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TEHNICI PROIECTIVE ID Lector univ. drd. Corina Bogdan
I) Obiective generale: familiarizarea studenţilor cu teoriile psihologice privind mecanismele proiecţiei, cunoaşterea principalelor probe proiectiv e şi a cadrelor interpretative specifice; specifice informaţionale: cunoaşterea teoriilor care permit interpretarea psihologică a diferitelor teste proiective; capacitatea de a diferenţia materialul proiectiv şi rolul său în a reliefa principalele aspecte privind dinamica şi conţinuturile psihismului inconştient ; specifice operaţionale: formarea unor deprinderi de aplicare şi interpretare a unor tehnici proiective. II) Conţinut Tehnici Proiective 1. Proiecţia: definire şi factori. Tehnicile proiective: caracterisitici şi clasificare 2. Diverse Perspective ale fenomenului proiecţiei 3. Testul Omului (“Desenează o persoană”) - DAP 4. Testul familiei 5. Testul arborelui 6. Experimentul asociativ -verbal (TAV) 7. Fabulele Düss 8. Teste de completare – Testul Rotter 9. Testul tematic de apercepţie ( T.A.T.) 10. Testul pulsiunilor (Szondi) 11. Tehnica petelor de cerneală. Testul Rorschach Bibliografie selectivă Chevalier, J., Gheerbrant, A. (1993), Dicţionar de simboluri, vol. 1 (A-D), vol. 2 (EO), vol. 3 (P-Z), Ed. Artemis, Bucureşti Deri, S. (2000), Introducere în testul Szondi, Ed. Paideia, Bucureşti. Dumitraşcu, N. (2005), Tehnicile proiective în evaluarea personalităţii, Ed. Trei, Bucureşti. Georgescu, M. (2001), Laborator de psihologie proiectivă asistat de calculator, Ed. Titu Maiorescu, Bucureşti. Georgescu, M. (2001), Vadecum în pihologie proiectivă, Ed. Oscar Print, Bucureşti.
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Minulescu, M. (2001), Tehnici proiective, Ed. Titu Maiorescu, Bucureşti. Popescu-Neveanu, P. (1978), Dicţionar de psihologie, Ed. Albatros, Bucureşti. anual de phodiagnostic. Metode şi rezultatele unui experiment Rorschach, H. (2000), M anual diagnostic al percepţiei. Interpretarea liberă a formelor fortuite., Ed. Trei, Bucureşti. Samuels, A., Shorter, B., Plaut, F. (2005), Dicţionar critic al psihologiei analitice jungiene, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureşti. Schafer, R. (2003), Interpretarea psihanalitică a testului Rorschach. Teorie şi aplicaţie, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi. Jung, C. G., (2004-2007, Opere complete, Ed. Trei, Bucureşti
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1. Proiecţia:
definire şi factori. Tehnicile proiective: caracteristici şi
clasificare Proiecţia
Noţiunea de proiecţie a fost lansată în Psihologie de Freud în 1894 în lucrarea «Psihonevrozele de apărare». El utilizează proiecţia pentru a explica diferite tulburări psihopatologice ca fobiile sau paranoia din perspectivă psihanalitică, afirmând că proiecţia este «o operaţie prin care subiectul expulzează din sine şi localizează în altul anumite calităţi, sentimente şi dorinţe chiar obiecte pe care nu le cunoaşte sau le refuză în sine s ine însuşi». Definiţia proiecţiei: este tendinţa oamenilor de a fi influenţaţi de trebuinţele, emoţiile şi structura lor psihologică de ansamblu în interpretarea realităţii, ori de câte ori câmpul perceptiv prezintă o anumită ambiguitate. Problematica proiecţiei necesită discutarea relaţiilor cu conceptul de transfer, cu cel de identificare şi cu cel de mecanism de apărare. 1. proiecţie-transfer: subiectul arată prin atitudinea sa faptul că asimilează o persoană cu o alta. 2. proiecţie-identificare: subiectul se asimilează altor persoane sau asimilează în sine obiecte externe 3. proiecţia ca mecanism de apărare: în paranoia, în fobie, în gelozia proiectivă care este diferită de gelozia normală sau delirul de gelozie paranoic.
Aspecte legate de modul cum se manifestă proiecţia în viaţa noastră: 1. În sfera relaţiile r elaţiile interpersonale – referitor la relaţii de familie, de cuplu, prietenie, medic-pacient sau relaţia profesor -student. Orice întâlnire intersubiectivă cu celălalt, mai ales dacă e încărcată emoţional, activează mecanismul proiecţiei; fenomenul cel mai simplu apare atunci când te îndrăgosteşti - proiectezi asupra celuilalt anumite însuşiri idealizate care formează un fel de halou în jurul persoanei iubite (alegere narcisică a obiectului în funcţie de propriile noastre atribute acordate eronat celuilalt); îl alegem pe celalalt; alegerea depinde de relaţia cu proprii părinţi; Exemplu: un băiat cu mama dominantă va avea ca surogat al mamei o soţie dominatoare după schema copil-părinte. Alt exemplu, medicul este investit cu o aură de vindecător, figura lui căpătând toate calităţile de omnipotenţă care derivă din anxietatea şi sentimentul de neajutorare al pacientului. Tot în elaţiile de cuplu gelozia
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2. În afară de relaţiile interpersonale, un alt domeniu unde se manifestă proiecţia este alegerea meseriei, a vocaţiei . Oamenii îşi aleg o anumită profesie proiectând asupra asupra ei tendin tendinţe ţe persona persona le pe ca re spera era să le fruc fructi tifi fice ce sa u mă ca r să le socializeze în rolul profesional respectiv. Ce meserii îşi aleg cei cu tendinţe agresive dacă nu militari de carieră, criminalişti, măcelari, chirurgi, critici de artă. La profesori apare tendinta de a domina. 3. Boala sau tulburarea mentală:
a) Delirul paranoicului. Ideea delirantă constituie o componentă foarte solidă, iraţională, impenetrabilă la argumente şi foarte încărcată afectiv la care subiectul aderă cu toată fiinţa lui; exemplu: mă simt urmărit de securitate (întâmplările reale sunt distorsionate pentru a urmări ideea delirului). b) Fobia. O teamă cu un obiect bine precizat. Exemplu: Micul Hans şi fobia lui faţă de cal şi cocoş; copilul transferă imaginea despre tată asupra animalului. În lucrarea Cazul preşedintelui Schreber, Freud descrie istoria unui pacient paranoid cu tendinţe homosexuale latente (adică nerecunoscute conştient), care se teme să nu fie abuzat de medicul său. Pacientul nu făcea decât să proiecteze asupra medicului propriile dorinţ dorinţee homosex homosexua ua le, e, pe ca re nu voia sa u nu putea putea să le accepte ca fiind ale sale. 4. La nivel macrosocial
Proiecţia este unul dintre mecanismele de bază care face posibilă manipularea oamenilor şi transformarea lor în mase de manevre politice oportuniste. a) Fenomenul “tapului ispăşitor” în colectivităţi, grupuri. Atunci când întrun grup lucrurile merg prost, vina este proiectată asupra unei victime sau asupra unui subgrup victimă. Vina este proiectată alteori asupra unui grup rival. Ex. Ţările care se invecinează. b) Proiecţia este responsabilă de formarea miturilor, legendelor, credinţelor. Ex. În mitologie apar fiinţe foarte umanizante, bune sau rele; fenomene de neînţeles, ameninţătoare, sunt umanizate pentru a le putea înţelege; asupra demonilor se proiectează atribute negative, iar asupra zeilor atribute pozitive. Factori ai proiecţiei 1) Intensitatea emoţiilor sau a trebuinţelor
Cu cât trăim o emoţie mai puternic, indiferent de natura ei şi cu cât avem o trebuinţă mai frustrată, cu atât proiectăm mai mult, respectiv tindem să
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vede în roz. Aceeaşi realitate e percepută altfel. În situaţia ipotetică în care o persoană intră într -o pădure, vede orice umbră ca fiind un posibil agresor. 2) Ambiguitatea situaţiei sau gradul de claritate
Cu cât un stimul sau o situaţie este mai vagă, neclară, ambiguă sau mai slab structurată, cu atât vom percepe acea situaţie în funcţie de propriile noastre scheme interioare; acest factor stă la baza tehnicilor proiective, de exemplu norii – două persoane văd lucruri diferite în funcţie de seturile interne; o figură tăcută, imobilă devine un ecran de proiecţie; În psihanaliză există regula neutralităţii binevoitoare a psihanalistului în care pacientul este provocat fără ca acesta să ştie dacă este aprobat sau nu. 3) Forta si integritatea EU-lui
Operaţional, EU-ul reprezintă instanţa care ne reglează comportamentul în funcţie de cerinţele noastre interne şi de realitatea obiectivă. În mod normal, un EU puternic, integru, are o anume capacitate de reflexie, de obiectivitate, are puterea de a judeca critic şi realist. Orice factor care ameninţă integritatea sau forţa EU-lui duce sau stimulează fenomenul proiecţiei (deformarea realităţii); de exemplu: bolile mentale severe – schizofrenia este o tulburare mentală care duce la pierderea simţului realităţii prin distorsionări perceptuale prin iluzie şi halucinaţie şi distorsionări cognitive prin ideile delirante, adică vede în celălalt un demon. Schizofrenul are un EU destructurat, slab, care se lasă invadat de fantasmele inconştiente, încărcate afectiv şi nu mai poate asigura, restabili un raport obiectiv cu realitatea. Tehnicile proiective
Atunci când o persoană proiectează imaginile proiecţiilor ei îşi trădează de fapt preocupările, obsesiile, viaţa sa interioară şi adesea inconştientă. Pentru acest motiv au apărut tehnicile proiective. Ele se folosesc cam din 1930 şi reprezintă de fapt nişte situaţii (stimuli) mai slab structurate, neclare, ambigue, având rolul de a provoca şi a capta proiecţiile individului. Subiectului i se arată nişte pete de cerneală şi este întrebat ce vede acolo sau i se arată nişte imagini şi trebuie să facă scurte povestiri despre ele. Astfel, persoana îşi dezvăluie fără să ştie anumite coordonate ale personalităţii sale şi astfel oferă psihologului o serie de informaţii greu sau imposibil de obţinut din alte surse. Caracteristicile tehnicilor proiective: 1. sunt niste sarcini ambigue sau slab structurate care permit o mare libertate de răspunsuri; 2. subiectul nu cunoaşte semnificaţia răspunsurilor lui - se trădează
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În literatura de specialitate se face o distincţie netă între tehnicile proiective şi aşa numitele teste obiective. Încă de la apariţie, tehnicile proiective au stârnit vii controverse printre practicieni, mulţi susţinând că acestea nici nu merită să fie numite teste întrucât nu satisfac cerinţele fundamentale ale unui test psihologic (validitate, fidelitate, standardizare). La testul petelor de cerneală (testul Rorschach) Rorschach) un subiect subiect dă următorul următorul răspuns răspuns:: “ Aici vă d o persoană persoană cu braţele ridicate”; Ce credeţi că sugerează acest răspuns: dezarmare, speranţă, gest de adoraţie, rugăciune sau altceva?, acelaşi răspuns proiectat poate duce la interpretări diferite între psihologi. Desigur caracterizarea unei persoane nu se face după un singur răspuns dat la un singur test. Fidelitatea interexaminatori este slabă atunci când mai mulţi examinatori ajung la concluzii diferite şi tocmai acest lucru se reproşeaza testelor proiective, de unde rezultă discreditarea acestor tehnici. Testele obiective, prin contrast, satisfac cerinţele psihometrice de bază, adică i s -au calculat fidelitatea, validitatea şi sunt standardizate, ca atare, regulile lor de interpretare sunt mai clare, mai bine definite (CPI, 16PF, teste de inteligenţă, de aptitudini etc.). În realitate, aceasta împărţire între tehnicile proiective şi tehnicile obiective este artificială şi nefondată după Exner. Argumente:
a. Teoretic, orice situaţie-stimul situaţie-stimul poate evoca un proces proiectiv ; chiar şi stimulii foarte clari (de exemplu cât face “2+2”) pot fi trataţi într-o manieră proiectivă. Un elev spune “2+2=4, adică numărul meu preferat; acest răspuns arată şi altceva în afară de faptul că ştie să socotească; b. Orice tehnică proiectivă poate fi adusă la standardele stand ardele unui test obiectiv; dacă i se calculează proprietăţile psihometrice (testul Rorschach, în varianta americană, timp de 35 de ani i s -au calculat datele psihometrice, aşa se face că are aproape aceeaşi validitate şi fidelitate ca testul CPI). Clasificarea testelor proiective
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sau complexe ale subiecţilor. Tehnica asocierii verbale a lui Jung. Testul de completare de fraze Rotter. Limbajul pulsiunilor – proiecţia pulsională. Testul Szondi. Atracţia sau respingerea faţă de anumite figuri relevă o serie de trebuinţe, instincte ale subiectului, mai mult sau mai puţin frustrate. Limbajul desenelor – proiecţia grafică. Modul în care desenezi, un arbore, silueta unei persoane, exprimă anumite lucruri care ţin de imaginaţia de sine, relaţia cu lumea sau stările tale emoţionale. Desenează o persoană, testul arborelui, testul familiei Limbajul poveştilor – proiecţie tematică. Se prezintă sub forma unor imagini cu personaje; subiectul trebuie să facă poveşti despre ele; în aceste poveşti subiectul îşi exprimă trebuinţele, dorinţele lui, ca şi modul în care percepe relaţiile interpersonale. Testul de apercepţie tematică T.A.T. Testul de apercepţie tematică pentru copii CAT, Fabulele Duss . Limbajul frustrării. Modu Modull în ca re rea rea cţion ţionăă m la un stre stres, s, situa situa ţie ie frustrantă, relevă starea de spirit a subiectului sau mecanismele prin care el încearcă să facă faţă stresului şi vieţii, în general. Testul Rosenzweig. Avantajele tehnicilor proiective
Testele proiective permit, spre deosebire de testele obiective, o viziune mai aprofundată şi mai personalizată despre subiect; adesea, la nivelul fantasmelor, obsesiilor, dorinţelor şi conflictelor lui inconştiente (subiectul nu ştie ce exprimă din el). Aceste tehnici sunt mai greu de trişat în practică, fiind nişte situaţii opace, pentru subiect e mai greu ca acesta să -şi facă o imagine favorabilă pentru că nu ştie unde ţintesc deoarece sunt sarcini nestructurate sau slab structurate. Pot fi aplicate pe categorii de oameni unde testele obiective nu funcţionează; la copii, persoanele cu tulburări sau deficienţe mentale moderate, analfabeţii, subiecţii cu nivel redus de instruire.
Dezavantajele tehnicilor proiective: (a) Multe teste proiective nu sunt standardizate, ceea ce implică faptul că
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2. Diverse perspective ale fenomenului proiecţiei Fenomenul Proiecţiei la Freud
1894 - Psihonevrozele de apărare. Introduce termenul de proiecţie. 1896 - Noi observaţii asupra psihonevrozelor de apărare. Freud foloseşte noţiunea de proiecţie în sens clinic – este mecanismul de apărare pr in care
se caută în exterior originea unei neplăceri. 1901 - Credinţa în hazard şi superstiţie din Psihopatologia vieţii cotidiene. Concepţia mitologică despre lume, care animă până şi religiile cele mai moderne, nu este altceva decât o psihologie proiectată în lumea exterioară. Proiecţia în sensul ei “normal” permite punerea în imagine, cuvânt, sens sau scenă a unei percepţii endopsihice, constituindu -se într-un spaţiu de elaborare psihică, într -un ecran al proiecţiei. 1909 - Micul Hans. Explică fobia ca proiecţie a unui pericol pulsional: relevă calitatea animalelor de a deveni, pentru copii, un obiect fobic; animalul preia (prin proiecţie) sentimentele ostile adresate tatălui – fobia “micului Hans” exprimată de acesta prin: “mi -e frică pentru că o să mă muşte un cal”(fapt ilustrat şi prin cazul unui copil de nouă ani, studiat de M. Wulff, care-şi identifica tatăl cu un câine (1912) şi de “micul Arpad” al lui S. Ferenczi (1913), care spunea că: “Tatăl meu este cocoş”). 1911 - Cazul preşedintelui Schreber. Proiecţia în paranoia, unde percepţia interioară este înlocuită cu una exterioară: o percepţie interioară este reprim reprimaa tă , ia r ca înlocu înlocuito itorr a pa re conţinu conţinutul tul să u după după ce a cunoscu cunoscutt o anumită deformare, devenind conştientă ca o percepţie din exterior. 1912 - Totem şi tabu. Proiecţia în afară a percepţiilor interioare este un mecanism de apărare primitiv cu ajutorul căruia se structurează reprezentarea lumii exterioare. Proiecţia intervine în superstiţie, mitologie; elementele proiectate sunt dorinţe şi afectele pe ca re subiectul nu le acceptă. 1917 - Complement metapsihologic la teoria visului în Metapsihologie. Visul este deci o proiecţie, exteriorizarea unui proces intern. 1920 - Dincolo de principiul plăcerii. Problema originilor fenomenului proiectiv proiecţia ca mecanism de apărare primar: pentru a se opune
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Ponderea proiecţiei este atât de mare încât nu vom putea niciodată afla cum arată în-sinele lumii deoarece în demersul cunoaşterii transformăm procesul fizic într-unul psihic. Astfel tot ceea ce este necunoscut, orice vid, este umplut prin proiecţie, ceea ce se crede că se recunoaşte în materie este de fapt proiecţia datelor inconştientului subiectului cunoscător. Jung remarcă existenţa unei proiecţii pasive (forma patologică a proiecţiei şi a multor proiecţii normale, neintenţionate, întâmplătoare) şi a unei proiecţii active ca parte componentă esenţială a empatiei. Comparativ, dacă proiecţia este un proces de dezasimilare a obiectului din subiect prin expulzarea unui conţinut subiectiv pe obiect, introiecţia este un proces de asimilare, o asimilare a obiectului în subiect. Dacă proiecţia este un proces de introversie, - pentru că conduce spre diferenţiere şi separare a obiectului de subiect, introiecţia este un proces de extraversie pentru că asimilarea la obiect cere empatie şi o investire a obiectului cu libido. Procesul proiecţiei joacă un rol patologic dominant în mecanismele sindromului paranoic, care de obicei sfârşeşte prin totala izolare a obiectului de subiect. În proiecţie, prin dezasimilare subiectul scapă de conţinuturi dureroase şi inacceptabile, dar şi de valori pozitive care nu îi sunt accesibile conştient. La origine, spune Jung, există o identitate arhaică între subiect şi obiect care se sprijină pe procesul de proiecţie. Identitate recognoscibilă uşor în psihologia copilului mic, sau a popoarelor primitive. Ca denumire specifică, proiecţia desemnează, în sens restrâns, necesitatea dizolvării acestei identităţi cu obiectul când starea de neadecvare este deja observată şi apare disfuncţională pentru persoană. Alte perspective perspective ale fenomenului proiecţiei în tehnicile proiective
Pentru Leopold Bellak, principala aserţiune freudiană privind proiecţia este aceea că engramele percepţiilor trecute influenţează perceperea stimulilor actuali. Bellak consideră că, în funcţie de implicarea conştiinţei, există 4 niveluri de distorsiune aperceptivă: nivelul cel mai apropiat de conştient: exteriorizare – subiectul recunoaşte că răspunsul este încărcat de propria subiectivitate;
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Pentru Abt, definirea proiecţiei intervine în funcţie de nivelele de anxietate
cărora subiectul poate sau nu să facă faţă. Apercepţia, în general, are rolul de a permite individului să menţină în el o stare de anxietate. Când situaţia exterioară devine tot mai puţin structurată, atunci anxietatea are tendinţa de a creşte, subiectul nu mai poate uza de mecanismele de apărare obişnuite, intervine proiecţia pentru a realiza adaptarea la situaţia nouă. La Melanie Klein, proiecţia are sensuri mai nuanţate, legate de idetificarea proiectivă, conform căreia o parte din Sine este atribuită unui obiect. Astfel o parte a Eului - o stare psihică, este percepută ca aflându -se în altă persoană şi renegată. Un alt sens al proiecţiei este proiecţia obiectului intern. De exemplu, absenţa mamei este percepută ca o prezenţă activă în stomac a unui obiect rău care provoacă foamea. Prin ţipăt şi plânset, obiectul ajunge să fie perceput ca expulzat din corpul copilului în exterior, astfel, obiectul pare ceva mai puţin terifiant. Externalizarea conflictului este procesul prin care conflictul intern sau relaţia internă este proiectată în exterior. Relaţia proiecţiei cu unele concepte 1. Proiecţia - introiecţia
Termenul de introiecţie a fost introdus de Avenarius pentru a corespunde procesului de expulzare a unui conţinut subiectiv pe un obiect. Jung comentează în context că termenul de proiecţie cuprinde mai bine acest sens. Ferenczi defineşte modern introiecţia ca opusă proiecţiei, ca o preluare a obiectului în sfera subiectivă de interes: "în timp ce paranoicul expulzează, elimină din egoul său emoţii ce au devenit dezagreabile, nevroticul se serveşte cu o bucată din lumea externă, atât de mare pe cât o poate ingera egoul său şi face din ea un obiect al fanteziilor inconştiente" (Introjection and transferance). Introiecţia Introiecţia ca meca nism e un fel de proces de dilua re, o expa nsiune a cercului de interes, la fel de normal precum proiecţia. Cuplul proiecţie-introiecţie joacă un rol important în geneza binomului subiect-obiect, eu-noneu. Atunci când copilul exclude obiecte din blocul său perceptiv (care formează lumea sa externă până atunci unitară), opune pentru prima oară un eu lumii externe - obiectul exclus nu mai aparţine lumii externe ci trăirilor subiective. Astfel realizează prima sa proiecţie (cea primitivă), eul
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Expresia este procesul psihic asociat proiecţiei reprezentând forma exterioară de manifestare şi instrumentul prin care este vehiculat conţinutul proiectat; expresia este deci purtătoarea sensului simbolic astfel încât proiecţia desemnează sensuri iar expresia le vehiculează. În această ordine, mecanismele de simbolizare sunt constituite din două componente: com ponente: componenta internă - mecanismul proiecţiei; componenta externă - expresia. Procesul expresiei este de tip superior, conştient, intelectual, purtător al conţinutului proiectat. În cadrul psihodiagnozei proiective se determină o creaţie experimentală declanşată şi dirijată de situaţia -test. Etapele trecerii de la “imaginea mentală” la “imaginea plastică” în testul proiectiv includ: etapa receptiv-cognitivă receptiv-cognitivă în care se formează imaginea primară a obiectului perceput; reproductiv- instrumentală în care se formează schema imaginii etapa reproductiv-instrumentală mentale;
etapa simbolică în în ca re sche schema ma se tra tra nsform sformăă , prin proiecţie, într -o structură mentală cu semnificaţie simbolică; etapa instrumental-simbolică instrumental-simbolică în care se realizează reproducerea externă a structurii cu ajutorul expresiei. În psihologia analitică, simbolul este o expresie a unei condiţii care nu
poate fi la fel de bine exprimată în alt mod; este o descriere în imagine i magine a unei stări psihice interioare. Este manifestarea naturală a unei condiţii psihice intangibile, forma forma prima prima ră în ca re se exprimă exprimă inconş inconştie tientu ntul,l, prin prin ca re a cesta esta a unge uj nge în conştiinţă. "Simbolul, spune Jung, are întotdeauna o natură extrem de complexă,
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înţelesul general al simbolului , care reprezintă implicarea oricărei percepţii pe care individul o poate discerne, indiferent de formarea sa psihologică; faţetă ce apare în poezie, dramă, pictură ca forme de manifestare creative.
3. Fantasma Fantasma în tehnica proiectivă
Conceptul de fantasmă apare circumscris în mod obişnuit celui de activitate imaginativă: imagini mentale vii, însoţite de variate stări afective, cu rol important în dinamica şi economia psihismului uman. Din perspectiva psihanalizei, fantasma are următoarele caracteristici; este un scenariu organizat, susceptibil de o dramatizare vizuală; în interiorul scenariului subiectul este prezent şi poate el însuşi opera permutări de atribute, roluri, acţiuni; funcţia primară a acestor scenarii este de a dramatiza dorinţa inconştientă, concomitent cu ilustrarea interdicţiei; sunt astfel puse în joc în fantasmă mecanisme de apărare care ţin de elaborarea secundară; iluzorie, ea este o rea lita ita te psihică de profunzime da r fa nta sma nu este iluzorie, distinctă de realitatea obiectivă; asemănător visului, fantasma are un conţinut manifest şi un conţinut latent, primul manifestându-se la limita conştiinţei, putând fi conştientizabil şi tradus în act conştient sau blocat; al doilea ţine de inconştient, şi poate fi conştientizat doar prin analiză. Între cele două conţinuturi relaţia de simbolizare reciprocă este prezentă. La baza vieţii fantasmatice există fantasmele originare: reîntoarcerea la viaţa intrauterină, scena originară (actul sexual în cuplul parental), seducţia şi
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"în esenţă, este emanarea activităţii creatoare a spiritului, o acţiune sau un produs al unor elemente psihice dotate cu energie". Declanşarea fanteziei poate fi realizată parţial sau în totalitate conştient, în măsura în care i se poate imprima o direcţie arbitrară. În realitatea vieţii cotidiene, fantezia este declanşată fie de o atitudine intuitivă, de aşteptare, fie este o erupere în conştiinţă a unor conţinuturi inconştiente. Fantasmele pot fi declanşate de o atitudine intuitivă aflată în stare de aşteptare, sau de o irupţie a conţinuturilor inconştiente. Prima situaţie corespunde fantasmei active, în care funcţia intuitivă energizează conţinuturi inconştiente şi le aduce la suprafaţă în forme perceptibile. Sensul acestei fantasme active este cel de compensare complementară, faţă de atitudinea conştientă a persoanei. A doua situaţie corespunde fantasmei pasive, care apare într -o stare relativ disociată a psihicului; în dinamica psihică o cantitate mare de energie se sustrage controlului conştient energizând elemente inconştiente. Sensul fantasmei este compensator, dictat de funcţia de autoreglare a psihismului, dar procesul este acum total opus celui din di n conştiinţă, nu complementar. Fantasmele active, pentru a fi integrate în activitate, trebuie înţelese; cele pasive, cer o atitudine critică, datorită tendinţei lor de a impune nediferenţiat conştiinţei punctul de vedere opus al inconştientului. Când conştiinţa domină, putem vorbi de fantezie, activitate imaginativă; când intervenţia conştiinţei este absentă, suntem martorii unui proces patologic în care fantasmele pasive irup la suprafaţă. Constituienţii principali ai fantasmei sunt imaginile. O imagine care "nu vine să înlocuiască realitatea şi este totdeauna deosebită de realitatea perceptibilă, fiind o imagine interioară". Apare ca o expresie condensată a situaţiei psihice luate ca întreg la un moment dat. Fantezia, după Jung, poate fi înţeleasă, din perspectivă cauzală, ca un simptom al unei stări fiziologice sau
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Originea profundă a fantasmelor o constituie activitatea arhetipurilor, denumite iniţial de Jung "imagini primordiale". Arhetipurile îşi exercită funcţia de centralitate, de autoreglare şi unificatoare, prin intermediul imaginilor interioare, a fantasmelor prezente în vise şi comportamentele asociate: în ordine patologică, halucinaţia, delirul iar în ordine creativă şi evolutivă, prin sinteza operată în expresivitatea creativă.
3. Testul Omului (“Desenează o persoană”) 1. Natura testului
Testul “Draw a person” este rezultatul eforturilor mai multor clinicieni din S.U.A. (Bender, Buck, Hammer, Jolles, Levy, Machovers), în frunte cu W. Urban, de a elabora o tehnică expresivă prin care să putem descrie personalitatea individului, analizând desenele acestuia. În accepţiunea lui de tehnică proiectivă, testul Omului pleacă de la principiul că în desenul unei siluete umane subiecţii îşi proiectează modul în care se percep pe ei înşişi, cu problemele sau conflictele specifice care ţin de imaginea de sine (Urban, 1967). 2. Aplicarea Instructajul este următorul: “ Desenaţi o persoană în întregime”. După ce subiectul a terminat, i se spune: “ Întoarceţi pagina şi desenaţi acum o persoană de sex opus primei persoane desenate”.
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profil sau din spate. Acest lucru poate exprima o dorinţă de evaziune sau de disimulare a subiectului; b) diferenţele flagrante de mărime a personajului masculin faţă de cel feminin sau valorizarea diferită a siluetei masculine faţă de cea feminină: valorizarea este pusă în evidenţă de detaliile grafice ale siluetei desenate. De exemplu, dacă un subiect desenează persoana de acelaşi sex cu lux de amănunte, iar persoana de sex opus în mod superficial, acest lucru denotă tendinţe narcisice şi o lipsă de interes sau ostilitate faţă de celălalt sex; c) expectanţele de rol sexual: ne referim aici la caracteristicile sexuale ale desenului reprezentând o persoană de acelaşi sex cu subiectul. În mod normal, desenele trebuie să conţină astfel de elemente, acest lucru sugerând o identificare normală cu propriul rol sexual. De exemplu, fetele desenează în general siluete feminine cu părul lung, cu o vestimentaţie specific feminină, sunt atente la detalierea capului şi a feţei (în special a buzelor, a ochilor şi a părului), eventual împodobesc silueta feminină în mod discret cu diverse elemente decorative (bijuterii, cercei). Băieţii imprimă în general în desenele lor elemente care ţin de masculinitate, cum ar fi masivitatea siluetei, părul scurt, eventual barbă, îmbrăcăminte masculină, braţe şi picioare solide. Aşadar, aceste semne sunt normale, important este atunci când se inversează, lipsesc sau, dimpotrivă, sunt exagerate; d) accentuarea, exagerarea, îngroşarea, haşurarea excesivă sau multiplicarea unor elemente ale desenului: acesta sugerează importanţa pe care subiectul o acordă elementului respectiv în viaţa sa. De exemplu, aşa cum vom vedea, accentuarea detaliilor sexuale (sânii, coapsele, buzele, părul) indică dorinţe erotice intense sau tendinţa de exhibiţionism sexual. Uneori, haşurarea excesi excesivă vă poa te sugera sugera tocma tocma i nevoia nevoia de a a scunde cunde sau de a camufl camuflaa a numite umite aspecte conflictuale sau iritante din imaginea i maginea de sine;
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sexul feminin, încercând mai degrabă să se identifice excesiv cu rolul masculin agresiv şi dominator. Ca accesoriu, prezenţa unei serviete sugerează importanţa rolului şi statusului profesional în viaţa subiectului. Pentru ca interpretul să -şi poată confirma intuiţiile sale despre desen, este bine să-l întrebe pe subiect câteva lucruri despre persoanele desenate. “Ce -ţi exprimă persoana?” sau “Ce fel de om este?” Adesea obţinem din această anchetă şi date proiective importante despre starea de spirit a autorului sau despre problemele care îl frământă. 3.2. Analiza formală
Include analiza trăsăturilor grafice şi a spaţiului grafic. După Urban (1967), liniile zimţate exprimă agresivitate; acelaşi lucru îl sugerează şi tendinţa de a contura unele detalii corporale (cum ar fi degetele) prin linii ascuţite. Liniile întrerupte sugerează nesiguranţă sau anxietate, iar cele moi, abia schiţate, lipsă de energie. Analiza spaţiului grafic se referă la plasarea în pagină şi la mărimea
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Subiecţii evazivi, rezistenţi la testare, cei cu deficienţe mentale, dar şi cei depr deprim imaţ aţii se limit limitea ează ză ades adesea ea doa r la contu conturu rull feţe feţei,i, fă ăr o deta iere l a componentelor ei (ochii, gura, nasul, urechile etc.). Capul desenat mare faţă de restul corpului poate indica o valorizare a funcţiilor cerebrale, deci o atenţie mare acordată proceselor mentale sau cntrolului emoţional. Uneori însă, mărimea exagerată a capului poate sugera migrene sau cefalee. În schimb, capul mic poate indica dorinţa subiectului de a nega controlul asupra impulsurilor lui. Această trăsătură apare, după Urban, la obsesionalii chinuiţi de inhibiţiile lor afective. Gura este organul de asimilare a hranei, dar şi – din punct de vedere simbolic – a experienţelor afective. Gura desenată deschisă, sugerează o atitudine pasiv-receptivă a subiectului, dependenţă orală. Ea exprimă astfel o dorinţă intensă şi infantilă de a primi necondiţionat suport emoţional, aşa cum copilul aşteaptă să fie hrănit de mamă. Dacă este prevăzută cu dinţi, gura deschisă sugerează o atitudine devoratoare şi revendicativă: dorinţa de a se bucura aici şi acum de plăcerile vieţii, incapacitatea de a tolera frustrarea, foamea de experienţe noi, agresivitate sau ostilitate revendicativă.
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în condiţii de pericol. Astfel, ele pot sugera o stare hiper -vigilentă, de suspiciune faţă de ceilalţi sau sensibilitate la critici. Nasul este în mod tradiţional un simbol falic, dar este legat şi de expresia unor afecte, cum ar fi furia (“nări fremătând”). Desenat mare sau ascuţit, el sugerează dorinţa de afişare a masculinităţii, de dominare sau de agresivitate. Nasul turtit este semnul unei traume sau al unei agresiuni suportate de subiect. Fetele desenează în general nasul mic, el participând astfel la exprimarea de ansamblu a feminităţii. În fine, modul în care este desenată bărbia reprezintă un indicator social al fermităţii sau al pasivităţii, dar şi al sensibilităţii. Desenată colţuroasă sau pătrată, sugerează forţă şi fermitate, uneori încăpăţânare. Bărbia mică, ovală, desenată fin indică feminitate sau slăbiciune. 2.Gâtul face legătura dintre centrul de control (capul) şi restul corpului (care constituie atât partea executivă, cât şi sediul impulsurilor vitale). Aşadar, el are la nivel simbolic o funcţie de canal de comunicare între minte şi corp, altfel spus: între gândire şi emoţii, între planificare şi execuţie, între inconştient şi conştiinţă. Orice strangulare vizibilă în desen la nivelul gâtului (guler, cravată, colier) sugerează deci un control sau, limită, o blocare a impulsurilor cerebrale.
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În desenele femeilor, sânii capătă însă şi semnificaţia unui caracter sexual secundar, fiind un mod de exprimare a feminităţii adulte. Atunci când sunt scoşi în evidenţă prin mărime sau vestimentaţie, ei indică dorinţe erotice intense sau exhibiţionism provocator. Mai jos este redat desenul unei adolescente, cu o tentă erotică evidentă (sânii evidenţiaţi prin decolteu, fusta scurtă, picioarele lungi, părul haşurat, medalionul de la piept). Burta ca atare este rareori desenată ca element distinct al siluetei. Ea este locul unde ajung alimentele şi, la nivel simbolic, locul unde stau copiii. De aceea, ea este legată tot de simbolismul oralităţii şi al dependenţei de mamă. Dacă burta este bine conturată în desen (siluete pântecoase), accentul cade pe nevoia de indigestie orală, sugerând lăcomie, aviditate, concupiscenţă. Uneori, burta este scoasă în evidenţă la femeile care doresc să rămână însărcinate, dar şi la cei care au probleme cu stomacul. În fine, tot legat de zona trunchiului, linia taliei poate transmite unele informaţii legate de controlul impulsurilor. Ea separă simbolic trunchiul propriu zis de zona organelor genitale şi astfel este asociată cu controlul impulsurilor sexuale. Dacă este accentuată (prin apariţia unui cordon, centură sau curea), ea sugerează o socializare a exprimării sexualităţii sau, la limită, o inhibiţie a ei, dacă
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sau “montate” în mod stângaci pe trunchi indică nesiguranţa sau lipsa autonomiei personale. De asemenea, siluetele desenate pe vârfuri implică ideea de ambiţie sau de evadare a subiectului dintr -un mediu perceput ca frustrant. Picioarele constituie în acelaşi timp, în special la femei, şi un element corporal încărcat de semnificaţii sexuale. Acest lucru se observă d multe ori în desenele fetelor prin conturarea delicată a genunchilor sau prin liniile fine ale coapselor. Coapsele scoase în evidenţă prin haşurare sugerează deci preocupări sau conflicte legate de sexualitate. 6. Accesoriile care însoţesc silueta desenată au o importanţă specifică în interpretare, în funcţie de tipul şi de accentuarea lor. Astfel, cel mai important element accesoriu este îmbrăcămintea. Ea apare frecvent în desene şi de aceea mai curând absenţa ei trebuie privită ca un semn atipic în desenul omului. Îmbrăcămintea are o funcţie socială specifică, adesea ea caracterizează persoana în ochii celorlalţi şi reprezintă deci un semn al statusului social şi al identificării cu rolurile caracteristice pe care şi le asumă individul. În acelaşi timp, hainele protejează dar şi expun corpul privirii celorlalţi. Şapca sau pălăria reprezintă un simbol al masculinităţii sau al rangului social. Atunci când apar în desen, ele indică nevoia de afirmare a poziţiei sociale
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4. tratarea diferenţială a figurilor masculine şi feminine: sexul desenat întâi; sexul mai atrăgător; sexul mai apropiat de vârsta subiectului; sexul mai activ, cu o dispoziţie mai bună; diferenţa de profil, mărime sau plasare; sexul cu care subiectul se identifică; sexul mai detaliat care ocupă mai mult timp desenatorului; sexul cu cei mai mulţi indicatori de conflict. 5. discutarea ipotezelor interpretative găsite în catalog. 6. rezumat. Precauţii
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Comportamentul Comportamentul subiectului în situaţia de testare t estare DAP: Indicaţie: examinatorul va încercui cuvintele care -l descriu cel mai bine pe subiect. Aparenţă Curăţenie meticuloasă Medie Neîngrijit Îngrijire Curat, îngrijit Mediu Neîngrijit Postură Rigidă Dreaptă Medie Aplecată Mers Energic Mediu Ezitant Stângaci Strângere de mână F. puternică Puternică Fermă Moale Reacţia faţă de examinator Prietenoasă Plăcută Rezervată Rece Abordare DAP Uşoară Spontană Ezitantă Refuz Energie Rapid Repede, uşor Muncitor Încet Raportul cu examinatorul Bun Mediu Rece Suspicios
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2. Integraţi concluziile privind reacţiile şi răspunsurile subiectului la DAP. 3. Descrieţi tratarea diferenţiată a sexelor. Completaţi rezumatul şi concluziile din raportul interpretativ al DAP cu ideile de mai sus. Legaţi aceste descoperiri cu “motivele referirii”. 4. Testul familiei
Testele Desenaţi o familie şi Desenaţi o casă, un copac, o persoană, sunt considerate variaţii ale temei fundamentale, a desenării omului. Testul desenării familiei implică interpretări ale tuturor figurilor desenate
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vrei tu". Dacă copilul intră în joc, este întrebat de ce a făcut alegerea având în subsidiar ipoteza că principiul plăcerii este cel care acţionează în identificare. Dacă copilul şi -a desenat propria familie deşi este suficient să i se ceară identificarea, poate fi continuată investigarea cu întrebarea: "Ce alt personaj ai dori să fii dintre cei din familia ta?" Se urmăresc reacţiile afective în timpul probei. La terminarea desenului copilul este întrebat dacă este mulţumit de desen. Apoi este întrebat cum ar face dacă ar trebui să mai deseneze încă o dată. În interpretare se compară datele din desen cu situaţia reală a copilului în relaţie cu membrii familiei sale.
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reprezentând un maxim de cenzură. În general, când apar animale în desen, fenomenul de regresie este evident; 4. modul de exprimare a legăturilor afective prin distanţa sau apropierea dintre personaje; 5. analiza identificării şi a nivelului acesteia, conştient sau inconştient, precum şi a dinamicii conflictuale a personajelor. Se pot explora prin desenul familiei conflictele fraternale infantile, reacţiile agresive, reacţiile depresive, precum şi complexul oedipian. Testul exprimă activitatea imaginativă a copilului în registrul ei conştient, dar şi în cel al fantazării pasive. Autorul insistă în acest sens asupra faptului că psihologia
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Descriere şi administrare
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Ca regulă fundamentală, analiza se poartă succesiv asupra următoarelor aspecte:
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6. Impresia generală pe care o face desenul. Pentru a putea avea o impresie cu
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median şi menţine echilibrul între partea stângă şi cea dreaptă, având totodată funcţia de susţinere a coroanei; aceste funcţii conferă trunchiului statutul de cel
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Zona dreaptă - sus, zona înfruntării active cu viaţa. Partea din dreapta jos, zona pulsiunilor, a trebuinţelor şi instinctelor, a
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