírico. empírico .
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conocimiento, no sólo en cuanto a su origen sino también en cuanto a su contenido. Se parte del mundo sensible sensiblep para formar los conceptos y éstos encuentran en lo sensible su justificación y su limitación. El término «empirismo» proviene del griego έμπειρία, cuya traducción al latín es experientia , de donde deriva la palabraexperiencia . El empirismo, bajo ese nombre, surge en la Edad Moderna como fruto maduro de una tendencia filosófica que se desarrolla sobre todo en el Reino Unido desde la Baja Edad Media. Suele considerarse en contraposición al llamado racionalismo racionalismo,, más característico de la filosofía continental. Hoy en día la oposición empirismo-racionalismo, como la distinción analítico-sintético, analítico-sintético , no suele entenderse de un modo tajante, como lo fue en tiempos anteriores, y más bien una u otra postura obedece a cuestiones metodológicas y heurísticas o de actitudes vitales más que a principios filosóficos fundamentales. Respecto del problema de los universales, universales, los empiristas suelen simpatizar y continuar con la crítica nominalista iniciada en la Baja Edad Media. En la Antigüedad clásica, clásica , lo empírico se refería al conocimiento que los médicos, arquitectos, artistas y artesanos en general obtenían a través de su experiencia dirigida hacia lo útil y técnico, en contraposición al conocimiento teórico concebido como contemplación de la verdad al margen de cualquier utilidad .
1
Índice 5 Enlaces externos Historia[ Historia[editar editar]] Antiguas formas de empirismo incluyen las labores epistemológicas de Buda en oriente. oriente .2 Sin embargo, aquí se considera la evolución de las actitudes filosóficas occidentales. Edad Antigua[ Antigua [editar editar]] En la Antigüedad clásica existía una clara separación entre:
El conocimiento por la experiencia y su resultado: la técnica y el trabajo productivo. Lo que se ha entendido históricamente como "artes" y "oficios" .
3
El ideal del conocimiento teórico que comprende dos ámbitos:
La ciencia ciencia:: Entendida ésta como un conocimiento universal y necesario necesario.. Trata del saber de las últimas últimascausas y de los primeros principios principios,, lo que hoy se entendería como el fundamento de la metafísica
4
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La consecución del bien común social, la política política..
En la Antigüedad clásica el conocimiento teórico y práctico, como saber universal y necesario necesario,, ideal del 6
«saber» es independiente de la experiencia, experiencia , y constituye la Sabiduría Sabiduría.. La máxima expresión como 7
conocimiento de la verdad, como ciencia ciencia,, es la Metafísica y el modelo ideal de vida el más cercano posible a la felicidad felicidad,, como ética ética,, constituyen el ideal del sabio sabio.. Esta separación del conocimiento y la acción práctica respecto a la producción de bienes materiales responde a una tradición aristocrática y guerrera de la nobleza o clase dominante. Las artes y los oficios eran propios de esclavos o comerciantes, pero la «sabiduría» (filosofía) era lo propio de la nobleza y de los hombres libres. libres .
8
En la Atenas clásica ya apareció una doble actitud de pensamiento que se va a mantener a lo largo de toda la Historia de la filosofía en occidente occ idente y que hoy caracterizamos básicamente como racionalismo y empirismo. En realidad responden a dos actitudes y modos de concebir la función del pensamiento y el sentido de la vida. Los primeros en mantener una actitud claramente empirista fueron los sofistas quienes negaron las especulaciones racionalistas sobre el mundo natural común a sus predecesores, presocráticos y, sobre todo, todo,Platón Platón;; por el contrario se preocuparon "en tan relativas entidades como el hombre y la sociedad". sociedad".
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El valor de la verdad v erdad queda restringido al valor concreto de la experiencia y el ejercicio del
poder, bien sea individual (moral) o social (política). Este empirismo se interesa por la retórica en el dominio del lenguaje como instrumento esencial para la vida política ateniense y el ejercicio del poder . editar ] Aristóteles[ Aristóteles[ editar
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Aristóteles proclamó la importancia de la inducción basada en la experiencia. Tal vez sea Aristóteles quien mejor expresó el valor del conocimiento de la e xperiencia, por más que lo considerara sometido al supremo valor de lo teórico. En su Metafísica (982b 11-32), Aristóteles concibe al conocimiento como un proceso:
Se parte de lo común con los animales dotados de sensación y memoria y, por tanto, con experiencia; es la acumulación de experiencia lo que a los hombres hace «expertos».
Más perfecto es el conocimiento de dicha experiencia unida a la reflexión, lo que convierte a los hombres en “artesanos”; lo que hoy denominaríamos técnicos (médicos, arquitectos, estrategas, etc.)
La perfección de la función racional humana se manifiesta en la suprema facultad de elevarse a los fundamentos de dichos conocimientos a través de las ca usas hasta los primeros principios; es en esto en lo que el hombre se asemeja a los dioses, el saber de una Ciencia primera, entendida hasta el siglo XVIII como Metafísica. Esto solo es posible en la medida en que una sociedad tiene asegurados los bienes materiales, y por tanto puede dedicar a los «hombres libres» a la «inutilidad» del pensamiento en búsqueda de la verdad de la ciencia. ciencia .
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De suerte que, si filosofaron para huir de la ignorancia, es claro cla ro que buscaban el saber en busca del conocimiento, y no por ninguna utilidad. Y a sí lo atestigua lo ocurrido. Pues esta disciplina comenzó a buscarse cuando ya existían casi todas las cosas necesarias y las relativas al descanso y al ornato de la vida. Es, pues, evidente que no la buscamos por ninguna utilidad sino que así como llamamos lla mamos hombre libre al que es para sí mismo y no para otro, así consideramos a ésta como la única ciencia libre, pues ésta sola es para sí misma. Por eso también su posesión podría con justicia ser considerada impropia del hombre. Pues la naturaleza humana es esclava en muchos aspectos; a spectos; de suerte que según Simónides, «sólo un Dios puede tener tal privilegio, aunque es indigno de un varón buscar la ciencia a Él proporcionada.» Aristóteles, Metafísica, 982b 11-32 Aristóteles es propiamente un filósofo de tipo racionalista como no podía ser menos en un discípulo aventajado de Platón; admite un conocimiento metafísico del ente en cuanto tal; es el fundador de un sistema lógico que garantiza que, si se parte de verdades y se razona correctamente, se llegará a nuevas 13
verdades, verdades, tal como define la forma argumentativa por excelencia, el silogismo silogismo,, partiendo de la capacidad del entendimiento para llegar al conocimiento verdadero e intuitivo de los principios y la intuición de
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Sin embargo, Aristóteles también es el primero que reflexiona sobre el valor del conocimiento por la experiencia y los razonamientos inductivos, inductivos , es decir al conocimiento científico como «observación de la 14
naturaleza»: biología biología,, medicina medicina,, etc. etc. Helenismo greco-romano[ greco-romano[ editar editar ]
La influencia de los artesanos en la elaboración de teorías, o mejor dicho normas generales, más o menos científicas para la práctica de la construcción, la agricultura, la navegación, la medicina, etc., siempre estuvo presente, sobre todo en el helenismo, Alejandría y durante el Imperio romano donde las «artes» tuvieron una importancia enorme en las construcciones civiles, no so lo en las ciudades, sino en la construcción de carreteras, puentes y obras hidráulicas. Hipócrates de Cos, Cos , (siglo V a. C.) C. ) pasa por ser el padre de la medicina, por el cambio de orientación que hasta entonces tenía la tradición sobre todo egipcia, ligada a la magia y a lo sagrado sagrado.. Es el primero que elabora una teoría general sobre lo que es la salud y la enfermedad en relación con un concepto determinado de hombre. Son nombres relevantes de la cultura clásica, además a demás de los citados: Arquímedes Arquímedes,, siglo III a. C., C. , un auténtico 15
teórico y práctico de la lógica empírica, empírica, Vitrubio Vitrubio,, siglo I a. C., C. , el primero en hacer un tratado de arquitectura y urbanismo y en medicina Galeno Galeno,, siglo II d. C. Los conceptos y la experiencia[ experiencia[ editar editar ]
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Los griegos separaron el conocimiento de la razón razón,, que conoce por conceptos aplicables a multitud de objetos como conocimiento universal, del mero conocimiento de la experiencia experienciaque que conoce por los sentidos únicamente lo individual y concreto. Cómo se entienda qué son los conceptos y su relación con lo sensible y ambos en su relación con la realidad es el fundamento de estas dos actitudes que consideramos co nsideramos los antecedentes del racionalismo y el empirismo.
En la medida en que tales conceptos representan la "esencia esencia"" inmutable de las cosas, las formas de la sustancia sustancia,, el conocimiento adquiere un sentido Universal y necesario necesario,, y por ello es un conocimiento objetivo y hace posible el conocimiento científico. Tal es el fundamento de la actitud racionalista. El lenguaje, entonces, en la medida en que es capaz de representar los conceptos como verdaderos en un lenguaje “apofántico”, como decía Aristóteles, manifiesta en su contenido fielmente
la realidad como verdad verdad..
En la medida en que el concepto esté más cercano y dependa más de la experiencia sensible, el conocimiento ofrece únicamente un conocimiento cuya verdad descansa en el caso individual y concreto y está sujeta a la subjetividad del individuo que tiene la experiencia. Los conceptos y su referente en el lenguaje, las palabras, son algo convencional convencional,, generalizaciones de la experiencia individual compartida con los miembros de una sociedad cultural que hace posible la comunicación mediante el lenguaje.
Los conceptos para el empirismo no son una garantía de conocimiento objetivo y por tanto la ciencia tiene solamente un valor relativo y justificado en la generalización de las experiencias comunes, convencionalmente convencionalmenterrepresentadas en los conceptos y el lenguaje lenguaje.. «El hombre es la medida de todas las cosas», es la frase fra se que viene a resumir esta tendencia. Se atribuye aProtágoras uno de los notables sofistas con quien Sócrates Sócrates,, (Platón), sostiene controversia. Nombre que 16
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método de trabajo difirió notablemente del de éstos, pues mientras Platón y Aristóteles dan una cosmovisión del Universo, Ptolomeo es un empirista. Su trabajo consistió en e studiar la gran cantidad ca ntidad de datos existentes sobre el movimiento de los planetas con el fin de construir un modelo geométrico que explicase dichas posiciones en el pasado y fuese capaz de predecir sus posiciones futuras. Edad Media[ Media[editar editar]] En Occidente la caída del Imperio romano deja todo el saber refugiado en los monasterios y queda restringido prácticamente al control y poder de la Iglesia. El pensamiento cristiano adoptó durante la antigüedad y toda la Alta Edad Media el platonismo y neoplatonismo por ser el pensamiento que mejor se adaptaba a su creencia en un Dios único y creador del mundo conforme a unas Ideas ( Divina Providencia) Providencia), y concedía un sentido trascendente a la vida del ser humano, con otra vida que ha de ser juzgada por Dios. D ios. A partir del siglo XI, por medio de los árabes se recupera el aristotelismo en occidente. Son pensadores importantes en este proceso Alkindi Alkindi,, Avicena Avicena,,
17 18
19 20
Averroes,, Averroes
Alhazen,, Avempace y de especial Alhazen
trascendencia cultural la Escuela de Traductores de Toledo . La polémica suscitada en la Universidad de París por Roscelino y Pedro Abelardo sobre la realidad de los losconceptos universales supuso un nuevo interés por las cuestiones lógicas y en lo que va a constituir elnominalismo nominalismo,, una de las cuestiones que mayor influencia va a tener en la «valoración de la experiencia». Esta revalorización de la experiencia y la «importancia del conocimiento individual» se producen a partir del siglo XIII, sobre todo por la orden franciscana y la Universidad de Oxford. Oxford . Los franciscanos subrayan la importancia de lo individual, y valoran la experiencia del mundo como valor del conocimiento en cuanto tal, que no impide sino que ilumina y acerca el sentido de la vida hacia Dios reconociendo el valor del conocimiento de la Naturaleza como obra de Dios. Los pensadores más significativos de esta corriente son Roger Bacon, Bacon, Duns Scoto, Scoto, y sobre todo Guillermo de Ockham. Ockham . En contraposición los dominicos (Universidad de París) subrayaron un realismo moderado, manteniendo la
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explicaciones más sencillas y cercanas a la experiencia, antes que recurrir a especulaciones arbitrarias e imaginativas. Por otro lado, en París, Nicolás de Oresme critica la teoría del movimiento aristotélica y mediante relación 23
de cantidades mediante tablas, tablas , se estudia el movimiento relacionando los espacios r ecorridos y el tiempo que se tarda en recorrer dicho espacio, intuyendo el concepto de velocidad y aceleración aceleración,, tan importante para establecer las condiciones experimentales del movimiento; clasifican éstos como, "uniforme", "disforme" y "uniformemente disforme". Y es el antecedente más próximo al estudio del movimiento mediante «cantidades relacionadas matemáticamente», fundamento del progreso de la ciencia del siglo XVI y XVII y del concepto de análisis matemático. Jean Buridan y su «teoría del impetus» analiza el «momentum» o permanencia del movimiento después de 24
que haya actuado la causa que lo produce, como ocurre en el caso de los proyectiles . Es el antecedente más importante de lo que en la ciencia moderna va a ser el principio de inercia inercia.. Renacimiento[ Renacimiento[editar editar]]
El paso al heliocentrismo por la larevolución de Copérnico fue determinante para desplazar definitivamente la
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aritméticas y sobre todo ampliar los campos del cálculo cálculo,, esencial para el comercio que en esta época cultiva la burguesía de las ciudades. ciudades.
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El saber se independiza en las ciudades del control de la Iglesia y a través de la influencia de artistas y artesanos, sobre todo la arquitectura para las nuevas construcciones de las ciudades y la metalurgia esencial para las nuevas «artes de la guerra» por la aplicación de la pólvora. La experiencia como fuente de conocimiento adquiere un valor social que hasta entonces no había tenido .
26
El hecho del descubrimiento de las «Indias Occidentales» plantea el tema de la redondez de la tierra a la vez 27
que el heliocentrismo toma cuerpo de hipótesis científica con el libro de Copérnico Copérnico.. El heliocentrismo pone en cuestión y profundiza la crisis de la concepción medieval del mundo y la física aristotélica. El poder social de la nobleza va a ir pasando a una clase social nueva, la burguesía burguesía,, y a encontrar un nuevo fundamento en el dinero dinero.. Dinero al que tienen que recurrir los reyes mediante el préstamo de los banqueros para mantener un ejército basado en la pólvora y no en las «armas de los caballeros». El cambio de mentalidad que supuso el Renacimiento, el Humanismo Humanismo,, no acepta el «argumento de autoridad», y tanto los artistas como los investigadores y pensadores reclaman libertad, lo que facilitó en gran manera el hecho de valorar la experiencia y la experimentación como fuente de conocimiento. El conocimiento adquiere con esto un valor nuevo: «conocer para dominar la naturaleza». Leonardo da Vinci no pudo ir a la universidad por ser hijo ilegítimo, por lo que a veces era tratado, por algunos, de «inculto» por no saber latín: Soy completamente consciente de que hay gente presuntuosa que cree tener razón en desacreditarme por no ser un hombre culto ¡Qué locos! [...] No saben q ue mis materiales tienen más valor porque derivan de la experiencia antes que de las palabras de otros, y la experiencia es la maestra de quienes han escrito con acierto. Leonardo da Vinci, Códice Atlántico, folio 327v.
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René Descartes, Descartes, padre del delracionalismo moderno. La filosofía aristotélica tradicional entra profundamente en crisis a partir de la teoría heliocéntrica del universo y de los progresos que la ciencia está obteniendo aplicando métodos nuevos de investigación. De especial relevancia es el método «resolutivo-compositivo» de Galileo .
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Este modo de pensar relacionando ideas mediante el análisis ha dado enormes frutos en el progreso habido durante los últimos años en el cálculo matemático para el descubrimiento y descripción de las ley es de la naturaleza y sus aplicaciones a la ciencia empírica, la Física como ciencia moderna y la astronomía sobre todo. Tras el desarrollo del cálculo habido ya en el Renacimiento Renacimiento,, y el desarrollo del álgebra por Simon Stevin,,François Viète, Stevin Viète , Gerolamo Cardano y otros, se hace posible el cálculo del movimiento de los proyectiles por po rTartaglia Tartaglia;; del movimiento de caída de los lo s «graves» Galileo Galileo;; el estudio de la variación de presión por la alturaTorricelli altura Torricelli;; el estudio de las presiones y el descubrimiento de la prensa hidráulica y cálculo de probabilidades probabilidade sPascal Pascal;; la predicción del movimiento de los planetas Kepler Kepler.. Y la culminación de este proceso se da en el seno del racionalismo con el propio Descartes Descartes,, Pascal Pascal,, Leibniz y Newton Newton.. Estos dos últimos, con el descubrimiento del cálculo infinitesimal, infinitesimal , abrieron enormes perspectivas en la matematización y cálculo de funciones f unciones continuas aplicables a tantos procesos de cambio continuo en la naturaleza, siendo finalmente la obra de Newton todo un compendio de lo que vino a significar la ciencia física durante los siguientes siglos. Sobre el modelo de este proceso de reflexión matemática Descartes propone su método de investigación científica; una ciencia que garantiza la verdad por la sucesión de evidencias con certeza que se establecen siguiendo las reglas del método .
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John Locke (1632-1704), el más influente empirista inglés. John Locke responde al racionalismo continental, defendido por po rRené Descartes, Descartes, escribiendo a finales del siglo XVII Ensayo sobre el entendimiento humano (1689). El único conocimiento que los humanos pueden poseer es el conocimiento a posteriori (el conocimiento basado en la experiencia). Es famosa f amosa su proposición de que la mente humana es una Tabula rasa u hoja en blanco, en la cual se escriben las experiencias derivadas de impresiones sensoriales a medida que la vida de
una persona prosigue. Hay dos fuentes de nuestras ideas: sensación (provenientes de los sentidos) y reflexión (provenientes de las operaciones mentales: pensamientos, memorias...), en ambas se hace una distinción entre ideas simples y complejas. Las ideas simples son creadas de un modo pasivo en la mente, luego de obtenerlas mediante la
sensación. Por el contrario, las ideas complejas se crean después de la combinación, comparación o abstracción de las ideas simples. Por ejemplo la idea de un cuerno al igual que la de un caballo son ambas 36
ideas simples, pero al juntarse para representar a un unicornio se convierten en una idea compleja . De acuerdo con Locke, nuestro conocimiento de las cosas es una percepción de ideas, que están en acuerdo o desacuerdo unas con otras según una sleyes de asociación de ideas.
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David Hume (1711-1776) sostuvo un empirismo que derivó en escepticismo escepticismo.. 41
Por otra parte, David Hume reduce todo conocimiento, en cuanto tal, a «impresiones» e «ideas» . Admite 42
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dos tipos de verdades: «verdades de hecho » y «relación de ideas» Toda idea ha de poder ser reducida a una impresión correspondiente. Cuando una idea surge de la relación entre ideas, su contenido de realidad
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un cacharro con agua al fuego ésta se calienta" me permite afirmar: "El fuego calienta el agua"; es decir el fuego es la causa de que el agua se caliente. Pero no podemos encontrar ninguna impresión que tenga relación directa con la idea de causa. Y el contenido de realidad de una idea solamente tiene sentido en referencia a la impresión de la que se derive. La idea de causa, pues, es algo meramente subjetivo, resultado de la asociación de la mente de dos impresiones sucesivas cuya conexión no aparece como evidencia. [editar e ditar ] Lo analítico y lo sintético, lo a priori y a posteriori [
Las consecuencias que se derivan del concepto de causa, tal como lo concibe Hume Hume,, respecto a un conocimiento que pretenda ser científico no puede ser más destructivo. Conduce a un escepticismo puesto que nunca podremos conocer el fundamento de nuestras impresiones y el conocimiento de la experiencia nunca nos permitirá salir de un subjetivismo incompatible con la ciencia. Por otro lado la ciencia del siglo XVII está mostrando unos éxitos indudables en el conocimiento de la s leyes de la naturaleza, así como en el dominio de la misma en sus aplicaciones técnicas. Esta crítica de la noción de causa según el postulado empirista, provocó en Kant racionalista hasta entonces, su despertar del «sueño dogmático». Toda su obra crítica intenta superar este supuesto que hacía de todo punto inviable el conocimiento científico.
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etc. El conocimiento verdadero verdaderoees posible porque el objeto objetod de experiencia se considera dado como realidad 47
objetiva objetiva origen y causa de la afección sensible que conduce al conocimiento de la experiencia. La experiencia garantiza la existencia de lo percibido. Los conc eptos, en tanto que se deriven válidamente de la 48
experiencia, experiencia, ponen en conexión conocimiento universal y realidad. Así es como normalmente se valora el conocimiento en la conciencia no crítica que identifica el conocimiento con lo real real..
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Se da por supuesto que el entendimiento es capaz de intuir la esencia universal como forma de las cosas percibidas en la experiencia. Allí donde se dé el caso del objeto que se trate se darán las
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¿Qué garantía podemos tener de que las conexiones entre las ideas tengan correlación con las conexiones 54
de la realidad? realidad ?
Pero la ciencia en la Edad Moderna es un hecho. Ha adquirido, a partir de las aplicaciones del cálculo matemático, un método y un éxito indudable en el dominio de la naturaleza y en sus aplicaciones prácticas. Una ciencia basada en la “cantidad” y la “medida” y en las relaciones matemáticas que permiten establecer “hipótesis explicativas” que se confirman en la experiencia mediante los experimentos experimentos..
Ni los racionalistas ni los empiristas encuentran una razón suficiente de las propiedades de dicho conocimiento:
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¿Cómo es posible que un
los planetas e incluso la existencia futura de un eclipse con años de
mero concepto del
antelación... etc. etc .
56
entendimiento o un cálculo matemático, ambos productos de la especulación de la razón humana pueda determinar o predecir los hechos de la experiencia? Las leyes de la ciencia no pueden ser analíticas, o a priori
Tal es el problema de las relaciones entre la ciencia y
No cabe duda de que las leyes científicas no son analíticas y amplían el
Las leyes de la ciencia no pueden ser sintéticas o a posteriori
la experiencia al que ni el racionalismo ni el
Pero la experiencia o
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Immanuel Kant. Kant. Immanuel Kant intenta realizar una síntesis que hiciera posible el conocimiento científico universal y necesario pero cuyas verdades no fueran meramente formales y analíticas sino que pudieran ser 58
materiales. materiales. Para ello intenta justificar la posibilidad y existencia de unos juicios sintéticos a p riori, que serían los juicios propios de la ciencia: Universales Uni versales y necesarios, por ser a priori, pero sintéticos porque amplían el conocimiento en su contenido material al extender los posibles predicados con independencia de la noción del sujeto, superando las limitaciones de la sverdades de razón. razón . Para justificar tales juicios rechaza que el entendimiento sea como una "tabla rasa" que se limita a recibir pasivamente la información que le llegue de los datos sensibles, de la misma forma que rechaza la capacidad de intuición del entendimiento.
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Los juicios sintéticos a priori, es decir la ciencia, únicamente son posibles en su referencia a lo fenoménico fenoménico,, es decir, al campo de la experiencia posible posible.. La realidad como noúmeno sólo puede ser pensada, no conocida. La evidencia es un producto de la conciencia respecto a su percepción o idea o concepto de lo real: real:
62
y desconectada
63
Si no podemos trascender a la propia conciencia, ¿qué relación existe entre lo real y nuestra percepción? ¿Es una relación causal?
Si la causa es una relación de ideas, como dice Hume, o un concepto a priori, una categoría del entendimiento, como dice Kant, no podemos conocer lo real. ¿Qué es entonces lo real pa ra poder ser comprendido como causa?
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Este Positivismo genérico toma solo en consideración el conocimiento científico. É ste es producto lógico de la aplicación rigurosa de un método científico y de la afirmación de teorías que puedan justificarse en elexperimento experimento..
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La crítica a la Metafísica, como búsqueda de lo que está más allá de la Ciencia, es considerada a partir de lo que se llamó las «trampas del lenguaje», lo que supuso un interés en el estudio del lenguaje tanto en su dimensión formal, empirismo lógico como en cuanto lenguaje natural, estudiando los «juegos del lenguaje», que ha dado lugar a toda una corriente de empirismo concebido como filosofía analítica
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La fenomenología suele unirse a Franz Brentano como su fundador con el lema de "vuelta a las cosas". Desde la psicología considera que la conciencia tiene un sentido intencional lo que supone un enfoque completamente nuevo frente al mero asociacionismo psicológico del siglo anterior, que él rechaza, y ofrece un enfoque hacia un realismo de nueva fundamentación recuperando la importancia del lenguaje en la
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Curiosamente Heidegger coincide en este planteamiento con los filósofos analíticos, analíticos, herederos del positivismo, que parten de supuestos completamente co mpletamente diferentes como Austin o Davidson y Rorty y entra de lleno en la consideración actual del problema de la evidencia y su relación con el lenguaje.
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discusión pegando: {{subst:Aviso referencias|Racionalismo}} ~~~~ Para otros usos de este término, véase Racionalismo (desambiguación) .
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Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world's largest digital library
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world's largest digital library
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world's largest digital library
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world's largest digital library
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world's largest digital library
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.
The world's largest digital library
Try Scribd FREE for 30 days to access over 125 million titles without ads or interruptions! Start Free Trial Cancel Anytime.