LAPORAN TOKSIKOLOGI LINGKUNGAN Penentuan LD50pada mencit dengan CdSO 4 secara Intraperitoneal Intraperitoneal
Kelompok 4 Dinda Nurul Maulida
109095000020
Qorimeifebria Rizkevina
109095000008
Silmi Amalia Syukrani
109095000028
Yogi Setiawan
109095000037
Zahara Fibryana Putri
109095000034
PROGRAM STUDI BIOLOGI FAKULTAS SAINS DAN TEKNOLOGI UNIVERSITAS ISLAM NEGRI SYAFIF HIDAYATULLAH JAKARTA 2011
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BAB I PENDAHULUAN
1.1
Latar Belakang
Kadmium (Cd) merupakan salah satu jenis logam berat yang berbahaya karena
elemen
ini
beresiko
tinggi
terhadap pembuluh
darah.
Kadmium
berpengaruh terhadap manusia dalam jangka waktu panjang dan dapat terakumulasi pada tubuh khususnya hati dan ginjal. Zat beracun tersebut dapat masuk ke tubuh manusia elalui sistem pencernaan dan sistem pernapasan. Keracunan logam kadmium terdiri dari 15-50% penyerapan melalui sistem pernapasan dan 2-7% melalui sistem pencernaan. Target organ adalah hati, plasenta, ginjal, paru-paru, otak, dan tulang. Kadmium ditemukan dalam pembuatan baterai, plastik
PVC,
pigmen cat, pupuk, rokok,
dan kerang yang
berada di sekitar lingkungan pabrik. Logam berat ini bergabung bersama timbal (Pb) dan merkuri sebagai the big three heavy metal yang memiliki tingkat bahaya tertinggi pada kesehatan manusia. Walaupun kadar logam dalam tanah, air, dan udara rendah, namun dapat meningkat apabila manusia menggunakan produkproduk dan peralatan yang mengandung logam, pabrik-pabrik yang menggunakan logam, pertambangan logamdan logam dan pemurnian logam. Menurut badan dunia FAO /WHO, konsumsi per minggu yang ditoleransikan bagi manusia adalah 400-500 400- 500 μg per orang atau 7 μg per kg berat badan. Berdasarkan teori tersebut dilakukan penelitian lebih lanjut untuk mengetahui dampak logam berat kadmium sulfat (CdSO 4). Dilakukan Praktikum Toksikologi Lingkungan Uji toksistas akut LD 50, untuk mengetahui dosis yang mematikan 50% dari jumlah hewan uji pada mencit betina. Jika metode yang dilakukan sesuai, maka dosis tersebut nantinya dapat dikonversi ke manusia.
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BAB II TINJAUAN PUSTAKA
2.1
Hewan Coba
Pada dasarnya tidak ada satu hewan pun yang sempurna untuk ujitoksisitas
akut
yang
nantinya
akan
digunakan
oleh
manusia.
Walaupuntidak ada aturan tetap yang mengatur pemilihan spesies hewan coba,yang
lazim
digunakan
pada
uji
toksisitas
akut
adalah
tikus,
mencit,marmut, kelinci, babi, anjing, monyet.Pada awalnya, pertimbangan dalammemilih hewan coba hanya berdasarkan avaibilitas, harga, dan kemudahandalam perawatan.Namun, seiring perkembangan zaman tipe metabolisme,farmakokinetik,
dan
perbandingan
catatan
atau
sejarah
avaibilitas juga ikutdipertimbangkan. Hewan yang paling sering dipakai adalah
mencit
denganmempertimbangkan denganmempertimbangkan
faktor
ukuran,
kemudahan
perawatan, harga, danhasil yang cukup konsisten dan relevan.
2.1.2 Klasifikasi
Kerajaan : Animalia Filum : Chordata Kelas : Mamalia Ordo : Rodentia Famili : Muridae Genus : Mus Spesies : M. M. musculuc
Hewan mencit atau Mus musculus adalah tikus rumah biasa
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yang mempunyai warna bulu putih dan mata merah muda (Hrapkiewicz etal, 1998). Mencit merupakan hewan yang tidak mempunyai kelenjar keringat, jantungterdiri dari empat ruang dengan dinding atrium yang tipis
dan
dinding
ventrikel
yanglebih
tebal.Percobaan
dalam
menangani hewan yang akan diuji cenderung memiliki karakteristik yang berbeda, seperti mencit lebih penakut dan fotofobik, cenderung sembunyi dan berkumpul dengan sesama, mudah di tangani, lebih aktif pada malam hari (nocturnal), aktivitas terganggu dengan adanya manusia, suhu normal 37,4 0 C, lajurespirasi 163/ menit sedangkan pada hewan tikus sangat cerdas, mudah ditangani, tidakbersifat fotofobik, lebih resisten terhadap infeksi, kecenderungan berkumpul dengansesama sangat kurang, jika makanan kurang atau diperlakukan secara kasar akanmenjadi liar dan galak, suhu normal 37,50 C, laju respirasi 210/ menit pada mencit dantikus persamaannya gigi seri pada keduanya sering digunakan untuk mengerat /menggigit benda-benda yang keras. Dengan mengetahui sifat-sifat karakteristik hewanyang akan diuji diharapkan lebih menyesuaikan dan tidak diperlakukan tidak wajar. Didalam suatu dosis yang dipakai untuk penggunaan suatu obat harus sesuai dengan datamengenai penggunaan dosis secara kuantitatif, dikarenakan bila obat itu diaplikasikankepada manusia dilakukan perbandingan luas permukaan tubuh. 2.2
Kadmium (Cd) Logam kadmium mempunyai penyebaran sangat luas di alam, hanya ada satu
jenis mineral kadmium di alam yaitu greennockite (CdS) yang selalu ditemukan bersamaan dengan mineral spalerite (ZnS).Mineral greennockite ini sangat jarang ditemukan di alam, sehingga dalam eksploitasi logam Cd biasanya merupakan produksi sampingan dari peristiwa peleburan bijih-bijih seng (Zn). Biasanya pada
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merupakan logam yang lunak, ductile, berwarna putih seperti putih perak. Logam ini akan kehilangan kilapnya jika berada dalam udara yang basah atau lembab serta akan cepat mengalami kerusakan bila dikenai uap ammonia (NH 3) dan sulfur hidroksida (SO2).
Sedangkan
berdasar
pada
sifat-sifat
kimianya,
logam
Cd
didalam +
persenyawaan yang dibentuknya pada umumnya mempunyai bilangan valensi 2 , +
sangat sedikit yang mempunyai bilangan valensi 1 . Kadmium (Cd) merupakan salah satu jenis logam berat yang berbahaya karena unsur ini berisiko tinggi terhadap pembuluh darah.Logam ini memiliki tendensi untuk bioakumulasi.Keracunan yang disebabkan oleh kadmium dapat bersifat akut dan keracunan kronis. Logam Cd merupakan logam asing dalam tubuh dan tidak dibutuhkan dalam proses metabolisme. Logam ini teradsorbsi oleh tubuh manusia yang akan menggumpal di dalam ginjal, hati dan sebagian dibuang keluar melalui saluran pencernaan. Keracunan Cd dapat mempengaruhi otot polos pembuluh darah.Akibatnya tekanan darah menjadi tinggi yang kemudian bisa menyebabkan terjadinya gagal jantung dan kerusakan ginjal. Kadmium memiliki banyak efek toksik diantaranya kerusakan ginjal dan karsinogenik pada hewan yang menyebabkan tumor pada testis.Akumulasi logam kadmium dalam ginjal membentuk komplek dengan protein.Waktu paruh dari kadmium dalam tubuh 7-30 tahun dan menembus ginjal terutama setelah terjadi kerusakan.Kadmium bisa juga menyebabkan kekacauan pada metabolisme kalsium yang pada akhirnya mengalami kekurangan kalsium pada tubuh dan menyebabkan penyakit osteomalacia (rasa sakit pada persendian tulang belakang, tulang kaki) dan bittlebones (kerusakan tulang). Kadmium berpengaruh terhadap manusia dalam jangka waktu yang panjang dan dapat terakumulasi pada tubuh khususnya hati dan ginjal.Secara prinsip, pada konsentrasi rendah berefek terhadap gangguan pada paru-paru, emphysemia dan renal turbular disease yang kronis.
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2.3
Uji Toksisitas
Uji toksisitas adalah untuk menentukan sifat akut atau kronik limbah.Pada dasarnya pengujian toksisitas bertujuan untuk menilai efek racun terhadap organisme, menganalisis secara obyektif resiko yang dihadapi akibat adanya racun di lingkungan.Toksisitas akut terjadi pada dosis tinggi, waktu pemaparan pendek dengan efek parah dan mendadak, dimana organ absorpsi dan eksresi yant terkena.Sedangkan toksisitas khronis terjadi pada dosis tidak tinggi pemaparan menahun, gejala tidak mendadak atau gradual, intensitas efek dapat parah/ tidak.Jenis uji yang digunakan tergantung pada penggunaan zat kimia dan manusia yang terpapar. Ada beberapa tingkatan dalam uji toksisitas: Tingkat 1 Uji pemaparan akut :
Menggambar kurva dosis dan respon untuk kematian dan kemungkinan cacat tubuh
Uji iritasi mata dan kulit
Membuat saringan pertama untuk mutagenik aktivitas
Tingkat 2. Uji pemaparan sub khronis
Menggambar kurva dosis dan respon (pajanan 90 hari) dalam 2 spesies, sebaiknya uji
ini menggunakan rute pajanan pada manusia
Uji toksisitas pda organ, catat kematian, penurunan berat badan, hematologi, dan kimia klinis, membuat sayatan dari jaringan secara mikroskopis.
Menyiapkan saringan kedua untuk aktifitas mutagenik
Uji reproduktif dan cacat lahir (teratologi)
Uji pharmakokinetik dari hewan uji : absorbsi, distribusi, metabolisme dan eliminasi dari zat dalam tubuh
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Tingkat 3 Uji pajanan khronis
2.4
Melakukan uji mutagenicity pada hewan mamalia
Melakukan uji karsinogenisisi pada hewan pengerat
Menguji farmakokinetik pada manusia
Melakukan uji coba klinis pada manusia
Bandingkan dengan data epidemiologi dari pajanan akut dan kronis
Lethal Dose 50
Lethal Dose 50 adalah suatu besaran yang diturunkan secara statistik, guna menyatakan dosis tunggal sesuatu senyawa yang diperkirakan dapat mematikan atau menimbulkan efek toksik yang berarti pada 50% hewan coba setelah perlakuan. LD
50
merupakan tolak ukur kuantitatif yang sering digunakan untuk menyatakan kisaran dosis letal. Ada beberapa pendapat yang menyatakan tidak setuju, bahwa LD 50 masih dapat digunakan untuk uji toksisitas akut. Namun ada juga beberapa kalangan yang masih setuju, dengan pertimbangan: a) Jika lakukan dengan baik, uji toksisitas akut tidak hanya mengukur LD tetapi juga memeberikan informasi tentang
50,
waktu kematian, penyebab
kematian, gejala – gejala sebelum kematian, organ yang terkena efek, dan kemampuan pemulihan dari efek nonlethal.
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pemberian, suhu lingkungan, kelembaban, sirkulasi udara. Tidak luput kesalahan manusia juga dapat mempengaruhi hasil ini. Sehingga sebelum melakukan penelitian, ada baiknya kita memeperhatikan faktor – faktor – faktor yang mempengaruhi hasil ini. Faktor-faktor yang berpengaruh terhadap proses absorbsi obat pada saluran cerna adalah: a) Bentuk sediaan. Terutama berpengaruh terhadap kecepatan absorbsi obat, yang secara tidak langsung mempengaruhi intensitas respon biologis obat. Dalam bentuk sediaan yang berbeda, maka proses absorbsi obat memerlukan waktu yang berbeda-beda. b) Sifat kimia dan fisika obat. Bentuk asam, ester, garam, komples atau hidrat dari bahan obat dapat mempengaruhi kekuatan dan proses absorbsi obat. Selain itu bentuk kristal atau polimorfi, kelarutan dalam lemak atau air, dan derjat ionisasi juga mempengaruhi proses absorbsi. Absorbsi lebih mudah terjadi bila obat dalam bentuk non ion dan mudah larut dalam lemak. c) Faktor biologis. Antara lain adalah pH saluran cerna, sekresi cairan lambung, gerakan saluran cerna, waktu pengosongan lambung, dan banyaknya pembuluh darah pada tempat absorbsi.
2.5
Pendedahan
Cara pendedahan yang berbeda-beda melibatkan proses absorbsi yang berbeda-beda pula. Proses absorbsi merupakan dasar yang penting dalam menentukan
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peroral (Oral Gavage) memiliki karakter ujung tumpul (bulat). Hal ini untuk meminimalisir terjadinya luka atau cedera ketika hewan uji akan diberikan sedian uji. Proses pemberian dilakukan dengan teknik seperti Tempatkan ujung atau bola dari jarum ke mulut binatang. Secara perlahan geser melewati ujung belakang belakang lidah. Pastikan bahwa oral gavage tidak masuk ke dalam tenggorokan karena akan berdampak buruk. Hal ini dapat diketahui bila dari hidung hewan uji keluar cairan seperti yang kita berikan menunjukkan adanya kesalahan dalam proses pemberian. Pemberian
intravena
(IV)
tidak
mengalami absorpsi tetapi langsung masuk ke dalam sirkulasi sistemik, sehingga kadar obat dalam darah diperoleh secara capat, tepat, dan dapat disesuaikan langsung dengan respon penderita. Kerugiannya adalah mudah tercapai efek toksik karena kadar obat yang tinggi segera mencapai darah dan jaringan, dan obat tidak dapat ditarik kembali.Pemberian secara injeksi intravena menghasilkan efek yang tercepat, karena obat langsung masuk ke dalam sirkulasi.Efek lebih lambat diperoleh dengan injeksi intramuskular, dan lebih lambat lagi dengan injeksi subkutan karena obat harus melintasi banyak membran sel sebelum tiba dalam peredaran darah. Injeksi subkutan (SC) atau pemberian obat melalui bawah kulit, hanya boleh
digunakan untuk obat yang tidak menyebabkan iritasi jaringan.Absorpsinya biasanya
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Injeksi intramuskular (IM) atau suntikkan
melalui otot, kecepatan dan kelengkapan absorpsinya dipengaruhi oleh kelarutan obat dalam air.Absorpsi lebih cepat terjadi di deltoid atau vastus lateralis daripada di gluteus maksimus. Pemberian obat seperti ini memungkinkan obat akan dilepaskan secara berkala dalam bentuk depot obat.
Injeksi
intraperitoneal atau
injeksi pada rongga perut tidak dilakukan untuk manusia karena ada bahaya infeksi dan adesi yang terlalu besar. Proses injeksi dilakukan dengan teknik menahan tikus pada tengkuk. Mengekspos sisi ventral hewan, memiringkan kepala ke bawah pada sudut kecil.Preparasi situs dengan 70% etanol.Jarum yang steril harus ditempatkan,
bevel
atas,
di
bawah
binatang.Masukkan jarum pada 30 ° sudut.
kuadran
kanan
atau
kiri
dari
perut
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BAB III METODOLOGI PENELITIAN
3.1
Lokasi dan Waktu Penelitian
Penelitian ini dilakukan di Laboratorium Ekologi, Pusat Laboratorium Terpadu, UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Ciputat, Tangerang. Penelitian ini dilaksanakan pada : Tanggal : 25 Oktober – Oktober – 8 8 November 2011 Penelitian ini dilakukan selama 14 hari, dari awal aklimasi hingga dilakukan pembedahan.
3.2
Alat dan Bahan
Alat-alat yang digunakan adalah kandang mencit, botol minum mencit, tempat makan mencit, syring, timbangan analitik dan pinset. Sedangkan bahan-bahan yang digunakan adalah kertas sebagai alas, larutan CdSO 4 (dengan konsentrasi 0 mg/kg bb, 2,5 mg/kg bb, 5 mg/kg bb, 7,5 mg/kg bb dan 10 mg/kg bb), pakan mencit dan air.
3.3
Cara Kerja •
Disiapkan 15 ekor mencit betina dengan kisaran berat badan 30 gram (rentang 10-20%).
•
Mencit di aklimasi selama 3 hari.
•
Mencit dibagi menjadi 4 kelompok perlakuan dan 1 kelompok kontrol.
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•
Setelah hari ke-14, dilakukan pembedahan.
•
Pembedahan dilakukan untuk mengamati
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BAB IV HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN
Pada praktikum ini dengan menggunakan hewan mencit betina sebagai hewan uji. Hewan uji diberi perlakuan berupa pendedahan dengan larutan CdSO
4
berbagai
konsentrasi. Dalam praktikum ini menggunakan CdSO 4 karena apabila menggunakan Cd sulit ditemukan di alam dan Cd merupakan larutan yang tidak bersenyawa sehingga tidak dapat dipisahkan menjadi unsur Cd sendiri. Konsentrasi yang digunakan yaitu 0 mg/kg bb, 2.5 mg/kg bb, 5 mg/kg bb, 7.5 mg/kg bb dan 10 mg/kg bb. Berbagai konsentrasi yang digunakan ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui nilai LD 50 pada praktikum ini. Pendedaahan pada mencit ini dilakukan secara intraperitoneal sesuai dengan tujuan pada praktikum ini. Praktikum ini merupakan uji toksisitas akut dari mencit. Pendedahan dilakukan satu kali. Setelah pendedahan, dilakukan pengamatan selama 14 hari terhadap kematian mencit, berat badan mencit, berat feses mencit dan kondisi fisik mencit. Dan setelah 14 hari, maka dilakukan pembedahan
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mg/kg bb dan 5 mg/kg bb tidak mengalami kematian sedangkan pada mencit yang diberi dosis 7.5 mg/kg bb dan 10 mg/kg bb mengalami kematian, yaitu sebanyak masing-masing 2 ekor mencit. Dari hasil tersebut membuktikan bahwa adanya efek CdSO4terhadap daya tahan hidup mencit dan adanya pengaruh konsentrasi CdSO 4. Semakin tinggi CdSO 4 yang didedahkan maka akan memiliki efek yang berbahaya terhadap mencit dan dapat menyebabkan kematian.
Tabel 2. Penentuan Nilai Probit
Dosis (mg/kg
Log
10
Jumlah
Jumlah Individu
%
%
Nilai
dosis
Individu
0
0
3
0
0
0
-
2,5
0,398
3
0
0
0
-
5
0,699
3
0
0
0
-
bb)
Mati
Kematian
Koreksi
Kematian
Probit
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Selanjutnya, dengan membuat grafik regresi linier dengan sumbu x = log 10 dan sumbu y = nilai probit. Sehingga didapatkan grafik sebagai berikut :
Grafik 1. Regresi Linier 6 y = 5,41x
5 4 3
Series1
2
Linear (Series1)
1 0 0. 8 5
0. 9
0. 9 5
Dari grafik diperoleh rumus : y = 5.41x
Maka : Y
5.41 X
1
1 .0 5
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Grafik 2. Perubahan Berat Badan Mencit 45 40 ) m35 a r 30 g ( n 25 a d a 20 B t 15 a r e 10 B
0 mg/kg bb 2,5 mg/kg bb 5 mg/kg bb 7,5 mg/kg bb
5
10 mg/kg bb
0 1
2
3
4
7
8
9
10
11 11
15 15
Hari ke-
Dari tabel diatas terlihat adanya perubahan berat badan pada masing-masing mencit dan pada masing-masing dosis yang diberikan.Berat badan mencit terlihat berfluktuatif. Hal ini disebabkan karena pada saat pendistribusian mencit ke dalam tiap-tiap kelompok dosis tidak dilakukan perhitungan rata-rata berat badan sehingga
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12 10 ) m a r 8 g ( s e 6 s e F t a r 4 e B
0 mg/kg bb 2,5 mg/kg bb 5 mg/kg bb 7,5 mg/kg bb
2
10 mg/kg bb
0 2
3
4
7
8
9
10
11
15
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dan mengerakan tubuhnya. Efek dari CdSO 4 ini juga berpengaruh pada sistem pencernaan yang ditandai dengan feses yang kental atau mengalami diare.
Tabel 3. Perubahan Kondisi Fisik Mencit
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didapat dari setiap dosis yang diberikan. Pada dosis 0 mg/kg bb, dari ketiga mencit ada 1 mencit yang mati, hal ini terjadi kemungkinan dalam pemberian makanan yang tidak merata. Perubahan kondisi fisik yang dialami yaitu pada mencit ke 1 mata agak sipit di jam ke 2 dan ke 4, pada mencit ke 2 rambut berdiri pada hari ke 7-11, dan pada mencit ke 3 normal. Mencit 3 mati karena keadaan mencit yang tidak sehat dari awalnya. Pada mencit yang diberikan dosis 2,5 mg/kg bb pada ketiga mencit, mata menjadi merah pada hari ke 2-11, pernafasan terengah-engah pada hari ke 1 dan ke 4. Rambut berdiri pada hari ke 1-15 pada mencit 1 dan rambut berdiri pada hari ke 1-11
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mencit menjadi terengah-engah dan pada dosis yang paling tinggi menyebabkan tingkah laku motorik mencit menjadi gelisah. Namun jika tubuh tidak dapat mengembalikan keadaan tubuhnya kembali maka yang terjadi adalah kematian pada
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5
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
0,001
0,059
0,004
0,004
0,006
0,005
0,076
2
0,004
0,06
0,002
0,004
0,009
0,005 0,005
0,047
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Pucat 1
Hanya 1,
Lebih merah
kehitaman
Lebih merah
Lebih pucat
warna
(+++++)
(++), terisi
(++)
(++)
merah hati
Ukuran lebih kecil, merah kehitaman
Merah tua (++)
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darah.Akibatnya tekanan darah menjadi tinggi yang kemudian dapat menyebabkan terjadinya gagal jantung dan kerusakan ginjal (Anonim1, 2008). Kadmium memiliki banyak efek toksik di antaranya kerusakan ginjal dan
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BAB V PENUTUP
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