BAB II TINJAUAN TEORITIS
A.
KONSEP DASAR MEDIK
1. DEFINISI Dalam tinjauan teoritis ini terdapat beberapa pengertian atau definisi mengenai fraktur menurut para ahli : a.
Fraktur adalah patah tulang biasanya disebabkan oleh trauma atau tenaga fisik (Sylvia A.P., 2005 : 1365).
b.
Fraktur adalah patah tulang dan terputusnya kontinuitas jaringan tulang atau tulang rawan yang umumnya disebabkan oleh ruda paksa (Arief Mansjoer, 2008 : 346).
c.
Fraktur adalah rusak atau terputusnya kontinuitas tulang dan ditentukan sesuai jenis dan luasnya (smelzer, 2002 : 2357).
Fraktur adalah terputusnya kontinuitas tulang, tulang rawan sendi, tulang rawan epifisis, baik yang bersifat total maupun yang parsial. (Rasjad, Chairuddin. 2007) Fraktur metacarpal adalah fraktur yang terjadi pada ujung jari karena trauma pada sendi interfalang atau terjadi terhadap trauma langsung ketika tangan mengepal dan dislokasi basis metacarpal (ariif manSJOER, 2000).
d.
Fraktur Metatarsal adalah fraktur yang terjadi pada tulang Metatarsal atau punggung kaki yang mengarah kpada jarijari kaki akibat jatuh ataupun trauma. (smelzer, 2002 : 2372).
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2. KLASIFIKASI FRAKTUR
Fraktur dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi beberapa jenis seperti dapat dilihat pada gambar 2.1 Gambar 2. 1. Jenis-jenis fraktur. Sapto Harnowo,(2002 Harnowo,(2002 : 97) Menurut Arif Mansjoer, (2008 : 346), jenis fraktur dapat diklasifikasikan menjadi beberapa bagian meliputi :
a. Fraktur tertutup ( Closed )
Fraktur tertutup merupakan patah tulang yang tidak disertai dengan robekan jaringan kulit dan tidak berhubungan dengan udara luar, sering disebut juga fraktur yang bersih tanpa komplikasi.
b. Fraktur terbuka ( Open / Com C ompo poun und d )
Robeknya kulit pada tempat fraktur, luka berhubungan dengan kulit ke tulang. Oleh sebab itu fraktur berhubungan dengan lingkungan luar sehingga berpotensi menjadi infeksi. Fraktur terbuka lebih lanjut dibedakan menjadi tiga berdasarkan beratnya fraktur :
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2) Derajat II
: terdapat luka laserasi, laserasi, luka lebih besar (> 1cm) 1cm) tanpa disertai disertai
kerusakan jaringan lunak yang luas dan luka epulsi. 3) Derajat III
: patah tulang yang disertai dengan kerusakan jaringan lunak yang luas,
otot, kulit dan sistem neuromuskuler, luas luka biasanya sekitar 6-8cm dengan penyebab energi yang besar dan patah tulangnya mempunyai fragmen yang besar. Fraktur Derajat III dibagi menjadi : a) Derajat III A : bagian tulang yang terbuka masih dapat ditutupi oleh jaringan lunak. b)
Derajat IIIB : terdapat kehilangan jaringan lunak yang luas dengan terkupas periosteum, biasanya terdapat kontaminasi yang pasif.
c. Fraktur Komplit
Patah yang melintang keseluruh tulang dan sering berpindah dari posisi normal.
d. Fraktur Inkomplit
Meluasnya garis fraktur yang melewati sebagian tulang dimana yang mengganggu
gre eenst nstick. ick. kontinuitas seluruh tubuh. Type fraktur ini disebut juga gr
e. Fraktur Comminuted
Fraktur yang memiliki beberapa fragmen tulang.
f. Fraktur Patologik
Fraktur yang terjadi sebagai hasil dari gangguan tulang pokok, seperti osteoporosis,
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Garis fraktur berkembang secara longitudinal.
h. Frakur Transversal
Fraktur sepanjang garis tengah tulang.
i.
Fraktur Spiral
Garis fraktur berbentuk spiral mengelilingi tulang.
3. ANATOMI FISIOLOGI
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G am amb bar 2.2, A na nato tom mi E ktr ktre emi ta tass B aw awah ah.. R .P .Putz utz dan R. Pab Pabts ts (2000 : 262)
Tulang merupakan struktur padat yang hidup, karena terdiri atas sel-sel dan jaringan tulang. Permukaa Permukaan n tulang terbungkus oleh periosteum atau selaput pembungkus tulang yang merupakan lapisan jaringan ikat dan banyak mengandung serabut-serabut saraf. Struktur tulang terdiri atas bagian yang padat atau pars kompakta dan bagian yang berongga- rongga. Bagian yang berongga terdiri atas pars spongiosa (yang berongga kecil) dan medulla tulang (yang berongga besar). Yang berongga kecil berisi sumsum tulang merah, tempat pembuatan sel-sel darah dan trombosit. Sedangkan medulla tulang berisi jaringan lemak dan berwarna kekuningan. Tulang juga dibagi menurut bagian tengah atau diafisis dan bagian ujung (epififis). Batas epifisis dan diafisis diafisis merupakan zona pertumbuhan pertumbuhan tulang. a. Struktur Tulang Menurut Brunner dan Suddarth, (2002 : 2265), tulang sangat bermacam-macam
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dan saraf, lapisan bawah periosteum mengikat tulang dengan benang polagen yang disebut korteks. Korteks bersifat tebal dan keras sehingga tulang kompakta. Korteks tersusun solid dan sangat kuat yang disusun dalam unit struktural yang disebut sistem haversian. Lapisan melingkar matriks tulang disebut lamellae. Ruang sempit antara lamellae disebut lacunae (didalam terdapat osteosit) dan kanalikuli. Tiap system kelihatan seperti lingkaran yang menyatu. Kanal haversian terdapat sepanjang tulang panjang yang didalamnya terdapat pembuluh darah dan saraf yang masuk kedalam tulang melalui kanal volkam. Pembuluh darah inilah yang mengangkut nutrisi untuk tulang dan membuang system metabolisme keluar tulang. Lapisan tengah tulang merupakan akhir dari system haversian, yang dalamnya terdapat trabekula (batang) dari tulang trabekula ini terlihat seperti spon tapi kuat sehingga disebut tulang spon yang didalamnya terdapat bone marrow yang membentuk sel-sel darah merah. Bone marrow terdiri dari dua macam, yaitu : bone marrow merah yang memproduksi sel darah merah melalui proses hematopaiesis dan bone marrow kuning yang terdiri dari sel-sel lemak dimana jika dalam proses fraktur bisa menyebabkan fatembolism syndrome (FES). Tulang terdiri dari tiga sel yaitu osteoblast, osteosit dan osteoplast. Osteoblast merupakan sel pembentuk tulang yang berada dibawah tulang baru. Osteosit adalah osteoblast yang berada pada matriks, sedangkan osteoplast adalah sel penghancur tulang dengan menyerap kembali sel tulang yang rusak maupun yang tua. Sel ini diikat oleh elemen-elemen ekstra seluler yang disebut matriks. Matriks ini dibentuk oleh bagian kolagen, protein, karbohidrat, mineral dan substansi dasar (gelatin) yang berfungsi sebagai media dalam difusi nutris, oksigen dan sampah metabolisme antara
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kalsium dan fosfat) yang menyebabkan tulang keras. Sedangkan aliran darah dalam tulang antara 200-400 ml/mnt melalui proses vaskularisasi tulang. b. Bentuk Tulang Menurut Sapto Harnowo, (2002 : 1992), dilihat dari bentuknya tulang terbagi atas berbagai bentuk yaitu : tulang panjang, pendek, ceper dan tulang bentuk tak beraturan.
1) Tulang Panjang Bentuk dari tulang ini contohnya adalah humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula. Tulang-tulang ini tidak benar-benar lurus, tetapi agak melengkung, tujuannya supaya tulang menjadi kuat menahan beban dan tekanan. 2) Tulang Pendek (Karpalis) Tulang ini memiliki bentuk yang tidak tetap didalamnya terdiri dari tulang spongiosa, bagian luar terdiri dari tulang padat (tulang kompakta), terdapat pada pergelangan tangan dan kaki. 3) Tulang ceper Contoh dari tulang ceper ini adalah tulang tengkorak, tulang iga, panggul dan belikat.
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1) Penunjang jaringan tubuh dan memberi bentuk kerangka tubuh. 2) Tempat melekatnya otot, tendon dan ligamen. 3) Membentuk pergerakan, otot melekat pada tulang untuk berkonsentrasi dan bergerak. 4) Melindungi organ tubuh yang lunak. 5) Tempat penyimpanan garam mineral, kalsium dan fosfat. 6) Tempat pembentukan pembentukan sel darah merah (dalam sumsum tulang) d. Pertumbuha Pertumbuhan n Tulang Menurut Brunner dan Suddarth, (2002 : 2266), terdapat banyak faktor yang mempengaruhi pertumbuhan tulang. Secara umum pertumbuhan tulang dipengaruhi oleh : 1) Berbagai hormon hipofise, tyroid, korteks, adrenal, paratyro paratyroid, id, estrogen dan androgen. 2) Vitamin a.
Vitamin A, mempengaru mempengaruhi hi kegiatan osteoplas osteoplastt (sel penyerap tulang).
b. Vitamin B Kompleks, mempercepat pertumbuhan kalus pada fraktur. c.
Vitamin D, mempengaruhi pertumbuhan bahan kolagen antar sel (merangsang osteoblast) juga mempengaruhi endapan mineral pada tulang.
3) Vaskularisasi / Nutrisi Pasokan darah juga mempengaruhi pembentukan tulang. Dengan menurunnya pasokan darah akan terjadi penurunan osteogenesis osteogenesis dan tulang mengalami osteoporosis
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khusus tersebut dinamakan sendi. Terbentuknya sendi dimulai dari kartilago didaerah sendi. Mula-mula kartilago akan membengkak lalu kedua ujungnya akan diliputi jaringan ikat. Kemudian kedua ujung kartilago membentu membentuk k sel-sel tulang : keduanya diselaputi oleh selaput sendi (membrane sinopial) yang liat dan menghasilkan minyak pelumas tulang yang disebut minyak sinovial. Didalam sistem rangka manusia terdapat tiga jenis hubungan antar tulang yaitu :
1. Si Sina nartro rtrosis sis Sinartrosis adalah hubungan antar tulang yang tidak memiliki celah sendi. Hubungan antar tulang ini dihubungkan dengan erat oleh jaringan serabut sehingga
Sutura ura dan sama sekali tidak bisa digerakkan. Ada dua type utama sinartrosis, yaitu : Sut Sinko Si nkond ndrr osis. Sutura adalah hubungan antar tulang yang dihubungkan dengan jaringan ikat serabut padat, contohnya tengkorak tengkorak.. Sinkondrosis adalah hubungan antar tulang yang dihubungkan oleh kartilago hialin. Contohnya : hubungan antar epifisis dan diafisis pada orang dewasa, hubungan antar tulang ini tidak dapat digerakkan.
2. Am Amfifia artro rtrosis sis Amfiartrosis
adalah
sendi
yang
dihubungkan
oleh
kartilago
sehingga
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Diartrosis adalah hubungan antar tulang yang kedua ujungnya tidak dihubungkan oleh jaringan sehingga tulang dapat digerakkan disebut juga sendi. Diartrosis disebut juga hubungan sinovial yang dicirikan oleh keleluasaannya dalam bergerak dan fleksibel. Sendi ada yang dapat bergerak satu arah dan ada pula yang bergerak beberapa arah. Contoh : panggul, lutut, bahu dan siku.
4. Etiologi Menurut Aston, J.N, (2000 : 153), fraktur dapat ditimbulkan oleh trauma : a)
Trauma Langsung (direk), yaitu bila fraktur terjadi ditempat bagian tersebut mendapat ruda paksa, misalnya : benturan / pukulan pada tulang yang menyebabkan fraktur.
b)
Trauma tidak langsung (indirek), misalnya : penderita jatuh dengan lengan dalam
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5. Patofisiologi Menurut Brunner Brunner dan Suddarth, Suddarth, (2002 : 2359), trauma trauma dan kondisi patologis yang yang terjadi pada tulang dapat menyebabkan fraktur, fraktur menyebabkan diskontuinitas jaringan tulang yang dapat membuat penderitany penderitanya a mengalami kerusakan mobilitas fisiknya. Apabila kulit sampai robek hal ini akan menjadikan luka terbuka dan akan menyebabkan potensial infeksi. Diskontuinitas jaringan tulang dapat mengenai/terjadi mengenai/terjadi di 3 bagian yaitu jaringan lunak, pembuluh darah dan saraf serta tulang itu sendiri. Apabila mengenai jaringan lunak maka akan terjadi spasme otot yang menekan ujung
– ujung saraf dan pembuluh darah mengakibatkan nyeri, deformitas serta syndrome compartemen. Jikadiskontuinitas terjadi di pembuluh darah dan saraf maka perdarahan akan bertambah banyak mengakibatkan hipovolemi dan jika tidak segera ditangani akan terjadi syok, jaringan akan kekurangan oksigen dan bisa berakibat fatal yaitu kematian. Jika terjadi ditulang maka akan mengalami 2 hal yaitu tindakan imobilisasi fiksasi dan perubahan bentuk tulang, jika tulang sudah terjadi perubahan baik dalam komposisi atau pun kemampuannya maka akan terjadi kerusakan periostenum dan sumsum
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jaringan dan pasien harus segera diamputasi. Dan jika terjadi secara sistemik maka akan terjadi kematian.
Fraktur tulang metatarsal (tulang pertengahan kaki) sering terjadi. Penyebab yang paling sering adalah terlalu banyak berjalan atau penggunaan berlebihan yang menyebabkan tekanan yang tidak langsung. Penyebab lain adalah benturan yang terjadi secara mendadak. Selain dilakukan pembedahan untuk meluruskan pecahanpecahan tulang yang patah, perlu dilakukan imobilisasi dengan gips. Masa penyembuhan biasanya memerlukan waktu 3 – 12 12 minggu, tetapi pada usia lanjut atau status kesehatan yang buruk, mungkin diperlukan waktu yang lebih lama.
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membersihkan daerah tersebut. Terjadi inflamsi, pembengkakan dan nyeri. Tahap inflamasi berlangsung selama 24 – 48 jam dan hilang dengan berkurangnya pembengkakan dan nyeri. b) Proliferas Proliferasii sel Dalam sekitar 5 hari, hematoma akan mengalami organisasi. Terbentuk benangbenang fibrin dalam jendelan darah, membentuk jaringan untuk revaskularisasi dan invasi fibroblast dan osteoblast osteoblast.. Fibroblas dan osteoblast (berkembang dari osteosit, sel endotel dan sel periosteum) akan menghasilkan kolagen dan proteoglikan sebagai matriks kolagen pada patahan tulang. c) Pembentukan Kalus Pertumbuhuan jaringan berlanjut dan lingkaran tulang rawan menjadi sisi lain sampai celah sudah terhubungkan. Fragmen patahan tulang digabungkan dengan jaringan vibrus, tulang rawan dan tulang serat imatur. Bentuk kalus dan volume yang
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Tahap akhir perbaikan tulang meliputi pengambilan jaringan mati dan reorganisasi tulang baru kesusunan tulang struktural sebelumnya. Remodeling memerlukan waktu berbulan-bulan sampai bertahun-tahun tergantung beratnya modifikasi tulang yang dibutuhkan, fungsi tulang dan pada kasus yang melibatkan tulang kompakta dan kanselus – stress stress fungsional pada tulang.
7. Tanda dan Gejala Menurut Brunner dan Suddarth, (2002 : 2358), tanda dan gejala fraktur antara lain : a.
Sakit (nyeri), karena kerusakan jaringan dan perubahan struktur yang meningkat menyebabkan penekanan sisi fraktur dan pergerakan bagian fraktur.
b.
Inspeksi : bengkak atau penumpukan cairan yang disebabkan oleh kerusakan pembuluh darah deformitas (perubahan struktur dan bentuk tulang).
c.
Palpasi : nyeri tekan, nyeri sumbu, krepitasi (dapat dirasakan atau didengarkan bila digerakkan).
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c.
Tes laboratorium : darah lengkap menunjukkan tingkat kehilangan darah (pemeriksaan Hb , HT). Peningkatan sel darah putih sebagai respon norma terhadap respon stress setelah trauma.
d.
CT scan tulang dengan kontras/tanpa kontras, bonescan MRI scan untuk melihat fraktur dan kemungkinan kerusakan jaringan lunak dan saraf sekitar fraktur.
e.
X-Ray : menentukan lokasi/luas/batas dan tingkat fraktur/trauma.
f.
Arteriografi Arteriogr afi : untuk melihat kerusakan pada sistem pembuluh darah.
9. Penatalaksanaan Medis Menurut
Arif
Manjoer,
(2009
:
348),
pengobatan
bisa
dilakukan
secara
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Pengenanlan riwayat kecelakan, patah atau tidak, menentukan perkiraan yang patah, kebutuhan pemeriksaan yang spesifik, kelainan bentuk tulang dan ketidak stabilan, tindakan apa yang cepat dilakukan misalnya pemasangan bidai. b. Reduksi Usaha dan tindakan untuk memanipulasi fragmen tulang yang patah sedapat mungkin kembali seperti letak asalnya.
Cara penanganan secara reduksi : 1) Pemasangan gips Untuk memepertahankan memepertahankan posisi fragmen tulang yang fraktur.
closed d reducti reductio on exter exter nal fi f i xati xatio on) 2) Reduksi tertutup (close Menggunakan gips sebagai fiksasi ekternal untuk mempertahankan posisi tulang dengan alat-alat : sekrup, plate, pen, kawat, paku yang dipasang disisi maupun didalam tulang. Alat ini diangkat kembali setelah 1 - 12 bulan dengan pembedahan.
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e.
Rehabilitasi Memulihkan kembali fragmen-fragmen tulang yang patah untuk mengembalikan fungsi normal.
f.
Perlu dilakukan mobilisasi Kemandirian bertahap.
10. Komplikasi Menurut Brunner dan Suddarth, Suddarth, (2002 : 2365), dapat dilihat dalam dua tingkatan : a.
Komplikasi dini (1 x 24 jam) pasca fraktur
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3)
Apakah yang dilakukan klien ketika ia mendapat kecelakaan tersebut, apakah ia berusaha untuk mendapatkan pengobatan medis atau tradisional ?
b. Pola Nutrisi Metabolik 1) Apakah klien ada nafsu makan atau tidak ? 2) Apa dan bagaimana jenis makanan favorit klien ? 3) Apakah klien ada mengeluh tidak ada nafsu makan ? c.
Pola Eliminasi
1) Apakah klien ada masalah dalam BAK/BAB sehari-hari ? 2) Bagaimana biasanya karateristik karateristik jumlah, warna dan konsistensi dari urine atau feces ? d. Pola Aktifitas dan Latihan
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2) Apakah peran klien didalam lingkungan keluarga, masyarakat dan tempat kerjanya ? i.
Pola Reproduksi dan seksualitas
1) Bagaimana hubungan klien dengan lawan jenis ? 2) Apakah klien mengalami penyimpangan seksualitas ? j.
Pola Mekanisme Koping dan Toleransi terhadap Stres
1) Apakah klien merasa cemas, takut sehubungan dengan penyakitnya ? 2) Adakah penyebab lain yang menyebabkan klien merasa cemas, stress? 3)
Apakah yang dilakukan klien ketika ia mengalami suatu masalah, juga ketika ia mendapat suatu kecelakaan/fraktur kecelakaan/fraktur ini ?
4) Apakah ada rasa tidak berdaya ?
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d.
Resiko tinggi terhadap kerusakan pertukaran gas yang berhubungan dengan perubahan
aliran
darah/emboli
lemak,
perubahan
membrane
alveola/kapiler,
interstisial, edema paru, kongesti. e.
Kerusakan
mobilitas
fisik
yang
berhubungan
dengan
kerusakan
rangka
neuromuskuler; neuromuskule r; nyeri / ketidaknyama ketidaknyamanan; nan; therapy restritif (mobilisasi tungkai). f.
Resiko tinggi terhadap kerusakan integritas kulit/jaringan yang berhubungan dengan cedera tusuk, fraktur, bedah perbaikan, pemasangan traksi pen, kawat, sekerup, imobilisasi fisik.
g.
Resiko tinggi terhadapa infeksi yang berhubungan dengan tidak adekuatnya pertahanan primer, kerusakan kulit, trauma jaringan, terpajan lingkungan, traksi
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kemungkinan gangguan posisi/penyemb posisi/penyembuhan. uhan. 2) Pertahankan posisi netral pada bagian yang sakit dengan bantal pasir, pembebat, gulungan trokante trokanter, r, papan kaki. Rasional : Posisi yang tepat dari bantal juga dapat mencegah tekanan deformitas deformitas pada gips yang kering. 3) Pertahank Pertahankan an posisi/integritas traksi. Rasional : Traksi memungkinkan tarikan pada aksi panjang fraktur
tulang
dan
mengatasi
tegangan
mempermudah penyatuan. 4) Kolaborasi dengan tim medik untuk foto ulang.
otot
untuk
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Rasional : Menghilangkan nyeri dan mencegah kesalahan posisi tulang yang cedera. 2) Kaji keluhan nyeri/ketidanyamanan baik verbal maupun non verbal. Rasional
:
Tingkat
ansietas
dapat
mempengaruhi
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Intervensi : 1) Kaji aliran kapiler, warna kulit dan kehangatan distel pada fraktur. Rasional : Kembalinya warna harus cepat < 2 detik, warna kulit putih menunjukan gangguan arterial, sianosis diduga ada
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1)
Pasien akan mempertahankan fungsi pernapasan, dibuktikan oleh tak adanya dispnea/sianosis; frekuensi frekuensi pernapasan dan GDA dalam batas normal. Intervensi : 1) Awasi
frekuensi
terjadinya sianosis.
pernapasan,
penggunaan
otot
bantu,
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1) Meningkatkan/m Meningkatkan/mempert empertahankan ahankan mobilitas pada tingkat paling tinggi yang mungkin. 2) Mempert Mempertahankan ahankan posisi fungsional. 3) Meningkatk Meningkatkan an kekuatan/fungsi yang sakit dan mengkompensasi bagian tubuh. 4) Menunjukan tehnik yang memungkinkan untuk melakukan aktifitas. Intervensi :
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tirah baring lama. 5) Ubah posisi secara periodik dan dorong untuk latihan batuk/napas dalam. Rasional
:
Mencegah/menurunkan
kulit/pernapasan.
insiden
komplikasi
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1) Kaji kulit untuk luka terbuka, benda asing, kemerahan,
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g.
DP 7. Resiko tinggi terhadap infeksi yang berhubungan dengan tidak adekuatnya
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local/eritema ekstrimitas cedera.
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Rasional : Makanan Tinggi kalori tinggi protein (TKTP), tinggi kalsium dan vitamin
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