Por la hipoteca se afecta un inmueble en garantía del cumplimiento de cualquier obligación, propia o de un tercero. La garantía no determina la desposesión y otorga al acreedor los derechos de persecución, preferencia y venta judicial del bien hipotecado.
C.C. arts. 303, 315, 885 C.P.C.arts. 692, 720 C. T. art. 6 LEY 2411 art. 1 y ss. LEY 27261 arts. 42, 45, 49 a 52 LEY 26702 arts. 172, 175 ine. 1) D.LEG. 495 arts. 26 a 43 LEY26887 arts. 188ine. 1), 190ine. 6), 307 LEY 27287 art. 240 D.S.054-88-TC arts. 81 ines. f), g) D.S. 007-89-PE art. 72 D.S. 014-92-EM arts. 172 a 177 D.S.03-94-EM arts. 138 a 145
La hipoteca es un derecho real de garantía. Ya lo dijimos anteriormente al comentar el artículo 1055 que define la prenda. Pero también lo expresa el Código, concretamente el artículo objeto de estos comentarios. Dice la norma que se afecta un inmueble "en garantía del cumplimiento de cualquier obligación". Vale acá lo que se dijo respecto de la prenda. En rigor, la hipoteca solo puede garantizar una obligación de dar dinero, pero no una obligación de hacer o no hacer. La razón es que la hipoteca desemboca, en caso de incumplimiento del deudor, en la venta del bien gravado. El producto de esta venta es dinero, con cargo al cual se cobra al acreedor. Puede haber hipoteca, sin embargo, en una obligación de hacer o no hacer, pero no para garantizar la obligación misma sino el pago de una cláusula penal o multa en dinero que eventualmente se hubiese pactado para el caso de incumplimiento del deudor.
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La hipoteca, como todos los derechos reales de garantía, es accesoria de una obligación. Esta última es lo principal y tiene vida propia: puede subsistir sin la garantía. En cambio, la hipoteca no puede existir sola, necesariamente debe ser accesoria de una obligación. La hipoteca no es accesoria en todos los sistemas legales. Así, en el Derecho alemán hay modalidades de hipoteca que son autónomas. En el Perú, si bien el Código expresamente señala que la hipoteca existe para garantizar el cumplimiento de una obligación, hay una tendencia hacia la hipoteca autónoma. Revelador de esto es, por ejemplo, el artículo 1099, inciso 2), que dispone que la hipoteca puede asegurar el cumplimiento de una obligación no solo determinada sino también determinable. Esta última es una obligación susceptible de ser determinada, pero que aún no lo está al momento de la constitución de la hipoteca. El artículo 1104, por otra parte, autoriza que la hipoteca garantice obligaciones futuras o eventuales. Respecto de las primeras no hay problema porque de todas maneras existirán. Pero las obligaciones eventuales tienen una existencia incierta. Pueden no llegar a existir. En este caso, es cierto, la hipoteca ya constituida queda sin efecto. Sería en rigor un supuesto de extinción o acabamiento del gravamen por ausencia de obligación, a pesar de que el artículo 1122 no lo ha previsto expresamente. Pero la hipoteca fue constituida y fue inscrita, con lo cual debe admitirse que existió. Para demostrar que existe una tendencia a la autonomía de la hipoteca, conviene señalar que el Código Civil de 1936 no permitía garantizar con hipoteca obligaciones determinables ni obligaciones eventuales. La tendencia se confirma con la existencia de la letra hipotecaria y la cédula hipotecaria, previstas en la Ley de Títulos Valores N° 27287. La hipoteca debe recaer necesariamente sobre un inmueble, esto es, sobre los bienes enumerados en el artículo 885 del Código. No es posible establecer una hipoteca sobre un bien mueble, aun cuando se trate de uno registrado, como por ejemplo un automóvil. En España, sin embargo, existe la hipoteca mobiliaria, que recae sobre bienes móviles registrados y plenamente identificados como los automóviles, los vagones de ferrocarril, los aviones, la maquinaria industrial y la propiedad intelectual e industrial. Para ampliar la cobertura de la hipoteca, el Código de 1984, al igual que el de 1936, ha preferido enumerar los bienes inmuebles dejando de lado el estricto criterio de la movilidad. En la enumeración se ha dado categoría inmobiliaria a los buques y aviones, a pesar de ser bienes eminentemente móviles. Lo que busca el legislador es que esos bienes puedan ser objeto de hipoteca. La hipoteca no garantiza necesariamente una obligación propia, es decir, una obligación del constituyente del gravamen. Puede también asegurar una obligación ajena. Es obvio que en este caso el constituyente de la garantía no tiene la calidad de fiador, salvo que expresamente haya asumido tal carácter. Si no es fiador, el tercero constituyente de la hipoteca no responde con todos los
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En la hipoteca no hay desposesión. El bien queda en poder del constituyente. La razón es que la inscripción del gravamen es obligatoria (artículo 1099 inciso 3). La sujeción del bien a favor del acreedor es así consecuencia del registro y no de la entrega del bien como en la prenda. Hay pues una sujeción jurídica y no material. El acreedor hipotecario goza del derecho de persecución. Este es en realidad un atributo del titular de todo derecho real. En el caso de la propiedad es muy clara la existencia de la persecución, que se ejercita a través de la acción reivindicatoria (ver artículos 923 y 927). La persecución permite al acreedor ejecutar el bien hipotecado, en caso de incumplimiento del deudor, cuando esté en poder de un tercero. La persecución es consecuencia de la oponibilidad del derecho real. La situación de hecho es que el constituyente de la garantía, propietario del bien gravado, ha transmitido la propiedad o la posesión de dicho bien. El tercero adquirente ha estado en aptitud de saber, por el dato registral, que el inmueble estaba hipotecado. Sufre entonces el embate del acreedor hipotecario, a pesar de que no tiene relación jurídica con él. Conforme al artículo 1117, el acreedor hipotecario puede exigir el pago a dicho tercero poseedor del bien hipotecado, sin perjuicio de que lo haga también el deudor. La pretensión de pago dirigida contra el tercero concluye en la venta del bien gravado, con cuyo importe se cobra el acreedor. La hipoteca confiere también el derecho de preferencia. Esto significa que con relación a determinados acreedores, el acreedor hipotecario cobra primero con cargo al precio de venta del bien hipotecado. De acuerdo con la Ley General del Sistema Concursal N° 27809, en los procedimientos procedimientos de disolución y liquidación, los acreedores hipotecarios cobran en tercer lugar, después de los trabajadores y de los alimentistas. Se discute si el crédito hipotecario es preferente respecto de un crédito simple cuyo acreedor ha logrado un embargo anotado en el registro con anterioridad a la inscripción de la hipoteca. El embargo sería preferente en virtud del artículo 2016 del Código, que dispone que la preferencia de los derechos que otorga el Registro se determina por la prioridad en la inscripción. Pero en mi opinión debe aplicarse el segundo párrafo del artículo 2022, conforme al cual la anterioridad en la inscripción cede ante la diferente naturaleza de los derechos enfrentados. En este caso uno (la hipoteca) en derecho real y el otro es personal. Prevalece el primero. La hipoteca, finalmente, otorga al acreedor el derecho a la venta judicial del bien gravado. Acá debo hacer algunas precisiones. Cuando se dictó el Código Civil, aún no estaba vigente el Código Procesal Civil. Por tanto, no existía el proceso de ejecución de garantías. El acreedor hipotecario debía entonces seguir un proceso de cobro conforme al Código de Procedimientos Civiles de 1912, bien sea un juicio ordinario, sumario o ejecutivo. Recién en ejecución de sentencia podía proceder a la venta judicial del bien. Años antes, cuando se discutió el actual Código, se
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tratándose de la prenda y se materializó en el artículo 1069. Pero se la descartó para la hipoteca. Hoy en día el acreedor hipotecario vende el bien hipotecado de acuerdo con el proceso de ejecución de garantías (Código Procesal Civil, artículos 720 al 724). En la práctica, según estudios realizados por la Superintendencia de Banca y Seguros, la ejecución de los bienes hipotecados tarda de 18 a 24 meses, plazo que se considera excesivo y que supera largamente lo previsto en el Código Procesal. Por esto, hoy en día hay una tendencia a autorizar legalmente la ejecución extrajudicial del bien hipotecado, cuando así lo pacten el acreedor y el deudor. A modo de apreciación general y final, debo decir que la hipoteca hipotec a es la garantía real más perfecta. Del lado del deudor presenta la ventaja de que no lo priva de la posesión del bien; y de parte del acreedor, no impone a este, como la prenda, las responsabilidades que pueden derivar de la custodia de un bien ajeno. A esto debe agregarse: (i) que los inmuebles generalmente conservan su valor en el mercado, (ii) que la hipoteca se extiende al valor del seguro y de la expropiación del bien (artículo 1101) Y (iii) que el derecho de persecución está asegurado; todo lo cual hace que en caso de falta de pago, el acreedor tenga muy buenas probabilidades de hacer efectivo su crédito con cargo al bien.
BORDA, Guillermo A., Manual de Derechos Reales, Cuarta edición, Editorial Perrot, Buenos Aires, 1994; COLlN y CAPITANT, Curso Elemental de Derecho Civil, Garantías personales y reales, Tomo quinto, Editorial Reus, Madrid, 1925; ROMERO ROMAÑA, Eleodoro, Derecho Civil, Los Derechos Reales, Segunda Edición, Lima, tomo 1; PÉREZ, Álvaro, Garantías Civiles, hipoteca, prenda y fianza, Editorial Temis, Bogotá, 1984; GRAZIANO, Alberto A., Derechos Reales, Editorial Dovile, Buenos Aires, 1943; MAISCH VON HUMBOLDT, Lucrecia, Los Derechos Reales, Tercera edición, Librería Studium, Lima, 1984; VAllET DE GOYTISOlO, Juan B., Estudios sobre garantías reales, Editorial Montecorro, Madrid, 1973; DE cossío y CORRAL, Alfonso, Instituciones de Derecho Hipotecario, Editorial Civitas S.A., Madrid, 1986; VALENCIA ZEA, Arturo, Derecho Civil, Derechos Reales, Tomo 11, Quinta edición, Editorial Temis, Bogotá, 1958; CASTAÑEDA, Jorge Eugenio, La hipoteca, Editorial Editorial San Marcos, Lima, 1958.
"La hipoteca es un derecho real, accesorio e indivisible, pues el acreedor tiene el derecho de persecución y venta del bien y que se constituye en garantía de un crédito u obligación, extendiéndose a todas las partes del bien hipotecado"
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"La doctrina considera varias definiciones, pero en todas ellas se le reconoce a la hipoteca la calidad de derecho real adherido al cumplimiento de las obligaciones a que sirve de garantía, de tal manera que sigue siempre a la cosa hipotecada cualesquiera que sean las manos a que pase, y a pesar de los cambios que ocurran en la propiedad que grave, de donde resulta que el acreedor hipotecario tiene una acción real" (Cas. N° 306-97. El Código Civil a través de la la Jurisprudencia Casatoria, p. 358). "La hipoteca es definida como la afectación de un inmueble en garantía del cumplimiento de una obligación, lo que otorga al acreedor los derechos de persecución, preferencia y venta judicial del bien hipotecado. Los caracteres jurídicos de la hipoteca hipotec a son: a) constituye un derecho real sobre un bien determinado, b) es un derecho accesorio, puesto que se constituye en seguridad del cumplimiento de una obligación; c) es indivisible, de tal manera que recae sobre el todo y cada una de las partes, y si el bien hipotecado se divide, todas y cada una de las partes continúan gravadas en garantía del cumplimiento o pago" (Cas. N° 306-97-Arequipa, Sala Civil Transitoria Trans itoria de la Corte Suprema, El Peruano, 3/04/98, p. 609). "La hipoteca debe recaer sobre bienes inmuebles específicamente determinados, yes requisito para su validez entre otros que el gravamen sea de cantidad determinada o determinable y se inscriba en el Registro de la Propiedad Inmueble" (Exp. N° 1113-95-0RLC-TR, 1113-95-0RLC -TR, Normas Legales Legales N" 235, p. J-9). "El contrato de hipoteca es real y accesorio y se constituye para garantizar o respaldar el cumplimiento de una obligación y nace desde el momento de su inscripción en el Registro Público" (Cas. N° 691-97-Llma, Sala Civil de la Corte Suprema, El Peruano, 15/10/98, p. 1923). "La atribución patrimonial mediante la afectación jurídica de un inmueble para asegurar el cumplimiento de una obligación, no supone la desmembración del derecho de propiedad del otorgante, y consecuentemente, no lleva consigo un necesario desplazamiento patrimonial ni una correlativa adquisición por parte del acreedor de la obligación garantizada que se ve beneficiado patrimonialmente con tal atribución, por lo que es perfectamente posible constituir e inscribir un otorgamiento unilateral de hipoteca, con lo que el derecho habrá nacido sin perjuicio de que aún no se haya transmitido" (R. N° P003-98-0RLCffR, Jurisprudencia Registral, Año 111, Vol. VI, p. 341). "La especialidad es requisito sustancial de la hipoteca, la misma que comprende dos elementos: a) determinación de la obligación garantizada; y, b) individualización de la cosa que sirve de garantía" (Exp. N° 795-95-Quinta Sala, Gaceta Jurídica N° 27, p. 1 D-A).
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"La hipoteca no puede existir sin una obligación principal, ya que tiene por destino asegurar la satisfacción de un crédito. Por tanto, existen dos derechos en muy estrecha conexión entre sí: el derecho de crédito o la obligación y el derecho real de garantía. En tal sentido, el derecho de hipoteca depende de la existencia de la obligación principal que garantiza y la extinción de la obligación que lleva aparejada la de hipoteca; es también efecto de la accesoriedad, la imposibilidad de que la hipoteca experimente un desenvolvimiento autónomo e independiente. Uno de los caracteres esenciales de la hipoteca es la especialidad referida a dos aspectos: en cuanto a la cosa gravada, así como respecto del crédito gárantizado. En este último sentido, la individualización del crédito garantizado supone que no solamente se haya indicado su monto, sino además su causa, es decir la necesidad de determinar qué obligación garantiza" (Cas. N° 933-98. El Código Civil a través de la JurIsprudencia Casatoria, p. 358). "El derecho real de garantía es la relación jurídica que se establece entre una persona sobre una cosa, para asegurar el cumplimiento de una obligación y otorga al acreedor el derecho de vender la cosa en caso de incumplimiento" (Cas. N° 1169-98. El Código Civil a través de la Jurisprudencia Casatorla, p. 358). "La hipoteca está definida como la afectación de un inmueble en garantía del cumplimiento de cualquier obligación, sea propia o de un tercero, y para su validez deben concurrir solamente los requisitos establecidos en el artículo mil noventinueve del Código Civil, no siendo necesaria la intervención del garantizado" (Exp. N° 8824-98. Gaceta Jurídica. Exp/orador Jurisprudencia/). "La hipoteca no determina la desposesión del bien y otorga al acreedor los derechos de persecución, preferencia y venta judicial del bien" (Exp. N° 1454-98. Gaceta Jurídica. Exp/orador Jurisprudencia/). "Los derechos de garantía, entre los cuales se encuentra la hipoteca, tienen por objeto conceder seguridad jurídica al acreedor de que su crédito será cancelado y específicamente la hipoteca es un derecho real establecido en seguridad de un crédito establecido en dinero, sobre bienes inmuebles, quedando estos en poder del deudor que aún no ha cancelado la deuda" (Exp. N° 3818-97. Marianella Ledesma. Jurisprudencia Actua/. Tomo 11, p. 178).
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La hipoteca se constituye por escritura pública, salvo disposición diferente de la ley.
C.C. LEY 26702 LEY 26002 D.LEG.495 D.S. 007-89-PE 007-89-PE
arts. 140, 141-a, 142, 143, 144 arto 176 arto 50 y ss. arto 27 arto 72
Según reconoce la doctrina unánimemente, existen diferencias sustanciales entre forma y formalidad de los actos o negocios jurídicos; en ese sentido, "toda declaración requiere de una forma externa (o sabida ausencia de ella) que refleje la voluntad; pero no todo negocio reclama de formalidad" (LOHMANN). Como regla general y en virtud del "principio de libertad de forma", consagrado en el artículo 143 del Código Civil, el acto o negocio jurídico puede exteriorizarse a través de diferentes formas; excepción hecha del silencio que importará "manifestación de voluntad" cuando por ley o por acuerdo de las partes se le atribuya ese significado (artículo 142, Código Civil). Sin embargo -como excepción a la regla anterior-, la ley o las partes pueden establecer una determinada formalidad para la exteriorización del acto o negocio jurídico; formalidad que será ad probationem, si solo sirve como medio de prueba, o ad solemnitatem, si su inobservancia es sancionada con nulidad por la ley (artículo 144, Código Civil) o por las partes, en caso de incumplimiento por una de ellas (artículo 1412, Código Civil).
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dispositivo que autorice el empleo de formalidades especiales (ej. "declaración jurada con firma legalizada notarialmente", notarialmente ", Ley N° 26639). Si bien es cierto, el artículo 1098 del Código Civil establece una formalidad para la constitución de la hipoteca, sin embargo, no sanciona con nulidad su inobservancia, por lo que conforme al artículo 144 del Código Civil el documento que se extienda solo tendrá carácter ad probatíonem. Resulta pertinente señalar que, en tanto la constitución de hipoteca no se inscriba en el registro, solo tendrá eficacia obligacional o interpartes (obligación de gravar), ya que la existencia jurídica de la hipoteca como derecho real (gravamen) se halla sujeta a su publicidad registral (artículo 1099, Código Civil), al ser la inscripción una conditio sine qua nom de su existencia (MAISCH VON HUMBOLDT); en ese mismo sentido, en la Exposición de Motivos Oficial del Código Civil se refiere que "el contrato de hipoteca que no estuviere inscrito no confiere al acreedor la garantía real hipotecaria, sino un título que sirve al acreedor para obtener a través de la inscripción el derecho real de hipoteca". La escritura pública es regulada en el artículo 50 y siguientes de la Ley del Notariado, aprobada por Decreto Ley N° 26002. A su vez, las otras "formalidades" exigibles para la constitución de la hipoteca se hallan contenidas en normas especiales, cuya enumeración excede los alcances del presente comentario. Respecto a las otras formalidades, tenemos que el segundo párrafo del artículo 176 de la Ley N° 26702, Ley General del Sistema Financiero y del Sistema de Seguros y Orgánica de la Superintendencia de Banca y Seguros, faculta a las empresas del sistema financiero al empleo de "documento privado con firmas legalizadas notarial mente", a efectos de celebrar contratos con sus clientes, salvo que el valor exceda de 40 unidades impositivas tributarias, en cuyo caso deberán ser formalizados necesariamente en escritura pública. Asimismo, mediante Decreto Legislativo N° 495, artículo 4, se creó el "formulario "formular io registral" para su empleo en el Registro Predial Urbano; documento que requiere ser certificado por abogado inscrito en el índice de Profesionales de este Registro o por notario, a efectos de su inscripción. Cabe precisar que, además de las "hipotecas ordinarias", el referido decreto en su artículo 27 creó la denominada
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Mediante Ley N° 27755 (El Peruano, 15.6.2002) se creó el "Registro de Predios" que integrará progresivamente en dos años al Registro de Propiedad Inmueble, Registro Predial Urbano y la Sección Especial de Predios Rurales-, asimismo, se dispuso la unificación de los documentos inscribibles; en ese orden, el artículo 7 establece que ''vencido el plazo (...), todas las inscripciones se efectuarán por escritura pública, o mediante formulario registral legalizado por notario, cuando en este último caso el valor del inmueble no se~ mayor a veinte Unidades Impositivas Tributarias (...)"; es decir, a diferencia de lo que sucede con el artículo 1 098 del Código Civil, la Ley N° 27755 limita el empleo de los documentos documentos que pueden contener actos inscribibles (como la constitución de hipoteca) a aquellos formalizados mediante escritura pública o formulario registrallegalizado notarialmente. Finalmente, el Tribunal Constitucional, a través de la Sentencia del 30 de abril de 2003 (El Peruano, 15.5.2003), declaró infundada la acción de inconstitucionalidad interpuesta contra el segundo párrafo del artículo 7 que establece el uso de formularios registrales, entre otras consideraciones, por cuanto "si bien el formulario registrallegalizado por notario no goza de las solemnidades de una escritura pública, se ha optado por una medida que no termina por desvirtuar la seguridad jurídica, sino que, respetándola dentro de términos todavía razonables, presenta una opción legislativa proporcional frente al fin legítimo que se pretende alcanzar, esto es, que un mayor número de ciudadanos tenga la posibilidad de consolidar su derecho de propiedad a través de su inscripción registral. (...)".
ARIAS-SCHREIBE ARIAS -SCHREIBER, R, Max. Exégesis del Código Códi go Civil de 1984. Tomo VI. Derechos Reales de Garantía. Lima, Gaceta Jurídica Editores SRL, 1998. DíEZ PICAZO, Luis. Fundamento del Derecho Civil Patrimonial, Volumen 111. Las relaciones jurídico-reales. El Registro de la Propiedad. La Posesión. Madrid, 1985. GARcíA GARCíA, José. Derecho Inmobiliario Registral o Hipotecario. Tomo l. Madrid, Editorial Civitas, S.A, 1988. LOHMANN, Juan. El Negocio Jurídico. Lima, Editora Jurídica Grijley, 1994. MAISCH VON HUMBOLDT, Lucrecia. Exposición de Motivos y Comentarios del Libro de Derechos Reales del Código Civil. En: Código Civil, Exposición de Motivos y Comentarios, Tomo V(compiladora: Delia
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"No existe escritura de cesión de hipoteca, ya que mediante la cesión de derechos yacciones de un juicio, el simple documento privado con legalización de firmas no puede suplir la exigencia de la escritura pública" (Cas. N° 2809-98-Lima, Sala Civil de la Corte Suprema, El Peruano, 29/01/99, p. 2547). "Es condición sine qua non que el contrato de hipoteca para su validez se constituya por escritura pública. Si no eleva a instrumento público por falta de diligencia de la interesada, la obligación se extingue al no haberse ejecutado la prestación por causa no imputable al deudor" (Exp. N° 1473-97, Tercera Sala Civil de la Corte Superior de Lima, Ledesma Narváez, Marianella, "Jurisprudencia Actuar, tomo N° 2, N° 76). 194
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Son requisitos para la validez de la hipoteca: 1.- Que afecte el bien el propietario o quien esté autorizado para ese efecto conforme a ley. 2.- Que asegure el cumplimiento de una obligación determinada o determinable. 3.- Que el gravamen sea de cantidad determinada o determinable y se inscriba en el registro de la propiedad inmueble.
C.C. arls. 923, 2019 LEY26887 arts. 188 ¡nc. 1), 190 ¡nc. 6), 307 LEY 26702 arto 172
El artículo 1013 del Código Civil de 1936, antecedente inmediato del artículo materia de comentario, establecía como "requisitos de la hipoteca" que afecte el bien el propietario que tenga su libre disposición o, en otro caso, quien esté autorizado para ese efecto conforme a ley (inciso 1) Y que el gravamen sea de cantidad determinada, o determinable en los casos de reajuste de capital legalmente admitidos y que se inscriba en el Registro de la Propiedad Inmueble (inciso 2). Lucrecia Maisch Von Humboldt, en un sentido crítico, considera que el artículo 1099 del Código Civil de 1984 reitera un error anterior, "al normar conjuntamente las condiciones esenciales, (...) con los requisitos meramente formales que deben figurar en el documento constitutivo". Desde una perspectiva general, existen dos cambios que consideramos sustanciales en la nueva regulación; por un lado, el artículo 1099 se refiere a los
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1. Que afecte el bien el propietario o quien esté autorizado para ese efecto conforme a la ley La doctrina es pacífica respecto a la necesidad de intervención del propietario en la constitución de la hipoteca -directamente o a través de su representante voluntario (artículo 156, Código Civil) o legal (artículo 167, Código Civil)-, dada su trascendencia económica, social y legal; gravamen que en última instancia puede implicar -en caso de incumplimiento y luego del proceso de ejecución de garantías correspondiente-, la pérdida del propio derecho de propiedad. En efecto, la hipoteca es un valioso instrumento de acceso al crédito mediante la cual se afecta un inmueble en garantía del cumplimiento de una obligación, que autoriza "en caso de incumplimiento de la obligación garantizada, (a) la realización pública del bien (oo.)" (ARIAS-SCHREIBER). (ARIAS-SCHREIBE R). Según el artículo 1097 del Código Civil, la hipoteca puede ser constituida por el propio deudor o por un tercero en garantía de las obligaciones del primero ("hipotecante no deudor", "dador de la hipoteca", etc.). El inciso 1) del artículo 1099 del Código Civil se refiere genéricamente al "propietario" ("que afecte el bien el propietario.. ."), por lo que algunos han entendido, basados en que en el ordenamiento jurídico nacional rige el "sistema consensual" en materia de transferencia de derechos de propiedad inmueble ("la sola obligación de enajenar un inmueble determinado hace al acreedor propietario de él .. ."; artículo 949, Código Civil), que resulta suficiente que grave el bien el
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título oneroso algún derecho de persona que en el registro aparece con facultades para otorgarlo, mantiene su adquisición una vez inscrito su derecho, aunq ue después se anule, rescinda o resuelva el del otorgante por virtud de causas que no consten en los registros públicos". 2. Que asegure el cumplimiento de una obli~ación determinada o determinable El artículo 1013 del Código Civil de 1936 no contenía un dispositivo similar, pese al carácter esencialmente accesorio de la hipoteca respecto de la obligación garantizada y al "principio de especialidad"; en ese sentido, Max Arias-Schreiber opina que "en nuestra legislación no puede existir hipoteca sin crédito al cual garantice". En doctrina y conforme al "principio de especialidad", "solo se pueden gravar bienes determinados y existentes (especialidad en cuanto al bien) y en garantía de obligaciones individual izadas y hasta por montos determinados (especialidad en cuanto al crédito)" (AVENDAÑO). El inciso 2), materia de comentario, se refiere al principio de especialidad en cuanto al crédito garantizado. Respecto al fundamento del principio de especialidad, este permite a los terceros "conocer la causa y el monto del mismo y la parte por la cual el bien hipotecado está libre de deudas; y hace posible al deudor obtener créditos, garantizables con el mismo bien" (MESSINEO); este principio evita la constitución de "gravámenes universales" universales" (ARIAS-SCHREIBER). En la Exposición de Motivos Oficial del Código Civil se reitera la idea que subyace
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hipotecado o de un derecho real sobre él (...), favoreciendo con ello la circulación de los bienes y propiciando el crédito en general" (AVENDAÑO). El gravamen, igual que en el inciso anterior, será "determinado" cuando se ha establecido expresamente en el contrato y será "determinable", cuando no estando determinada en el contrato puede llegarse a establecer directa o indirectamente, sin necesidad de nuevo acuerdo de voluntades (Exposición de Motivos Oficial del Código Civil). Considerando que, de acuerdo con el artículo 1107 del Código Civil, la extensión de la hipoteca en cuanto a la obligación garantizada comprende el capital (crédito), los intereses, las primas del seguro pagadas por el acreedor y las costas del juicio, el monto del gravamen debe comprenderlos, por lo que su cuantía es ordinariamente superior al crédito u obligación garantizados. ¿Qué sucedería si finalmente la cantidad o cuantía del gravamen inscrito resulta ser inferior a los rubros considerados anteriormente? Pese a reconocer que la doctrina y la jurisprudencia se hallan divididas en esta materia, consideramos que la solución a esta cuestión debería ser concordante con el "principio de especialidad" que informa al Código Civil, por lo que el inmueble afectado solo debería responder hasta por el monto o cuantía del gravamen inscrito, de allí la importancia de que el mismo sea determinado o determinable. b) Que se encuentre inscrito en el Registro de la Propiedad Inmueble La hipoteca es uno de los pocos derechos reales cuya inscripción es constitutiva;
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en instrumento público, salvo disposición contraria", lo que concordado con el artículo 1098, implica que deberá presentarse el parte notarial de la escritura pública correspondiente u otro documento, en caso de que exista norma especial que autorice su empleo (documento privado con firmas legalizadas, formulario registral, etc.). ¿Qué sucederá en caso de que se inscriba una hipoteca que no cumpla con los requisitos de validez establecidos en el artículo 1099 del Código Civil? En general, debe decirse que todo asiento de inscripción se encuentra amparado por el "principio de legitimación", consagrado en el artículo 2013 del Código Civil, que establece "el contenido de la inscripción se presume cierto y produce todos sus efectos, mientras no se rectifique o se declare judicialmente su invalidez". Es decir, existe en nuestro ordenamiento una presunción relativa de validez y exactitud en favor del asiento registral, que como tal admite prueba en contrario, pues la inscripción no es convalidante de nulidades (excepción hecha de la "adquisición a non domind' del artículo 2014, Código Civil). Mientras el Poder Judicial no declare la invalidez o se rectifique -de acuerdo con los procedimientos registrales reglamentarios-, la situación registral publicitada en el asiento surtirá plenos efectos legales; siendo que la carga de la prueba será asumida por quien cuestione la validez del asiento (onus probandi).
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"Solo se admite la prueba de la hipoteca cuando la deuda está determinada o es determinable, por lo que se permite garantizar mediante hipoteca deudas futuras cuya cantidad no se sepa y aun cuando tengan el carácter de eventuales" (Cas. N° 788-96- Tacna, Sala Civil de la Corte Suprema, El Peruano, 28/05/98, p. 1193). "El título de ejecución aparejado a la demanda adolece de nulidad formal, desde que el requisito sine qua non de la hipoteca es que quien afecte el bien sea su propietario, habiéndose demostrado que a la fecha de constitución de la hipoteca, este se encontraba muerto" (Exp. N° 760-98, Segunda Sala para Procesos Proc esos Ejecutivos y Cautelares de la Corte Superior de Lima, Ledesma Narváez, Marianella, "Jurisprudencia Actual", tomo N° 2, N° 77). "Uno de los requisitos para la validez de la constitución de la hipoteca es su inscripción en el Registro de la Propiedad Inmueble, por lo que la inscripción es constitutiva del derecho" (Cas. N° 306-97-Arequipa, Sala Civil Transitoria Trans itoria de la Corte Suprema, El Peruano, 3/04/98, p. 609). "Por la hipoteca se afecta un inmueble en garantía del cumplimiento de cualquier obligación propia o de un tercero, siendo sus requisitos de validez que afecte el bien el propietario o que esté autorizado para ese efecto conforme a ley, que asegure el cumplimiento de una obligación determinada o determinable y que el
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La hipoteca debe recaer sobre inmuebles específicamente determinados.
C.C. arts. 140, 219, 885
Considero que es posible sostener que esta norma comprende una disposición dirigida a precisar, en un sentido determinado, el diseño del derecho de hipoteca en nuestro ordenamiento y, a la vez, un mandato relativo al contrato de hipoteca,
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entre otros, y admitiendo legislaciones especiales que regulan prendas sin desplazamiento. Consideramos que el criterio para delimitar el ámbito de extensión objetiva de la hipoteca no debería ser la movilidad o inmovilidad de los bienes. Un criterio para determinar los bienes a los que es posible aplicar la hipoteca, que consideramos es el preferible y que por lo demás ya ha sido resaltado por la doctrina, es aquel que permite que sean afectados en hipoteca los bienes y los derechos sobre los mismos a los que el ordenamiento haya dotado de publicidad. La publicidad consiste en establecer un mecanismo a través del que terceros, ajenos a una relación jurídica, a un negocio jurídico o distintos al titular del derecho, puedan tomar noticia de estas circunstancias jurídicas. En torno a la misma se pueden establecer varias formas de asegurar la titularidad y la intangibilidad de los derechos que se trafican. En conclusión, creemos que el vehículo hipotecario se puede extender a cualquier
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En el caso del negocio hipotecario, tal individualización del derecho de hipoteca supone determinar qué bien va a ser afectado por el derecho de hipoteca; en qué medida, o, de ser el caso, hasta por qué monto, y cuál es el mecanismo para la realización del bien.
BORDA, Guillermo. Manual de los Derechos Reales. Buenos Aires, Ed. Perrot, 1994; BIGLlAZI GERI, Lina, BRECCIA, Humberto, BUSNELLI, Francesco D., NATOLl, Ugo. Derecho Civil, Tomo 1, Volumen 2, Primera Edición, Universidad Externado de Colombia, Bogotá, 1992; ARIAS-SCHREIBER, Max y CARDENAS QUIROS, Carlos. Exégesis del Código Civil de 1984, tomo VI, Derechos Reales de Garantía. Lima, Gaceta Jurídica, 2002; MARIANI DE VIDAL, Marina. Curso de Derechos Reales. Buenos Aires, Zavalía, 1989.
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La hipoteca se extiende a todas las partes integrantes del bien hipotecado, a sus accesorios, y al importe de las indemnizaciones de los seguros y de la expropiación, salvo pacto distinto.
C.c.
arts. 519, 887, 888, 889
La especialidad es una de las características de la hipoteca. Esta se manifiesta
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Como señala el artículo bajo comentario, la hipoteca se extiende a las partes integrantes del bien hipotecado. Así, si se hipoteca una casa se entienden también hipotecados los ladrillos, losetas, piedras, cemento que formen parte de la misma. Ello parece lógico atendiendo que si son partes integrantes se entiende que forman parte del bien hipotecado. Las partes integrantes se someten a la misma condición del bien del que forman parte. Sin embargo, el artículo 1101 permite el pacto en contrario, lo que significa que podrían excluirse de la hipoteca las partes integrantes. Este precepto no es claro. Como hemos dicho, el artículo 887 dispone que las partes integrantes no pueden ser objeto de derechos singulares. Sin embargo, según lo dispuesto en el artículo 1101, es posible hipotecar una vivienda y excluir de la garantía el segundo piso, o en todo caso hipotecar solo las paredes de una casa. En este último caso, ante una eventual ejecución de la hipoteca y consecuente transferencia en propiedad de las paredes a favor de un tercero, este no podría retirar las paredes de la casa sin deteriorarla o destruirla. Recordemos que las partes integrantes no pueden ser separadas del bien principal sin deteriorar, destruir o alterar el bien principal. Si se
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enseres que se ubiquen dentro de la misma. Si se hipoteca una concesión, la hipoteca se extenderá a los bienes adscritos a la misma finalidad económica, como pudieran ser maquinarias, equipos, vehículos, etc. Como señalamos, las partes accesorias deben estar permanentemente afectas a un fin económico u ornamental. A efectos de la extensión de la hipoteca, se entenderán comprendidos aquellos bienes que estén afectos al bien al momento de la ejecución de la hipoteca. Aun cuando al momento de constituir la garantía,
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accesorio. De ocurrir esto último, es decir si perdiera la condición de accesorio, la prenda se consideraría como primera y preferente. 3. Importe de indemnizaciones de los seeuros y de la expropiación Si el bien hipotecado está asegurado y se produce un siniestro, la indemnización que corresponda se considerará gravada. Ello en la medida en que el monto indemnizatorio reemplaza al inmueble hipotecado.
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b) Las accesiones: estas se integran naturalmente al bien principal; por tanto, se entienden hipotecadas si el bien principal así lo está. Existen sin embargo excepciones: la avulsión regulada por el artículo 940. c) Las construcciones: estas constituyen bienes que se integran al terreno. Sin perjuicio de que las construcciones sean hechas por el propietario del bien principal o por un tercero, estas serán consideradas "partes integrantes" y por tanto hipotecadas si el bien principal también lo está, Al respecto, cabe comentar una sentencia del Tribunal Constitucional Const itucional del 21 de
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"Un carácter jurídico de la hipoteca es su indivisibilidad, de tal manera que recae sobre el todo y cada una de las partes, y si el bien hipotecado se divide, todas y cada una de las partes continúan gravadas en garantía del cumplimiento o pago" (Cas. N° 306-97-Arequipa, Sala Civil Transitoria de la Corte Suprema, El Peruano, 3/04/98, p. 609).
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La hipoteca es indivisible y subsiste por entero sobre todos los bienes hipotecados.
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En efecto, el artículo a comentar halla su fuente legislativa en el artículo 1014 del Código Civil de 1936, el mismo que si bien fue reproducido casi textualmente en el vigente Código Civil de 1984; en un primer momento presentó solo pequeñas variantes de tipo semántico, como el cambio de la frase "el plazo y la forma en que han de ser amortizados" por "el plazo y la forma en que deben ser amortizados" (el resaltado es nuestro), cambio satisfactorio que contribuyó en la precisión del texto prescrito por la norma, resaltando con esto el hecho de la existencia de una relación obligacional de amortizar los títulos valores en cuestión, los mismos que del texto de la norma sustantiva de 1936 se entiende que no se trata de cualquier título valor, sino de aquellos que representan deuda vinculada con inmuebles, asunto que explicaremos más adelante. En un segundo momento, la innovación de nuestro legislador de 1984 lo llevó a suprimir el último párrafo, o mejor dicho, la última parte prescrita por el antiguo artículo 1014, el cual precisaba: "los títulos se emitirán en talonarios". Por otra parte, el Proyecto del Libro de Derechos Reales de la Comisión de Reforma del Código Civil, aprobado preliminarmente en abril del 2002, conserva esta redacción casi textualmente en su artículo 1096, realizando una pequeña modificación que aclara el sentido terminológico utilizado por el Código Civil de 1984, aspecto del cual nos ocuparemos luego. Como bien advertimos de la lectura, el artículo que comentamos no hace referencia a cualquier título valor; efectivamente, hace una precisión y delimitación solo a aq!Jellos transmisibles por endoso o al portador, nota que nos obliga a acudir a la Ley de Títulos Valores N° 27287, a fin de reconocer e identificar cuáles son a los que hace referencia y en qué consisten o qué notas básicas los caracterizan. Genéricamente, entendemos por título valor a los valores materializados que representen o incorporen derechos patrimoniales, cuando estén destinados a la circulación y siempre que reúnan los requisitos formales esenciales que por imperio de la ley les corresponda, según su naturaleza (artículo 1.1, Ley N° 27287). La materialización de los valores, es decir el título-valor documento, es necesario para el ejercicio del derecho literal y autónomo que contiene. Siendo un documento, tiene existencia material, consta en papeles escritos en los cuales consigna el derecho, para cuyo ejercicio son sustanciales, sostiene Ferreyra (citado por MONTOYA, p. 45). Básicamente, los títulos valores pueden ser de tres clases: al portador, a la orden y nominativos. El título valor al portador es aquel que tiene la cláusula "al portador' otorgando la
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concepto de Saleilles (citado por MONTOYA, p. 112), el título al portador es el título especialmente apto para la circulación de los créditos y el que mejor responde a la necesidad esencial del tráfico moderno de facilitar la negociación de todo elemento patrimonial, trátese de obligación o de derecho real. Por su lado, el título valor a la orden, según el artículo 26.1 de la Ley N° 27287, es el emitido con la cláusula "a la orderi', con indicación del nombre de la persona determinada, quien es su legítimo titular. Esta clase de títulos se transmite por endoso y consiguiente entrega del título, salvo pacto de truncamiento (BEAUMONT y CASTELLAR ES, p. 669) entre el endosante y el endosatario, por el cual, puede prescindirse de la entrega física al endosatario del título valor endosado a este, sustituyéndolo por otra formalidad mecánica o electrónica, de lo que debe mantenerse constancia fehaciente (ver artículos 26.3 y 215.1 de la Ley N° 27287). Montoya Manfredl (p. 120) anota que "la circunstancia circunst ancia de que deba expresarse el nombre del adquiriente no significa que el título deba confundirse con el nominativo, título en que también figura el nombre del titular". En efecto, ratificando lo anteriormente manifestado, los títulos valores nominativos son aquellos emitidos a favor o a nombre de persona determinada, quien es su titular. Esta clase de títulos valores se transmiten por cesión de derechos. Para que la transferencia del título valor nominativo surta efecto frente a terceros y frente al emisor, la cesión debe ser comunicada a este para su anotación en la respectiva matrícula; o, en caso de tratarse de valor con representación por anotación en cuenta, la cesión debe ser inscrita en la Institución de Compensación y Liquidación de Valores, ICLV, correspondiente, sin perjuicio de las limitaciones o condiciones para su transferencia que consten en el texto del título o en el registro respectivo, conforme el artículo 29.2 de la Ley de Títulos Valores. De lo expuesto, advertimos que el artículo 1108 del Código Civil hace referencia tanto a los títulos valores al portador, como a los títulos valores a la orden, excluyendo del análisis a los títulos valores nominativos. No obstante la determinación realizada, aún queda un elemento por desentrañar, el cual si bien ya hemos anotado, aún no hemos desarrollado, esto es, el endoso, modalidad básica de transmisión de los títulos valores a la orden. Desde el punto de vista de la circulación el endoso es la forma típica de transmisión de los títulos valores a la orden, aun cuando estos pueden transmitirse válidamente por otros medios; a estos otros los denominaríamos, atípicos. El endoso es un negocio accesorio, unilateral, no recepticio, formal, generalmente abstracto y puro, que se perfecciona con la simple creación y que se dirige, no ya a la transferencia del derecho cartular, que surge en forma autónoma en cabeza de los sucesivos propietarios del documento, sino a la transmisión del título; y que, más precisamente, documenta dicha transmisión (GUAL TIERI-WINISKY, citados por MONTOYA, p. 141).
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De la práctica comercial, observamos, que en pocas ocasiones la transferencia de la legitimación no coincide con la de la propiedad del documento y de la titularidad de los derechos emergentes; supuesto que conocemos como endoso simulado(1). Agotada la aclaración de los tecnicismos utilizados por la norma del Código Civil, observamos que esta es una norma tuitiva, complementaria de la normatividad general referida a la constitución válida de la hipoteca, contenida en los artículos 1099 (requisito de validez), 1100 (carácter inmobiliario de la hipoteca) y demás aplicables aplicables para este efecto. e fecto. Como sabemos, existen tres tipos de hipoteca, todas ellas reguladas por nuestro Código Civil al interior de su cuerpo normativo, estas son: hipoteca voluntaria, hipoteca legal e hipoteca de cédula. Otras legislaciones como la boliviana (artículos 1369 y 1341 de su Código Civil) y la italiana (artículos 2818 a 2820 de su Código Civil), regulan también la llamada hipoteca judicial(2), la misma que no es considerada por nuestra legislación y que halla su origen en las sentencias que condenan al pago de una suma de dinero, al cumplimiento de otra obligación o bien al resarcimiento de daños. La sentencia es título para inscribir la hipoteca sobre los bienes del deudor. La hipoteca será voluntaria (artículo 1097 C.C.) cuando se ha constituido por acuerdo de las partes, por el propietario del bien inmueble o por quien esté autorizado para este efecto conforme a ley. (1) Conforme al artículo 190 de Código Civil: "Por la simulación absoluta se aparenta celebrar un acto jurídico cuando no existe realmente voluntad para celebrarlo"; mientras que existirá simulación relativa: "Cuando las partes han querido concluir un acto distinto del aP'lrente", teniendo efecto (en este último caso) "entre ellas el acto ocultado, siempre que concurran los requisitos de sustancia y forma y no perjudique el derecho de tercero". (2) Jack Sigio Chrem hace referencia a que el Código Civíl vigente sólo regula dos clases de hipoteca: voluntaria y legal, para posteriormente señalar que "el legislador no encuentra motivo para reimplantar la hipoteca judicial, que estuvo normada por el Código Civil de 1852", artículo 2036. "En este sentido la Comisión Revisora hace suyos los fundamentos del ilustre jurista Manuel Solf y Muro, quien sostiene que esta hipoteca ya no tiene defensores" (SIGlO, p. 26). El artículo 2036 del Código Civil de 1852 regulaba tres supuestos para este tipo de hipoteca: a mérito de una controversia, cuando se declara que existe hipoteca; cuando por alguna causa el acreedor teme no ser pagado de su crédito y cuando el juez al imponer una obligación la asegura con una hipoteca.
Básicamente, los títulos valores pueden ser de tres clases: al portador, a la orden y nominativos. El título valor al portador es aquel que tiene la cláusula "al portador" otorgando la calidad de titular de los derechos que representa a su legítimo poseedor. Este tipo de título se transmite por simple tradición (artículo 22, Ley de Títulos Valores). En concepto de Saleilles (citado por MONTOYA, p. 112), el título al portador es el título especialmente apto para la circulación de los créditos y el que mejor responde a la necesidad esencial del tráfico moderno de facilitar la negociación de todo elemento patrimonial, trátese de obligación o de derecho real.
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Por su lado, el título valor a la orden, según el artículo 26.1 de la Ley N° 27287, es el emitido con la cláusula "a la orderi', con indicación del nombre de la persona determinada, quien es su legítimo titular. Esta clase de títulos se transmite por endoso y consiguiente entrega del título, salvo pacto de truncamiento (BEAUMONT y CASTELLAR ES, p. 669) entre el endosante y el endosatario, por el cual, puede prescindirse de la entrega física al endosatario del título valor endosado a este, sustituyéndolo por otra formalidad mecánica o electrónica, de lo que debe mantenerse constancia fehaciente (ver artículos 26.3 y 215.1 de la Ley N° 27287). Montoya Manfredl (p. 120) anota que "la circunstancia circunst ancia de que deba expresarse el nombre del adquiriente no significa que el título deba confundirse con el nominativo, título en que también figura el nombre del titular". En efecto, ratificando lo anteriormente manifestado, los títulos valores nominativos son aquellos emitidos a favor o a nombre de persona determinada, quien es su titular. Esta clase de títulos valores se transmiten por cesión de derechos. Para que la transferencia del título valor nominativo surta efecto frente a terceros y frente al emisor, la cesión debe ser comunicada a este para su anotación en la respectiva matrícula; o, en caso de tratarse de valor con representación por anotación en cuenta, la cesión debe ser inscrita en la Institución de Compensación y Liquidación de Valores, ICLV, correspondiente, sin perjuicio de las limitaciones o condiciones para su transferencia que consten en el texto del título o en el registro respectivo, conforme el artículo 29.2 de la Ley de Títulos Valores. De lo expuesto, advertimos que el artículo 1108 del Código Civil hace referencia tanto a los títulos valores al portador, como a los títulos valores a la orden, excluyendo del análisis a los títulos valores nominativos. No obstante la determinación realizada, aún queda un elemento por desentrañar, el cual si bien ya hemos anotado, aún no hemos desarrollado, esto es, el endoso, modalidad básica de transmisión de los títulos valores a la orden. Desde el punto de vista de la circulación el endoso es la forma típica de transmisión de los títulos valores a la orden, aun cuando estos pueden transmitirse válidamente por otros medios; a estos otros los denominaríamos, atípicos. El endoso es un negocio accesorio, unilateral, no recepticio, formal, generalmente abstracto y puro, que se perfecciona con la simple creación y que se dirige, no ya a la transferencia del derecho cartular, que surge en forma autónoma en cabeza de los sucesivos propietarios del documento, sino a la transmisión del título; y que, más precisamente, documenta dicha transmisión (GUAL TIERI-WINISKY, citados por MONTOYA, p. 141). De la práctica comercial, observamos, que en pocas ocasiones la transferencia de la legitimación no coincide con la de la propiedad del documento y de la titularidad de los derechos emergentes; supuesto que conocemos como endoso simulado(1). Agotada la aclaración de los tecnicismos utilizados por la norma del Código Civil, observamos que esta es una norma tuitiva, complementaria de la normatividad
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1099 (requisito de validez), 1100 (carácter inmobiliario de la hipoteca) y demás aplicables aplicables para este efecto. e fecto. Como sabemos, existen tres tipos de hipoteca, todas ellas reguladas por nuestro Código Civil al interior de su cuerpo normativo, estas son: hipoteca voluntaria, hipoteca legal e hipoteca de cédula. Otras legislaciones como la boliviana (artículos 1369 y 1341 de su Código Civil) y la italiana (artículos 2818 a 2820 de su Código Civil), regulan también la llamada hipoteca judiciaj(2), la misma que no es considerada por nuestra legislación y que halla su origen en las sentencias que condenan al pago de una suma de dinero, al cumplimiento de otra obligación o bien al resarcimiento de daños. La sentencia es título para inscribir la hipoteca sobre los bienes del deudor. La hipoteca será voluntaria (artículo 1097 C.C.) cuando se ha constituido por acuerdo de las partes, por el propietario del bien inmueble o por quien esté autorizado para este efecto conforme a ley. (1) Conforme al artículo 190 de Código Civil: "Por la simulación absoluta se aparenta celebrar un acto jurídico cuando no existe realmente voluntad para celebrarlo"; mientras que existirá simulación relativa: "Cuando las partes han querido concluir un acto distinto del apqrente", teniendo efecto (en este último caso) "entre ellas el acto ocultado, siempre que concurran los requisitos de sustancia y forma y no perjudique el derecho de tercero". (2) Jack Bigio Chrem hace referencia a que el Código Civil vigente sólo regula dos clases de hipoteca: voluntaria y legal, para posteriormente señalar que "el legislador no encuentra motivo para reimplantar la hipoteca judicial, que estuvo normada por el Código Civil de 1852", artículo 2036. "En este sentido la Comisión Revisora hace suyos los fundamentos del ilustre jurista Manuel Solf y Muro, quien sostiene que esta hipoteca ya no tiene defensores" (BIGIO, p. 26). El artículo 2036 del Código Civil de 1852 regulaba tres supuestos para este tipo de hipoteca: a mérito de una controversia, cuando se declara que existe hipoteca; cuando por alguna causa el acreedor teme no ser pagado de su crédito y cuando el juez al imponer una obligación la asegura con una hipoteca.
La hipoteca será legal (artículos 1118-1121 C.C.) cuando nazca de la ley. Este tipo de hipoteca se establece de pleno derecho y se inscribe de oficio. Por último, la hipoteca será de cédula (artículo 1108 C.C.)(3) cuando proviene de la voluntad unilateral, la misma que se constituye para garantizar los créditos obtenidos mediante la emisión de títulos valores transmisibles por endoso o al portador. Este tipo de hipoteca presume la indeterminación de la persona del acreedor. Como habíamos advertido, el artículo 1108 de nuestro Código Civil es una norma tuitiva, complementaria de la normatividad general referida a la constitución válida de la hipoteca, mas no de cualquier hipoteca, pues como nos deja concluir el texto del artículo en comentario, este se refiere a la hipoteca de cédula(4), la misma que en su constitución debe observar, al margen de los requisitos ordinarios para la constitución de una hipoteca voluntaria, algunos requisitos adicionales, en función
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1. Que se determinen el número y el valor de los títulos emitidos y garantizados con la hipoteca. Este requisito, lo que garantiza, es el valor fijo (seguridad) que tomarán aquellos que obtengan la transmisión del título valor por endoso o tradición. 2. Que se consigne la serie o series correspondientes a los títulos valores garantizados con la hipoteca. Esto con el propósito de individualizar e identificar plenamente los títulos referidos. 3. Que se consigne la fecha o fechas de la emisión, situación importante para los futuros tomadores de los títulos. 4. Que se precisen el plazo y la forma en que deben ser amortizados los títulos valores garantizados por la hipoteca, cuestión de particular importancia para los futuros tomadores. 5. La designación de un fideicomisario, sujeto encargado de la fiscalización de las operaciones tanto jurídicas como económicas. El Proyecto de Reforma del Libro de los Derechos Reales mantiene esta disposición, no obstante lo cual ya no hace mención a un fideicomisario(5) (término de difícil comprensión)(6), sino "a la designación de un representante de los tenedores de los títulos" (artículo 1096 del Proyecto), texto que copia la propuesta del Código Civil italiano (artículo 2831) Y el artículo 325 (BEAUMONT, p. 643 ss.) y demás pertinentes de la Ley General de Sociedades N° 26887.
(3) El Código Civil suizo de 1907 dispone en sus articulos 793 al 794, que la garantía inmobiliaria puede ser constituida bajo la forma de hipoteca, de cédula hipotecaria o de cartas de renta. (4) Marcelo Planiol y Jorge Ripert manifiestan que "el propietario de un inmueble podría crear por adelantado, antes de tomar el préstamo, títulos a la orden o al portador, garantizados por una hipoteca. títulos que pudiera conservar en su poder mientras pudiere prescindir del crédito y que pondría en circulación a medida de sus necesidades, como un baN° uero expide cheques contra su propia caja" (PLANIOL y RIPERT, p. 846). Lucrecia Maisch Von Humboldt (p. 162) denomina a la hipoteca de cédula. también, como hipoteca de crédito inmobiliario.
6. Los demás datos que sirven para determinar las condiciones de dichos títulos, prescripción genérica que busca contemplar todos los supuestos que puedan derivarse de esta relación hipotecaria.
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mínimamente regulación al interior de las "Disposiciones Generales de la Hipoteca", error que repite el Proyecto de Reforma (artículo 1096 del Proyecto). Sin duda, nos parece que al legislador se le ha olvidado la importancia de este tipo de hipoteca (de cédula), la misma que en el Código Civil de 1936, al margen del artículo 1014, mantenía su fuerza en la regulación detallada de los bonos hipotecarios (artículos 1802 a 1815 del C.C. de 1936), principal título valor que acciona y fundamenta la hipoteca de cédula. Hoy contamos también, para este efecto, con el denominado título de crédito hipotecario negociable, ampliamente regulado por la la nueva Ley de Títulos Valores, Ley N° 27287, en sus artículos 240 al 245, modificados parcialmente por la Ley N° 27640. En efecto, el artículo 240.1 de la Ley de Títulos Valores expresa: "El Título de Crédito Hipotecario Negociable se expedirá a petición expresa del propietario de un bien susceptible de ser gravado con hipoteca y que esté inscrito en cualquier Registro Público, por acto unilateral manifestado mediante escritura pública. El representante del propietario requiere de poder especial para solicitar la expedi ción del Título de Crédito Hipotecario Negociable", el mismo que se expedirá solo después de constatar la inexistencia de cargas o gravámenes que pesen sobre el inmueble. (5) Término ampliamente criticado por Max Arias-Schreiber Pezet (p. 205). El autor manifiesta que debería cambiarse esta expresión por "persona que fiscaliza la operación". (6) Lucrecia Maisch Van Humboldt (p. 162), define fideicomisario así: "Institución de crédito que vela si se cumplen o no las condiciones ofrecidas en la escritura pública de emisión de los títulosvalores. Cautela los intereses de los bonistas quienes no están en la capacidad de controlar personalmente el cumplimiento de las condiciones estipuladas."
Finalmente en vista de la enorme importancia que hoy en día ha cobrado el acceso al "sueño de la casa propia", principalmente promovido por el Supremo Gobierno, la emisión de las llamadas "letras hipotecarias'(7) se ha incrementado enormemente fundamentando la importancia no solo de estos títulos, sino también de la garantía hipotecaria que involucra; en atención a lo expuesto, consideramos necesaria, por mérito y sistemática jurídica, la regulación de la hipoteca de cédula en un capítulo aparte, fuera de toda consideración general; o bien fuera del Código Civil en la Ley General del Sistema Financiero, Bancario y de Seguros, Ley N°
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1984. Cultural Cuzco, Lima 1998; MAISCH VON HUMBOLDT, Lucrecia. En: REVOREDO DE DEBACKEY, Delia. Código Civil. Exposición de Motivos y Comentarios, tomo V, Comisión Encargada del Estudio y Revisión del Código Civil. Lima 1985; MAISCH VON HUMBOLDT, Lucrecia. Los Derechos Reales: concordado con la Constitución de 1979, Primera edición. Editorial Sesator, Lima 1980; PLANIOL, Marcelo y RIPERT, Jorge. Tratado Práctico de Derecho Civil francés. Garantías Reales, Segunda parte, tomo XIII. Cultural S.A., La Habana 1942; ARIASSCHREIBER PEZET, Max, CARDENAS QUIROS, Carlos, ARIAS-SCHREIBER M., Angela y MARTINEZ COCO, Elvira. Exégesis del Código Civil Peruano de 1984. Derechos Reales de Garantía, tomo VI. Gaceta Jurídica, Lima 1998; MONTOYA MANFREDI, Ulises. Comentario a la Ley de Títulos Valores, Quinta edición. Editorial San Marcos, Lima 1997; BEAUMONT CALLlRGOS, Ricardo. Comentarios a la Ley General de Sociedades. Gaceta Jurídica, Lima 2002; BEAUMONT CALLlRGOS, Ricardo y CASTELLAR ES AGUILAR, Rolando. Comentarios a la Ley de Títulos Valores. Gaceta Jurídica, Lima 2002; CASTELLAR ES AGUILAR, Rolando. Las letras hipotecarias. En Gaceta Jurídica, Sección de Actualidad Jurídica, tomo VI, Lima, junio 1994. 1 994. (7) Mayor desarrollo al respecto en Max Arias-Schreiber Pezet / Carlos Cárdenas Quiros / Ángela Arias-Schreiber M. / Elvira Martfnez Coco. (pp. 247 a 265). Sobre lo mismo revisar también Rolando Castellares Aguilar en Gaceta Jurídica - Sección Actualidad Jurfdica. Tomo VI. Junio de 1994; pp. 47 Y ss.
"La hipoteca proveniente de la voluntad unilateral, llamada también hipoteca de cédulas, está destinada a garantizar títulos transmisibles por endoso o al portador, en cuyo caso se deben hacer constar en la escritura los detalles de la emisión de sus títulos, que pueden ser bonos, cédulas u otros títulos de deuda, con los cuales se recauda dinero del mercado de capitales, con el atractivo de una tasa de interés y el respaldo de garantía hipotecaria" (Cas. N° 723-98-Arequipa, Sala Civil de la la Corte Suprema, El Peruano, 21/01/99, p. 2514).
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"El artículo 1108 se refiere a la hipoteca que se constituye para garantizar títulos transmisibles por endoso o al portador, esto es bonos o cédulas hipotecarias cuya emisión requiere de un fideicomisario" (Cas. N° 349-T-97-Arequipa, 349-T-97-Areq uipa, El Peruano, 14/03/98, p.506). "Si el contrato de hipoteca prevé la cobertura de deudas futuras que pudieran resultar a cargo del obligado, no se puede restringir su aplicación a garantizar títulos transmisibles o por endosos" (Cas. N° 320-94. El Código Civil a través de la la Jurisprudencia Casatoria, p. 365). "La hipoteca puede constituirse en garantía de una obligación específica y determinada, y también para garantizar una obligación futura o eventual. Cuando dicha garantía real ha sido constituida por una empresa para garantizar las líneas de financiamiento que mantenía con una institución financiera, no resulta de aplicación lo previsto en el artículo 1108 del Código Civil, porque la hipoteca no se constituyó para garantizar título transmisible por endoso o al portador, siendo de aplicación lo previsto en el artículo 187 del Decreto Legislativo número 637 -Ley General de Instituciones Bancarias, Financieras y de Seguros-, que dispone que los bienes dados en prenda o hipoteca a favor de una empresa bancaria o financiera respalda todas las deudas y obligaciones directas o indirectas, existentes existentes o futuras, asumidas para con ella por quien los afecte en garantía" (Cas. N° 1059-99. El Código Civil a través de la Jurisprudencia Casatoria, p. 366). "El artículo 1108 del Código Civil regula la hipoteca proveniente de la voluntad unilateral llamada también hipoteca de cédula, cuyo antecedente es el artículo 1114 del Código Civil derogado, que por un error de sistemática no se le ha dado un capítulo aparte, lo que produce confusión en sus alcances, y que está destinada a garantizar títulos transmisibles por endoso o al portador, en cuyo caso se deben hacer constar en la escritura los detalles de la emisión de estos títulos, que pueden ser bonos, cédulas u otros títulos de deuda, con los cuales se recauda dinero del mercado de capitales, con el atractivo de una tasa de interés y el respaldo de garantía hipotecaria. Dicha norma no es aplicable cuando se trata de letras de cambio respaldadas por hipoteca, por ser estos títulos valores distintos a títulos hipotecarios" (Cas. N° 123-98; Código Civil-13 x 1; Ediciones Legales; 1ra. edición; Lima, 2002).
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El acreedor cuya hipoteca comprenda varios inmuebles podrá, a su elección, perseguir a todos ellos simultáneamente o solo a uno, aun cuando hubieran pertenecido o pasado a propiedad de diferentes personas o existieren otras hipotecas. Sin embargo, el juez podrá, por causa fundada, fijar un orden para la venta de los bienes afectados.
C.C. arts. 1097, 1102, 1143
El artículo bajo comentario puede ser desdoblado en dos extremos: a) por un lado, se plantea la facultad que tiene el acreedor para perseguir cualquiera de los bienes inmuebles que garanticen la obligación; y b) se faculta al juez para que luego de realizar la evaluación pertinente sobre la base de la causa invocada, decida sobre el orden de prelación en la venta de los bienes. 1. Derecho de persecución Una de las notas principales que caracterizan al derecho real de hipoteca es justamente el derecho de persecución; es decir, la facultad que tiene el acreedor de la obligación garantizada para pretender la enajenación forzosa del inmueble aun cuando este hubiere sido transferido a un tercero o existieren otras hipotecas que gravan el predio. . Como sabemos, el hecho de gravar un inmueble con una hipoteca, no es óbice para que se proceda a la enajenación del mismo, ni tampoco para que se vuelva a gravar (ver artículo 1113 del C.C.). En el primer caso, el adquirente se convertirá en deudor hipotecario por el solo hecho de la adquisición(1), y deberá soportar el
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inmueble en que tiene su negocio, pese a que existen otros bienes hipotecados a su favor y con los que cubre sin mayor problema el crédito que se le adeuda.
En el segundo caso, los nuevos (es decir, posteriores) acreedores hipotecarios, deberán soportar el hecho de que ya exista una hipoteca inscrita antes que la de ellos, la que obtiene una preferencia para la satisfacción del crédito. Siendo así, ante el incumplimiento, el acreedor tiene la facultad de dirigirse contra el deudor de la obligación o deudor personal o en el caso de que se haya transferido el inmueble, contra el deudor hipotecario (véase artículo 1117 del Código Civil). Pero además, si la hipoteca recae sobre varios inmuebles, puede el acreedor perseguir a todos los inmuebles o al que arbitrariamente se le ocurra, sin importar el que dicho predio ya corresponda en propiedad a un tercero y puedan existir otros bienes con los que se cubre el crédito y que aún son de propiedad del deudor personal; o incluso, puede el acreedor optar por perseguir a un inmueble que soporta otros gravámenes -el artículo solo refiere a otras hipotecas-, con lo que podría perjudicar a otros acreedores innecesariamente si es que existen otros bienes sin cargas y que alcanzan para cubrir el crédito. Como podrá advertirse, este artículo regula propiamente uno de los efectos principales de la indivisibilidad de la hipoteca, lá que en términos generales implica -para este caso en particular- que todos los inmuebles hipotecados responden ante el incumplimiento del deudor (salvó manifestación en contrario por parte del acreedor) aun cuando la obligación garantizada se hubiere extinguido parcialmente.
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modifica la situación jurídica del inmueble que sigue gravado hasta por un mismo monto y a favor del mismo acreedor. La segunda parte del artículo busca justamente evitar esta situación de abuso, y recoge la facultad del juez para que luego de la evaluación pertinente, habiendo concluido a partir de su poder discrecional, que la causa invocada por el emplazado amerita por su parte el establecimiento de una prelación para la venta, así lo dispone. Nótese con relación a esta segunda parte que: a) Se establece únicamente una facultad del juez para determinar el nuevo orden para la venta de los inmuebles, mas este no se encuentra obligado necesariamente a amparar el petitorio del deudor o responsable. Como hemos dicho, el juez deberá evaluar entre todos los componentes de la relación jurídica sustantiva, así como procesal, la suficiencia del argumento invocado por el emplazado en la ejecución; y, b) Debe quedar claro que el artículo comentado, únicamente le permite al juez establecer un orden en la venta de los inmuebles hipotecados, de lo que se entiende que el acreedor siempre pudo dirigir la acción real en razón a todos los inmuebles gravados, lo que sucede es que entre estos, el juez podría decidir un orden para su venta. En el ejemplo anterior, si con la venta de los dos primeros inmuebles se paga la deuda al acreedor, Diego podría haber perdido las dos tiendas que tenía en un centro comercial, pero su familia siguió habitando la vivienda de siempre. Borda(2) justifica la admisión de esta figura de la siguiente manera: "La solución es muy importante, porque a veces el acreedor, con evidente abuso,
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Garantías Civiles, Segunda Edición, Editorial Temis S.A., Santa Fe de Bogotá, 1999.
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Si los bienes hipotecados se pierden o deterioran de modo que resulten insuficientes, puede pedirse el cumplimiento de la obligación aunque no esté vencido el plazo, salvo que se garantice esta a satisfacción del acreedor.
C.C. arts. 181 ¡ne. 3), 1314, 1315 LEY 26702 art. 175 ¡ne. 2)
Este numeral, cuyo antecedente lo encontramos en el artículo 1021 del derogado Código Civil de 1936, regula uno de los derechos más interesantes al interior de la relación hipotecaria. El antiguo Código Civil de 1852 prescribía este sistema en su artículo 2029, donde lo regulaba con mayor amplitud en comparación al vigente artículo 1110. Dicho texto establecía que si los bienes hipotecados se deterioran por fraude o culpa del deudor, de modo que queden insuficientes para cubrir la responsabilidad, podrá el acreedor pedir por su orden, o el cumplimiento de la hipoteca hasta igualar el valor menoscabado, o del depósito de la casa hipotecada, o el cumplimiento de la
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Para aplicar la sanción del "cumplimiento de la obligación principal, será necesario que el deterioro del inmueble gravado sea de una envergadura tal que justifique tan drástica medida" (ARIAS SCHREIBER y CÁRDENAS QUIROS, p. 208). Esta norma, protesta Lucrecia Maisch Von Humboldt (en REVOREDO, p. 270), legisla solo una facultad del acreedor hipotecario: la de solicitar el cumplimiento anticipado de la obligación, sin ocuparse de otros importantes derechos que sí figuran en otros Códigos, como son: el de transferir el crédito hipotecario; el de solicitar judicialmente la cesación de actos materiales que tiendan a destruir el inmueble; el de efectuar una subrogación y el de renunciar a su derecho real de hipoteca. Presente en este artículo, parte de la teoría general del riesgo, conviene a todas luces contemplar algunas consideraciones al respecto, en lo que denominaremos teoría del riesgo en los derechos reales de garantía. El riesgo de una cosa, según Alfonso Pérez Mariano (p. 392), es un concepto vinculado exclusivamente al campo de los derechos reales, pues se refiere a la relación existente entre el propietario y la cosa. Se supone que el propietario de una casa queda disminuido en su patrimonio por la pérdida de esta. Si la casa se pierde por cualquier causa, será de aplicación el principio res perit domino, según el cual la cosa se pierde para su dueño. Aquí, resulta preciso aclarar cuándo debe considerarse perdido el bien, situación jurídica, que en el caso de inmuebles generalmente se identifica identif ica con su "destrucciórl', que a su vez puede ser total o parcial. El artículo 1137 del Código Civil establece los supuestos en los cuales puede producirse la pérdida del bien. Estos son:
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vinculados los conceptos de destrucción y deterioro del bien, resulta interesante la experiencia legislativa comparada, con relación a la hipoteca, tema que nos ocupa principalmente en este análisis. Sin duda, el Código Civil argentino es el que mejor regula esta figura, en tanto otros cuerpos legales, como el italiano, lo disciplinan de manera genérica al numerar los supuestos de extinción de esta institución (hipoteca). Importantes son los supuestos del Código Civil argentino; inicia el régimen con su artículo 3195, el cual prevé que si el inmueble hipotecado tiene edificios y estos son destruidos, la hipoteca solo subsiste sobre el suelo y no sobre materiales que formaban el edificio, agregando -notablemente- el legislador argentino que si el inmueble destruido es reconstruido vuelve a gravarlo. Nuestro régimen es plenamente opuesto a esta la última prescripción de la ley argentina, ya que el artículo 1110 prevé el cumplimiento anticipado de la obligación o la sustitución de la garantía, sin admitir el retorno a la hipoteca extinguida por destrucción del bien.
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181 y conservando, como regla general, el dispositivo bajo comentario (ARIASSCHREIBER y CÁRDENAS QUIROS, pp. 208-209). Lucrecia Maisch Von Humboldt (en REVOREDO, p. 271), expresa que mejor habría sido adaptar la fórmula de la Ponencia, la cual legislaba este derecho en su artículo 353, en diez incisos, en cuyo inciso 6), se ocupaba del cumplimiento anticipado de la obligación, pero solo en el caso de que la pérdida o deterioro de los inmuebles hipotecados no sea debida a caso fortuito o fuerza mayor. "Esta posición está más de acuerdo no solo con el principio de equidad sino también con el precepto obligacional que sanciona la irresponsabilidad del deudor por pérdida o deterioro del bien, debido a, caso fortuito o fuerza mayor, artículos 1314 y 1315 del Código Civil" (MAISCH VON HUMBOLDT, en REVOREDO, p. 271). Finalmente el artículo en comentario hace referencia a la posibilidad de ofrecer otra garantía a satisfacción del acreedor, cuando la garantía hipotecaria resulte
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Aunque no se cumpla la obligación, el acreedor no adquiere la propiedad del inmueble por el valor de la hipoteca. Es nulo el pacto en contrario.
C.C. arts. 1066. 1130 Comentario Luis García Careta El presente artículo establece la prohibición del pacto comisorio respecto a los bienes que son objeto de la hipoteca. Este artículo tiene su antecedente inmediato
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La norma asume una supuesta posición de desventaja del deudor en el momento de contraer la obligación y afectar el bien en garantía, y es a partir de esta premisa que se prohíbe el pacto comisorio. Tradicionalmente se ha considerado que otorgarle al acreedor la posibilidad de hacerse pago de una deuda, adjudicándose -a su sola voluntad-la propiedad del inmueble otorgado en hipoteca, constituye una situación de inequidad para el deudor. Se hacía necesario pues protegerlo de manera especial, ya que el deudor, en situación de necesidad de contar con un crédito, está dispuesto a pactar todo lo que el acreedor exija. El Dr. Jorge Eugenio Castañeda, al comentar el artículo 1024 del Código Civil de 1936 (cuyo texto es semejante al del artículo 1111), sostiene que "si no existiera la prohibición de este convenio, la cláusula vendría a resultar de estilo en todos los títulos constitutivos de la hipoteca". Es sobre la base de este supuesto que el derecho opta no solo por proscribir la posibilidad de que el acreedor adquiera la propiedad del bien sino, además, por sancionar con nulidad cualquier pacto que las partes puedan hacer en ese sentido. Se trata pues de una norma de orden público.
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Adicionalmente y para no dejar abierta posibilidad posibilida d alguna, sanciona con nulidad cualquier pacto que pudiera celebrarse y que tenga por objeto permitir al acreedor -a su sola elección- adquirir la propiedad del bien hipotecado en pago de la obligación no satisfecha. Dicho en otras palabras, no tendrá eficacia cualquier pacto que autorice al acreedor a tomar en propiedad el bien hipotecado en caso de incumplimiento del deudor en el pago de la obligación. 3. Una aproximación crítica a partir de situaciones reales Más allá de la discusión sobre lo positivo y lo negativo del pacto comisario, lo cierto es que en la actualidad, cuando solo es posible la ejecución judicial de la hipoteca, advertimos que el sistema no asegura que estos riesgos (apropiación del bien hipotecado a valor diminuto), que parecen prevenirse prohibiendo el pacto comisorio, no se presenten, lo que causa perjuicio tanto al acreedor como al deudor. A este respecto, se debe indicar ind icar que qu e el sistema s istema de ejecución judicial de la hipoteca h ipoteca
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4. Alcances de la prohibición El texto de la norma establece que: "Aunque no se cumpla la obligación, el acreedor no adquiere la propiedad... ". Esto significa que el acreedor no podrá apropiarse del bien hipotecado, así la deuda no se pague. Esta posibilidad está enfáticamente prohibida. Sin embargo, es importante precisar que la prohibición solo está limitada a la potestad del acreedor de adquirir la propiedad -en vía de apropiación- del bien
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comisorio y la dación en pago. En el primero, el acreedor queda facultado -a su sola elección- a adquirir la propiedad del bien hipotecado, existiendo un alto índice de probabilidad de que el valor del bien sea superior a la deuda, ya que lo que el acreedor normalmente cuida, a efectos de estar bien resguardado, es que el bien hipotecado tenga un valor suficiente como para cubrir el eventual incremento de la deuda por intereses compensatorios y moratorios que se pudiesen haber generado.
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el deudor, ya que la deuda se incrementará al punto que el valor de realización del bien no cubrirá la deuda. Esto último puede ocurrir, tanto porque la deuda se incrementó en relación a su cuantía original, como porque el sistema judicial de realización de garantías da lugar a que el valor de realización resulte diminuto. En un escenario como el indicado, el acreedor se perjudicará, en la medida en que no pueda ver satisfecha completamente su acreencia; y el deudor también, en tanto una porción de la deuda seguirá pendiente de pago.
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En paralelo y a efectos de buscar un tratamiento integral al tema de las garantías, no debería pasarse por alto el diseño de mecanismos que permitan proteger adecuadamente las garantías durante el lapso de cobertura a fin de asegurar que estas mantengan su valor (con el consiguiente beneficio, tanto para el acreedor como para el deudor), lo cual podría llevar, en ciertos casos, a su venta anticipada. En este supuesto, la garantía sería sustituida por una suma en valor real. En la práctica se ha demostrado que los procesos de ejecución de
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Para esclarecer este tema, se debe examinar si la obligación de pago es un hecho impuesto o es un hecho propio de la naturaleza de las obligaciones. El titular de un crédito (deudor) es quien ha recibido -en primer lugar- una prestación a título oneroso. Si el pago no se efectúa en la oportunidad prevista, se origina un desequilibrio transitorio entre las partes (acreedor y deudor) y para que dicho equilibrio se restablezca, debe pagarse el crédito. Por lo tanto, no se puede afirmar que el pago sea una obligación impuesta por quien otorga el crédito, sino que es la consecuencia lógica y legal de una obligación que es la contraprestación
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de venta podrá inferirse de una manifestación de voluntad tácita como ocurre por ejemplo, cuando al pactarse que el saldo de precio de venta sería pagado a la firma de la escritura pública correspondiente, la parte vendedora suscribe la misma escritura sin reserva alguna, aunq ue no conste la declaración expresa de recepción del monto adeudado". En este mismo sentido se pronunció la Resolución N° 326-98-0RLCfTR del 21 de setiembre de 1998. La segunda instancia consideró que este supuesto de cancelación de asiento de hipoteca legal erróneamente extendido, se encuadra dentro del marco previsto en el artículo 84, literal a), del Reglamento General de los Registros Públicos, que regula el error de concepto. El referido literal establece que la rectificación se efectuará cuando los errores "resulten claramente del título archivado: en mérito al mismo título ya inscrito, pudiendo extenderse la rectificación a solicitud de parte o, de oficio, en el supuesto previsto en el segundo párrafo del artículo 76 del presente Reglamento". A ello se agrega que la rectificación realizada bajo este supuesto no vulnera el principio de legitimación registral, dado que del propio tenor del artículo VII del Título Preliminar del Reglamento General de los Registros Públicos, concordante con el artículo 2013 del Código Civil, "los asientos registrales se presumen exactos y válidos. Producen todos sus efectos y legitiman al titular registral para actuar conforme a ellos, mientras no se rectifiquen en los términos establecidos en este Reglamento o se declare judicialmente su invalidez". En este sentido, se pronunciaron las las Resoluciones Resoluc iones N° 375-20000RLCfTR del 7 de noviembre de 2000 y N° 311-2002-0RLCfTR 311-2002-0RL CfTR del 25 de junio de 2002. El mismo razonamiento fue utilizado para denegar la solicitud de extensión de un asiento de hipoteca legal presuntamente omitido por el registrador en mérito al título archivado de la compraventa. En el caso resuelto mediante la Resolución N° 337-99-0RLCfTR del 20 de diciembre de 1999, se señaló lo siguiente: "se evidencia que ambas partes condicionaron el cumplimiento de sus prestaciones a presupuestos de hecho, esto es, la firma de la minuta, la subrogación de la hipoteca y la firma de la escritura pública, siendo que tales actos quedaron verificados de la misma escritura de fecha (...), así como del asiento (...)". En consecuencia, no se configuró el supuesto previsto en el primer numeral del artículo 1118 del Código Civil, a fin de aplicar el primer párrafo del artículo 1119 de la norma sustantiva. 2. Constitución de la hipoteca en los otros supuestos de hipotecas le~ales a que se refiere el enunciado del artículo 1118 del Código Civil El segundo párrafo del artículo bajo comentario contiene una regulación muy distinta de la establecida en el primer párrafo antes comentado, para determinar el nacimiento de la hipoteca legal en los casos mencionados en la primera parte del artículo 1118 del Código Civil.
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Código Procesal Civil, no son hipotecas que se constituyan de pleno derecho. Como indicáramos al comentar el artículo 1118 del Código Civil, en el artículo 305 se establece la obligación del cónyuge administrador de los bienes propios del otro cónyuge, de constituir hipoteca u otra garantía por el valor de los bienes que reciba. En el supuesto contemplado en el artículo 520, numeral 2), se establece como requisito previo para el ejercicio de la tutela, la constitución de garantía hipotecaria o prendaria, o de fianza si le es imposible al tutor dar alguna de aquellas, para asegurar la responsabilidad de su gestión. En el mismo sentido, el artículo 568 establece para la curatela las reglas relativas a la tutela. Asimismo, el artículo artíc ulo 874 numeral 1) del Código Civil establece establec e que la pensión alimenticia a que se refiere el artículo 728 es deuda hereditaria que grava en lo que fuere necesario la parte de libre disposición de la herencia en favor del alimentista, y se pagará asumiendo uno de los herederos la obligación alimentaria por disposición del testador o por acuerdo entre ellos, señalando que puede asegurarse su pago mediante hipoteca u otra garantía. En materia de alimentos, el artículo 572 del Código Procesal Civil establece que mientras esté vigente la sentencia que dispone el pago de alimentos, es exigible al obligado la constitución de garantía suficiente, a criterio del juez, lo que puede traducirse en la obligación de constituir hipoteca. Para los indicados supuestos, así como los previstos en otras normas, establece el segundo párrafo del presente artículo que "el derecho del acreedor surge de la inscripción de las hipotecas legales en el registro". Agrega que "las personas en cuyo favor se reconocen dichas hipotecas, pueden exigir el otorgamiento de los instrumentos necesarios para su inscripción". De la revisión de la legislación comparada, se aprecia que el artículo 2122 del Código Civil francés contiene una norma similar, al señalar que salvo reserva o disposición distinta, el acreedor beneficiario de una hipoteca legal (de las enumeradas en el artículo 2121) puede inscribir su derecho sobre todos los inmuebles de su deudor. Dichos supuestos están referidos a casos de familia, sucesiones y a tributos en favor del Estado, departamentos, comunas o instituciones públicas. El artículo 1497 del Código Civil brasileño establece que las hipotecas legales de cualquier naturaleza deben ser registradas y especializadas, cuyo registro incumbe a quien está obligado a prestar la garantía, pudiendo los interesados promover las inscripciones o solicitar al Ministerio Público que lo haga. Los supuestos de hipoteca legal regulados en el artículo 1489 del mismo Código están referidos a casos de familia, sucesiones y a tributos en favor de las personas de derecho público interno; contempla asimismo el supuesto del inmueble que fue
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El artículo 2932 del Código Civil mexicano señala que la constitución de la hipoteca necesaria podrá exigirse en cualquier tiempo, aunq ue haya cesado la causa que le diere fundamento, siempre que esté pendiente de cumplimiento la obligación. En su artículo 2935 señala a las personas que tienen derecho de pedir hipoteca necesaria para seguridad de sus créditos, incluyendo supuestos vinculados a casos de familia, sucesiones y tributos en favor del Estado, los pueblos y los establecimientos públicos. El Código Civil venezolano establece en su artículo 1885 tres supuestos de hipoteca legal, los dos primeros guardan similitud con los previstos en los numerales 1 y 3 del artículo 1118 de nuestro Código Civil, y también se constituyen de pleno derecho "bastando para ello que en el instrumento de enajenación o de adjudicación conste la obligación". El último supuesto, relativo al tutor y al interdicto sobre los bienes del tutor, no es automático, sino que requiere del otorgamiento del instrumento respectivo. En forma similar, el Código italiano establece en el artículo 2817 las personas a las que competen las hipotecas legales, considerando dos supuestos semejantes a los contenidos en los numerales 1 y 3 del artículo 1118 de nuestro Código Civil, y el último supuesto relativo a los bienes del imputado o de la persona civilmente responsable, según las disposiciones del Código Penal y del Código de Procedimientos Penales, la que se establece en favor del Estado. No se señala, sin embargo, que estas hipotecas legales se constituyen de pleno derecho. En tal sentido, se aprecia de la legislación comparada, la misma que se cita como fuente de nuestro articulado sobre esta materia, que solo el Código Civil venezolano contiene normativa similar con relación a supuestos de constitución de hipoteca legal de pleno derecho. La mayoría de los casos regulados son en realidad supuestos en los que existe obligación de constituir hipoteca. Por tanto, la normativa civil debe contemplar en forma diferenciada los supuestos actualmente regulados en los artículos 1118 y 1119 del Código Civil: el de hipoteca legal que se constituye de pleno derecho, precisando que ello se produce con la inscripción de la hipoteca que nace de los respectivos contratos regulados en los numerales 1 y 3 del artículo 1118 del Código Civil. Asimismo, los otros supuestos en los que existe obligación de constituir hipoteca a petición del acreedor, dentro de los cuales deberá incluirse al supuesto actualmente regulado en el numeral 2 del artículo 1118 antes mencionado, conforme a lo sustentado en el comentario del citado artículo.
AVENDAÑO, AVENDA ÑO, Jorge. Garantías. Materiales de Enseñanza. Enseña nza. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 1991, pp. 217 Y sgtes. CASTAÑEDA, Jorge Eugenio.
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Carlos Ferdinand. Derechos Reales. Tomo IV. 1ra. Edición. Editora Fecat. E.I.R.L., Lima, 1996, pp. 473 Y ss. EXPOSICiÓN DE MOTIVOS OFICIAL DEL CÓDIGO CIVIL. Separata Especial. Hipoteca. Lima, lunes 12 de noviembre de 1990. EXPOSICiÓN DE MOTIVOS Y COMENTARIOS. Código Civil. Tomo V. Comisión encargada del estudio y revisión del Código Civil. Compiladora: Delia Revoredo. Lima, Perú, 1985, pp. 276 Y sgtes. GUZMÁN FERRER, Fernando. Código Civil. Tomo 11. Editorial Científica S.R.L. 1 ra. Edición. JURISPRUDENCIA REGISTRAL. Volúmenes V, VII, IX, X, XI Y XIV. Registros Públicos de Lima y Callao.
"El artículo 1119 del Código Civil señala que las hipotecas legales se constituyen de pleno derecho y se inscriben de oficio, bajo responsabilidad del registrador, simultáneamente con los contratos de los cuales emanan. La hipoteca legal es entonces aquella que la ley une al crédito, no siendo necesario inclusive que se constituya por contrato expreso, de donde se concluye que el derecho del acreedor surge de la inscripción del contrato del cual emana" (Cas. N° 409-96. El Código Civil a través de la Jurisprudencia Casatorla, p. 369).
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Las hipotecas legales son renunciables y también puede cederse su rango respecto a otras hipotecas legales y convencionales. La renuncia y la cesión pueden hacerse antelada y unilateralmente.
C.C. arts. 195, 1112, 1113, 1114, 1118,1122 ¡nc. 3)
Esta norma reproduce textualmente el último párrafo del artículo 1027 del derogado Código Civil de 1936; en ella se reconocen dos caracteres de las hipotecas tanto legales como voluntarias; estos son: la posibilidad de su renuncia y cesión de rango; sin duda como manifiesta Max Arias-Schreiber (p. 227) este precepto se "inspira en la conveniencia de flexibilizar la garantía hipotecaria en aras del desarrollo del crédito y de la economía". No obstante lo interesante de la propuesta legislativa, esta no es repetida por el Proyecto de Reforma del Código Civil, el cual, aun cuando no regula la situación de las hipotecas legales, considera dentro de sus preceptos generales referentes al rango de las hipotecas, la posibilidad de su cesión a otro acreedor hipotecario (artículo 1100 del Proyecto); mientras que el aspecto referente a la renuncia de la hipoteca queda limitada a los supuestos que extinguen -genéricamente- las garantías reales (artículo 1065 del Proyecto). Dada la especial característica de las hipotecas legales, en su tratamiento de~ bemos atender ante todo a la constitución de estas, la misma que se produce por imperio de la norma, de pleno derecho; limitándose a ello, sin obligar al mantenimiento de esta situación. Consecuentemente, podemos afirmar que a voluntad del acreedor de la hipoteca legal, esta puede dejar de afectar el bien en cualquier momento, supuesto que funda la posibilidad de la renuncia de la hipoteca. Según faculta el artículo 1120 de nuestro Código sustantivo, el acreedor puede realizar la renuncia a la hipoteca "anteladamente", es decir, desde el momento en que se contrae la obligación principal, mandato que por no ser imperativo, admite la posibilidad de renunciar por acto posterior, el mismo que puede ser unilateral; Rol esto es, prescindiendo totalmente del sentimiento del deudor constituyente de la hipoteca.
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Al respecto, Luis Díez-Picazo y Antonio Gullón (p. 747), sostienen que, "renunciable es el derecho de hipoteca con independencia de la subsistencia del crédito garantizado. Es en ello unánime la doctrina y Roca Sastre sitúa la renuncia del derecho de hipoteca como la primera de las causas de extinción. La renuncia del titular del derecho real es en nuestro Derecho enteramente libre y puede ejercitarse sin necesidad de contar con el consentimiento de la otra parte. Es ello consecuencia de que el dérecho real se establece precisamente en interés del renunciante, única persona a quien beneficia". De lo anterior observamos que nada como la renuncia 12 resalta el carácter accesorio de la hipoteca respecto de la obligación principal cuyo cumplimiento garantiza. Así, la condonación de la deuda, conforme a ley, implica la renuncia de la hipoteca; mas la "condonación" o renuncia de la hipoteca en ningún caso implicará la extinción de la deuda principal 13. En el razonamiento, renunciar a la obligación principal y pretender que subsista la hipoteca (relación accesoria) no solo es imposible, sino también incoherente. No obstante lo manifestado hasta ahora, teniendo en cuenta el carácter especial de la hipoteca legal, la renuncia unilateral a la hipoteca, sea esta antelada o no, requiere documento público o privado que pruebe esta situación y facilite la desafección del bien gravado con la hipoteca. Observados los aspectos genéricos de la renuncia, para terminar, nos referiremos a la renuncia maliciosa de la hipoteca por parte del acreedor, quien con este acto busca disminuir su patrimonio o perjudicar el cobro del crédito (que mantiene con un tercero), defraudando a su acreedor; caso en el cual resultan de aplicación los supuestos del artículo 195 del Código Civil referido a la acción pauliana o revocatoria. De gran importancia, la renuncia de la hipoteca en tanto implica la liberación del inmueble antes afectado por la garantía real, encuentra una regulación similar en la legislación comparada; así, en Italia, Argentina, España y Francia se halla al interior de los supuestos de extinción de la hipoteca. Respeto de la cesión del rango de la hipoteca legal, a favor de otras hipotecas legales y convencionales, resulta plenamente aplicable el razonamiento seguido en el caso anterior (renuncia). La hipoteca legal solo lo es en virtud de su forma de
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El acreedor hipotecario preferente puede válidamente ceder su rango a otro de menor rango, en virtud de la autonomía privada, intercambiando su posición de preferencia en caso de ejecución del bien afectado. Como la norma bajo comentario lo señala, no existe ningún inconveniente en que la cesión de rango pueda efectuarse entre un acreedor con hipoteca legal y un acreedor con hipoteca convencional o viceversa; operando -la cesiónunilateralmente, sin necesidad del consentimiento del constituyente de la hipoteca, puesto que en el fondo la cesión no implica modificación alguna al contrato de hipoteca. A pesar de que la ley no lo prescribe, anotamos la necesidad neces idad de la emisión de un documento, de preferencia público, donde conste la cesión del rango realizada; instrumento que permitirá la inscripción del derecho en el registro respectivo, haciendo posible con esto que el derecho adquirido sea oponible a terceros; así nos ilustra el principio de publicidad registral 14 recogido por nuestra norma civil positiva en su artículo 2012, según el cual se presume iuris et de iure que toda persona tiene conocimiento del contenido de las inscripciones. Durante los debates para la aprobación de este precepto, el doctor Manuel de la Puente y Lavalle (citado por SIGlO, p. 65) hizo llegar una sugerencia a la Comisión Revisora a fin de que la norma regule también la posibilidad de que por acuerdo de las partes, pueda compartirse el rango hipotecario. Al respecto, el doctor Jack Sigio Chrem (p. 65) manifestó, aclarando el supuesto, que a su modo de ver, se hallaba sobreentendida dicha sugerencia en la redacción del comentado artículo 1120 del vigente Código Civil; esto en virtud al aforismo jurídico que define al argumento a tortiori: "quien puede lo más, puede lo menos". En efecto, en el caso bajo consulta, dijo, quien tiene potestad y puede ceder su rango, con mayor razón puede pactar compartirlo. De esto, anotamos que en mérito de la autonomía privada, la cesión de rango puede constituirse como un acto a título gratuito u oneroso, supuestos ambos con los mismos efectos respecto de la cesión.
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rango preferente de la hipoteca anterior provoca una importante limitación para las hipotecas posteriores, las cuales quedan a merced de las vicisitudes de aquella". Innovadora y con mejores fórmulas legislativas, la legislación comparada dedica importantes artículos para regular la cesión de rango. Así, mientras en Argentina se prevé la cesión de rango en forma regular, mayor interés nos causa la llamada hipoteca de rango preferente, regulada en el artículo 3135 del Código Civil argentino, que faculta al propietario del bien a afectarse con la hipoteca para consentimiento del acreedor- reservarse el derecho de constituir ulteriormente otra de grado preferente, expresando el monto que esta podrá alcanzar. La cesión de rango 15 (artículos 1114 y 1120 del C.C.) no debe confundirse con la cesión de derechos prevista en el artículo 1206 del Código Civil; ni con el cambio de posición contractual del artículo 1435; puesto que en la cesión de rango solo se cede el derecho de preferencia (rango), lo que es imposible en los otros dos supuestos, donde lo único que se sucede es la garantía sin variación del rango. Finalmente, el Proyecto de Reforma del Código Civil: Libro de Derechos Reales (aprobado preliminarmente en abril del año 2002) recoge esta figura en su artículo 1100, presentando una notable innovación, ya que si bien prevé la cesión del rango (del acreedor preferente) a otro acreedor hipotecario, esta cesión solo se hará hasta por el monto de la hipoteca cuyo rango se cede, limitación que no se tenía antes y que consideramos oportuna, a fin de evitar excesos, recordando siempre que la cesión de rango no importa modificación del contrato hipotecario. Otra de las novedades es la mención expresa acerca de la posibilidad de cesión total o parcial, situación que a fortiori se halla en el precepto general de los artículos 1114 y 1120 del vigente Código Civil de 1984, mención que se hace didáctica y favorece el desarrollo de los créditos. Junto a esto, el Proyecto exige en forma expresa como requisito constitutivo de la cesión, su inscripción en el Registro; aspecto plausible en tanto favorece a la seguridad jurídica que, sin embargo, en el Código Civil de 1984, quedaba librada a la diligencia del cesionario.
MURO P. A. Manual de Derechos Reales de Garantía: Prenda, Hipoteca, Mutuo,
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Civil, vol. 111, Derecho de Cosas. Editorial Tecnos, Madrid 1995; ARIASSCHREIB ARIASS CHREIBER ER PEZET, Max / CARDENAS CARDE NAS QUIROS, Carlos / ARIASARIAS SCHREIBER M., Angela y MARTINEZ COCO, Elvira. Exégesis del Código Civil Peruano de 1984. Derechos Reales de Garantía, tomo VI. Gaceta Jurídica, Lima 1998; ROCA SASTRE, Ramón y ROCA-SASTRE MUNCUNILL, Luis. Derecho Hipotecario, tomo IV. España, s.d.
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Las reglas de los artículos 1097 a 1117 y 1122 rigen para las hipotecas legales en cuanto sean aplicables.
C.C. arts. 1097 a 1117,1122
Este numeral repite el contenido del artículo 1028 del Código Civil de 1936; de su confrontación fácilmente puede advertirse diferencia de redacción entre ambos dispositivos. Mientras el texto del derogado artículo 1028 proponía una norma genérica: "las reglas del título anterior rigen para las hipotecas legales, en cuanto les sean aplicables"; no excluyente; el actual artículo 1121, más específico, autodelimita el radio que le pueda ser de aplicación -a la hipoteca legal- de la normativa general que como sabemos regula la hipoteca voluntaria. El precepto bajo comentario constituye un caso típico de norma remisiva, técnica legislativa criticada por la moderna concepción francesa para la regulación y codificación. En realidad, esta no es una norma de remisión simple, como sí lo era su similar derogada de 1936 (artículo 1023 del C.C. de 1936); esta es una norma de remisión múltiple 16, calificación que se le otorga precisamente por lo que antes llamamos autodelimitación e individualización del plural de normas que le puedan ser aplicables a la figura que la norma busca disciplinar; en este caso, la hipoteca legal. Siendo, la hipoteca legal17 un caso especial de la garantía hipotecaria como lo resalta el vigente artículo 1118 del Código Civil, según Max Arias-Schreiber (p. 227) "resulta lógico que rijan para ella las normas pertinentes de la hipoteca voluntaria", esta consideración obviamente, debido a la única diferencia entre ellas, es su modo de constitución. No obstante, consideramos que nuestro
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admitimos el uso de normas de remisión únicamente, para casos especiales tales como; la remisión a una regulación especial; este es el caso de los bienes incorporales (artículo 884 del C.C.) supuesto de remisión externa, es decir fuera del cuerpo legal que contiene la norma de remisión; o, en caso de que la remisión sea en extremo necesaria debido a la naturaleza del supuesto de hecho a regular, remisión interna, es decir dentro del propio cuerpo legal (en este caso también se admite la remisión externa). Un ejemplo de esto son las obligaciones de no hacer que se rigen por las normas aplicables a las obligaciones de hacer (artículo 1160 del C.C.). El precepto bajo comentario dispone que rigen respecto de la hipoteca legal "en cuanto sean aplicables" las reglas de la hipoteca voluntaria, artículos 1097 a 1117 y 1122 del Código Civil; remisión que genera imprecisión e inseguridad, ya que se convierte vía la interpretación en una puerta abierta, que le otorga un poder especial e inesperado al operador del Derecho. Siendo la intención de esta obra aclarar los conceptos y remisiones no absoluta e inequívocamente claras, nos consideramos plenamente legitimados para atravesar la consabida expresión "en cuanto sean aplicables", y obtener, quizá, en un purismo legislativo, lo realmente aplicable de la disciplina de la hipoteca voluntaria, a la hipoteca legal; propósito que nos obliga a revisar cada numeral de los citados por la norma comentada. El artículo 1097 define lo que es hipoteca, superando de este modo la omisión del Código de 1936. Por esta norma entendemos a la hipoteca como un derecho real de garantía; de carácter exclusivamente inmobiliario, que puede constituirse tanto sobre bien propio, como ajeno. La hipoteca no implica la desposesión del deudor,
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hipoteca legal; y segundo, en una interpretación a contrario, del íntegro del texto, por la cual entendemos que la constitución no será por escritura pública, solo cuando la ley así lo disponga (caso hipoteca legal). En consecuencia, esta norma puede ser de gran utilidad frente a cualquier pretensión de nulidad del gravamen por no revestir la forma solemne "prescrita por ley". En caso de que se otorgue escritura pública para una hipoteca legal, esta constituirá solo un medio de prueba. El artículo 1099 del Código Civil, a pesar de repetir el error del artículo 1013 del derogado Código de 1936 en tanto confunde y regula conjuntamente las condiciones esenciales 18, con los requisitos meramente formales que deben figurar en el documento constitutivo19, tiene una presencia importante al interior de la disciplina hipotecaria, ya que se encarga de determinar los requisitos de validez para la constitución de la precitada garantía real. Consecuentemente, esta norma resulta de aplicación a la hipoteca legal, exceptuando de esta al inciso primero referido a la capacidad para hipotecar, el cual no se condice con la forma de constitución de esta clase de hipoteca, siendo más bien, propia de la hipoteca voluntaria. El artículo 1100 del Código Civil, no considerado por el Código de 1936, dispone el llamado principio de especialidad objetiva, por el cual: "la hipoteca debe recaer sobre inmuebles específicamente determinados". Sin mayor comentario al respecto, dada la claridad de la norma, proclamamos la pertinencia de esta disposición para el caso de la hipoteca legal, la cual por su forma de constitución es la primera en observar este principio, debido a que se constituye únicamente sobre el bien materia de la compraventa, a fin de garantizar el pago del saldo adeudado.
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en el Código francés de 1804, artículo 2114; y por el Código italiano, artículo 2809; ambos, fuente del precitado artículo 1102. Por la indivisibilidad, cada una de las cosas hipotecadas y cada parte de ellas están obligadas al pago de toda la deuda y de cada parte de ella (AVENDAÑO, p. 161). Mientras exista un saldo impago, la hipoteca subsistirá íntegra sobre la totalidad del inmueble; consecuentemente, no podrá exigirse el levantamiento de la hipoteca. Por tal razón, siendo la hipoteca legal un tipo hipotecario especialmente previsto para proteger al acreedor automáticamente, sin necesidad de contrato expreso, una vez verificados los supuestos descritos por la norma, el principio de indivisibilidad halla en la hipoteca legal aplicación privilegiada en beneficio del acreedor. La hipoteca, por principio indivisible, constituye una fuente de seguridad plena, no solo para los créditos-capital, respaldados por ella, sino también de los efectos que se generan a causa de la obligación principal (crédito). El artículo 1107 hace referencia a esto, precisando que la hipoteca cubre el capital, los intereses que devengue, las primas de seguro pagadas por el acreedor y las costas del juicio; en este último, incluyendo los gastos del remate, dado que son originados por el incumplimiento del deudor. Plenamente indiferente para este artículo, si se trata de hipoteca legal o convencional, su disposición rige también para la hipoteca legal. El artículo 1103 del Código Civil, repetición casi textual del artículo 1020 del antiguo Código de 1936, sistematiza lo referente a la unidad de una explotación económica, consideración que solo puede ser hecha por los contratantes sobre la explotación económica que forma un conjunto de bienes unidos o dependientes entre sí. Supuesto que en consideración personal no tiene aplicación posible a la
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determinación de la ley, la hipoteca de cédula descrita por el artículo 1108 se constituye por voluntad unilateral del deudor, quien es el que solicita la emisión de los títulos valores ofreciendo un inmueble en garantía de pago. El artículo 1109, excepcionalmente, será de aplicación a la hipoteca legal; no siendo usual el supuesto de hipoteca plural, consideramos que puede hallar su ejercicio en el inciso 3) del artículo 1118 del Código vigente, el mismo que en su interior describe un supuesto de hipoteca legal expresamente reconocido por nuestro sistema civil. Dice: son hipotecas legales "3. La de los inmuebles adquiridos en una partición con la obligación de hacer amortizaciones en dinero a otros de los copropietarios". El acreedor podrá perseguir a todos ellos simultáneamente o solo a uno, existiendo la posibilidad de que el juez, de existir causa fundada, fije un orden para la venta de los bienes afectados. El artículo 1110 del Código Civil referente a la pérdida o deterioro del bien hipotecado, cuyo antecedente es el artículo 1021 del derogado, resulta sumamente útil a la hora de proteger al acreedor que se ve privado del total o de una parte del bien afectado por la garantía real, hecho que perjudica tanto el monto del gravamen como la seguridad para el recupero del crédito; sea el evento dañino ocasionado o no con culpa del deudor. Por tanto, numeral aplicable a la hipoteca como institución genérica; del texto de la norma no se desprende discriminación alguna para las diversas clases de hipoteca, en consecuencia el artículo no rige válidamente a la hipoteca legal. El artículo 1111, se ocupa del pacto comisorio, esto es, la prohibición al acreedor de adquirir -al incumplimiento de la obligación principal- la propiedad del inmueble; precisando el texto legal que todo pacto en contrario es nulo. A nuestro juicio, este es un dispositivo plenamente aplicable a la hipoteca legal. La prohibición del pacto
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resultando irrelevante para esto, el tipo de hipoteca que grave el inmueble. El artículo 1114 rige para la hipoteca legal. Otra norma general es la del artículo 1113, repetición mecánica del artículo 1023 del derogado Código de 1936. En mérito de este artículo "no se puede renunciar a la facultad de gravar el bien con segunda y ulteriores hipotecas". Prescripción para la hipoteca como institución jurídica, aplicable también a la especie hipoteca legal. Del texto del artículo puede advertirse que no necesariamente las nuevas hipotecas deben de ser de la misma naturaleza que la primera; el hipotecante podrá constituir segundas o terceras hipotecas sobre el mismo inmueble ya gravado, sean estas hipotecas convencionales o legales, sin que pueda obligársele en el contrato a renunciar a su facultad de gravar el bien. Los artículos 1115 y 1116 del Código Civil no hallan regulación en el Código de 1936. Su fuente se encuentra en el Código Civil italiano. Ambos se ocupan de la reducción de la hipoteca, la que puede ser reducida tanto por pacto entre el acreedor y deudor, acuerdo que solo tendrá efecto frente a tercero después de su inscripción en el Registro; como por solicitud del deudor al juez, para que sea este quien reduzca proporcionalmente la hipoteca, si ha disminuido el importe de su obligación, caso en el cual también es necesaria la inscripción registral para la oposición de la reducción judicial a terceros. Disposición aplicable a la hipoteca legal, la misma que solo se diferencia de otras clases en su momento constitutivo. El artículo 1117 del Código Civil reproduce el controvertido artículo 1018 del Código derogado, el cual hacía coexistir por el derecho de persecución: la acción personaly la real. Consideramos errada esta disposición debido a que, cuando se adquiere un bien afectado por una hipoteca, también se adquiere la hipoteca, lo
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MURO P. A. Manual de Derechos Reales de Garantía: Prenda, Hipoteca, Mutuo, Derecho de Retención, Anticresis. Ediciones Jurídicas, Lima 1999; VASQUEZ RIOS, Alberto. Los Derechos Reales de Garantía. Editorial San Marcos, Lima 1995; BIGIO CHREM, Jack. Exposición de Motivos Oficial del Código Civil de 1984. Cultural Cuzco, Lima 1998; CASTAÑEDA, Jorge Eugenio. Instituciones de Derecho Civil. Los Derechos Reales de Garantía, tomo 111. Editorial Amauta, Lima 1967; MAISCH VON HUMBOLDT, Lucrecia. En: REVOREDO DE DEBACKEY, Delia. Código Civil. Exposición de Motivos y Comentarios, tomo V. Comisión Encargada del Estudio y Revisión del Código Civil. Lima 1985; DIEZPICAZO, Luis y GULLON, Antonio. Sistema de Derecho Civil, vol. /1/, Derecho de Cosas. Editorial Tecnos, Madrid 1995; ARIAS-SCHREIBER PEZET, Max / CARDENAS QUIROS, Carlos / ARIAS-SCHREIBER M., Angela y MARTINEZ COCO, Elvira. Exégesis del Código Civil Peruano de 1984. Derechos Reales de Garantía, tomo VI. Gaceta Jurídica, Lima 1998; AVE N DAÑO VALDEZ, Jorge.
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"Que, por otro lado es de verse del título venido en grado que en lo referente al levantamiento de la hipoteca no existe declaración expresa que se efectúa por haberse cumplido total o parcialmente con la obligación garantizada, tal como lo requeriría una cancelación de la hipoteca o una reducción de la misma, por lo que debe entenderse que el levantamiento importa propiamente una desafectación del citado inmueble del gravamen hipotecario, esto es una reducción de la base material sujeta a hipoteca, manteniéndose la misma por igual monto gravando los demás inmuebles; ya lo dice la Exposición de Motivos del Código Civil al referirse al artículo 1101, que por convenio de las partes puede ampliarse o reducirse, según sea el caso, la extensión objetiva de la hipoteca, es decir, la extensión en relación al inmueble gravado; (...) Que, debe tenerse presente además que la hipoteca ha sido establecida en protección del derecho del acreedor, por lo que este puede inclusive renunciar en forma expresa y por escrito, a dicha hipoteca, produciéndose la extinción de la misma, a tenor de lo dispuesto en el inciso 3 del artículo 1122 del Código Civil,
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La hipoteca se acaba por: 1.- Extinción de la obligación que garantiza. 2.- Anulación, rescisión o resolución de dicha obligación. 3.- Renuncia escrita del acreedor. 4.- Destrucción total del inmueble. 5.- Consolidación.